A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF INDIGENOUS TECHNIQUES OF WATER CONSERVATION IN ALLUVIAL GANGA PLAINS AND...

South Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies (SAJMS) ISSN:2349-7858 :SJIF 2.246:Volume 2 Issue 2

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Universal Multidisciplinary Research Institute Pvt Ltd

A Comparative Study of Indigenous techniques of water conservation in Alluvial Ganga Plains and Vindhyan Plateau regions of Rural Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh, India Dr. Anupama Dubey1

Abstract:

In the study area, indigenous water conservation systems of Alluvial Ganga Plain and Plateau region of Mirzapur District (India) have been studied. The Conservation techniques have been bifurcated into three categories to assess the regional variation. Data which is obtained is totally primary survey based. To assess the regional variations, two way ANNOVA is being applied. Farmers have used various water structural and non mechanical conservation techniques such as Ponds, Talai, Check Dams, Vegetative Barriers, Grass control for erosion, Stone Barriers, Earthen Bunds and Diversion Channel to conserve and manage the water. Results indicate very high percentage of participation ratio of conservation technique. This indicates that farmers have very high belief in indigenous practices. Key Words: water conservation, mechanical and non- Mechanical techniques, regional variation. Introduction: Water is essential for all life and used in many different ways, it is also a part of the larger ecosystem in which the reproduction of the bio diversity depends. Fresh water scarcity is not limited to the arid climate regions only, but in areas with good supply the access of safe water is becoming critical problem. Lack of water is caused by low water storage capacity, low infiltration, larger inter annual and annual fluctuations of precipitation (due to monsoonal rains) and high evaporation demand (Sivanappan, 2006). Due to low water availability the productivity of crops also decreases leading to low food production which is urgent need of increasing population in present scenario especially in developing countries. In Dr. Anupama Dubey1: Faculty at Institute of Public Enterprise and PhD from Delhi School of Economics, Delhi University.

developing countries like India and China population is increasing at an alarming stage but proportion of food production does not match with increasing population. However, in recent years, adaptation of incompatible technologies on some soil environments are noticed limitations that have put most arable lands into perpetual degradation (Anon, 1999). Thus, farming activities are adversely affected due to diminishing productive capacities of the soils (Lal, 1995). Consequently, crop returns often deplete sharply and reflected in prohibitive food dearth and starvation among human population (Olawoye, 2000). Over the centuries, intensive systems of soil and water conservation have been developed and practiced by local farmers to combat the problem of water scarcity especially in those areas where agriculture is the primary activity.


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Therefore, assessment of indigenous technique of water conservation is of paramount importance. In view of this need, the present study was conducted in order to understand applicability of indigenous techniques of water conservation in alluvial Ganga plain and Vindhyan Plateau region. Conservation farming techniques such as hillside terraces, stone-lines and bunds, trash-lines, sand-bag lines, earth-contour bunds, crop rotation, rice-bran mulch, vegetation-barriers and organic manuring utilize natural ecological processes to conserve moisture, improve soil structure, curtail soil erosion and enhance soil fertility (Morgan, 1986). Safe disposal of runoff water involves practices such as the physical manipulation of soils, which includes land shaping, construction of contour-bunds, terraces, waterways and ridges as measures to improve water infiltration and conservation (Ray, 2006). Mirzapur district presents a greater complexity than any other plain district in Uttar Pradesh. Mirzapur district has been categorized into two physiographic divisions as Alluvial Ganga plain in northern part and Vindhyan plateau in southern portion of the district. Therefore, there is variation in the allocation of water resource also. The water requirements of Alluvial Ganga plain is fulfilled mainly by ground water due to easy availability and infrastructural structural support to consume the ground water on the other hand blocks belonging to Vindhyan plateau largely depends on surface water consumption. After 1960s, due to initiatives of Central and State Government major dams and canals were established at larger scale in the district, which transform the major barren land of Vindhyan plateau into revenue villages. Main reason behind that was increasing irrigation intensity of crops due to availability of surface water during monsoon and non- monsoon season. But

analysis of data depicts that consumption of ground water is reaching at alarming stage in the blocks of Alluvial Ganga plains. This is also increasing the cost of ground water in the district. Besides this, major constraint with the utilization of surface water with dams and canals are the maintenance and management of these conservation techniques. Therfore, conservation of water through indigenous techniques emerged as a basic. Thus, water resource management is very essential not only for sustainability of resource but also for the economic development of the district as major population is still demarcated as rural population and depends mainly on agricultural and other primary activities for their livelihood. Methodology: This study is largely based on primary survey and for that Questionnaire survey, participatory rural appraisal, and interview methods were the major techniques to collect the primary information. The primary survey was conducted during study period (2011-13). A sample size of 20 per cent of total villages is taken to cover the whole area of the study area. For instance, if a block consist of 100 villages then primary survey is being conducted in more then 20 villages to cover the whole area. Simple random sampling method was adopted to select households for the structured questionnaire survey. Brief introduction was given to the respondent during the field visits with a prior assurance that the information would be used for research purpose only. Detailed information regarding salient features of indigenous techniques, cost involve in the construction and maintenance of indigenous techniques, problems related with the techniques, were collected using the structured questionnaire. Statistical Package for Social Sciences 16 (SPSS) software was used to analyse the data. Two way ANOVA analysis were applied to analysis the significance difference of indigenous practices in two


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physiographic zones. All the analysis was done at 0.05 or 5 per cent level of significance. Results and Discussion: Various water conservation practices were used to conserve the water in the field area. Among them most common practices used for conservation is Ponds, Talai, Check Dams, Vegetative Barriers, Grass control for erosion, Stone Barriers, Earthen Bunds and Diversion Channel. Different techniques are practised in the study area depending upon the physiographic conditions. Permanent Check Dams A check dam is a small, temporary or permanent dam constructed across a drainage ditch, swale, or channel to lower the speed of concentrated flows for a certain design range of storm events. The participation ratio of respondent is maximum in Marihan (92.5 per cent) followed by Lalganj (87.5 per cent) and Halliya (84.0 per cent). These blocks are situated in southern part such as Marihan, Lalganj, and Rajgarh of Mirzapur district which are covered by Vindhyan ranges. The participation ratio of Pahari block is (15 per cent) followed by Chhoinway (30 per cent) and high in Jamalpur (56 per cent) blocks of Alluvial Ganga Plain. The catchment area of check dams ranges from 2.65 km2 in Chhoinway to 8.28 km2 in Lalganj. Construction of check dams is maximum in Lalganj of Vindhyan plateau. Main reason behind that is its geomorphic features, climatic conditions and most importantly the coordination between the government and villagers of these blocks.

Figure 1: Check Dams in the Villages of Marihan blocks

Additionally, they also provide water for other purposes such as bathing, washing clothes, and drinking water for animals. Being shallow structures, with the accumulated water body distributed over a large space, water logging does not take place. Sometimes silt deposited provides fertile soil for the fields. Temporary Check Dams (Bandhis) Temporary check dams are old aged indigenous water conservation technique used in the study area. Temporary checks dams are also called Bandhi in the study area because farmers construct a bund across the slope to conserve the rain water or water coming from a particular tributary. It is also observed in the study area that most of the structures are non technical, which results in breaching of Bandhis every year. The participation ratio of Bandhis is average in the blocks of western part of Alluvial Ganga such as in Narainpur (77.1) and Jamalpur plains (64.5) in comparison to eastern part of Alluvial Ganga plain. Bandhis are major conservation techniques in Vindhyan plateau region by the villagers. Due to favourable geomorphic features its easy to tap the rain water on the slopy


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surface for conservation and further use it for irrigational and other uses. Due to geomorphic feature surface runoff is high in Vindhyan plateau region due to availability of slopes in this area and due to this reason construction of Bandhis is a common practise in the blocks of Vindhyan regions. There is variation in the height and width of the Bandhis depending upon the availability of resource and financial support among the villagers of concerned area. The type of catchment area is partially hilly and plain in these blocks. The catchment area of Bandhis ranges from 2.80 -3.50 km2 Chhoinway block to maximum 7.45-8.28 km2 in Lalganj blocks. The peak flow discharge is also less in Pahari blocks 29.94 m/s and maximum 68.54 m/s in Hallia block. Bandhis are mostly practised in Marihan (85 per cent), Rajarh (80 per cent) and Lalganj (68 per cent) blocks of Vindhyan plateau.

Figure 2: Bandhis in the Village of Sikhar block

Ponds A Pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. Ponds are used as a major source of water conservation technique since long time in Mirzapur district. Village adopts some design criteria on the basis of their long experience, such as determination of the capacity, size and shape of

embankments, provisions of emergency spillway and provision for seepage control, a core wall of soil is placed in the center of earthen embankment. Participation ratio is almost equal in the villages of each block in Mirzapur district. Its maximum in Rajgarh (80 per cent) and Lalganj (80 per cent) and minimum in Majhwa (63.6 per cent) block. Participation ratio is more than 60 per cent in rest of the blocks.

Figure 3: Ponds in the Villages of Jamalpur block

Talai A Talai is an old age indigenous water harvesting structure found almost in all villages of study area. Talai is basically a very low height earthen embankment at a suitable nala or natural drainage line, where natural depression exists. The earth required for building the embankment is taken out from the existing depression. In the study area, these are generally constructed for creating water points for cattle, for domestic requirements and it also adds to the recharging of ground water. Average catchment area of Talai ranges from 0.25-0.50 hectare. The average cost in the construction of Talai ranges from 25-35 thousand in Alluvial Ganga Plain and 35- 50 thousand in Vindhyan plateau. Because the digging cost of labour is Rs.120/day@5 square feet in Alluvial Ganga plain and Rs.


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150/day @ Rs. 5 square feet in Vindhyan plateau. Participation ratio of Talai is average in the village of Alluvial Ganga and more in Vindhyan plateau due to existence of natural depressions in Vindhyan plateau. In Vindhyan plateau participation ratio ranges maximum in Rajgarh (73.3 per cent) to minimum in Marihan (70.0 per cent) where as in Alluvial Ganga plain participation ratio ranges maximum in Jamalpur (64.0 per cent) to minimum in Kon block (43.8 per cent). Talai are more available in Vindhyan plateau because more depressions are found in Vindhyan plateau. Besides this, surface runoff is also more in Vindhyan plateau.

Figure 4: Talai in the Village of Kon block Temporary Mechanical Technique Temporary mechanical techniques are those which are constructed for shorter duration mainly for one season and require maintenance in the next season. These techniques require maintenance at regular intervals once they are being constructed, for instance contour furrows, diversion channels and earthen field bunds etc. Stone barriers are more practiced where stones are easily available. Temporary check dams are practiced more or less in other districts of the state except the stone barriers. Stone barriers are practiced only in Mirzapur and Sonbhadra district of state.

4.3.2.1 Earthen Field Bunds The earthen field bund is one of the most commonly adopted indigenous technologies for in-situ moisture conservation. A plan of the area proposed to be bunded is necessary, showing existing watercourses, gullies, boundaries of individual fields, field bunds, common village paths, and other features. This practice is known as Medhandi or Medh in Mirzapur district. In the study area, with relatively smaller slopes (


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Figure 5: Eartern Field Bunds in the Village of Sikhar Contour Furrows Contour furrows irrigation save the irrigation water, reduce erosion, and mean better crops on sloping fields. Contour furrows are the most common conservation technique to retain the moisture in the field bunds is average in Alluvial Ganga plains. The participation ratio of contour furrows is very high in both Alluvial Ganga plains and Vindhyan plateau. Participation ratio of contour furrows are more than 90 per cent in the villages of Hallia, Lalganj, Marihan, Narainpur, Sikhar and Majhwa blocks of district. The size of contour furrows also varies as shown in the plates. The top width of contour furrows ranges from 1 to 2 feet, base width from 4 to 6.5 feet and height ranges from 1.5 to 2.75 and in Alluvial Ganga plains top width of contour furrows ranges from 1 feet, base width from 2 to 3.5 feet and height ranges from 1 to 1.75 feet. Due to which labour cost is also more in comparison to Alluvial Ganga plains. Average labour cost to construct the contour furrows varies from Rs/- 600 in Vidhyan plateau to Rs/- 480 in Alluvial Ganga plains. Number of hours to fill the water in one hectare of land is also more (8-10) hours in comparison to Alluvial Ganga plains.

Figure 6: Contour Furrows in the Villages of Hallia block Stone Barriers The rough stone or slab barrier is an effective, adaptable and low cost indigenous technique of water conservation on moderately sloping plateau region of Vindhyan plateau region. Replicabilty of these indigenous techniques depends upon the easy availability of stones in these area. Usually, these are installed on boundary bunds or partition bunds. As per the primary survey, participation ratio of stone bund is almost nil in the eastern blocks of Alluvial Ganga plains such as Kon, Majhwa, Sikhar and Chhionway and less ranging from 63.30 per cent in Rajgarh to 34.30 per cent in Narainpur block. Use of stone barrier is highest in Lalganj block (88.6 per cent) and moderate in the villages of Marihan (72.5 per cent) and Rajgarh block (63.3 per cent) of Vindhyan Plateau


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Figure 7: Stone Barriers in the Village of (Hallia Block)

Diversion Channel Diversion drains are provided on the top of the arable area to intercept the uncontrolled flow of runoff water from non arable area and to safely divert the excess rainwater towards the natural or anthropogenic water courses. The design of the cross section and types of drains are mainly based on the experience (Plate 4.8). As per the primary survey, 35 to 90 per cent sample villages in Alluvial Ganga plain and 76 to 85 per cent sample villages in Vindhyan plateau consist of diversion channel.

(b) Figure 8: Diversion Channel in the Village

of Narainpur Block

Non Mechanical Technique Non mechanical techniques of conservation depend entirely on the region a specific area. The local grasses and certain specific crops are used not only to control the erosion but these are also economically profitable as theses grasses are used as the fodder(chara) for the cattle as well as are used to cover the top of the houses of villagers. These practices are common since long time and practiced in other districts of the state. Vegetative Barrier Trees, grass and other plant species are natural soil-binders and provide the best natural solution against erosion. Plants have mainly two functions viz. hydrological and mechanical. Hydrological effects of plants are many such as interception (rain drops strike the leaves first before striking the ground soil), storage (leaves and stems hold water for some time before it eventually reaches the ground), infiltration (stems and shoots roughen and loosen the ground, enabling water to infiltrate more easily) etc. Mechanical function of plant is to reinforce the soil by binding the loose soil particles with its fibrous root system (Choudhury and Tapobrata, 2010). Arhar, Lemon, Karundha, Bamboo and Sagwan are the main plants which are used as a vegetative barrier to control and conserve water in the area. As per the primary survey, the participation ratio of Alluvial Ganga plains ranges minimum 28 per cent in Nagar City Block to maximum 87.5 in Alluvial Ganga plain and minimum 52.5 per cent in Marihan to maximum 64 per cent in Halliya block of Vindhyan plateau.


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Figure 9: Vegetative Barrier in Village of

the Pahari Block Grass Establishment for Controlling Erosion in Sample Villages Ground cover is considered as the most suitable solution for erosion protection. Grasses are functional plants because they germinate and establish readily from seed, grow rapidly, and form a good ground cover with a fibrous root mass. These characteristics make grasses invaluable for turf and erosion control. Grasses are divided into bunch and sod formers. Bunch grasses are spread by seed. The sod-forming grasses spread by both seed and above or underground stems to form a continuous ground cover. In Mirzapur district, local grasses named as Sarpat, Kusha, and Kasha are cultivated on the slopes to control the surface runoff. As per the primary survey, good percentage of respondents participation was found in Alluvial Ganga Plains as it was 25-81 per cent sample villages of Alluvial Ganga plains and in 47-68 per cent sample villages of Vindhyan plateau local grasses are practiced to control erosion. Maximum participation ratio of grass establishment is in sample villages of Majhwa block (81. per cent) and minimum in Marihan block (47.5 per cent).

Figure 10: Grass Establishment in the Village of Pahari block 4.4 Analysis of Conservation Techniques through Two Way ANOVA To assess the variation in the use of conservation techniques Two way Annova has been used. Main questions in this regard is below mentioned Whether there is a significant

difference in the participation ratios in Alluvial Ganga plain and Vindhyan plateau region?

Whether there is significant difference in the participation ratios among three conservation techniques?

Do region and the type of conservation techniques being used have combined effect on the participation ratios?

The above questions can be answered satisfactorily by using the Factorial ANOVA. As per the mean of permanent mechanical techniques in Alluvial Ganga plains is lower (41.63) in comparison to mean of permanent mechanical techniques in Vindhyan plateau (76.82). Mean of participation ratio of temporary techniques of Vindhyan plateau is also higher (84.17) than mean of participation ratio of Alluvial Ganga Plain (58.06). The mean participation of non mechanical techniques of Alluvial Ganga plain is higher (64.26)


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than Vindhyan plateau (58.53) (Table ....Thus, on an average participation ratio of conservation technique is more than 60 per cent in Mirzapur district. On an average mean of Temporary mechanical technique is higher than the Permanent mechanical techniques due to topographic differences. But mean of non mechanical technique is also above than 60 per cent. Thus, indigenous conservation techniques are playing a dominant role in the management of water resource in the district. Besides this, Table 3 depicts there is significant difference between the conservation techniques and regions. Thus, it could be stated that difference in conservation techniques is due to difference in the topography of the study area. Figure 11(a) depicts that permanent mechanical techniques are more used in Vindhyan plateau and non mechanical techniques are used less and its just opposite in case of Alluvial Ganga plains. So far as, comparison of techniques is being represented in Figure 11 which supports the above stated mentioned statement. The Figure 11 (a) and (b) show the relationship and interaction of region and conservation techniques. The combination these diagrams and above table suggest that overall more people participate in the conservation techniques in Vindhyan region than Alluvial Ganga plain. However, conservation techniques differ in two regions. As seen in this diagram, less number of respondents participated in permanent conservation techniques in Alluvial Ganga plain than vindhayan plateau. Ganga plain than Vindhyan plateau. regions or not and whether there is significant difference in the participation ratios among three conservation techniques. Results indicate that participation ratio of In Alluvial Ganga plain, people participate more in non-mechanical techniques than permanent mechanical techniques and temporary mechanical To analysis the results in a better way two way ANOVA was applied to analyze that there is a significant difference in the participation

ratios in Alluvial Ganga plain and Vindhyan plateau permanent techniques is less in Alluvial techniques. In Vindhyan Plateau region, more people using mechanical techniques than non-mechanical techniques. Conclusion: Thus, in the study area mainly two types of conservation techniques are practised Mechanical and Non Mechanical techniques. Mechanical is further sub divided into permanent and temporary mechanical techniques. Apart from that dams are also major device of water management in the study area. Various water conservation practices were used to conserve the water in the field area. Among them most common practices used for conservation is Ponds, Talai, Check Dams, Vegetative Barriers, Grass control for erosion, Stone Barriers, Earthen Bunds and Diversion Channel. Dams are the modern techniques to manage the water resource at macro level. Different techniques are being practised in the study area depending upon the physiographic conditions. People participation ratio of non mechanical techniques are more in Alluvial Ganga plains than the people participation ratio of permanent mechanical techniques and temporary mechanical techniques. On the other hand, the people participation ratio of permanent mechanical techniques and temporary mechanical techniques are higher in Vindhyan plateau. Among the permanent mechanical techniques Bandhis are more practised in Marihan, Rajgarh and Lalganj blocks. Another major source of permanent mechanical techniques are practised in both regions in same proportion. Catchment area of ponds differs as per region wise. Temporary mechanical techniques such as contour Furrows are practised in both the regions besides minor variation in their structural change. Earthen field bunds are also commonly practised in both the region but its applicability is more in Lalganj,


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Marihan and Rajgarh blocks of Vindhyan blocks.

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Table 1: Percentage of Participation ratio of Water Conservation Practices in Mirzapur District

Physiographic Divisions Alluvial Ganga Plains Vindhyan Plateau Region Blocks Kon

(n=16)

Majhwa (n=11)

Sikhar (n=20)

Chhoinway

(n=50)

Jamalpur

(n=25)

Pahari (n=20)

Halliya (n=25)

Rajgarh (n=30)

Lalganj (n=35)

Narianpur (n=35)

Marihan

(n=40)

Nagar (City) (n=28)

Permanent Mechanical Technique Check Dams(Paccka) 0.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 56.0 15.0 84.0 70.0 85.7 74.3 92.5 0.0 Check Dams(Kaccha) 0.0 0.0 0.0 36.0 64.0 70.0 68.0 80.0 74.3 77.1 85.0 0.0 Ponds 68.8 63.6 70.0 62.0 76.0 65.0 72.0 80.0 80.0 71.4 75.0 38.0 Talai 43.8 45.5 55.0 56.0 64.0 50.0 68.0 73.3 71.4 62.9 70.0 18.0 Temporary Mechanical Technique Earthen Field Bund 56.3 72.7 60.0 46.0 84.0 55.0 84.0 80.0 91.4 65.7 95.0 30.0 Contour Furrows 87.5 90.9 95.0 88.0 88.0 70.0 92.0 90.0 94.3 91.4 90.0 65.0 Stone Barrier 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 52.0 5.0 84.0 63.3 88.6 34.3 72.5 0.0 Diversion Channel 87.5 90.9 90.0 84.0 84.0 65.0 76.0 80.0 85.7 82.9 80.0 35.0 Non Mechanical Technique Vegetative Barrier 87.5 81.8 80.0 70.0 64.0 55.0 64.0 56.7 62.9 57.1 52.5 28.0 Grass Establishment for Erosional Control

75.0 81.8 70.0 72.0 64.0 60.0 68.0 56.7 60.0 57.1 47.5 25.0

Source: Calculated by the author, based on Primary Survey

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Table 2: Pair wise Compariso

Region Conservation Technique Mean Std. Deviation N Alluvial Ganga Plain

Permanent Mechanical Techniques

41.6375 28.75455 32

Temporary Mechanical Techniques

58.0656 33.04479 32

Non-Mechanical Techniques 64.2687 17.71439 16 Total 52.7350 30.01433 80

Vindhyan Plateau Permanent Mechanical Techniques

76.8250 7.28830 16


84.1750 8.61839 16


Total Permanent Mechanical Techniques

53.3667 29.03973 48


66.7688 29.97741 48


Source: Calculated by the author, based on Primary Survey

Figure 11(a): Calculated Marginal Mean of Participation Ratio

Figure 11 (b): Calculated Marginal Mean of Participation Ratio

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Table 3 : Pair wise Comparisons

Source Type III Sum of Squares

Df Mean Square

F Sig.

Corrected Model 25065.210a 5 5013.04 8.606 .000 Intercept 392211.842 1 392211.84 673.317 .000 Region 8233.436 1 8233.436 14.134 .000 Conservation Technique 3258.371 2 1629.186 2.797 .065 Region * Conservation Technique 6086.388 2 3043.194 5.224 .007

Error 66405.780 114 582.507 Total 531076.170 120 Corrected Total 91470.990 119

* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level Stone barriers are common conservation techniques in the blocks of Vindhyan plateau. Other measures such as diversion channels are practised with high intensity in both the regions. Local grasses and other vegetative species are also practised as non mechanical techniques of water conservation. All the conservation techniques have their own positive and negative points but as mentioned earlier water conservation is the back bone of the rural economy in Mirzapur district. As mentioned earlier 86 per cent of the population is still categorised under rural population depending on the agricultural and other primary and secondary activities. Acknowledgement: Author is very thankful to the Prof. R.B.Singh (Head) and Dr. Subhash Anand (Associate Professor)Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi for Providing facilities. Authors are also thankful to the respondents, farmers and government officials for their support and information during field survey.

References:

Anon A O (1999) Towards equitable, efficient and sustainable water management. Spore. No. 84:6.

Lal R (1995) Erosion-crop productivity relationships for the soils of Africa. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 59:661-667.

Morgan R P C (1986) Soil erosion and conservation. John Wiley and Sons Inc. Pp 8-30.

Olawoye H U (2000) Soil conservation and food production: Implications for Nigerian Soils. J. Sci. 2:11-19.

R. K. Sivanappan. 2006. Rain Water Harvesting, Conservation and Management Strategies for Urban and Rural Sectors National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management. Nagpur.

Ray H H (2006) Cultural soil conservation techniques practiced in Mubi and Environs. J. Sust. Develop. Agric. Environ. 2:163-167.

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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF INDIGENOUS TECHNIQUES OF WATER CONSERVATION IN ALLUVIAL GANGA PLAINS AND...

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