A Comprehensive Study of Pile Foundations in Coral Fomations and Calcareous Sediments

8/11/2019 A Comprehensive Study of Pile Foundations in Coral Fomations and Calcareous Sediments

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JKA C ~ l l gS I Vol. pp. 3 17 I Ho \ II pl lHl \ I

A Comparative Study of Pile Foundations in CoralFormations and Calcareous Sediments

FOUAD M. GHAZALI ZAKI A. BAGHDADI AND OSAMA A. MANSURCivil Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering

King bdulaziz University Jeddah; Military orks - JeddahBranch Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT Great difficulties ar e usually encountered in th e design of pilefoundations in marine strata. These difficulties have been attributed mainlyto the he te rogenous nature and unusual behavior of these strata. Quitecommonly, th e marine strata have low bulk densi ty an d usually consist ofweakly cemented calcareous and carbonate soils interbedded with coralrock containing cavities filled with coral debris. Geotechnical investigationsshow that conventional soil mechanics techniques are not successfullyapplicable to these formations and sediments.

This paper presents a case study of a proposed foundation design for a 380

m long quay. This quay s to be constructed near th e city o f J ed da h o n theeast coast of th e Re d Sea. The initial proposed design by th e designersuggested 60 cm square precast concrete driven piles. This proposal was notsatisfactory t o t he geotechnical consultant of th e contractor and instead herecommended b or ed a nd grouted piles. This recommendation was basedupon field data load testing of piles and information available in the literature. A critical evaluation ofboth the proposed design as well as the alternative put forward by th e contractor, is given in this paper along with recommendations envisaged by the authors.

Introduction

Th e basic formations of the eastern coast of Red Sea, between latitudes 30 degreessouth and 30 degrees north, are calcareous deposits and cora reef rocks. Calcareousdeposits are mainly composed of calcium carbonate CaC0 3 which are formed byshells an d skeletal remains of benthos organisms such as corals, molluscas, and calcareous algae. Coral reef rocks are formations of calcium carbonate laid down by living marine plants coralline algae and marine animals, corals[l]. With time, y precipitation and recrystallization, corals became more dense and rock-like and are thenknown as coral reef rock. Detai led mineralogical analysis by x ray diffractionshowed that, n recent samples of coral reef rocks, CaC0 3 existed entirely in the formof aragonite, whereas older samples generally contained some calcite; the greater

3


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Comparative Study of Pile Foundations 5

strength, less void ratio and less permeability.3 Type of reef: oceanic reefs show higher strength and lower permeability than

continental reefs.4 Zonation: tests indicate that corals on exposed sides windward are likely to

have better geotechnical properties than lagoonal or inexposed zones.

All available geotechnical data on marine formations have emphasized theirheterogeneous and irregular stratification. Alluvial, calcareous and carbonate soilsalong with coral limestones are usually found in coastal zones. This dictates that subsurface borings should be spaced as closely as possible.

Calcareous sediments have been reported[1,3] to exhibit weak cementation, highvoid ratios and high moisture contents with low bulk densities. Survey of literatureon marine structures has indicated that pile foundations are probably the most suitable for this kind of projects l4].

It has been foundl 1,3] that bearing capacities of driven piles in calcareous and coralformations calculated from conventional geotechnical procedures are significantlyhigher than the measured values leading to unconservative designs. Examinations ofpile load tests have led to recommend limiting values of skin friction of 2t m an dpoint bearing of 200 to 600 t m 2l3 7 It should also pointed ou t that bored and groutedpiles offered 3 5 times higher bearing capacity than driven piles of th e same diamete r l1]. Furthermore, pile driving causes collapse of the weak cementat ion and destruction of coral structures leading to lower lateral pressure and point bearing l8] Increasing penetration length or enlarging the en d base of the driven pile may not appreciably improve the bearing capacity.

Standard penetration tests have been utilized to develop a pile design procedurewith limiting values of friction and bearing on the basis of investigations executedalong the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia l4 5] as shown in Fig. 1 an d 2 in which good estimation of pile bearing capacity was obtained by pile load tests.

. .. .. N 25 1- E :::::>z

LL 20 V B =DIAMETER~ 11 OF PILE > z 15 - I - - + - - - - - . . . . . ~ _ . - . - . . . . - - - - - - t - - - - - -~ Q I CARBONATE SOIL

l .D c =108> AND CORAL

UC 10 z a- LL J t:: z 5 L I ~ - V IF I ~ u- 5 ii...J lJ I 0 I ~ I L

o 20 40 60 80 100STANDARD PENETRATION RESISTANCE

N IN BLOWS PER FOOT

FIG. 1. Limiting unit skin friction against N values. Hagenaar 5 .


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6 ouad M. Ghazali et al

STEEL PIPE PILE DRIVEN.8 - CLOSED ENDED

o10-0PEN ENDED

3 D/e :7.61,000..,.. ............-....--...-- . . . . .. .. ....--*-....-

o 50 100STANDARD PENETRATION RESISTANCE,

N, IN BLOWS PER FOOT

10,000 , . . . - . . , . . - - o o r - ~ ~ - i f E ; f f : i i i . ~ 8 e

5,000 . . . ~ ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - -

3.0002 , O O O - ~ ~

wuz


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omparative Study Pile Foundations .

. . . . . . ...- . : LOOSE TO VERY LOOSE . : : -: SILTY SAND LIGHT GRAY) . . . . . . . .... . . ... .:

WEAK TO MODERATELY STRONGLIMESTONE INTERBEDDEDWITH LAYERS OF SANDY SILT

FIG. 4 Typical strata in the southern zone of the project area by party D.

7

Party C conducted their own geotechnical investigation that included deep borings an d laboratory tests on selected samples. On th e basis of their investigations thefollowing conclusions were pu t forward Fig. 5).

EoN

::.:.:;.,; ~ :-: : : : ~: .:: ALTERNAT E L AYE RS OF:: :: :: : CALCAREOUS OR CARBONATE: : SILTY SAND AND CLAYEY SILT ... : e: ~ : : WITH C ORAL FRAGMENTS . . ; : : .. : N = 1 4 - 5 4 / 2 5 c m )

CORAL LIMESTONE WITHCAVITIES N =50 /25 em )

FIG. 5. Typical strata in th e project area by party C.

1 Th e first 20 meters soft alluvial soils ar e encountered overlying th e coral limestone.

2) Below 20 meters penetration resistance generally increases bu t at greaterdepths it decreases from over 80 blows pe r 25cm down to 40 blows pe r 25cm thereaf-ter. This means greater penetrations do no t necessarily mean higher bearing capacity.

Selection for Pile Typesfor

Coral and Calcareous Formations

In selecting piling for th e formations explained earlier different factors an dparameters should be considered in orde r to choose a proper pile foundation type fora proposed structure. Among the most important factors an d parameters to he considered are:


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8 ouad M. Ghazali et ai

1 Subsurface conditions e nc ou nt er ed a t t he project site as heterogeneous ornon-heterogeneous nature, presence of cavities, their size an d condition in th e coralrocks an d th e depths an d thickness of th e rock layers.

2 Engineering properties an d geological aspects of coral and calcareous sedi

ments ; these propert ies vary significantly from those of quartz formations an d sediments as mentioned earlier.

3 Technique of installation of piles.4 Ability to withstand driving in hard strata in case of driven piles.5 Precautions against corrosive marine environments.6 Satisfactory pile length, shape, size an d embedment length.7 Size of the structure, site and maximum number of piles permitted to be instal

led at site.8 Characteristics of pile material.9 Construction considerations for pile installation procedures.

iO Safety and economy.

According to literature review of some case records , the most suitable an deconomical pile types recommended for coral and carbonate formations ar e as follows:

1 Open-end tubular pipe steel piles with 30mm wall thickness by 1000mm longdriving shoe fitted to th e leading end. Th e piles are usually treated against corrosionfrom sea environment by cathodic protection and coating[lA,5].

2 Driven precast prestressed concrete with an octagonal shape an d a hollow core,an d in the case of heterogeneous n at ur e o f subsurface conditions, special jointing

~ s y s t san d splice details are needed fo r the proposed precast piles

3 Bored and grouted piles[29J

Proposed Design Method by Party D

Th e quay wall is about 380m long an d is envisaged to be founded on driven precastconcrete piles. Th e pile sizes an d loads were given as:

Pile size cmVertical load t

Compression Tension

60 60 230 230

Borehole information indicated that soil conditions in th e southern zone permi tdriving th e piles to a hard stratum. Piles driven to Elev. -2 2 24m depth should provide satisfactory foundation in this zo ne. A s for the nothern zone of the project isconcerned, the hard stratum has no t been encountered, although a dense sand layeris encountered at Elev. -1 8 20m depth . Th e piles in this zone s ho ul d b e drivendown to Elev. -2 4 26m depth . The platform behind the quay wall will be made fromhydr uli ll behind a selected fill bund. Th e grading of the selected fill will be care-


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omparative Study o f Pile Foundations 9

fully chosen to ensure satisfactory engineering properties and permit driving of thepiles through it without difficulty.

Two methods were employed to estimate pile bearing capacities: on the basis ofSPT data and CPT data lOl. In the southern zone, where a limestone layer of at least18m thick is present at Elev. -22 16m depth , the blow count N was estimated to be70 blows per 30cm. Thus, the ultimate point resistance qpu might be taken as:

q 40 N t m 2

and thus the allowable bearing resistance qpa using a factor of safety of 3 will be:

40 x 70 x 0.36 336 tonsqpa 3

In the northern zone, no hard stratum was encountered but there exists a layer ofdense sand with blow counts of over 50 or Dutch cone penetration resistance of 2800

t m

between the depths of 20m and 30m from the surface. The pile should be embedded within this stratum and its allowable bearing capacity is calculated as follows:

1 Frictional resistance, qsu = tlm2

Depth m Blow Count, N Estimated Skin Friction, q, tons

13-16 15 l/s x 15 x 4 x 0.6 x 3 = 2216-20 20 1/5 x x 4 x 0.6 x 4 = 38

20-26 40 l/s x4

x 4 x 0.6 x 6 = 115Total qs u ,tons = 175

2 Point bearing resistance, at a depth of 26m, 40 qpa allowable pointbearing 40 x 40 x .36 = 192 tons

3

Thus the pile should have a total capacity of 280 tons, which is greater than the required 230 tons.

Party D also presented calculations of the bearing capacity by method proposed

on the basis of Dutch cone tests. The results of these calculations indicated that therequired 230 tons capacity is covered by pile resistance, 96 tons frictional and 134tons end bearing.

The tension loads on the piles and 60cm 2 would be 30 tons, which would require anultimate soil friction of 0.5 t m 2 on the shaft to prevent a pull out. As the average blowcount along the pile was at least 10, it was not anticipated that the tensile loads expected would lead to any significant pile heave.

The contractor was requested to perform pile load tests to establish the final length


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ouad M hazali et l

of piles required and t he bes t pile driving criteria in re la t ion to his equipment.

Settlement of th e 60cm 2 driven piles was estimated using a method proposed byPoulos. It was anticipated that pile length would be 27m. Calculations gave a settle-ment of I.5cm using an ultimate l oad equal s to max imum compression load x 2.2.Par ty D, thus, estimated a maximum settlement of 2cm.

Views of Party Can d Load Tests for th e Proposed Pile Design

Party e conducted an independent site investigation through a number of bor-ings laboratory tests on selected soil samples controlled drilling using the EN-PASOL recording. equipment, test driving o f t hr ee piles combined with dynamicload testing using th e DPL T equipment) an d static loading tests of two piles. Solidprecast reinforced concrete pile with 65 x 65cm section was used in performing thedriving an d load tests. A 15400kg hammer was used in driving the concrete piles fal-ling from a 2.78m height.

Figure 6 shows the driving records of three pile tests performed. Piles 1 an d 2 weredriven in t he nor th p ar t o f the quay site at a distance of about 15 meters from eachother), an d pile 3 was driven in th e south part of the quay site at a distance of about350 meters from th e other two . Th e soil profile nex t to th e driving record of pile 1 iscorrelated with i t s ince its hole was 1 meter away from pile 1 while the soil profi lenear the driving record of pile no. 3 is not correlated with it since the bore hole was 25meters away from pile no. 3. Th is proves t he heterogeneous nature of the s tr at a.

P I L E D R I V I N G R E O R D S

N O R T H P R T

P I L E1

P I L E2 zBLOW C OU NT BLOWCOUN T

blows / 2Scm blows 125cm Q.1 20 30 40 50 60 7 80 1 2 30 4 5 60

S O U T H P R T

P I L E 3BLOWCOUNT b lows /25cm1 2 30 40

IG 6. Pile driving records by party C.


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omparative Study Pile Foundations 1]

Figure 7 shows party C wave equation analysis from which the prediction of theultimate static resistance can be obtained for various blow-counts. Figure 8 shows theload test results for piles number 2 and 3.

50 I l l0 QIE ~ ~u c ~ I ~ ~

11\ q, ~ ~40 (, J I L. ' I I I luc

30 ~ . .

~ ~ ~0 I

.Q I ~ < I .

I ~ NOTES: 20 Iz

: : / Energy Blow:163 5kNm0 Hera 7500 Dieselu 10

hammer.0 Fo r wave equation...J analysis a skinm

f r ic t io n 0 f 100 tonswa s assured .

o0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700ULTIMATE STATIC RESISTANCE Tons

FIG. 7. Wave equation analysis results by p ar ty C .

5

20

10

-

Z1.IJ U...Jtt -

~ 15o UJ:I :l...JQ.

LOAD APPLIED TO PILE HEAD tons

o 100 200 300 400 SOOE . 0 ...----.----..-......,.---.----r'IE

FIG. ~ a o a d ~ e t t l e m e n tresults t e ~ tpile 2 dri \ e l l )


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12 ouad M Ghazali et al

LO APPLIED TO PILE HE tons)

E 5 150 25 35 45E ~ 5L J :

~ -

~ 5 cc~ 2

~ 25 ...-. ...... O......-._...-..an III C qt an an C 0

. . . . . .N C )

FIG.8b. Load-settlement results test pile 3 driven .

According to the site investigation, pile driving records and load tests, party has performed its own analysis and drawn conclusions, and made recommendationstherefrom. The following is a summary of this analysis, views and recommendationsregarding the proposed pile design.

1 Figure 6 shows that along the first 20 meters, penetration resistance is very low

due to soft alluvia through that depth. Below20

meters, penetration resistance increases. Pile 1 gave 80 blows pe r 25cm penetration resistance at deeper coral layer 30 meter deep , but then again reduced to 40 blows pe r 25cm; piles 2 and 3 did notexceed 30 blows pe r 25cm along the full specified penetration length. Thus, by goingto larger penetrations there is no guarantee that the bearing capacity will increase.

2 Figure 7 predicts higher bearing capacities. Fo r a blow-count of 40, it predicts460 tons, and for a blow-count of 50 it predicts 550 tons. The driving records in Fig. 6have a large variability range between blow-counts of 25 to 80 in the coral whichmeans that the predicted bearing capacities vary accordingly, and the proposed allowable pile design load 230 tons ultimate 460 t o ~ safety factor of 2 will not beachieved, since the required blow-count should, consistently, be over 40 blows pe r

25cm.3 Party considered the conventional investigation and analysis used by party which usually gives unconservative design values in coral and carbonate sedi n t ~and the proposed design values by party c f driven piles are over-estimated. Hence, party recommends using skin friction of 2 tons/m and tip resistance of 400 tons/m 2 as it is suggested in the literature for a similar pile installationand site conditions in coral and carbonate sediments. Using these values and a 65cm concrete pile penetrating 24m into the soft alluvia and coral formation, and using as f ty f tor of two, an allowable design lo of 147 tons/pile in compression wasfound. This load is significantly lower than the required design load of 230 tons pile.


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Comparative Study Pile Foundations

4) Figure 8 shows load-settlement curves in which th e proposed ultimate bearingcapacity was not reached within the maximum allowed settlement. Party C considered these results of the pile load tests as unsatisfactory t o b e used in the pile design.

5) Party C recommended vertical large diameter bored and grouted piles as analternative to t he p ro po se d pile design by party D because of low bearingcapacities of driven piles in coral formations. These piles will penetrate th e deepcoral limestone for about seven meters an d will be grouted along this length. Party C thinks that tip resistance should no t be greatly emphasized, du e to th e highlyheterogeneous nature of th e soil formation in th e site an d th e possibility of cavities inth e disintegrated o r l l i m e s t o n ~layers. These cavities were estimated to vary in sizefrom a few centimeters to several meters and filled with silty sand, shells and coraldebris. Party C assumed an allowable, skin friction of tons m along the groutedportion of th e pile an d an allowable tip resistance of 100 tons m

Comparative and Critical Evaluation

The 336 an d 280 tons/pile design capacities of the driven precast concrete pileproposed by party D ar e considered to be liberal values due to th e followinganalysis an d findings:

1) Th e soil formations and stra ta at th e site of the quay consist of unusual soil condit ions with a heterogeneous nature . These soils ar e mainly made up of carbonatematerials in th e sand-silt range. The site conditions become weaker and poorer du eto the presence of loose silty layers, coral f ragments , shel ls, cavities within corallayers and absence of good silica sand. Th e soil investigation of th e site performed is

based upon five borings only for a rather heterogeneous subsurface condition. Moreboreholes could have b ee n do ne to p re se nt a better a more accurate pic ture of thesite an d to minimize th e possibilities of unforseen variations in sub-surface conditions which are expected between borehole locations.

2) Bearing capacity equations such as Meyerhof s an d Poulos settlement equa-tions were used by party D . These equat ions a re usually used for determiningbearing capacities of siliea sand and quart z formations, while in carbonate soils th euse of these equations leads to overestimation of th e pile capacity. Conventionalmethods of design assume that a driven pile in quartz formation (hard particles thatd o n ot crush bu t displace during pile installation ll will pack the soil tightly around itan d that will build large soil-pile interface stresses, which consequently give high skin

friction. In calcareous sands and carbonate deposits, however, th e soil is naturallyvery loose an d pile driving vibrations a re not very effective in densifying this type ofsoil which is composed of many flat particles an d some bulky hollow particles. A driven pile causes the soil grains to crush ra ther than displace literally[8l. Furthermore,soil weak cementation prevents lateral pressures from developing against th e pilesurface 12l. Consequently, the soil-pile interface stresses will be small , resulting inlow-skin friction. A driven pile also causes a breakage in the s tructure and cementa-tion of the coral rock[6l, which results in low skin friction. It seems that these factswere not taken into account by party

3) Th e calculated en d bearing capacities of the piles driven in t he n or th a nd south


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14 ouad Ghazali et al

part of the site were 192 and 336 tons, respectively. These two values were calculatedwith heavy emphasis on the end bearing, while soil investigations in these two regions indicated that at the required depths, there existed either medium dense to

dense carbonate silts and sands with coral fragments or coral rocks with cavities.Th e driving records in Fig. 6 show that approximately along the first 20 meters,

penetration resistance is very low due to the existence of soft alluvia. This leads to thesuggestions of soil improvement for the soft alluvia or its replacement with a selectedsilica fill. This should increase the lateral support of the upper soil layers of 2 metersand consequently the skin friction of the pile. These possibilities were no t taken intoaccount in the design by both parties.

Th e load-settlement curves, Fig. 8 do not follow the typical pattern usually foundfrom pile load tests. They also show that the ultimate bearing capacity of the testedpile has not been reached within the permissible total deformation of 20mm as calcu

lated and given in the specifications. Th e unusual shape of load settlement curves atlow load levels cannot be attributed to the unique nature of coral formations. Probably due to the crushing of particles and breakage of cementitious bonds betweenthem. Th e loading was probably conducted almost immediately after driving. Typical curve shapes have been found from pile load tests in corals[3,ul.

It is also observed from Fig. 6 that the two load tests of piles no. 2 and 3 may no tgive their maximum capacity due to the following reasons:

1 Both piles have been driven through a moderately weak coral layer blow countless than 30), while it might be expected that this count will increase a t deeperdepths.

2. Th e period between driving and test loading is shott since piles driven in calcareous soils show very low skin friction during an d shortly after driving. fter driving, the skin friction increases with time due to soil freeze phenomenon around thepile[31 In order to allow the soil freeze to take place, the pile load tests should startafter a reasonable period has elapsed.

Based on the results presented and if the specifications requirements are unconditional, it could be concluded that either the design method should be improved or achange of pile type may be unavoidable.

The proposed pile design method by party was bored and grouted piles. Party was very conservative in using a low tip resistance of the pile in the total net bear

ing capacity. Also, the skin friction component of the bearing capacity used by party C was a liberal value.

According to the comparative evaluation of the two proposed pile types, the authors suggested that full scale bored and grouted pile load tests should be performedby party C.

Hence, three bored and grouted piles were tested under a vertical load of 506tons[13l This load is equivalent to 2.2 times the design load which is the ultimate bearing capacity as started in the specification and the design of the foundation of the shiprepair quay. To limit the cost of testing, it was decided to limit the loading of this


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omparative Study Pile Foundations ... 15

value rather than increasing it to the failure condition. Bored and grouted piles arer a t h ~ rexpensive. The construction of such type of piles exclusively for pile load test-ing, without using them in the main foundation, does not seem to be a wise econom-ical choice. In addition, the locations of these piles coincide with those of the piles to

be used later as apart of the proposed foundation structure. Hence, continuous load-ing of these piles till failure was not considered as the main objective of the pile loadtest. Instead, settlements of piles were monitored so that these should not exceed20mm under the ultimate bearing capacity as stated in the specifications of the pro-ject.

The r e s u l t ~of the tests of the three tested piles showed settlements of 1.6mm,1.6mm and 3.6mm, respectively, as shown in Fig. 9 This clearly indicated that thetested bored and grouted piles satisfied the specification requirements of the found-ation.

LOAD TONS

100 200 3 4 5

~~

- ~

.6

~ 0.4 Z1 1

~ 0 8l J...I

::; 1 2

...........

t\.

, \

~

1.6

~ 0 4

LOAD TONS

o 0 SO 100 200 300 400 500

z~ 0 8l J...I

:: 1 2l J

N N 3N14 N E N/ 4 N 2 3N/4 N E

T E S T P I L E NO.1ROW c LINE 10

T EST P I L E N O. 2ROW C LINE 20

LOAD T O N S

o0.4

Ee 1 2

z~ 2 01 1

...I

2.8w'

3.6

0 100 200 300 400 500

' \ ~

~

:\. \ '-

TEST PILE

NO 1

LOCATION P L A N

N E

T E ST P I L E NO.3ROW e LINE 49

FIG 9 Results of pile load tests bored and grouted).


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16 Fouad M Ghazali et al.

Conclusion

Th e importance of understanding th e geotechnical problems encountered jn th edesign of foundations in marine sediments are highlighted in this paper by prese 1 1ting

an actual case study. This case study presents two design approaches: precast concrete driven piles, and bored and grouted piles. According to the pile load tests ofthese two pile types proposed, bored an d grouted cast in place concrete piles werefound t o b e t h e most suitable type for coral formation an d carbonate sediments oftheeast coast of the Red Sea. This type of pile foundation is capable of carrying safelyth e allowable vertical load of th e proposed ship/repair quay with minimal settlementvalues; while in case of driven precast concrete piles, th e observed allowable settlements were high and exceeded the values stated in th e specification even beforereaching the working load.

knowledgement

Th e authors are grateful to the General Directorate of Military Works, Ministry ofDefence and Aviation, Saudi Arabia for their assistance an d permission to publishthis paper.

References

[1] Deshmukh, A.M., Gulhati, S.K., Roa, G.V. and Agarwal, S.L., Influence of Geological Aspects onBehaviour of Coral Rock, XI ICSMFE, San Francisco, USA, 9/C/5, pp. 2397-2400 1985 .

[2] ADlemeer, J., Carlson, E.D., Stroud, S. and Kurzeme, M., Pile Load Tests in Calcareous Soil Conducted in 400 Feet of Water from a Semi-Submersible Exploration Rig, 7th Annual OffshoreTechnology Conference OTC 2311 pp. 657-670 1975 .

[3] GUchrist, J., Load Tests on Tubular Piles in Coralline Strata, J Geot. Eng. Divn. , ASCE 111 5 :641-655 1985 .

[4] Hagenaar, J., Sijtsua, H. and Wolsleger, A., Selection and Use of Piles for Marine Structures inCoral Formations and Carbonate Sediments, Conf. on Piling and Ground Treatment for Foundations, ICE, London, pp. 47-56 1983 .

[5] lIagenaar, J. , The Use and Interpretation of SPT Results for the Determination of Axial BearingCapacities of Piles Driven into Carbonate Soils and Corals, Proc. 2n d European Symp. Penetration Testing, ESOPT II, Amsterdam, May, pp. 51-55 1982 .

[6] Hagenaar, J. and Van Denberg, J. , Installation of Piles for Marine Structures in the Red Sea, XICSMFE, Stockholm, Sweden; 8129 pp. 727-730 1981 .

[7] Hagenaar, J. and Van Seters, A., Ultimate Axial Bearing Capacity of Piles Driven into Coral Rockand Carbonate Soils, XIICSMFE San Francisco, USA, 41C15 pp. 1599-1602 1985 .

[8] Meyerhor, G.G., Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile Foundations, J Geot. Eng. Divn., ASCEl02 GTI : pp. 197-228 1976 .

[9] Stevenson, C.A. and Thompson, C.D., Driven Pile Foundations in Coral and Coral Sand Formations, 7th International Harbor Congress, K. V l V., Netherlands, May, pp. 1.0511-1.05/13 1978 .

[10] Meyerhor, G.G., Scale Effects of Ultimate Pile Capacity, J Geot. Eng. Divn. , ASCE 109 6 : pp.797-806 1983 .

[11] McClelland, B., Designof Deep Penetration Piles for Ocean Structures,J. Geot. Eng. Divn., ASCElOO GTI : pp. 705-747 1974 .

[12] Noorany, I. , Side Friction of Piles in Calcareous Sands, XI ICSMF, San Francisco, USA, 4/C/8, pp.1161-1614 1985 .

[13] Ghazali, F.M., Sotiropoulos, E. and Mansour, O.A., Large Diameter Bored and Grouted Piles inMarine Sediments of the Red Sea, Canadian GeotechnicalJournal 25 4 : 1988 .


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Comparative Study Pile Foundations

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A Comprehensive Study of Pile Foundations in Coral Fomations and Calcareous Sediments

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