Appendixes
APPENDIX 1. ABBREVIATIONS OF POLYMER NAMES
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber Acrylic-styrene-acrylonitrile Cellulose acetate Cellulose nitrate Chlorinated polyethylene Ethylene-propylene-diene monomer rubber Ethylene-vinyl acetate High density polyethylene High modulus polyethylene High impact polystyrene Low density polyethylene Polyacetal (see Polyoxymethylene below) Polyacrylonitrile Polyamide (nylon) Polybenzobisthiazole Polybutadiene Poly(butylene terephthalate) Polycarbonate Polyethylene Poly(ethyer ether ketone) Polyetherimide Polyethersulfone Poly( ethylene terephthalate) Polyimide Poly(methyl methacrylate) Polyoxymethyl~ne
Polypropylene Poly (p-phenylene benzobisthiazole) Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide)
ABS ABR ASA CA CN CPE EPDM EVA HDPE HMPE HIPS LDPE
PAN PA PBT PB PBZT PC PE PEEK PEl PES PET PI PMMA POM PP PPBT PPTA
Poly(phenylene oxide) Poly(phenylene sulfide) Polystyrene Polysulfone Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyurethane Poly(vinyl acetate) Poly(vinyl alcohol) Poly(vinyl chloride) Poly(vinylidene chloride) Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer Styrene-butadiene rubber Styrene-butadiene-styrene
PPO PPS PS PSO PTFE PUR PVAC PYA PVC PVDC PVDF RFL SAN SBR SBS
288
APPENDIX II. LIST OF ACRONYMS TECHNIQUES
Backscattered electron imaging Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy Infrared spectroscopy Microdiffraction Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Optical microscopy Phase contrast microscopy Polarized light microscopy Scanning electron microscopy Scanning transmission electron microscopy Secondary electron imaging Selected area electron diffraction Small angle neutron scattering Small angle x-ray scattering Transmission electron microscopy Conventional TEM Wavelength dispersive x-ray spectroscopy Wide angle x-ray scattering
BEl EDS IR fJDiff NMR OM PC PLM SEM STEM SEI SAED SANS SAXS TEM CTEM WDS WAXS
Appendixes
APPENDIX III. MANMADE POLYMERIC FIBERS
Fiber type Generic name Trademark Manufacturer
Cell-ulosic Acetate
Rayon Coloray Courtaulds Triacetate Arnel Celanese
Non- Acrylic Acrilan Monsanto cellulosic Creslan Am. Cyanamid
Orlon duPont Aramid Kevlar duPont Fluorocarbon Teflon duPont Modacrylic Sep Monsanto Nylon Antron duPont
Ultron Monsanto Polybenzimidazole Celanese Polyester Dacron duPont
Fortrel Celanese Avlin A vtex Fibers
Polyethylene Polypropylene Herculon Hercules Spandex Lycra duPont
Appendixes 289
APPENDIX IV. COMMON COMMERCIAL POLYMERS AND TRADENAMES FOR PLASTICS, FILMS AND ENGINEERING RESINS
Generic name Tradename Manufacturer Typical end uses
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene Absom Mobay Automotive, appliance housings, furniture, (ABS) construction
Epoxy Paints, coatings, adhesives, pipes, circuit boards
High impact polystyrene (HIPS) Automotive, appliance housings, furniture
High density PE (HDPE) Containers, pipes, fabricated parts
Low density PE (LDPE) Packaging, films for bags, stretch wrap
Nylon polymer and resin Vydyne Monsanto Carpet yarns, tirecords, cigarette lighters, Zytel duPont sporting goods, brushes
Polybutadiene in copolymers Tires, rubber articles, encapsulation and blends
Poly(butylene terephthalate) Celanex Celanese Automotive and other fabricated parts, bearings, (thermoplastic polyester) (PBT) Valox General Electric housings
Polycarbonate Lexan General Electric Bottles, safety glass, auto lenses, helmets, aircraft interiors
Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) Victrex I.C.I. AM. Cable insulation, coatings, composites
Polyetherimide (PEl) Ultem General Electric Aerospace seats, lights, wiring, films/tapes
Poly( ethylene terephthalate) Mylar duPont Films for packaging, coatings (PET)
PET engineering resin Petlon Mobay Extrudates and moldings, bottles, recording Rynite duPont tapes, electrical insulation
Polyimide (PI) Tulon Amoco Printed circuit boards, insulation/films for Kapton duPont motors, adhesives, electronics Skybond Monsanto
Poly(methyl methacrylate) Lucite duPont Camera lenses, airplane windows, signs (PMMA) Plexiglas Rohm and Haas Molded parts, sheeting
Polyoxymethylene (POM) Celcon Celanese Automotive, plumbing, appliances, electrical Delrin duPont gears, zippers
Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) Noryl General Electric Appliances housings, pumps, shields and PPO-HIPS blends
Polypropylene (PP) Carpet backing, ribbons, appliance housings
Polystyrene (PS) Disposables: cutlery, cups, foam egg cartons
Polysulfone (PSO) Udel Union Carbide Camera bodies, electrical connectors, light sockets, food appliance coatings, cookware
Polytetra-fluoroethylene (PTFE) Teflon duPont Solvent resistant coatings, films and parts Halon Allied
Tefzel duPont Pipe fittings, seals, laboratory ware, aircraft parts
290
APPENDIX IV-continued
Generic name
Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)
Poly(vinyl acetate) (PV AC)
Poly(vinyl alcohol (PV A)
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
Saturated Styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymers
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)
Styrene-butadiene latex
Tradename
Kynar
Elvanol
Kraton G
Rovel
Manufacturer
Pennwalt
duPont
Shell Oil
Uniroyal
Appendixes
Typical end uses
Pipe fittings, seals, laboratory ware, aircraft parts
Paints, adhesives, coatings
Coatings, adhesives, cosmetics
Food wrap, furniture covers, flooring, footwear
Fabricated parts
Dentures, lenses, auto and other fabricated parts
Adhesives, coatings, binders, textile finishes
Appendixes
APPENDIX V. GENERAL SUPPLIERS OF EM ACCESSORIES
American Optical Corp. Scientific Instrument Div. Buffalo, NY 14215
Balzers 8 Sagamore Park Rd Hudson, NH 03051
Denton Vacuum Inc. 2 Pin Oak Lane Cherry Hill, NJ 08003
Diatome USA P.O. Box 125 Fort Washington PA 19034
Ebtec P.O. Box 468111 Bowles Rd Agawam, MA 01001
Agar Aids Ltd 66a Cambridge Rd, Stansted Essex CM24 8DA, UK
Balzers High Vacuum Ltd Northbridge Rd Berkhamsted, Herts HP41EN, UK
Diatome SA Bienne Case postale 551 CH-2501 Bienne Switzerland
Edwards High Vacuum Inc. Edwards High Vacuum 3279 Grand Island Blvd Manor Rd, Crawley, Grand Island, NY 14072 W. Sussex RHIO 2LW, UK
Electron Microscopy Sciences P.O. Box 251 Fort Washington PA 190034
Ernest F. Fullham Inc. 900 Albany-Shaker Rd Latham, NY 12110
Gatan Inc. 780 Commonwealth Dr. Warrendale, P A 15086
Kimball Physics Inc. Kimball Hill Rd Wilton, NH 03086
Ladd Research Inds Inc. P.O. Box 901 Burlington, VT 05402
Gatan Inc. Ingolstadter Strasse 40 D-8000, Munich 45 FRG
LKB Instruments Inc. 12221 Parklawn Dr. Rockville, MD 20852
Micron 3815 Lancaster Pike Wilmington, DE 19805
Ted Pella, Inc. P.O. Box 510 Tustin, CA 92681
Polaron Instruments Inc. 2293 Amber Dr. Line Lexington Industrial Pk Hatfield, PA 19440
Polysciences Inc. Dept. EE5, 400 Valley Rd Warrington, PA 18976
Reichert Scientific Instruments P.O. Box 160 Dexter, MI 48130
Structure Probe! SPI Supplies P.O. Box 656 West Chester, PA 19381
VCR Group 68 Meadowbrook Dr San Francisco, CA 94132
LKB-Produkter AB P.O. Box 76 Stockholm-Bromma 1, Sweden
Polaron Equipment Ltd 21 Greenhill Crescent Holwell Ind. Est. Watford, Hertfordshire WD18XG, UK
(in UK see Polaron Equipment Ltd.)
C. Reichert Optische Werke A.G. Hernalser Haupstr. 219 Vienna XVII, Austria
Ion Tech Ltd
291
2 Park St., Teddington Middlesex TWll OLT, UK
292
APPENDIX VI. SUPPLIERS OF OPTICAL AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
Amray Inc. 160 Middlesex Turnpike Bedford, MA 01730
Bausch & Lomb/ARL 9545 Wentworth St. P.O. Box 129 Sunland, CA 91040
AmrayGmbH Frankfurterstrasse 26 D-6242, Kronberg/Taunus F R Germany
Cambridge Instruments Inc. Cambridge Instruments Ltd 40 Robert Pitt Rd Rustat Rd Monsey, NY 10952 Cambridge CBl 3QH, UK
Gatan Inc. 780 Commonwealth Dr. Warrendale, P A 15086
International Scientific Instruments Inc. 1457 McCarthy Blvd Milpitas, CA 95035
JEOL USA Inc. 11 Dearborn Rd Peabody, MA 01960
E. Leitz Link Dr Rockleigh, NJ
NSA Hitachi Sci. Instru. 460 E. Middlefield Rd Mountain View, CA 94043
Philips Elect. Instru. Inc. 85 McKee Dr. Mahwah, NJ 07430
VG Instruments Inc. 300 Broad St. Stamford, CN 06901
Carl Zeiss Inc. One Zeiss Dr. Thornwood, NY 10594
Cambridge Scanning Co. Ltd Bar Hill Cambridge CB3 8EL, UK
International Sci. Instru. Ltd Abbey House, 30 Angel Hill Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk IP33 ILS, UK
JEOL Ltd Jeol House, Grove Park Colindale London NW9 OJN, UK
Leitz-lSI GmbH Wetzlar 6330 West Germany
Hitachi Nissei Sangyo Ltd 4 Sutton Ind. Pk, London Rd Earley, Reading, Berkshire RG6 lA, UK
N. V. Philips I & E Division TQ-111-4 Eindhoven, The Netherlands
VG Microscopes Ltd Charleswood Rd East Grinstead Sussex RH 19 2JQ, UK
Carl Zeiss (Oberkochen) Ltd P.O. Box 78, Woodfield Rd Welwyn Garden City, Herts AL7 lLU, UK
Note: non-USA addresses are due to 1. M. Watt, in 'The Principles and Practice of Electron Microscopy' (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985).
Appendixes
APPENDIX VII. SUPPLIERS OF X-RAY MICROANALYSIS EQUIPMENT
Cameca Instruments Inc. 2001 West Main St. Stamford, CO 06902
Edax International Inc. P.O. Box 135 Prairie View, IL 60069
EG&G Ortec 100 Midland Rd Oak Ridge, TN 37830
JEOL USA Inc. 11 Dearborn Rd Peabody, MA 01960
Kevex Corp. 1101 Chess Dr. P.O. Box 4050 Foster City, CA 94404
Lemont Scientific 2011 Pine Hall Dr. State College, PA 16801
Link Analytical P.O. Box 50810 3290 West Bayshore Rd Palo Alto, CA 94303
Microspec Corp. 45950 Hotchkiss St. Fremont, CA 94539
Princeton Gamma-Tech Inc. 1200 State Rd Princeton, NJ 08540
Tracor Northern 2551 West Beltline Hwy Middleton, WI 53562
Cameca 103 Bd Saint-Denis BP6,92403 Courbevoie Cedex, France
JEOL Ltd 1418 Nakagami, Akishima Tokyo 196, Japan
Kevex Corp. Chilton Road, Chesham, Bucks, HP5 2AU, UK
Link Systems Ltd Halifax Rd, High Wycombe Bucks HP12 3SE, UK
Tracor Europa BV. P.O. Box 333 3720 AH Bilthoven, The Netherlands 030780855
Index
Page numbers in italic refer to illustrations
Abbe theory of imaging 45 Aberrations listed 45, 46 Acid etching 114-15
examples of use 114,115 literature review for 114-15 practical details 114
Acronyms instrumental techniques 268, 275,
278,287 polymer names 287
Acry1ic-styrene-acrylonitrile (ASA) copolymers
staining methods for 106, 109 Acrylics
staining ofl 06 textile fibers 156,157 tradenames for 288, 289
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymers
end uses listed 289 etching of 113, 114, 116 staining methods for 95, 96, 104,
105, 106, 109 tradenames for 289
Adhesion composites 11,135,219,221,224,
225 pretreatments effect on, 237-8 tire cords, 174, 176
Adhesive labels, microscopy study of 238-9,239
Adhesives, microscopy studies of 237-9
Advantages (of polymers) 1-2
Air Force Ordered Polymers Program 240,248
Amorphous films 180-1 Amorphous polymers 4
molding of 11 Amplitude contrast 50-1 Analytical electron microscopy
(AEM) 26, 29, 35 Analytical microscopy, fundamentals
of 33-6 Anisotropic materials, polarized light
effects on 58-9 Applications (of microscopy)
155-255 adhesives 237-9 composites 214-30 emulsions 230-6 engineering resins and plastics
194-214 fibers 155-76 films 176-83 liquid crystalline polymers 239-54 membranes 184-93
Applications (of polymers) 1 Aramids
etching of111, 112,112 fracture of fibers 161 liquid crystalline polymers 240,
246-8,249 staining of 107, 108 tradenames for fibers 288
Aromatic copolyesters 240, 250, 252-6
Aromatic polyamides, see Aramids
Artifacts 273-5 conductive coatings 126-8
charging effects 126,127 radiation damage effects 126-8,
128, 129 etching 109, 110 optical microscopy 273-4 polishing 82 radiation-caused 67-8, 69, 126-8,
128,129 scanning electron microscopy 274 transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) 51, 274-5 Atactic polymers, definition of 3 Auger spectroscopy 281
Babinet compensators 61 Backscattered electron imaging (BEl)
25,33 characteristics of 267 fiber studies 159-60, 160, 172, 173 mineral filled composites 136, 136 multiphase polymers 213,214
Backscattered electrons, SEM 55 Banded structures (liquid crystalline
polymers) 242-3, 243 Becke line method 21, 158 Berek (rotary) compensators 61 Birefringence
definition of 22, 58, 158 films 182 measurement of 59, 158
Bisphenol A epoxy resins 108
294
Bisphenol A-continued polycarbonate/polyethylene blends
lO7 Block copolymers, definition of 2, 11 Bond breaking 62-4
typical polymers 63 Bragg's law 43, 48 Bright field (BF) imaging 17, 20
characteristics of 267 composites 218, 218, 228 examples 89 polyethylene films 179-80, 179
Cage effect 64 Calcium carbonate filler 225, 227,
227 Carbon, electron diffraction pattern
from 49 Carbon black filled polymers/rubbers
227-30 optical micrographs of 89, 228, 228 specimen preparation methods for
228 TEM micrographs of 229-30, 229
Carbon coatings 122-3, 126 Carbon fiber composites
applications of214 microscopy studies of 221-3 reflected light micrographs of 83,
222 SEM images of 223 specimen preparation method for
84 Carbon fibers, etching of llO Carboxy terminated butadiene-
acrylonitrile (CTBN) copolymer 207
Celanese Corporation liquid crystalline polymers 241 microporous membranes (Celgard ® )
99,99,124,125, 191-2,191, 192,193
Summit Technical Center 276 Cellulose acetate (CA)
etching of 116 films 183,183 membranes 187, 189
Cellulosic fibers staining method for lO6 tradenames for 288
Chain folded structure 5 Chain sequence length, size of 266 Characteristic x-rays 56 Characterization techniques 12-14
microscopy techniques 12-13, 266-73
nonmicroscopy techniques 12, 275-83
resolution size ranges 12,266,267, 268,269
specimen preparation methods 13-14
Chemical/solvent etching 113-14 examples of use 113-14 literature review for 113-14 practical details 113-14
Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), poly(vinyl chloride) multiphase polymer 210
Chlorosulfonic acid staining method 101-2
examples of use 101-2,102,108, 180
literature review for 101-2 practical details 102
Cholesteric crystals 240 Chromatic aberration 46, 54 Clay particles, characterization of 217 Cleavage plane splitting technique
85-6 Coated polymers, mass loss reduction
32 Coherent light, definition of 42-3 Cold drawing process 8-9 Cold stage, examples of use 104, 233,
234 Collodion support films 77, 117, 119 Colloids, definition of230 Compensator method (for
birefringence) 158 Compensators, polarized light 22,
60-1 Complementary techniques 275-83
fiber studies 172, 173 film studies 183, 183
Composites 11,214-30 adhesion in 11,135,219,221,224,
225 applications for 214 carbon black filled rubber 227-30 characterization of 215-16 conductive reinforcements in 215 fiber composites 216, 218-24 fractures of 134,135, 136,136 glass fiber composites 135 hybrid composites 223-4 low temperature (RF) ashing of
215,216 mineral filled composites 136 particle filled composites 224-7 specimen preparation methods for
84,215,216,228
Index
Compounding 11 Compression molding 202 Condenser lenses 18 Conductive coating deposition
methods 121-9 artifacts in 126-8 coating devices
high resolution coating devices 122
ion beam sputtering technique 125-6
sputter coaters 122, 123-5 vacuum evaporators 121-2
coating devices for 121-2, 123-6 gold decoration methods 128 scanning electron microscopy
123-6 transmission electron microscopy
122-3 Contact microradiography 218-19
composites 218-19 Contamination studies, textile fibers
172 Contrast, definition of 16 Contrast mechanisms 50-1
amplitude contrast 50-1 phase contrast 20, 27, 30, 51 scattering contrast 50-1
Contrast transfer function 44-5 Conventional transmission electron
microscopy (CTEM) 27-8 see also Transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) Copolymers
definition of 2, 11 SEM characterization of 204-5
Crazing 4, 137-40 deformation methods used 139-40 TEM specimens for 138-9,140
Critical point, definition of 144 Critical point drying (CPD) method
144-6 practical details 145-6
Crossed polarizers 21 Crosslinking reaction 3, 64, 95, 101 Cryomicroscopy 32 Cryosectioning 85,92-3
see also Ultrathin cryosectioning Crystal unit cell, size of266 Crystalline polymers, see
Semicrystalline polymers Crystallinity
determination by x-ray diffraction technique 276-7
loss caused by radiation 67-8 Crystallographic contrast 51
Index
Dark field (DF) imaging optical microscopy 17, 20 transmission electron microscopy
28,251 Definitions 2-3 Defocus imaging
phase contrast by 51, 81, 179 polyethylene films 179-80, 179 resolution improved by 47
Degradation, radiation-caused 64 Depth of field, definition of 17, 47,
47,54-5 Depth of focus, definition of 17,
47-8,47 Differential interference contrast
(DIC) technique 21 example of 83, 84
Differential thermal analysis (DT A) 278
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 278, 279
Diffraction contrast 27, 51 Diffraction patterns
in image processing 71 theory of 43
Diffraction techniques 29-30, 268, 276-78
Digital image processing 71 Dimensional changes, radiation-
caused 68-9 Disintegrators, TEM specimen
preparations 79-80 Dispersed phase domains, size of 202,
205,266 Dispersed phase polymers, see
Multiphase polymers Dispersions, TEM specimen
preparations 77-8 Dow Corning Silastic 117, 118 Drying methods 90, 140, 141-6
critical point drying method 144-6 freeze drying methods 141-4 water replacement methods 90,
141 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)
278-9 Dynamic microscopy 37-9
equipment required 37-8 examples of use 241 fundamentals of37-9 hot/cold stages for 38-9 tensile stages for 38
Eastman 910 adhesive 117 Ebonite method (for specimen
preparation) 100-1, 175-6
examples of use 100, 101,101,108, 175-6,175, 228, 238
literature review for 100 practical details 100-1 safety precautions required 101
Ehringhaus (rotary) compensators 61 Elastomers, definition of 3 Electron beam (E beam) sputtering
technique 122, 126 Electron diffraction 12, 29, 48, 50
advantages of 277 illustrations of patterns 49 interpretation of patterns 48, 50
Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) 33
Electron interaction volume 24, 25, 25
Electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) 33, 34, 279
Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) 281
Electroplating, etching prior to 200
Elemental analysis 12, 33-6 Elemental mapping 35-6
multi phase polymers 214 Elliptic compensators 61 Emulsifiers, freeze fracture studies of
147 Emulsions
definition of 230 microscopy studies of230-6 particle sizes in 230 specimen preparation methods for
140-1,230,231,232-3 Energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer
(EDS) technique 34, 172 Engineering plastics and resins
194-214 characterization of 195-6 extrudates 196-202 failure analysis of 212-14 molded parts 196-202 multiphase polymers 202-12 tradenames for 289-90 types of 194-5
Epoxy resins as embedding media for microtomy
88,91 end uses listed 289 fiber reinforced 221, 222, 223 stain reaction with 103, 108 toughening of 207, 207, 208
Etching 109-15 acid etching 114-15 chemical/solvent etching 113-14
295
effect in manufacturing processes 199,200
ion/plasma etching 109-13 polymers listed 116 radiation damage used for 67 reasons for 31, 109
Evaporative coatings 123-5 Everhart-Thornley detector 55 Extraction replicas 120-1 Extrudates
flow pattern in 10, 10, 11, 83 liquid crystalline polymers 245,
245, 246, 247 Extrusion processes 10-11
process considerations 196
Failure analysis, engineering resins and plastics 212-14
Fiber assemblages, SEM studies nonwoven fabrics 164, 165 woven fabrics 162, 164, 164
Fiber composites contact microradiography of
218-19 critical fiber length requirement
215,221 OM characterization of216, 218,
218 SEM characterization (of glass fiber
composites) 219-21 specimen preparation methods for
215,216 Fiber extrusion 7-9 Fiber finishes 159,238,238 Fiber studies 155-76
characterization techniques 167-72 contamination studies 172 industrial fibers 172, 174-6 metal loaded fibers 172, 173 nonmicroscopy techniques 155,
167 problem solving applications
167-72 textile fibers 158-67
Fibers fractures of 131-2 metal loaded 172, 173 tradenames for 288
Fibrils, size in LCPs 253, 256 Field, depth of 17, 47, 47, 54-5 Field of view, definition of 17 Films 176-83
birefringence of 182 casting for TEM study 80 crystallinity measurements for 182 drawing for TEM study 80-1
296
Films-continued ease ofinterpretation of images 176 formation from latexes 235 industrial films 181-3 membranes as types of 177 model studies 177-81
amorphous films 180-1 semicrystalline films 177-80
nonmicroscopy methods for 181-2 orientation of 176 tradenames for 289-90
Fixation 95 Flat film membranes 184-92
microporous membranes 99, 99, 184,191-2,191,192,193
reverse osmosis membranes 189-91 SEM studies ofl85-8
Form birefringence 22, 58 Formvar support films 77,119 Fountain (flow field) model 219 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy 12, 279 Fourier's theorem 43 Fractography 130-1
fiber studies 160-2, 163 Fractures
composites 134, 135, 136, 136, 220, 224
fibers 131-2, 160-2, 163 plastics 132,133-4,197,203-8,
212,213 types of 130-1, 161
Freeze drying methods 141-4 examples of use 141-2, 143,144 practical details 141-2, 142, 144
Freeze etching 146, 232 Freeze fracture techniques 146-7
biological method 146 examples of use 146-7, 235 literature review for 146-7
Freeze shattering method 141 Freezing methods 140-4, 146-7
simple methods 140-1 Functional groups, stain reaction
with 95, 103, 106, 107, 108
Gvalues 65 definition of 62 listed for typical polymers 63 temperature effects on 64
Glass fiber composites liquid crystalline polymers 252, 256 SEI images of 135, 220, 221 SEM characterization of219-21 transmitted light micrographs of
218
Glass fibers characterization of215-16, 216 etched surface of 111 surface finish coating on 238
Gold decoration 128 Graft copolymers, definition of 2, 11 Graphite fiber composites
fracture of 136 microscopy studies of22l-3
Gray (unit), definition of 65
Hackle (fracture) morphology composites 219, 220, 224 engineering resins/plastics 212 fibers 131,132, 162,162
Heating effects 65-6 Heteropolymers, definition of2 High density polyethylene (HDPE)
end uses listed 289 etching of 110, 112 micro porous membranes 185, 185 replication methods for 117 single crystals 79 staining of 106, 108 thin film specimens 81 see also Polyethylene (PE)
High impact polystyrene (HIPS) crazed film of 140 end uses listed 289 etching of 113, 114, 116 staining methods for 96, 106, 109
High performance polymers, 239-40 see also Liquid crystalline polymers
(LCPs) High voltage electron microscope
(HVEM)32 High speed spin-draw fiber process 9 Hoffman modulation contrast
technique 20 Hollow fiber membranes 192-3, 194 Homopolymers, definition of2 Hybrid composites 223-4
Illumination systems 51-3 characteristics of sources 52 optical microscopy 52 transmission electron microscopy
52-3 Image analysis methods 36
image processing in 37 Image analyzing computers 36, 236 Image formation 43-4 Image processing 32, 37, 70-1 Imaging
by lenses 42-53 by scanning 53-7 radiation damage effects on 66-9
Index
Imaging modes, optical microscopy 20-1
In situ deformation 136-7 Incident light techniques 19 Incoherent light, definition of 43 Index ellipsoid 58, 59 Indicatrix, definition of 58, 59 Industrial fibers 172, 174-6 Industrial films 181-3 Infrared dichroism 280 Infrared (IR) spectroscopy 12,
279-80 Injection molding processes 10, 196,
197,202 Instrumental techniques 12-14,
266-73,275-83 acronyms for 268, 275, 278,
288 comparison of267-69 resolution capabilities of 266, 267,
268,269 selection of 272-3
Interference, definition of 43 Interference contrast 21, 51
see also N omarski . . . Interference microscopy 20-1 Interpretation considerations 273.-5 Ion beam sputter coatings 125-6 Ion Tech micros putter gun Ill, 112,
125 Ion/plasma etching 109-13
examples of use 110, 112 literature review for 110 practical details 110-11
Isogyres 240, 241 Isoprene inclusion (and staining)
method 98-9, 170 Isotactic polymers, definition of 3 Izod impact test specimens
fiber composites 219, 220 plastics 205
Kevlar ® fibers, etching of 111 Kink bands, liquid crystalline
polymers 247,249 Kohler illumination 52, 53 Kraton G, staining method for 107,
209
Lamellae 5 polyethylene films 183,183 size of266
Lamellar crystals, microscopy techniques for size determination 12
Laser Raman spectroscopy 280
Index
Latexes 231-6 characterization methods 231-5
optical techniques 231 SEM techniques 231-2, 235 TEM techniques 232-5
definition of230 film coalescence of235, 235 film formation ability 231, 235 freeze drying of 141-4 particle size measurements for
235-6 replication methods for 119 specimen preparation methods for
149-1,231,232,233,235 staining methods for 103-4,104
Lattice imaging 30, 70-1 liquid crystalline polymers 247,
248, 250, 251 Least confusion, plane of 46-7 Lenses 17-18
condenser lenses 18 magnetic lenses 17-18 objective lenses 18, 19-20 projector lenses 18
Lethal dose (of radiation) 65 Light scattering techniques 282 Liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) 7,
239-56 applications for 240 aromatic copolyesters 240, 250,
252-6 aromatic polyamides 240, 246-8,
249 banded structures in 242-3, 243 cholesteric crystals 240 domain texture of 241, 242 high modulus fibers 246-56 lattice imaging of 30 lyotropic liquid crystals 240 nematic crystals 240 optical textures of 241-3 rigid rod polymers 240, 248-50 smectic crystals 240 solid state structures in 243-5 specimen preparation methods for
85, 241 structural model for 252, 253, 256 thermotropic liquid crystals 240
Low temperature sectioning 85,92-3 Low temperature testing 206 Lyotropic liquid crystalline polymers
240
Macroemulsions, definition of 230 Macrofibrils 156, 253, 256 Magnetic lenses 17-18
Manmade fibers 156, 288 Mass loss, radiation-caused 66-7 Mass spectroscopy (MS) 12 Mass thickness contrast 27, 30, 50 Melt spinning 8 Membrane separation processes,
characteristics of 184 Membranes
applications for 177 flat film membranes 184-92,193 hollow fiber membranes 192-3,194 as types of films 177
Mercuric trifluoroacetate staining method 107
examples of use 107, 108,209 practical details 107
Metal loaded fibers 172, 173 Mica flakes
characterization of, 217 as fillers 224-5, 225, 226
Micelles, definition of 230 Michel-Levy (polarization color)
chart 22, 60 MicroditTraction techniques 267, 268 Microemulsions, definition of 230 Microfibrils 8, 8, 156, 178, 254, 256 Microporous fibers 165-6, 166 Microporous membranes 99, 99, 124,
125,191-2,191,192,193 pore sizes in 184
Microscopy definition ofl2-13, 16 fundamentals of 16-39
Microscopy techniques comparison of267-9 listed 12-13,16-38,267-73 selection of272-3 summarized 267
Microtomes OM sections 86-7 ultrathin sectioning 91-2
Microtomy 85-93 block trimming for 88, 91 embedding methods for 88, 90-1 mounting methods for 87-8 OM sections 86-8 peelback method (for fibers/films)
85-6 sectioning techniques for 88-9, 91 SEM sections 89-90
Mineral filled composites, fracture of 136,136
Mineral fillers 224-7 characterization of216, 217
Mirrors (fracture zones) 131,132, 161,162,212
Model studies amorphous films 180-1 semicrystalline films 177-80
early studies 178-9
297
recent studies 179-80 Modulation transfer function (MTF)
44-5 Molding processes 10-11
fiber composites 219 multilayered structures 197-8, 200 process considerations 196-7 single phase polymers 197 skin-core morphology 10, 196,
197,197,200-2 spherulitic textures in 200 structure-property relations for
202 Moldings, liquid crystalline polymers
243-4,243,244,247 Molecular optics laser examiner
(MOLE) 280 Monomers, definition of 2 Morphology
definition of 3, 283 examples of 3 experimental techniques listed 3
Multicomponent polymers, types of 204
Multiphase polymers, 3,11,202-12 brittle fracture of 202, 203, 207,
207 carbon black filled 229, 230 copolymers 204-5 etching of 116 examples of 194, 203, 210-12 fracture of 132, 134 impact strengths of 202 optical characterization of 204 particle size of dispersed phase
203-4,205,211-12,212 polyurethane containing 205-6 rubber toughened 202-4,206-7 SEM characterization of 204-7 specimen preparation methods for
195-6 staining techniques for 94, 95-100,
107,108 TEM characterization of207-12 toughened thermoset resins 206-7
Naked eye observations 265, 266 Naphthalene thermotropic polymers
(NTPs) 241, 250, 252, 253,253, 256
composites 252,256 domain texture of241, 241, 242
298
Naphthalene thermotropic polymers (NTPs )-continued
etching of 245, 246, 252, extrudates 244-5, 245 molded specimens 244 spun fiber structure 253
Natural rubber, film studies 178 Nematic crystals 240 Neutron scattering techniques 282 Nitrile rubber vukanizate, fractures
in 130 Noise limited resolution 69-70 Nomarski differential interference
contrast microscopy 21, 114, 115,232
Nonmicroscopy techniques 12, 181-2, 275-83
Nonwoven fabrics 164,165 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy 12, 280-1 Numerical aperture (NA), definition
of 19 Nylons
end uses listed 288, 289 etching of 114, 116 fiber studies 161, 164 fracture of 132,133, 161,163 impact modified 210-12, 210, 211,
212,213 molded specimens 197,200-2,
201 rubber toughening of 202, 203 sectioned micrographs 89 staining of 102-3, 104, 105-6,106,
107,108 textile fibers 157, 288 tradenames for 288, 289
Objective lenses 18, 19-20 characteristics of 48 image formation by 43-4
Optical diffraction patterns, in image processing 71
Optical microscopy (OM) 18-22, 269-70
advantages of 269-70 artifacts in 273-4 characteristics of 13, 16, 266, 267,
268 compared with electron microscopy
17,268 for composites 215,216,216,217,
218,218,222,228 compound-microscopes 19, 268 diffraction limit for 46 for fibers 156, 158-9, 166
fundamentals of 18-22 illumination systems for 52 imaging modes 20-1 for latexes 231 limitations of 270 for multi phase polymers 204 replication methods for 116-17 resolution in 45-6, 266, 268 simple microscopes 19 specimen preparation methods for
75-6,86-9,116-17,269 stereo microscopes 19, 265, 266,
268 suppliers of equipment 292
Optical path length, definition of 42 Optics 17, 42-4 Orientation methods 8 Orientation splitting technique 85 Orlon fibers 156, 157 Osmium tetroxide staining method
95-100 examples of use 95-6, 108, 109,
209,209, 210, 232 inclusion methods 98-9, 170 literature review for 95-6 practical details 97-8
aqueous technique 97 vapor technique 95, 97-8
preferential absorption in 96-7 safety precautions when using 95 SEM use 100 two-step reactions in 97
Paraffin wax, as embedding medium for microtomy 89
Particle filled composites 224-7 Particle sizes
emulsions 230 measurement of211-12, 212,
235-6 multiphase polymers 203-4, 205,
212 Peelback method (for fibers/films)
85-6 cleavage plane splitting technique
85-6 illustration of result 86, 169-70,170 orientation splitting technique 85
Penning sputtering 122, 126 Permanganate etching method 114 Peterlin model (of drawing process) 8,
178 Phase contrast, optical microscopy
267 Phase contrast imaging
optical microscopy 12, 20
Index
examples of use 210,211,218, 218
transmission electron microscopy 27-8,30,51
Phosphotungstic acid (PTA) staining method 102-4
examples of use 103-4, 104, 108, 233,234
literature review for 102-3 practical details 103
Photoresist conductive coating 137 Plasma etching 109-13
liquid crystalline polymers 245, 246,252,
see also Ion etching Polarized light 57-8
circularly polarized light 57, 58 electric field vector diagrams 57-8,
57 elliptically polarized light 57, 58 extinction positions defined 22, 60 linear polarized light 57, 58 plane polarized light 57, 58
Polarizing microscopy 12, 21-2, 60-2 characteristics of 267 composites 218, 218, 227 definition of 57 liquid crystalline polymers 240,
241,241,243 microtomed sections 89 multicomponent polymers 204,
204,205 osmium tetroxide stained specimen
96 spherulites observed by 6, 89, 198,
201,218,218 Polishing methods 81-5
artifacts caused by 82 illustration of result 83 for surfaces 82, 84 techniques used 82 for thin sections 84-5
Polyacetals mineral fillers in 225, 227 molded parts 197-8,198,199,200 multiphase polymer morphology
204 see also Polyoxymethylene (POM)
Poly(acrylic acid) (P AA) 119-21 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) textile fibers,
157 Polyamides
glass fiber composite 218 staining methods for 102-3, 104,
105, 106, 107, 108 textile fibers 157
Index Polybenzimidazole (PBI)
drying of 145 fibers 288 membranes 188, 189-91,189
Polybutadiene (PB) bond breaking in 63 end uses listed 289 staining methods for 108
Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) end uses listed 289 etching of 110 moldings 200, 202 replication methods for 118 thin film preparation 80 tradenames for 289
Polycarbonate (PC) end uses listed 289 etching of 116 tradenames for 289
Polychloroprene, staining method for 95
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), bond breaking in 63
Polyesters fibers 98-9, 98, 156, 159, 167, 170,
169, 170, 170-1, 172 films 183 staining methods for 96, 97, 98-9,
98, 103, 106, 108 tradenames for 288, 289 see also Poly(buty1ene
terephthalate); Poly( ethylene terephthalate)
Poly(ether ketone) end uses listed 289 tradename for 289
Polyetherimide (PEl) end uses listed 289 tradename for 289
Poly(ethylene oxide), freeze fracturing of 146
Polyethylene (PE) bond breaking in 63 crystallinity loss in 67, 68 dimensional changes in 69 electron diffraction patterns from
49 etching of 110, 113, 114,115,
116 fibers 158 films 177, 178, 179-80, 179, 182,
183,183 hollow fiber membranes 193, 194 microporous'membranes 185,185 replication methods for 121 single crystals 78, 79
staining methods for 101-2,102, 108
thin film preparation 80, 81 see also High density polyethylene
(HDPE) Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)
end uses listed, 289 etching ofllO, 111, 112, 113, 116 fibers 156,167,170,169,170,
170-1,170,171,172 fracture of 131-2,132 osmium tetroxide stained specimen
96,97 staining method for 96, 97, 97 thin film preparation 80 tradenames for 289
Polyimide (PI) end uses listed 289 tradenames for 289
Polyisobutylene, bond breaking in 63 Polymers, acronyms for 287 Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
bond breaking in 63 electron interaction volume in 25,
25 end uses listed 289 staining method for 104 tradenames for 289
Polyoxymethylene (POM) bond breaking in 63 crystallinity loss in 67 end uses listed 289 etching of 116 mineral fillers in 225, 227 polarized light micrograph 6 radiation effects on 67, 127-8,128 replication methods for 119 tradenames for 289
Poly(phenyl ether) (PPE), wettability studies 237
Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) end uses listed 289 etching of 114 staining methods for 107, 108 tradename for 289
Poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiazole) (PPBT) 240, 248-50, 250, 251
Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPT A) 240, 242, 246, 248, 250
Polypropylene (PP) bond breaking in 63 end uses listed 288, 289 etching of 11 0, 114, 116 films 178, 180 microporous membranes 99, 99,
191-2,191,192,193
299
replication methods for 120,121, 124,125
staining methods for 99, 99, 103, 106, 108
tradenames for fibers 288 Polystyrene (PS)
bond breaking in 63 crazing studies 138, 139-40, 140 electron diffraction pattern from
49 end uses listed 289 freeze drying of 143 optical properties of 42 radiation effects on 66 rubber toughening of203 staining methods for 104-6, 107
Polysulfone (PSO) composite membranes 186, 187-8 end uses listed 289 tradename for 289
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bond breaking in 63 tradenames for 288, 290
Polyurethanes (PUR) etching of 116 SEM characterization of 205-6,
206 staining method for 96
Poly(vinyl acetate) (PV AC) end uses listed 290 etching of 110 latex particles 232
Poly(vinyl acetatelbutyl acrylate) (PV AC/BA), latex film coalescence 235, 235
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PV A) end uses listed 290 staining methods for 106 tradenames for 290
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) bond breaking in 63 chlorinated polyethylene
multiphase polymer 210 end uses listed 290 fracture of 137
Poly(vinylidene chloride) (PVDC), latex particles 232
Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) end uses listed 290 tradename for 290
Poly(p-xylylene), single crystals 78 Post-it® (3M) products, microscopy
study of 238-9, 239 Problem solving
fiber studies 166-72 flow chart for 272
300
Problem solving-continued instrumentation techniques for
266-73 interpretation considerations 273-5 protocol for 265 starting point for 264-5 supporting characterizations used
275-83 Processes 7-11
extrusion 10-11,196-202 fiber extrusion 7-9 fIlm extrusion 8-9 molding 10-11, 196-202
Projector lenses 18
Quantitative microscopy 36-7 calibration techniques 36-7 fundamentals of36-7 latex particle size analysis 236 stereology methods 36
Quartz wedges 61 Quiescently crystallized films 6, 177
Rad (unit), definition of 64 Radial distribution function (RDF),
electron diffraction 48 Radiation doses
absorbed doses 64-5 incident dose 65 units of measurement 64-5
Radiation effects 62-71 crystallinity loss caused by
67-8 dimensional changes caused by
68-9 mass loss caused by 66-7 replicated specimens 126-8,128,
129 SEM/STEM/TEM images affected
by 66-9,211,270 Radiation sensitivity, definition of 30 Raman spectroscopy 12, 33,277,280 Ray velocity surface 59 Reaction injection molding (RIM)
205 Reflected light microscopy 12, 19
examples of use 83,216,221-2, 222
liquid crystalline polymers 243 specimen preparation method for
81,84 Refractive index
definition of 42 measurement of21
Regenerated cellulose, staining method for 106
Replication methods 115-21 double stage replicas 116, 119-20 extraction replicas 120-1 optical microscopy 116-17 practical details II 7-18, 120 scanning electron microscopy
117-18 single stage replicas 116, 118-19 transmission electron microscopy
118-121 Resolution 44-8
definition of 16 focus considerations of 46-8 limitations to 45 noise limited 69-70 optical microscopy 45-6, 48, 268 scanning electron microscopy 268,
269 transmission electron microscopy
46-8, 268, 269 Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex (RFL)
adhesive 100,101,174,174,175, 175,238
Retardation definition of22, 58 measurement of 22, 60
Reverse osmosis (RO) membranes 184, 189-91
Rigid rod (liquid crystalline) polymers 240, 248-50
Rubber toughened polymers 11, 202-4,206-7
Rubbers ebonite method for 100-1, 175-6 staining methods for 95, 104, 108,
209,210 vulcanization of 3 see also Natural rubber
Ruthenium tetroxide staining method 104-6, 108
examples of use 105-6, 108,210, 211
literature review for 104-5 practical details 105 safety precautions required 105
Saddle field ion gun 122, 125 Safety precautions, staining methods
95, 101, 105, 107 Sample sizes 267 Scanning beam-specimen
interactions 55-7 backscattered electrons 55 secondary electrons 55-6, 55 STEM 56-7 x-rays 56
Index
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) advantages of 24, 270 artifacts in 274 characteristics of 13, 16, 266, 268,
269 for composites 215, 219, 220,221,
222-3,223,224,225,227 conductive coating deposition
methods for 123-6 depth-of-field maximization in 27 diagram of microscope 23 for fibers 159-60, 162, 164, 167 for films 183 fundamentals of22-7 heating effects in 66 imaging signals used 25-6 interpretation of images 270-1 for latexes 231-2, 235 limitations of270-1 for membranes 185-8 for multiphase polymers 204-7 optimization of 26-7 radiation-sensitive materials
affected by 31 replication methods for 117-18,
270 resolution maximization in 27 specimen preparation methods for
76,85-6,89-90,117-18,123-9, 141, 145, 146,270
staining methods for 100 suppliers of equipment 292
Scanning optics 53-5 Scanning transmission electron
microscopy (STEM) 28 advantages of28, 29, 271-2 characteristics ofl6, 269, 271 comparison with other EM
techniques 28-9, 269 disadvantages of272 forward scattered electrons in
56 fundamentals of28-9, 54 heating effects in 66 limitations of211, 270 nylon blend thick section 106 suppliers of equipment 292
Scattering contrast, 50-1 Scattering techniques 282 Scherzer focus 46-7, 47 Schlieren texture 241 Secondary electron emission 55-6, 55 Secondary electron imaging (SEI)
25-6,26 characteristics of267, 269 composites 220, 221, 224, 225
Index
Secondary electron imaging (SEI)-continued
conductively coated specimens 124, 125,127,128
fibers 86, 159,159,160,163,164, 167, 170, 174, 238
fractured specimens 134, 135, 136, 203, 206, 207
ion-etched specimens 112 liquid crystalline polymers 244,
246,249,256 molded specimens 197, 199 multiphase polymers 203, 206, 207,
208,213,214 plasma-etched specimens 111 replicated specimens 118
Seidel geometric aberrations 45 Selected area electron diffraction
(SAED) 29, 266, 267, 268 liquid crystalline polymers 250,
250,251 Self reinforcing composites 243
see also Liquid crystalline polymers Semicrystalline films 177-80 Semicrystalline polymers 4-7
crystallization under flow 6-7 crystallization under quiescent
conditions 5-6 molding of 10-11
Senarmont compensators 61 Shadowing techniques 123 Shear banding 4, 253 Shish kebab structure 6-7, 7, 128 Silver sulfide insertion method 106-7
examples of use 106, 107, 108,247 practical details 107
Single crystals 5, 79 formation methods 78 replication methods for 121
Skin-core morphology 10, 196, 197, 197,200,201,202
liquid crystalline polymers 243, 244
Small angle light scattering (SALS) technique 282
Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) technique 282
Small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) technique 266, 268, 277
examples of use 112, 139, 181,247, 277
Smectic crystals 240 Solution spinning 8 Solvent etching II 3-14
see also Chemical/solvent etching Sonicated LCP fibrils 247, 255
Specimen preparation methods 13-14,74-147
for composites 84, 215, 216, 228 conductive coating deposition
methods 121-9 drying methods 90, 140, 141-6 for emulsions 140-1, 230, 231,
232-3, 232, 233 etching methods 109-15
acid etching methods 114-15 plasma/ion etching methods
109-13 solventlchemical etching
methods 113-14 fracture studies 130-40 freezing methods 140-4, 146-7 for liquid crystalline polymers 85,
241 microtomy methods 85-93
cryomicrotomy 92-3 optical microscopy 86-9 peelback method for SEM 85-6 scanning electron microscopy
89-90 ultrathin sectioning 90-2
optical microscopy 75-6, 86-9, 116-17,269
polishing methods 81-5 replication methods 115-21 scanning electron microscopy 76,
85-6, 89-90, 100, 117-18, 123-9,141,145-6,270
selection of275 simple methods 75-81
optical microscopy 75-6 scanning electron microscopy 76 transmission electron microscopy
76-81 staining methods 93-109
chlorosulfonic acid 10 1-2, 108 ebonite 100-1, 108 iodine 107-9 mercuric trifluoroacetate 107,
108 osmium tetroxide 95-100, 108,
109 phosphotungstic acid 102-4, 108 ruthenium tetroxide 104-6, 108 silver sulfide 106-7, 108
transmission electron microscopy 76-81,90-110, 115, 116, 122-3, 138-9, 142-4, 146,271
Specimen support films, TEM specimen preparations 77
Spectroscopy techniques 279-81 Spherical aberration 46, 47, 54
301
Spherulites 5, 89,198,198,199,200, 201
characterization of282 microscopy techniques for size
determination 12 size of266 structure of 5, 6, 6
Spray spun nonwoven fabrics 164, 165
Sputter coaters 122, 123-5 advantages of, 123 examples of use, 124-5, 124, 125
Staining methods 93-109 action of 93-4 chlorosulfonic acid method 10 1-2 ebonite method 100-1 examples listed 108-9 iodine method 107-9 literature review for 94-5 mercuric trifluoroacetate method
107,108 negative staining 94 osmium tetroxide method 95-100 phosphotungstic acid method
102-4,108 polymers listed 108 positive staining 94 reasons for 31 ruthenium tetroxide method
104-6, 108 silver sulfide method 106-7,
108 timing of use 94-5 uranyl acetate method 101, 102,
108 Static electricity buildup 137 Stereo (optical) microscopes 19, 265,
266 Stereo logy 36 Sterically hindered bonds 64 Structural characterization
techniques, summarized 266 Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)
copolymer end uses listed 290 etching of 113, 116 staining methods for 106 tradename for 290
Styrene-butadiene latex, end uses listed 290
Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) copolymers
staining methods for 96, 107, 109, 209,209, 210
tradename for 290 see also Kraton G
302
Suppliers listed electron microscopes 292 EM accessories 291 optical microscopes 292 x-ray microanalysis equipment
292 Supporting characterization
techniques 275-83 spectroscopy techniques 279-82 thermal analysis techniques 278-9 x-ray diffraction techniques 276-8
Syndiotactic polymers, definition of 3
Talc particles characterization of 217 as fillers 224
Temperature rise calculations 65-6 Textile fibers
birefring~nce studies 158-9 bulk study of 168-9 fiber assemblages 162, 164, 164,
165 fractography 160-2 optical observations of 156, 158-9,
166 scanning electron microscopy
studies 159-60, 162, 164 staining-inclusion method for
98-9, 168 surface study of 166 transmission electron microscopy
studies 164-6 wear studies 164
Thermal analysis techniques 278-9 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
278 Thermomechanical analysis (TMA)
278 Thermoplastics, definition of 2-3 Thermosets
definition 0[3 toughening of 206-7
Thermotropic liquid crystalline polymers 240
melt processing of243-5 Thin sections
cutting of 85-93 polishing of 84-5
Tin chloride stain 108, 172 Tire cords 100,101, 172, 174-6,174,
175 adhesion in 174, 176 fibers used 174, 289
Titanium dioxide pigment, fiber studies 168, 167-72
Toxicity, stain chemicals 95, 105, 107
Tradenames listed engineering plastics and resins
289-90 fibers 288 films 289-90
Transcrystallinity 198, 204, 204 Transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) advantages of 271 artifacts in 51, 274-5 characteristics of 16, 267, 268, 269 comparison with other microscopy
techniques 17, 28-9, 268, 269 conductive coating deposition
methods for 122-3 crazed specimens for 138-9 diffraction techniques 29-30 disadvantages of 271 for fibers 164-7, 169-75 for films 176-81, 183 fundamentals of 27-30 heating effects in 65-6 illumination systems for 52-3 imaging modes 27-9 for latexes 232-5 lattice imaging techniques 30 low dose techniques 31-3
increased contrast/signal 32-3 maximized specimen radiation
dose 32 for multiphase polymers 207-12
cast thin films 208 examples of 210-12 microtomed and stained sections
209-10 optics compared with optical
microscopy 17 phase contrast techniques 30 replication methods for 118-21 resolution in 46-8 sectioning of specimens for 89-90 specimen preparation methods
76-81,89-110,115,116, 118-21, 122-3, 138-9, 142-4, 146 disintegration techniques 79-80 dispersion techniques 77-8 single crystal formation 78 support films 77 thin film casting techniques 80 thin film drawing techniques
80-1 specimen preparation methods for
271 staining methods for 95-9 suppliers of equipment 292
Index
Transmitted light microscopy 12, 19 composites 218, 218
Triton X-IOO surfactant 137 Tube length, definition of 19-20
Ultrafiltration membranes 184, 190, 191
Ultramicrotomy 85, 90, 91-2 Ultrasonic cleaning 82, 84 Ultrathin cryosectioning 92-3
advantages/disadvantages of 93 equipment used 93 examples of use 92-3,228
Ultrathin sectioning 90-2 block trimming for 91 embedding media used 90-1 microtomes used 85, 90, 91-2 specimen drying for 90
Ultrathin window (UTW) detectors 34
Ultraviolet spectroscopy 12 Underfocusing technique 47
see also Defocus . . . Uniaxially oriented fibers 9 Uranyl acetate staining method 10 1,
102, 108
Video enhanced contrast-differential interference contrast microscopy (VED-ICM) 232
Wave velocity surface 59 Wavelength dispersive x-ray
spectrometer (WDS) technique 34,172,173
Wettability studies 237 Wide angle x-ray scattering (WAXS)
technique 268, 270, 276 Wool, staining method for 106 Woven fabrics 156, 162, 164, 164
X7G polymers 240,241,250,252 X-ray diffraction techniques 278-80 X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectroscopy 279 X-ray microanalysis 33-4, 33-5, 66
energy dispersive (EDS) technique 34, 172
metal loaded fibers 172, 173 multiphase polymers 213 SEM vs. AEM 35 suppliers of equipment 292 wavelength dispersive (WDS)
technique 34, 172 X-rays
characteristic 56
Index
x -rays-continued characteristic x-rays 33 continuum x-rays 33 scanning beam interactions 56
303
Xantopren Blue 117,118
Yielding, in situ deformation 136-7