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International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET) Volume 11, Issue 10, October 2020, pp. 903-918, Article ID: IJARET_11_10_090

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DOI: 10.34218/IJARET.11.10.2020.090

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A COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUE FOR

ASSESSING THE COMPRESSION PATHS OF

RESIDUAL SOILS

Y. Venkata Subba Reddy

Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, S.V. University, Tirupati, AP, India

K. Nagendra Prasad

Professor of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering,

S.V. University, Tirupati, AP, India

ABSTRACT

Of the civil engineering construction materials, soil is distinctive being a geologic

material, most often engineered, as it exists, unlike other processed or manufactured

materials like concrete or steel. Therefore, it becomes essential to characterize the soil

appropriately based on factual data available at discrete locations. The discrete

locations are the places where samples are extracted and in-situ tests are performed,

these locations are chosen based on possible variations in soil conditions in the

proposed area of construction of a civil engineering structure. Soil conditions between

such discrete locations can be deduced by scientific principles. An attempt has been

made in the present investigation to propose a computational technique based on

phenomenological observation made on experimental findings on ten different soils

extracted from different depths form a residual soil deposit in Tirupati region. The soil

samples show inherent variation in basic characteristics in terms of grain size and

plasticity characteristics. The soils are predominantly Clayey with silt, sand in

significant proportions. These soils are typical of kind encountered in practice. The

compression paths of natural soils are determined and the these paths are shown vis-à-

vis the compression paths of remolded soils compressed from their equivalent liquid

limit states , free from stress , time and environmental effects in order to ascertain the

relative positioning so as to understand the states of compression paths of natural soils

. The analysis of test results indicate that the compression paths vary from the

compression paths of natural soils and the paths follow a consistent mathematical

pattern when normalized with respective initial void ratios with stress. These

observations form basis to propose a simple computational technique to predict the

compressibility behaviour of natural residual soils. The mathematical form observed is

applied to the data published in literature to bring out the applicability of the

phenomenological model.

Y. Venkata Subba Reddy and K. Nagendra Prasad


Keywords: Compression Paths, Residual Soils, Phenomenological Approach,

Assessment & Applicability.

Cite this Article: Y. Venkata Subba Reddy and K. Nagendra Prasad, A Computational

Technique for Assessing the Compression Paths of Residual Soils, International

Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 11(10), 2020, pp. 903-

918

http://www.iaeme.com/IJARET/issues.asp?JType=IJARET&VType=11&IType=10

1. INTRODUCTION

The properties of residual soils have received increasing attention from geotechnical engineers

in recent years. In particular, the extent to which conventional soil mechanics concepts are

applicable to residual soils have been addressed by a number of workers in this field. There

appears to be a widely held view that the direct applications of such concepts to residual soils

is likely to pave way for misleading conclusions (Rao and Nagendra Prasad,2016)

The occurrence and distribution of soils in nature is such that, the various type of soil can

be found together. Most of the engineering design methods and parameters of structures on soil

have been developed for ideal soils such as pure sands or pure clays; the reality is that these

ideal soils are rarely found in nature. In a sand-clay mixture, it is quite difficult to establish the

characteristics of the soil since it possesses both the properties of sand and clay (Akayuli et al,

2013)

1.1. Geo-Material Spectrum

Tropical soils are found in tropical regions between tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn

enclosed between 231

2 0North and 23

1

2 0South of the equator. In these regions evaporation is

more intense compared to precipitation. The soils are residual having been born and deposited

at the place of formation. The characteristic feature of these soils is that the highly weathered

soils are found at shallow depths followed by weathered rock, disintegrated rock and hard rock

at greater depths (Nagendra Prasad et al, 2013).

The in-situ soil formations might arise due to sedimentation or may be non-sedimentary

residual deposits in origin. Although soils, primarily, are particulate media, the stresses to which

they are subjected to, the environment in which the deposits are formed and the time, in the

geological time scale, that has elapsed, have all been recognized as potential factors to impart

their effects to the in-situ soil systems encountered. It is very well known that the equilibrium

state of the in-situ deposits is the resultant effects of stress, time and environment. Particularly

soils in the Southern Indian region are residual in nature (those derived by in-situ weathering

of rocks). In residual soils the particles and their arrangement would have evolved progressively

as a consequence of physical and chemical weathering. Although the geological study of the

formation and structure of in-situ residual soils is well advanced, the simple and rapid methods

to analyze and assess the engineering properties of these soils have not received the same level

of attention. This is in contrast to the situation while sedimentary soil deposits are encountered.

Quite often cementation in rock would be left behind due to varied degrees of weathering

(Nagendra Prasad et al, 2007).

Residual soils are formed by the in situ physical and chemical weathering of underlying

rock, while sedimentary soils are formed by a process of erosion and transportation followed

by deposition and consolidation under their own weight. In addition, the latter may undergo

further alteration after deposition due to processes such as secondary consolidation, leaching

and thixotropic effects (Bjerrum, 1967). Natural soils consist of soil constituents varying in size

from colloidal to coarse sand. The available methods to predict the compressibility of soils with

A Computational Technique for Assessing the Compression Paths of Residual Soils


liquid limit as a parameter do not account for coarse particles. The modified liquid limit concept

proposed by Srinivasa Murthy et.al., (1987), wLM

= wL

(F/100), where, wLM

= Modified liquid

limit of the soil ,F = Percent fine passing 425 μm sieve , wL

= Liquid limit of soil on fraction

finer than 425 μm has been used to predict intrinsic compression lines ( Srinviasamurthy

etal,1987). In the present investigation the possibility of analysis and exercising engineering

judgment to arrive at engineering parameters applicable for the tropical residual soils is

examined.

2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The various formation factors responsible for differences in behavior between residual soils and

sedimentary (transported) soils are described. The extent to which classical soil mechanics

concepts derived from the study of sedimentary soils are applicable to residual soils is examined

and discussed (Wesley, 1990). It is shown that residual soils can be wrongly evaluated as

problem soils simply because some aspects of their behavior do not conform to that of

sedimentary soil. The relative importance of composition and structure in influencing residual

soil behavior is examined by carrying out consolidation and triaxial tests on three residual soils,

namely, silt, a tropical red clay, and an and andosol (volcanic ash soil). The need for an

empirical or theoretical framework applicable to residual soils, in place of the stress history

framework used with sedimentary soils, is discussed.

In a tropical region, residual soil layers can be very thick, sometimes extending to hundreds

of meters before reaching un-weathered rock. Unlike the more familiar transported sediment

soil, the engineering properties and behaviour of tropical residual soils may vary widely from

place to place depending upon the rock of origin and the local climate during their formation;

and hence are more difficult to predict and model mathematically. Despite their abundance and

significance, our knowledge and understanding of these soils is not as extensive as that of

transported sediment soil (Huat et al. 2013). However, with respect to residual soil, both its

interaction mechanism and its failure behaviour in soil composites are not well understood due

to limited study (Mofiz et al. 2010). Tropical soils appear in large regions of the world and have

been less studied than soils from temperate climates, particularly with respect to critical state

and limit state conditions. Most geological materials are structured in nature and this natural

structure influences the behavior of tropical soils ( Nagendra Prasad and Sulochana,2013)..

Structural features affecting soil behavior include soil cementation and soil fabric. Sarma et al.

(2008) observed that the consolidation properties of soils indicate an insight on the

compressibility behaviour of soils with associated expulsion of water. However, determination

of such properties involves considerable time, cost and rigorous testing process. Further, natural

state of partial saturation and soil-moisture is not simulated in the standard consolidation

procedures. The sampling technique is also not specific for the Oedometer tests and sampling

disturbance influences the results considerably. As such, modified methodologies of Odometer

test for field simulation as well as simple correlations of the consolidation parameters with

fundamental properties are always preferred by practicing engineers.

Of the Civil Engineering construction materials, soil is unique being a natural material, most

often engineered, as it exists, unlike other processed or manufactured material like concrete or

steel. Therefore it becomes necessary to characterize the soil appropriately based on factual

data available at discrete locations. The discrete locations are the places where samples are

extracted and in-situ tests are performed, these locations are chosen based on possible variations

in soil conditions in the proposed area of construction of a civil engineering structure. Soil

conditions between such discrete locations can be deduced by scientific principles (Rao and

Nagendra Prasad, 2016)



The occurrence and distribution of soils in nature varies from location to location. The type

of soil depends on the rock type, its mineral constituents and the climatic regime of the area.

Soils are used as construction materials or the civil engineering structures are founded in or on

the surface of the earth. Geotechnical properties of soils influence the stability of civil

engineering structures. Most of the geotechnical properties of soils influence to each other. In

this paper, different geotechnical properties of soils such as specific gravity, density index,

consistency limits, particle size analysis, compaction, consolidation, permeability and shear

strength and their interactions and applications for the purpose of civil engineering structures

have been discussed ( Roy and Bhalla,2017).

Compressibility behavior of soil is an important parameter that implies the change in

volume under applied stress, on other words; it is the relationship between void ratio and

effective stress. Depending on the type of soil and their origin, the compressibility behavior

varies over a wide range. Researchers presented numerous void ratio-effective stress

relationships consist of different sets of equations which produce a good fit with their

consolidation test data. These sets of equations for different types of soils become complex for

understanding their consolidation behavior using a specific model (Ahmed Syed Iftekhar

& Siddiqua Sumi, 2016). Wesley (1990) reported that the observed pre-consolidation pressures

in residual soils are frequently apparent or pseudo pre-consolidation pressures.

Study of field situations, analysis and design with the incorporation of appropriate material

parameters and finally execution are different chain of events in the practice of geotechnical

engineering. The inherent nature and diversity of geological processes involved in the soil

formation stage itself are responsible for a wide variability in the in-situ state of the soil. Only

a minute fraction of soil can be sampled and tested because of practical and economical

constraints. for example, even if the spacing of boreholes id 10m and 50mm diameter sample

is tested every second meter , only one-millionth of the total volume would have been explored

. In contrast to many other branches of engineering, where one would normally specify the

requirements of the materials used, geotechnical engineer usually has to adjust his design to

accommodate the prevailing properties of the in-situ soils. Hence innovative approaches which

are rational and simple , practical problems can be tackled satisfactorily and economically , if

the soil variability in terms of soil parameters due to erratic conditions can be realistically

arrived at. The need for such approaches by which experimental findings can be synthesized to

establish new , meaningful and simple approaches in holistic manner for analysis and

assessment of soil behaviour as rapidly as possible is obvious.

3. SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION

The present investigation has been taken up to propose possible computational technique in

order to assess the compressibility behaviour of in-situ soils. An attempt has also been made to

find out relative positioning of the compression paths of in-situ soils and remolded soils. The

interpretation based on analysis of the data provides a framework to understand the

compressibility characteristics in a unified and coherent manner. The mathematical form

observed is applied to the data published in literature to bring out the applicability of the method

proposed.

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experimental investigation considers soil samples from five different locations of Test Pits

1-5, of Tirupati Region from two different depths at each location. These samples were brought

to laboratory taking care to see that the soils remain fairly undisturbed and intact. The depths

range from 1.40m to 3.90m which depths correspond to usual foundation depths adopted in

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these soils depending on the type of structure. The soils are designated as Soil A, Soil B, Soil

C, Soil D, Soil E, Soil F, Soil G, Soil H, and Soil I for facility of presentation.

4.1. Basic characteristics

The soils are classified predominantly as Clayey Sand (SC) with two of ten samples as Clay

with High Compressibility (CH) as per Indian Standard Classification, IS: 1498-1970. The fine

fraction ranges from 14-70% with average fine fraction being 40%. The Liquid Limit values

range from 34% to 85% with an average value of 55% and the Plasticity Index ranges from

18% to 60% with an average value of 36%. Thus the fine fraction is quite significant and is

active. The properties represent inherent variability. The soils are of this type are typical of the

soils encountered in the region. The soils tested cover wide spectrum of soil variety and the

experimental results on these soils provide basis for analyzing and predicting the soil behaviour

as any soil found locally would fall into one of these categories. The soils are brought to the

laboratory for further processing. The soil samples were air dried and sieved through 20mm

sieve and the fraction passing through the 20mm sieve has been used for determining the index

properties.

4.2. Compressibility Characteristics

The compression paths of undisturbed soil samples from their in-situ state and of remolded soil

samples from slurry state were determined to analyze the relative positioning of these paths

.The compression paths of remolded soils has been determined by mixing the soils with water

content corresponding to 1.15times higher than their respective modified liquid limit values.

Modified liquid limit (Venkata Subba Reddy and Nagendra Prasad, 2020) is calculated by

multiplying the liquid limit values determined for fractions passing through 425 micron sieve

sizes with percent finer than 425 micron. The residual soils are generally found to exist with

composition comprising of sand, silt and clay fractions. Therefore, it is logical to adopt the

modified liquid concept so that when soils are mixed with this order of moisture content, the

mixture forms uniform consistency and when compressed from this order of moisture, the

samples would be completely under remolded state and would be free from stress history, time

and environmental effects. An experimental investigation is taken up on field soil samples

obtained from 10 different depths at different locations from Tirupati surroundings. Tests are

conducted to obtain basic properties of soils apart from one dimensional consolidation test in

oedometer.

All tests were performed as per bureau of Indian Standard Specifications as mentioned in

the Table 1.

Table 1 Tests Conducted

Test Bureau of Indian Standard Specification

Grain size Distribution IS 2720-4:1985

Liquid Limit IS 2720-5:1985

Plastic Limit

Free Swell Index IS 2720-40:1985

In-situ density IS 2720-29:1985

Natural moisture content IS 2720-18:1985

One dimensional consolidation test IS 2720-15:1986



5. ANALYSES OF TEST RESULTS

The test results are presented in Table 2. It may be observed that the percentage passing from

425 micron sieve size ranges from 82%. This turns out that the liquid limit determined for the

fractions passing through 425 micron may not represent the value for entire fraction and it is

logical to determine the modified liquid limit by concomitantly with the fine fraction. The grain

size distribution diagrams are shown in Figures 1-2 indicate that the distribution is scattered

reflecting the inherent variation though the soils are grouped under nearly same classification

as per Bureau of Indian Standard Specification IS: 1498.The inherent nature and diversity of

geological processes involved in the soil formation stage itself are responsible for a wide

variability in the in-situ state of soil.

Void ratios corresponding to modified liquid limit vary from 0.31 to 1.391 representing

once again wide range of values. The compression paths of the soils are presented in Figure 3.

It may be seen from the figure that the compression paths are linear. The paths are spatially

spread out, with the position of each path being in the order of the liquid limit water content of

the soil. Figure 4 represents the plots of the same paths normalized with their respective void

ratios at modified liquid limit eml. All normalized paths fall within a narrow band and can be

fitted with a linear equation, within the working stress range up to 800kPA, in the form given

by:

v

mle

eln18.0424.1

1

Or

v

mle

e10log414.0424.1

2

The generalized equation is of the same form as given by Nagaraj and Srinivasamurhty,

1986 , but with considerable difference in values of constants.

v

le

e10log234.0122.1

3

The reasons are attributed to the fact that the equation 1 or 2 is developed based on modified

liquid limit concept which is more suited to tropical soils owing to presence of significant coarse

fraction. Burland (1990) proposed void index parameter to generalize the compression path of

remolded soils.

In any investigation, the undisturbed and representative samples at different depths are

available. The representative samples (remolded) are usually used to determine the physical

properties of soils. From the sampled depth data, the overburden pressure can be assessed.

Having a reference state- stress path of the reconstituted soil in relation to which analysis

appears to be the only possibility since the time and structural effects are subdued in the state

of natural deposit. The reference path is independent of the over burden pressure and hence

permits to classify the state of in-situ soil. This is similar to examining the compaction curve

any soil of different degrees of saturation in relation to Zero Air Voids Line.

The compression paths of residual soils are presented in Figures 5-9. The compression

behaviour is characterized by initially rigid response and with noticeable change in void ration

at later stages of loading. Most geo-materials found in tropical residual deposits are structured

in nature and this natural structure affects the behavior of tropical soils. Structural features

affecting soil behavior include soil cementation and soil fabric and stress history. The



cementation effects cause rigid response initially until the applied load reaches a value causing

de-structuring.

A closer examination of compression paths of undisturbed soil samples and in relation to

their respective remolded paths presents contrasting picture. For samples A-D (Figures 5-6),

the compression paths of in-situ soils are found to be placed on right hand side. As per the state

boundary surface concept (Atkinson and Bransby, 1978), no state of sample exists on right hand

side of Compression paths of remolded /normally consolidated state. The placement of

compression curves on Right Hand Side of Normal compression Line of remolded state

therefore indicates that the soils have additional component of resistance possibly due to

cementation bonds acquired by the structure either due to leaching of salts or due to wetting

and drying cycles. On the other hand the compression paths for the soils E-I (Figures 7-9), the

compression paths are found to exist on left hand side of the remolded compression lines. This

turns out that soils at these locations are in over consolidated state. The compression paths show

rigid response, possibly due to interlocking effects on account of over consolidation and the

compression paths tend to fall in line with remolded compression paths after the stress level

reaches their respective remolded states. It is in conformity with the observation made by

Wesley, 1990) that residual soils can be wrongly evaluated as problem soils simply because

some aspects of their behavior do not conform to that of sedimentary soil. The relative

importance of composition and structure and previous stress effects in influencing residual soil

behavior need to be examined by carrying out consolidation tests on intact and remolded soils

to find out relative influence of these effects. However, it may be noticed that the response of

the in-situ soils is totally different from normally consolidated soil behaviour and the

positioning of the compressibility behviour deepens on cementation or stress effects or both.

The deformations are smaller within the stress range normally applied to soils

The response of the undisturbed soils for monotonous loading in consolidometer is found

to be similar for all the soils tested (Figure 10). The compression curves are placed according

as their initial states represented by respective void ratios with some overlapping at higher stress

levels , possibly due to de-structuring effects . An attempt has been made to normalize the

compression behaviour with respect to their respective intial void ratios, as shown in Figure 11.

It may be noticed that the compression paths fall over a narrow band given by the following

mathematical expression

969.09963.0 20004.0

0

Ree

ev

4

This indicates that the compression paths take exponential form on normalized scale of void

ratios with their respective initial states represented by in-situ void ratios with stress. This is

referred to as phenomenological model hereafter.

6. APPLICABILITY OF THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL MODEL

Yahia et al (2006) considered residual soils from six different depths and are classified as sandy

clayey silt with medium to high plasticity. The Atterberg limits plot just above or below the A-

line in the plasticity chart (Figure 3), indicating that the soil can have dual symbol (i.e. MH-

CH).The average percentage of silt-clay size is above 60% and that of sand is below 40% with

no gravel. The natural water content is generally close to the plastic limit. The variation in water

content and hence the degree of saturation are reported to be due to local factors such as surface

drainage and presence of clay seams. The variation in amount of clay also produces the variation

in Atterberg limits.



Consolidation tests were performed on natural undisturbed samples which were existing in

the field in partially saturated state. The samples were saturated in the lab typical consolidation

curves are presented (Yahia et al ,2006). The curves presented are almost identical and the only

slight difference is due to the small differences in initial void ratio and water content. The curves

are considered typical for this type of soils. The soil appears to be over consolidated mainly due

to the weathering action and to less extent to the reduction in stress. Wesley (1990) reported

that the observed pre-consolidation pressures in residual soils are frequently apparent or pseudo

pre-consolidation pressures.

The phenomenological model observed as per equation 4 is applied to these compression

paths and the typical predicted paths are shown in relation to the observed compression paths

as shown in Figures 12-17. It may be observed that the predicted compression paths are agreeing

quite well with the experimental paths. The data of another residual clay (Wesley, 2009) called

Allophane clay of Indonesia is also considered for predicting the compression path by the

Model proposed. The predicted compression paths in relation to experimental observations are

presented in Figure 18. It may be noted that the predicted path matches very well with the

experimental path. This testifies the applicability of the model proposed. However, more

experimental results on variety of residual soils may lead to further reinforcement of the model

proposed.

Table 2 Soil Properties

Description

Test Pit-1 Test Pit-2 Test Pit-3 Test Pit-4 Test Pit-5

A B C D E F G H I J

Depth of sampling, m

1.40 3.80 2.00 3.90 1.60 3.70 1.60 3.80 1.70 3.80

Gravel (%) 7.60 16.80 2.40 9.20 0.60 1.40 1.40 7.30 1.40 1.40

Sand (%) 71.00 68.60 66.80 71.40 51.20 57.60 28.40 29.70 53.20 51.20

Silt + Clay

(%) 21.40 14.60 30.80 19.40 48.20 41.00 70.20 63.00 45.40 47.40

Liquid Limit

(%) 52.00 55.00 34.00 34.00 50.00 85.00 64.00 61.00 52.00 67.00

Plastic Limit

(%) 19.00 19.00 16.00 16.00 18.00 25.00 20.00 20.00 19.00 21.00

Plasticity

Index (%) 33.00 36.00 18.00 18.00 32.00 60.00 44.00 41.00 33.00 46.00

IS

Classificatio

n

SC SC SC SC SC SC CH CH SC SC

Free Swell

Index (%) 80.00 80.00 50.00 50.00 75.00

180.0

0 90.00 85.00 80.00

100.0

0

Degree of

Expansion

Mediu

m

Mediu

m

Mediu

m

Mediu

m

Mediu

m High

Mediu

m

Mediu

m

Mediu

m High

Field density

,kN/m3 19.13 17.85 20.47 20.44 19.98 19.56 19.55 22.10 18.33 21.43

Natural

moisture

content,% 14.32 8.54 9.03 14.22 14.22 13.03 13.07 9.31 4.21 15.24



Dry Density,

kN/m3 16.73 16.44 18.77 17.90 17.49 17.30 17.29 20.22 17.59 18.60

Void ratio 0.58 0.61 0.41 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.53 0.31 0.51 0.43

Degree of

saturation, Sr 0.57 0.73 0.58 0.78 0.73 0.83 0.65 0.79 0.87 0.82

%passing

425 μ 28.6 23.9 42.6 34.4 66.2 55.6 82 67 73.4 62.2

Modified

Liquid

Limit,% 14.87 13.15 14.48 11.70 33.10 47.26 52.48 40.87 38.17 41.67

Void Ratio at

modified

Liquid Limit 0.394 0.348 0.384 0.310 0.877 1.252 1.391 1.083 1.011 1.104

Figure 1 Grain size distribution of the soil samples A-F

Figure 2 Grain size distribution of the soil samples G-J



Figure 3 Compression paths of remolded soils in consolidometer

Figure 4 Normalized compression paths of remolded soils



Figure 5 Compression paths of remolded and in-

situ soils (A&B)


situ soils (C&D)


situ soils (E&F)


situ soils (G&H)

Figure 9 Compression paths of remolded and in-situ soils (I&J)



Figure 10 Compression paths of in-situ soils (A-I)

Figure 11 Normalized compression paths of in-situ soils



Figure 12 Predicted Compression Path at 0.5m

depth


depth


depth


depth


depth


depth



Figure 18 Predicted Compression Path of Allophane Residual Clay (Indonesia)

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The following Concluding Remarks may be made based on the limited experimental program

on residual soils of Tirupati Region

The compression paths of the remolded soil are found to be linear and these compression

paths when normalized with the void ratio corresponding to respective modified liquid

limit values gives a unique path as give by:

v

mle

eln18.0424.1

This expression can be vied as Intrinsic Compression Line which serves as basis for

estimating the in-situ state of the residual soil. If the compression paths of undisturbed

soil fall above the Intrinsic Compression Line, the soil is in meta-stable state

characterized by cementation. On the other hand if the compression path of undisturbed

soil is positioned on left and side of Intrinsic Compression Line, the soil deposit may be

said as over consolidated

The compression behaviour is characterized by initially rigid response and with

noticeable change in void ration at later stages of loading. Most geo-materials found in

tropical residual deposits are structured in nature and this natural structure affects the

behavior of tropical soils. Structural features affecting soil behavior include soil

cementation and soil fabric and stress history

The residual soils show variable compression behaviour. Some show distinct yield

pressures and some show gradual reduction in void ratios depending on relative

dominance of structural and pre-stress influences depending on location

The compression paths of undisturbed soils are identical though there are minor

deviations owing to changes in initial void ratio and moisture content



The compression paths of the undisturbed soils can be normalized with initial void ratio

giving rise to a unique expression with regression coefficient of 0.969.

969.09963.0 20004.0

0

Ree

ev

This turns out that the initial void ratio which is a state parameter for any soil governs

the compression response of residual soils

The compression paths of Sudan Residual Clay and Indonesian Allophane Residual

clays are predicted with reasonable degree of accuracy indicating the applicability of

the phenomenological model observed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors profoundly acknowledge the facilities extended by SV University for collecting

the soil samples and conducting experiments without which this work would not have been

possible

REFERENCES

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