[PPU] Semester 2 Topics-Syllabus

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964BIOLOGY

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SECONDTERM: PHYSIOLOGY

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Period Learning Outcome

7 Gas Exchange 12

7.1 Gaseous exchange in

humans

7 Candidates should be able to:

(a) outline the structure of human respiratory

system, including the microscopic structure of

the wall of an alveolus;

(b) describe the structure of haemoglobin;

(c) explain the transport of oxygen and carbon

dioxide in blood;

(d) explain the oxygen dissociation curves of

haemoglobin, myoglobin and foetal

haemoglobin;

(e) explain the Bohr effect and relate it to the

oxygen dissociation curve.

7.2 Breathing cycle 3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the control of breathing mechanism,

including the role of chemoreceptor;

(b) define tidal volume, vital capacity, total lung

capacity, inspiratory reserve volume,

expiratory reserve volume and residual

volume.

7.3 Gaseous exchange in

plants

2 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the structure and functions of stomata;

(b) describe the mechanism of opening and

closing of stomata based on potassium ion

accumulation hypothesis.

8 Transport in Animals and

Plants

16

8.1 Transport system in

mammals

8 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the structure of a mammalian heart;

(b) define systole and diastole, and explain the

sequence of events in a cardiac cycle including

changes in pressure and volume in aorta, left

atrium and left ventricle;

(c) describe the initiation and regulation of heart

beat;

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(d) explain hypertension, atherosclerosis,

arteriosclerosis and myocardial infarction, and

state their causes and preventions;

(e) describe the lymphatic system in relation to the

blood circulatory system;

(f) determine the direction of fluid movement at

the arterial and venous ends of the capillaries

by calculating the differences between

osmotic pressure/solute potential and

hydrostatic pressure.

8.2 Transport system in

vascular plants

8 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the uptake of water and mineral ions

from the soil by the root hairs involving water

potential;

(b) describe the apoplast, symplast and vacuolar

pathway of water movement through the root

tissues;

(c) describe the root pressure, cohesion-tension

theory and transpiration pull in relation to

water movement from the roots to leaves;

(d) explain translocation using the mass flow,

electro-osmosis, cytoplasmic streaming and

peristaltic waves hypotheses;

(e) explain the concept of source and sink, and

phloem loading and unloading in translocation

according to pressure flow hypothesis.

9 Control and Regulation 22

9.1 Nervous system 16 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the organisation of the nervous

system in humans;

(b) explain the formation of resting and action

potentials;

(c) describe the characteristics of nerve impulse;

(d) describe the structure of synapse, and explain

the role of neurotransmitters (acetylcholine

and norepinephrine);

(e) explain and compare the mechanisms of

impulse transmission along the axon and

across the synapse;

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(f) describe the structure of neuromuscular

junction and sarcomere;

(g) explain the role of sarcoplasmic reticulum,

calcium ions, myofibril and T tubules in

muscle contraction;

(h) explain the mechanism of muscle contraction

according to the sliding filament hypothesis;

(i) compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic

nervous systems;

(j) explain the mechanisms of drug action on

nervous system and neuromuscular junction

(cocaine and curare).

9.2 Hormones

6 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the mechanisms of action of steroid

hormone and non-steroid hormones;

(b) explain the roles of plant hormones in growth

and development;

(c) explain the mechanism of phytochrome action

and their roles in photoperiodism and

flowering;

(d) outline the application of plant growth

regulators (synthetic auxin, synthetic

gibberellins, and synthetic ethylene) in

agriculture.

10 Reproduction,

Development and Growth

13

10.1 Sexual reproduction in

humans

6 Candidates should be able to:

(a) outline spermatogenesis and oogenesis;

(b) describe the passage and development of

sperms from the testis to the oviduct for

fertilisation;

(c) describe the process of fertilisation and

implantation;

(d) describe the roles of hormones in menstrual

cycle and pregnancy;

(e) describe briefly the stages in embryonic

development;

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(f) explain the roles of placenta, chorion, amniotic

fluid and allantois in foetal development;

(g) explain the process of parturition.

10.2 Sexual reproduction in

flowering plants

2 Candidates should be able to:

(a) outline double fertilisation;

(b) describe the embryonic development in seed

and formation of fruit.

10.3 Seed germination

1 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the mobilisation of nutrients after

imbibition in seed germination;

(b) state the external factors affecting germination.

10.4 Growth curves and

patterns of growth

4 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the types of growth curves (absolute

growth curve, absolute growth rate curve and

relative growth rate curve);

(b) explain with examples the patterns of growth

(limited growth in humans, unlimited growth

in perennial plant, allometric growth in

humans, isometric growth in fish and

intermittent growth in insect);

(c) explain the processes of ecdysis and

metamorphosis in insects, and relate the role of

hormones (neurosecretory hormone, juvenile

hormone and ecdysone) in these processes.

11 Homeostasis 10

11.1 Importance of

homeostasis

2 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the importance of homeostasis;

(b) describe the homeostatic control system in

mammals;

(c) explain the physiological and behavioural

control in thermoregulation of endotherms.

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11.2 Liver 4 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the structure of liver, and explain the

roles of its components;

(b) describe carbohydrate metabolism in the liver

(glycogenesis, glycogenolysis,

gluconeogenesis);

(c) describe protein metabolism (transamination,

deamination and urea formation) in the liver.

11.3 Osmoregulation in

mammals

3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the process of ultrafiltration,

reabsorption and secretion in the formation of

urine;

(b) explain the role of ADH and aldosterone, and

the related hormones in regulating water,

sodium and potassium ions of urine;

(c) explain the regulation of pH of tissue fluid.

11.4 Osmoregulation in

plants

1 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the role of stomata in regulation of

water loss, and explain the importance of

transpiration;

(b) describe the various types of plant adaptations

to prevent water loss (halophytes and

xerophytes).

12 Immunity 10

12.1 Immune system 3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe human lymphatic system, and explain

its function in relation to immunity;

(b) describe antibody (structure and function),

antigen, epitope, and the development of B

and T cells;

(c) describe the roles of macrophages, B cells and

T cells.

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12.2 Development of

immunity

3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain cell-mediated and humoral immune

responses;

(b) outline the antigen-antibody reactions

(precipitation, agglutination, neutralisation,

complement fixation).

12.3 Concept of self and

non-self

3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain the concept of self and non-self and

relate this to tissue rejection in organ

transplant;

(b) explain the mechanism of immune suppression

(HIV infection).

12.4 Immune disorder 1 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe autoimmune disorder (Systemic Lupus

Erythematosus (SLE)).

13 Infectious Diseases 13

13.1 Infectious disease 1 Candidates should be able to:

(a) explain what is meant by an infection and an

infectious disease;

(b) outline the types of infectious agents.

13.2 Dengue 3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the causes and symptoms of dengue;

(b) explain the transmission of dengue;

(c) discuss the roles of social, economical and

biological factors in the prevention of dengue.

13.3 Cholera 3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the causes and symptoms of cholera;

(b) explain the transmission of cholera;

(c) discuss the roles of social, economical and

biological factors in the prevention of cholera.

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13.4 Tuberculosis (TB) 3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the causes and symptoms of

tuberculosis (TB);

(b) explain the transmission of TB;

(c) discuss the roles of social, economical and

biological factors in the prevention of TB.

13.5 Malaria 3 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the causes and symptoms of malaria;

(b) explain the transmission of malaria;

(c) discuss the roles of social, economical and

biological factors in the prevention of malaria.

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