A Concise Psychological Dictionary EditedbyA.V.Petrovsky andM.G.Yaroshevsky rogressPublishers Moscow fromIheRus.\lan EdiledbyPyolrShikhirt'I',CandoSc,(Phil.) Deychology, theproblemofA. treatedinthe work:;ofBorisTcplov,NatanLeites, VadimKrutctsky,andothers.All-round developmentofm8n\A.isinlinewith theprincipleof socialistsociety:"From eachaccordingtohisability,toeach accordingtohi!> work." Specific,individual logical allowingto fullyperform spel'ifll:activity (muskal,literary,etc.).A.,S. developonthebasisofsui tableilldi notiOflS,suchasgoodmu!>icalearand memory.Today.weknowofsensitiveperiods(secDt.'\e/opmellta/ Semilil'('II('Ss ) ,JuringwhichA .. S, developparticularlywell.Forimtance, A.,S.formusicinvol\echildrenunner fIH".whoactivelydevelop goodmusical earandmemory.Giventhatinclina-tionsareA .. S.canform onvariousphy"iological Thus, acertainlevelofA.,S.(mathematicIIl. artisti",etc.)couldbedevdopedin virtuallyallhealthychildren.Thus, thereiseveryreasontobelievethat all-rounddevelopmentoftalemsin children.::al1 beachievedthrough speciallyorganil>Cdtraining. Abstraction,atypeQfthinkillg wherebythementallydifferen- somequaliliesorIISpcCtsoflin objectand 111,,"111 fromOIher oraspects.Theresultisan intellectualconstruct(concept,model, theory,also bytheterm"A".Ongmally"A.IS st:en illadirectsensoryrellectlonofthe environment,whensome of thelallerprovideorientatIOnforper-ceptionandaction others.are ignored.A.isacondition forcategorisation.ByA.imagesofrealityareformed, toselectrelationsandconnections essentialtoactivitybyisolatingt.hem fromotherrellU,ionsandconnecti ons. Whenessentialpropertiesof areignored,A.assumesa andshallowcharacter.InthiScase, thetermisusedtorefertoconceptu-alisationandreasoningwhich basisinreality.A.trueto ISthatsimplifIcationofthemultitudeof phenomenawhichincreasest.heca-pacityofthoughtby ,ofItsCOII-centrationonthatwhichIS essent.lal foragivencognitivePractice isthecri terionfordetermllllngtow.hat extentA.isgenuineandproductive. Abulia,apathologicaldisturbancethementalregulationofaetiol/s.ItIS seenintheabsenceofanimpulset.o act,inabili tytomakeoraCI.ondeCI-sions,althoughthepersonIS awa.re ofthisnecessity.A.should.bediS-tinguishedfrom of asa{'haractertraitresulll1lgfrom IInproperupbringingandcorrigibleby adequatetraining(seeWill). Acalculia,inabilityto and performari thmeti calasa 5 result of corticallesions.Various groups ofA.arerecognised:primary. associatedwithdisturbanceorganisationofnumbersandImpaired abilitytocalculate;andsecondaryA., -;eellinotherdisordersofmentalfunc-tions(aphasia.agnosia.amnesia)or ingeneralimpairmentofpurposeful intellectualactivity. Acceleration,anincreaseintherate ofthesomaticandphysiologicalmatu-rationofchildrenandteenagers.ob-servedoverthepast100-150y.ears.A. showsitselfprimarilyinan inthebodilysizeandweightandm earlieronsetofpuberty.Datashow thatduringthiscenturytheaverage sizeofinfantshasincreasedby0.5-1.0 cmandtheweight,by100-300g: thebodysizeand of5-7-year. oldshasbeenincreasmg byanaverage of1.5cmand0.5kgeverytenrears; andthebodysizeofschoolchildren hasincreasedby10-15cmovertheI period.Pubertyin to_two yearsearlier.ThiScondlllon.gIVen traditionalmodesofpre+adolescent upbringingand of behal'iOllr, cansometimes r!se}O_ ..collisions,suchassemanllC_hu_'!!.ers. -c()I1f!iCH.andaffectivebehaVIOUr. Therearedatarelatedtotheratedmentaldevelopmentofchildren .Jsychologicalacceleration):however,) thereIsnotenoughstatisticaldatato drawareliableconclusion. AccentuationofCharacter,tionofcertainpersonalitytraitsfestingitselfinselectiveofpersonalityin tocertam typesofpsychogemcstress(profound di\\re....,>, mentalpressure, etc.) whilethe person ..:anmaintain emotional eqUilibriumunder other types of mental Althoughpuretypt!sare andmIxedpredominate,the followmgofA.ofC.aredis-tInguished:(I)..:yeloid:- va.rimionsof ",1000resultingfromanexternalsitua-tion;(2)worry,fatigue,irritability,inclination l/epreHiom;;(3)scnsitive-\ tendencytofeel lIlfenor;(4) reti-..:ence,ofabilitytomaintainper-sonalcontactsheexlrol'ersion-Il1IrOl'f'nion),inabilitytosympathise (see.ElI1phathy);(5)paranoiac- Irrllability.persistenceof negativehypersensith'ity.sus-PICIousness.exaggeratedsenseofself-Importan..:e;(6)epileptic-uncont-rolledandimpulsivebehaviour,in-tolerance,mentalrigidity,fightingand quarrelmg. mordmately detailed speech, tostandards:(7)histrionic (hysten..:al) -pronouncedtendency towardsrepressionofunpleasantfaclS orevents,lying,fantasyandaffected behaviouraimedatdrawingattention dIsregardforthefeelingofoEhe; persons,tendencytowardsrecklessness vanlly,"escapeintodisease"when needforrecognitionisnotsatisfIed' (8)hypenhymic-constantlyhigh splnb,cravl11gforactioncombined wllhmoodshifESandatendencyto abandon inmid-course,exces-sive(gallopingthought); (9)dysthymlc,- gravity,high ofconcentration ongloumyand\adaspectsoflife, to inade--quatea":!l\cnes,\:(It))un\tahle(extra-vert) -- temll-ncytobcmnuellccdhy external ,8,carch for mlprc).slonsornewcumpany, abLlII)toestabh\hqUickcontact(al _ thoughof8\uperflcialcharacter); (II).conformmg-cxaggcl"alcdsub-anddependability.Depend-mg011 thedegreeofmanifeMation overtand.covertofA.ofC: arc Becomingmurepro-nouncedIOwardsteenage.A.ofC. towardsadulthood,rnanife;ting IIselfnOIIII anysituat ion(asin .but.onlyinacomplex psychogel1lcSlluations,thosebringing pressure10bearonthe"weaklink". A.ofC.promote;thedevelopment ofreactions(sec gen.,eDisorders),neuroses,patho-logicalbehaviourdisorders.A.ofC. betakenintoaccountinelTe.;lUat- anindividualapproachtoraising chl ldr.enandteenagers,aswellasin choos1l1gadequateformsofindividual andpsycholherapies.Theabove cJassllicallonwassuggcsledbyKarl LeonghardandAndreiLichko. AcceplorofAClionResultamental ",1echanismofanticipationevalua-lionof theresultof actioninfunctional systems.The. wasintroducedby AnokhmIII 1955.InIheinforma- aspect,A.ofA.R.is"theinforma-1I0naiequivalentoftheresult"re-frommemoryintheof deCfSlolI-lIIokillKwhichdeterminesthe ofthe motor aClIvltyduringthebehaviouralact andcarriesoutIhecomparisonofthe resullwithits"anticipatedrene.;tion". Iftheycoincide,thecompletedfutlc- - - -lionals..:hemcfallsapart, ilndtheMla-nismcanI"lro..:eedtoanother purpO\eful hehuI'iour;iftheyoverlap.improve-menlsarcintrodu!;cd!IItheprogramme ofaClion;iftheyarelotallydilIcrent, exploratory-orientingbehaviourdeveloped. AchievementMotivalion,Ihelllhjed_\ need10reachsuccessinvariou.\types ofactIvity.especiallyincompetiti on withother people.Studics ofA.M.were begunbyagroupofAmericanre-searchersheadedbyDavidMcClelland. Theyproposedthetheoryandmethod-ologyofmeasuringA, M.whichwere funher elaboratedintheworksof John AlkinsonandHeinl.Heckhausen. A specialprojectivemethodwas worked outforlhequalitativeestimationand slUdyofA.M.(seeProjectiveTests). According10McClellandandothers, A.M.isformedduringthechild's upbringinginthefamily,underthe infl uenceofhisparents,flTSllyofhis mother.ThebasisofA.M.Ismadeup oftheaffectivel ycolouredassociations whichlinkthechild'semotiOlwlexpe-riem:ewithIheformsofhisbehuI';Ollr. Ifinearly childhood the childis praised bytheparentsforhissuccessesand punishedforfailures,bylheageof5 to 6heformsA.M.whichlaler becomes asteadyneedandismanifestedin varioustypesofactivity.McClelland allernptedtoexplain,proceedingfrom A.M.,thespeciflc!raitsinthesocio-economicdevelopmenlofI'arious nalions.whichiscounter10thehis-toricalapproach.Sovietpsy..:holog)' rejeclstheideaofA.M.bcingformed exclusivelyduringearlychildhood. 7 -AchitvementTnc,.atechniqueof f1I'.YI:hlldiul(rllJHSreveahllgthte!llellt !Owhi..:hwbJC..:!'Jhavema\lered'I!'e-(If"knowledge,abilitie1.andskill" A,T.(t'"'>cmble'>pecialabilitinIC!U (o;ecCrealil-ityUnlikethe laller, the)'revealwhatthe \ubjectalreadyma.\lered,ralher thangeneralised devoidof !;oncrete..:ontentandrC';ultingfrom variegatedlifeexperienc.:.Thereare threetypesofA.T.,namely_allion tests,wrillentests.andoralte'>ts. ACliontl;"5ts aredesignedtorevealan abilitytoperformactIonswilh mechanisms.malerials, andimplernent\. WrittenA.T.areperformed00spe..:ial qucslionnaires.Thesubjectsaretold toeilherselectthecorrectoralan\wer among severaloptions.or 10markina diagramthereflectionofthesltualion describedillal',iHnquestion.or10 findinadrawingthesituationor detailprovidingacut10the!;orrect solution,OralA.T.area of preparedquestionswhichthesubj:ts mustanswer:inthiscase,Iheel(pcri-mentermustforeseethediffh:ulties thatmayarisebecauseofinexperien..:e inarticulatingreplies.A.T.areused ingeneraland"ocationaltraining. Aclioo,aunitofactivit)";a,'oluntary intentionalmediatedaCEi,-it)"directed towardsreachingarealisedf,:wl.A.as a:;pecifLCunitof was inlroduccdinSo,ietpsy,lr%gyby SergeiRubinsteinandAlexeiN.Leon-tye'. The nOlionof A.asunIt0;analys-isandobjectofstudyisuscdinIhe slUdyofpi.'r;:eplUu/,motor,mnemonic, mental.creative,andotherA's.As regardsicsstructure,A.,unlikethe -- - --habitualorImnulsiv""'-1. (h.".... ......., 18Vlouralacts wlehafedirectlydeterminedb'I ,>.llIation)isalways :tsmg"anousmeanssuch. ro/('\\'1asSIKns, Ill"a1/1',\,1I0rms.etc.thco subject ..aMenanA.,acquiringitashisOW" perso lal"AE,._. .veryA.consistsof eflee.lorandcontrolpans. sregardl>theIrfUTlctioning,A'scan groupedasvoluntaryandinten Ilona I.InOll'o1?t'llesisthefunctionof controlandregulationofA IS81 li.rstintheprocessi theJOInIactil'iliesoftheadult c!III?a.nd,later,asaresultofthe InferiOr/saIl onofsocialnorms(pat-terns)andschemesofA.,thechild Ix:gmstocontrolhisA.inaccordance wlIhthese. patternsandschemes.The intentIOnalityofA..isexplainedbyIhe thatthesubJecldecidesthatIhe ,magi!ofthefutureresultofhisA. 10Ihemotiveofhisactiv-Ity:Inth1$casethisimageofaction acquiresapersonalisedmeaningand Ihe subjecfs goal. The subject's givesrisetoagoal-related areadinesstoalta intheanti-Cipated ofA.Thegoal-related aHlludeIS connectedwiththeimage oftheanticipaledresult,whichdoes notImplyconcretewaysandmeans bywh.ichthegoalcouldbereached mOSIlikelyandeffectively.Thisimage only. chariSthegeneraldirectionfor A.,whiletheexecutivepari ofA:. IS determinedbytheconcrete condlllOnsofthe givensituation.InIhe ofcarryingoutanA.,the subjectcomesinloconlactwiththe objectiveworldandIransforms(out-wardlyor mentally)the objective situ a-tlOIlalldutlain ..an ... ult.TIh e,"aluat" .. it .. hl\('motioll.f.Inthe ofA SilVia s.oalsmay8111>CilrheeGoalPt""., ('w troll)andtht'plal"C'of..11/1-.n.InThe(luiv II)maychange.A.:cordin. 1111 A.cllnhecomeall If.1\ repealedlyal1ninc-dsoat hlchII> f1rlnlyconnectedwit Itl' meansofreaching;,,c "0I'" I.,.,oliger reaIsedasaresullofilb. automaticandbecom'"'". _....."Wlt11l1the structureofactIvit,"'0d.f f',n 111011 or perormlllganotherA.(shif1ofthe goaltowardsthecondit io")B. ." .egm-nlllg.toanA.asaresultofa cenammotive,thesubjectcanlater perform A.forthe purposeoftheA. Itself(shtftofthemotivetowardsthe inwhichcasetheA.becomes anmdependent activity. The mechanism of ofrealised"motive-goalsIS aileofthemechanismsof the.f.orn.lationofnewtypesofhuman actIvItyIn OnIhedynamic thestabilityofanA.isdeter-mmedbyitsgoalorientation.The psychophysiologicalorganisaTionof anA.isprovidedbysuchafunClional blockofthebruinastheblockof programming.regulationandcontrol ?fwhichthefrontallobesarethemos; Importantpart(AlexanderLuria). Act ivafion,astateofthener vouS systemcharacterisingthelevelofils excitationandreact ivi ty.A.ofThe nervoussystemasawhole,asits gener alcharacteristic,shouldbedis-t inguishedfromA.ofanyonebrain struClure.Theopt imallevelofA. wouldbetheutmostdegreeofcor-I -rC_\pCofrecof.:nition:recail,reco/lecf/flll. ordirectreproduction .. Theextentto A.iseasyordlfftcuhdepenili. onthedegreeofmemOrbmg. orfor-ellingoftheslOredmatenal(ot.eeg.,) ForSellill.!: ..' Adapt:ation.SellSOC).adapti\emodifl-calionofsensitil'ity10SUI!thechange inthedegreeofintensilYofthe slimulU5actinguponthesenseorltan. Itmaymaniieslitselfin,anous subJec-m'eeffects(seeAfter-I",ar:e).A.,S. maybe throughincre.a.ses anddelVC:,c..01 0.A, 111 criTicalsituationswhentheisunable10findanadequatewayout ofthedangerousand,marcoftenthan not .suddensituation. the .fdO"linOCiale'perien..::e,asy .. temof existingknowledge.normsanurule\ ofhumanacti\,jty:andby'he'p"iflc\ ofhisde,e-lormcllt. ThenOtionofA. andage boundariesi!.notanaiterion, sinceageboundarie\arevanableanll dependonthehislOri..::alperiooIIIquestion,andaredifferenrindifferent socio-cconomi..::eonditiom.Thefol-lowingA.classificationisa(ccpted intheUSSR:infancy(frombirth toageI):pre-pres..::hoolchildhooo (ageI10J);preschool..::hildhooJ (age",100); Juniors.::hoolage(agen to10);teenagcpeTiod(age10to15); youth:firstperiod(seniors..:hllol3!!C, 16 age151017)andsecondperiod (age171021);malureage:first period(age21to35)andsecond period(age35to60);elderlyage (age601075); oldage(age751090); andlongevity(age90andmore). AgnOliia.impairmentofperception associatedwithcerla;nbrai"lesions. SeveralformsofA.aredi:'linguished: (I)opticalorvisualA. -failureto re(ognisethe of objlo'c\\despitethere!elllLO,1lof ,VIsual powers:(2)tactileA.--- inabilityto recogniseanobjectbylouch(3S-orimpairmentofthe ability10identifypartsofone'sown bodyortheofits;odi,vidual !,arh.i.e.adefeci111 apprecl311on,of thebody\Cherne(somaloagnmlal ; e\)acm;,!icorauditoryA.- impair-melllofphonemichearing,i.e.the ahilitytodi.. tingui\hsound...re.ona!ityinculturealienand toIIU1n\naluralcharacter. showingintheneurotic of tht:feelingofreality.orinthelos: ofone .... ;lIdilit!lIlllity(dl'pefw)lwlisa. Ilfm).InthisFreudthought Ihe.IInCOII.\doIlSi:o. thedeci:o.ivefactor III Individualbehaviour.which,inhis n'"17 YICW.leadstoantagoni.. mbetween thatindividualandthesocialenviron menl(seeFreudiunism).Inchild psychology,thenOlionofA. applied to theessentialfactorinthe establishmentofthechild'sself-con-sc iousncss,inthedevelopmentofhis reflexiveability.Inearlyage.the childfeelsmergedwiththesurround-ingworld,unabletodistinguishhim selffromhisvitalactivity.Inthelater stagesofontogl'nesis.thenotionofA. isassoci atedwiththechild'sallitudes towardshimself.adults,equals,norms ofbeha\ iourandsocialdemandsthat areexpressedinrejection.disagree-ment,lIega/iIism.BasingonjointaCliv-ilyandcommunication,theindividual developsanabilitytolookuponhim-sel fthroughtheeyesofotherpeople andtoaccepttheirattitudes. Altruism,thesystemofaperson's \'allieorienta/ionswherebymterests ofotherpersonsorasocialcommunity arethecentralmoti\eandcriterion formoralevaluation.Thetermwas coinedbytheFrenchphilo..opher AugusteComteasIheoppositenotion of I'/:oislll.Freud sawthe , TIlemecha-canbe of diiTerentnature:A.mayexpressed inthesubject'sactionstakeninsome concretedangerous-"itumion(e.g. savillgachildalthecostofone'sown life)orbeaconsciousvalueorienta-tiondeterminingthes ubject'sgeneral behaviour,inwhichcaseit the subject'sofliying.hkahsa-)( l' mill(IfA. errolleous(I,lh Thereal,ignifK;JIlCC ofahruisl;cbehaliouristlelcnn;nl'd byIIII'natureof\a1ul!'>underlying Ihewilh A.inforg;,,:nc',.101l!ram:c of blindsa"riflccfliT thesakeofOlherpersons.induding thosewho\ iotat o.: thenormsofrom-munistIllorality.isanegatIVe\'leT,O n3lilytrait.A.maybeexhibitedasa expressionof (seeIdf.'11Iijicaliml,Col-kd;I'iSr)incomillunicalion(I)and a(li\'ily. Ambition.Iheprominenceofachieve-mentmatil'alion.theaspiralionfor . ..Ilory.awards.and_insom"';:sodalsphere.baggefaIedX.is intensifledbyvainglory.i.e.byarrogant altitudestowardsOlhen..Asadesirot forsocialrotCognition,A.mayobjec-tivelyplayarelath'e!ypositiveroleby stimulatingsocialacti\ities.Howotver, beingindividualisticInnature,A. actsasahindrance10foslo:ring colleclivism,10combiningpublicand potrsonalinterests. Ambivalence of Sent iments. coexistence ofseveralcontradictingemotions toward..,agivenobjec!.Atypicalcase ofA.ofS.iswhenindividualtraits ofacomplexobjectimpre;.:;aperson's needsandI'aiuesdifferently(thus, ilispossible\0respecttheperson's industry anddisapproveofhis, herhot temper),AspednccaseofA.ofS. istheantithesisofstable towards acertainobjectand situational enlo/iollsderivingfromit(thus, J IlI!r,,:n1i.\hurtif.....l1ll1pcr;onor t" wh()lnho:sheaIl3(h ... "ro:..EachA. dls!lnguishesanirritantofac(,rtain type,providingforilssubsequentsepa ration.intoindividualdeml'nh.VisualA.acertain \lnrt.of.electromagneticoscillations, rt possibletodifferentiateIhe colour,shape, and other prop-ertiesof.obJccts.AIIhe limeA andtcmporal of elementary stimuli .T y[lCs ,. ofAaro; I' (;,Dcvt'lnpmenl linddifferential ionofIhe-'>ychologicalof perso-nalil),heeExlrOI'('rsiOlIIlIlr(ll'",sioll) Anancasms.seeAnimalPsychology,the01 the animalpsyche,ofthemanifestations andofpsychICrel1ection atthislevel.A.P.studiestheforma tion ofpsychicprocessesinanimalsin onlugl'ne:;i:;,theorigiusofthepsyche anuibdevelopmentintheprocess ofevolution,thebiologicalrequisites forandtheoriginofhumancon-S,iOIl.II/I'IS,T hethi nk.ersoflongago paid alienI ionto the abilities of animab. Thebirthof:.cientiflt:A. P.attheturn ofthe19thCCIi\lJryisconnectedwith thenamesofGeorgeBulTonandJ ean Lamar cklalcr on, CharlesDarwin. InRu::.sia,thefoundersofthescientiftC studyofanimalbehaviourwereKarl Ruli erandV.A.Wagner,wholaid thefounJationforaevolu-tionarytrendinA.P.inthe191hand 2\11h ,:.\lturlt'\.Thl\ITt'nt!wa,furtllt'r ,It-vd'\pl"dSnvid(">y.hul()i\l">. refuteantrnpCl111t1rph;t,;.ideal;,l;.: :"Iml IIfthe fl'>ychit:.a.livilyofaIHl11ah,ha'ing (Intilt:l.e!lll1i\1tlu:nryflf rd/I'(lioll.They,tudytheanimal p'ydlCilldialecllullUlutywithIheir eXlernal,Ilrinwrilymuwr,adi";lyhee /1II/inc/il'I'1I1'/WI'wurofAllimuk Terriloriu/1I1'lew'iourofAII/mu"', lhroughwhichtheye\tabli\hall necessaryw;lhIheenvironment. andregard thecomplicationofaClivityasthe primaryfactorleadingtothe flCation,enrichmenlandperfection ofthemOloractivity(KurdtFabri) . EmpiricstudyofIhef"iychicactivity ofanimals,theirpcn:eplualprocesses, orienlalillgexploratoryreactions. memory.emotions,andother typesofkarning(see by Allimub),inlelle,l,eleecll.twosimultllncous oralcommunications,etc.)andalso indirrlcul1iesin speech(dif flcultiesinevokingpa. ropilosiu.l')andinwriting10dictation; (3)visualamnesicA.,which t's sentiallydbturballceofvisualmemory beeMemory,Sellsory) , it selfininnamil1gobjects andtheir oftheretclliionofthepowertoname actrons;(4)semonlicA.- defective ofccrtall1logicaland --grammatical asthersbrother","brother sfather, beforesummer",combincd withimpairedabilitytocalculateand defective (5)affer entmolOryA._impairedabililYto uller substitutionofduetodisturbeddifferenlialionofilararticulatorymovemenlStilll10producetheword.accompanied withdisturbedspontaneouswritingand wriling10dictation;(6)efferelumo torA._dislUrbedkineticorganisation ofspeech.diffICultiesinpassingfrom 011e word(orsyllable)toanotherdue 10ofspeechstereotypes;(7) dynamicA.-failuretoarrangewords inapropersequence.manifesting11-selfindefeclivespeechplanningand characterisedbydlslUrbedunered speechand wrilingand difficulties111ofwords denotingodious. Appercept ion.thedependenceofPI."r cepliol/ontheantecedente}"perience, onthegeneralconlelllofhumanmen talu,,/it'inandonman\per..onal traits.The 'termwascoinedb)'the Ger manphilosopherGottfriedLeibnil. _ IIIdenotedear(conscious)apprehenSion ofacertaincontentbytheIOU/.Ac cordingtoWilhelmWundt.A.isa universalprincipleofc}"planation.an "innerspiritualforce"determiningthe courscofmentalproce!>!>cs.In10Ihese toA. anin nerspoluaneousactivityofconscious ness.contemporaryscientifKchologyIreatsA.asa oftin individual'slifee)(periencethathimorhertoformhypolhe'es011 the ------------------------- ofwhatispercei\ed.pro-\'iJingforilscon\ciousapprehen!>ion. TwoofA.arerecognised:long-tennA.,whichisadependenceof pen:epliollonthestablequalitiesof theperwmulily(worldolillook.COT/-\'j,:lic)tl.\,education,etc.)andtem-poraryA.innuencedbysituational (J.I)'chicSlaies(emotions,expeclurifm,\, ClUi/llde\',etc.). Apraxia,impairmentofvOluntarypur-po.o;efulmov!'menlandactions.inspite oftheab,clKcofparal)'s] ...,orallYotherelemelllarymOlOrdisor-der.A.isatlrihulablc10mOlOrim-pairmentofahigherorder.Theform ofA.depend,onIhelocalisationof thebrainIe.ion.Thefollowingba')ic IypesofA.aferecognised:(I)kin- A. "inabilitytocarryouta '>t'tofmovemenl:';(parlic-ularlyintheabsenceofavi!>ualaid) toimpairmenlofkinestheti c(re-latedtoperceptionofone'Sownmove-mentandI{)(;ation)analysisand \ynlhe\l\:(2)comtrUClionalA.- im-pairmentofthe'tIiwal-CII-suallye\perien(seeAssociationism).Acon-ditifml!dref/existhepsychophysio-logicalbasisofA. Association(insocialpsychology),a Rroupchara..::terc.edbyIheabsenceof joilllorganisation,andlead-er:.hip,whilevailit'orientationsme-diatinginterpenonalrelutionsmanifest themselvesintheconditionsofgroup ('ommllnication(1).Dependingonthe socialcharacterofthemediatefactors, followingtypesofA.arerecog-nised:(I)thepro-socialA.,towhich pmitiYemoralva/lle,\havebeenim-partedbyabroadsocialenvironment. andnotshapedandfixedinthepro-Ce\\.:Iflabour;whenincludedinjoint activitiesconditionedbyobjectivesofa socially characterandap-propriateorganisationandleadership, typeofA.developsbywayof "lAlectjl'e forma/ion;(2)the asocialA., -inwhich\'alueorientatIonsarcofa negati\coreYl'n character: intheselling ofantisocial andleadership,iteasilygrowsintoa corpora/ i (In. AssociationExperiment,aprojective test(see Projective)introduced byCarlJ lIligasameansofrevealing hiddenaffectiveCOll1pll'Xl'S.A.E.was fIrstappliedtotheproblemsofpsy-chiatry.Lateritcarnetobeusedfor researchandpsychodiagnosticpur-poses(seePsyc!wdiaRllostics).Thetest involvessupplyingstll11ulus-wordsto whichthe\ubjectmustreactinthe qukkestpos\iblewaywiththe1H;'xtas-sociationthatcomesintohismind.A delayedreactions,inadequateunder-standingofthestimulusword,itsauto-maticrepetition,thegeneralbehaviour ofthesubject(unmotiyatedlaughter, complaints,blushing,etc.)areseenas indicatingthepresenceofemot ionally colourednotionswhichthesubjectis reluctanttorepeat.Thespeciflcchar-acterofthecomplexmayberevealed throughinterpretingtheamwers content;thISpurposemaybeserved, amongotherthings,bypreliminary groupingofthemoresymptomatic reactionsandoftheircon-tentbytheuseofthe"freeasso-ciation"method.A.E.isoftenem-ployedasagrouptest.Anytypeof A.E.requiresthatthenatureofthe moregeneralandrecurrentresponses toeverywordonthelistisreveakd. thaiistosay,thatthetestbecon-ductedonanadequatelyrepresentative groupofsubjectsspeakingthegiven language.Apartfromwordstimuli, olher.. timuliareemployed:nou\ell\e syllables,11llkuownword .. , andpicture:.,I:olour ,>ouml\,etc Associationism,oneoftheba .. ictrend..inpsychologicalthought, explainingthe dynamicsofmentalproce,>\Csthrough theprincipleofThcpos-tulatesofA.wereflr'>tformulatedby Aristotle,whoputforththeideathat imagesrecurringintheabsellceof anyexternalstimulusareproducedby association.IIIthe17thI:entury,the ideawase1aborateJbythemechani -cal-deterministteachingofpsy('he.The organismwasset.!rlasamadlineim-printingtheIracesof stimu-li.thereforetherecurrence ofono::trace automaticallycausestherecurrence ofanother.Inthe18thcentury,the principleofassociationofideasex-tended10theenlireareaofthepsy-chic.butwastreateddilTerentlyin variousdoctrines.Ontheonehand, therewereGeorgeBerkekyanJHumewhointerpretedassociationas therelationofphenomenainthesub-jel'(s ontheother,there wasDavidHartley'ssystemofmate-rialistassociation.Intheearly19th century,thereappearedtheoriesde-tachingassociationfromii'orgallic substratumandinterpretingitillterm,> oftheimmanentprincipleofcon-sciousncss(ThomasBrown. JamesMill, JohnStuartMill).Aviewwokhold that:(1)psyche(identiflt.!dwithin-trospectiyelyunderstoodconsciousness) consistsofmental tions, elementaryfeelings;(2)elements areprimarywhilementalcombinations (re presen (ati OilS.though b. i me 27 arc!>I!condary,producedbyass0-ciation:entheconditionfora..wcia-tionformationiscontiguityoftWIl mentalproce,,-sO\:iationrecur-renceinthecour\eofexperience.A. undergoneafundamentaltrans-formationthankstotheofbiologyandneurophysiology.Her-mannHelmholtzappliedtho:: newin-terpretationofassociation10rt:-searchintotheCharles Darwinusedittoexplainemo/jom; theRussianphysiologistIvanSel:he-nov,inhisteachingofof thebraill.HerbertSpencer":.evolu-tionaryapproachaddedtoA.theprob-lemofthemental inphy- Spencerarrivedatanim-portantconclusionoftheadaptive functionofpsycheinbehaviour.Nu-merousallemptsatresearchintothe fieldofasso.::iationformationandac-tualisationweremadeinIhe1880s-1890s(HermannEbbinghaus.Georg Mii11er,andolhers).Atthesametime. thenarrowcharacterofthemechanis-ti..:: approal:htoassociationwasde-monstrated.ThedeterministofA.were.inanewinterpretation, absorbedandtransformedbyIvanPay-lov's theory of conditionedreflexes, and. albeitonadiffcrerHmethodological fOOling,byAmericanbehm'iourbm. Modernpsychologyalso usso cjationsinordertodarifyvariousmen-talprocesses,inparticular,theproblem ofsemanticassociationsandtheirrole ineducation(seealsoAs,wldatioll Experimell/) . , -MsocialionPs},chology.secAHO.:iu- Asthenia.nervousorrm:rllalweaitneS!> manifesllngitself111 tiredness(see Tirec/m'\.\)andquicklossofstrength, lowsensuli(>f1Ihre.\l!old.",,,[remelyUlI-stablemOO(kandsleepdisturbance. A.maybe(;3usedbydiseru.ea:;wellas bymenialorphysicalstrain, prolongednega1iveemotionalf'XPC'-fien,{'or('ollf/h'/. Atrophy. degcnenl1iolloforganictures.Inpsych%!;)'.Ihetermisusedin the senseof degenerationof somemen-Ialfunctiondue10lackofe.'H'rcise or\0unfavourableortraumaticpres-sures(prolongedelllotionalSlreS$,COII-jlkt.frlls/ralion.drugs,intoxication, elc.). AUenlion.a.:tidtyofasubjectcOlleen-Irallatagi\ienmomentonsomereal oridealobject(lhing.event.;maMe. etc.).A.alsocharacterises coordinationofvariouslinksinthe functionalstructureofanactionwhich determine!>the ofitsexecu-lion,e.g.speedandaccuracyof atU$ksolutIOn.Therangeofproblems mvolvedinthe!:otudyofA.hasbeen outlinedthroughdifferentiationofthe broader.philosophicalconcepTofap- (GottfriedLeibniz,Im-manuelKant ,JohannHerbart).In WilhelmWundl'sworks,thistermwas relaled10processesthroughwhichone becomesdistinctlyawareofthecon-Tentoftheperceivedobjectandit becomesintegratedinIhestruct ureof pa\texperience("creativelOynthesis). NikolaiLange.aRu\.\ianwhodl'\'elopl'dthethenr)'ofvolilional A . c('llitrihutedtothe furtherdC\I:loprncntofidcasaboutA. LiketheFrenchRibot.helinkedA.withregulationof ideomotor motionsbee IdeomotorAct) achievedinperceivingandconceiving objects.Incontemporaryf,\ydl0/0gy. studiesofA.arcperformedwithin theframeworkof fJS)'chology. andal!:oochologyofla/Jullr.1Il'lIrOf)syclw/ogy, medical dl'I'e/O{JIl1elltal psychology.ami p.5)'cI/Ology. ThreeformsofA.aredistinguished. Thesimplel>landgeneticallyinitial formisinvolullIaryA.,whichispassive incharacter.sinceilisimpO!.edon thesubjectbyevents('xtraneousto the goals ofhisactivity.Physiologically. lhisformofA.manifestsitselfthrough orielltalillgreacl;oll.Ifactivityis achievedwithintheframeworkofthe subject'sconscious;IIlell/;ollsandre-quiresvolitionaleffortsonhispart, onewouldspeakofvoluntaryA.,dis-tinguishedbyanactivenature,acom-plexstructuremediatedbysociallyde-velopedorganisationofbehOl'iourand comlllllll ; catiOIl(2),andemergingin theprocessofpracticalactivities.So-calledpost-voluntaryA.mayappearin thecourseofdevelopmentoftheoper-ational-technicalaspectsofactivityin connectionwithitsautomaTionanddue tothetransi lionofactionsintOope-ratiolls,andalsoowingtochangedmo-til'aliol/,e.g.shiftofthemolive10 thegoal.InlhilO case,thetrendof activitywouldcontinuetocorrespond toconsciouslyacceptedgoals;however, -itsaClLlali,aoollwould.wlongerre-quire\pcl.:ialmentalelfnrtandwould bere...trictedintime,>olelvbyfin'd I/es.\andexhau.,tion(Ifbodyresource., (NikolaiDobrynin) .Selectivity. span,stabilit y,di.,tributionandpOten-tialswitch-overofA.arcamongthe characteristicsdeterminedexperimen-tally.SelectivilYofA.isduetothe subject'sabilitytosucces,>fullyadju'>t himself(incaseofhindrances)10per-ceivinginformationrelatingtosome consciousgoal.'Thenumberofobjects thataredistinctlycomprehendedsi-mullaneouslyIS takenforthespa nof A ..whichvirtuallydocsnotdifferfrom thatofdirectmemorisillg.orfrom thatofshort-termmemory(seeMe-mor)'.Shari-Term).'Thisindicator wouldlargelydependontheorgalllsa-tionandnatureofThememorisedma-terial.andisusuallytakentoequal 5-7objects.'ThespanofA.isassessed bymeansof pre-sentation(seeTClc"ystos,'ope)ofmany objects(lellers.words,figures.flo-wers,etc.).Todeterminethesubject's abilitytoswitchoverandmaintain stableA ..researchersusein\e.stigation methodSwhichallowthemtodescribe thedynamicsofcognitiveandext'cu-tiveaclionsintime.forinstance,with changedgoals.DistributionofA.is examinedwhenthl!subjectsimulta-neouslyperformstwOormoreactions whichcannotbefulfIlledthroughrap-idconsecutiveofA.So-vietpsychologyhasdevelopedatheory inwhichA.isregardedasafunction oftheinternalcontrolofcor-respondenceofmentalactionstopre-devisedprogrammes(PyotrGalpcrin). 19 -UevdopmenTofsuchcuntrolnnpruvl..'3 theor.. n)'acti\it)".nlsofbody adaptationtoanticipatedsilualions;se-le..:livilyandorienTaTionofmentalpro-cesses:mechanismsofuncol1sciou:>re-gulationofindividual3l'tivilY;andfor-mingofindividualdaractcr.Inso-cialp.\ydlOlogy,A.isusedtostudythe of3nindi\'idualasagroup member10varioussocialobjects:sel/-regula/ionmechanisms:stabilityand coordinationofsocialbeha\'iour;and theprocessofsocialisuliollandvaria-lionofA.,say.undertheinl1uenceof propaganda(secPsychologyofPro-fJU;:ullda) ,andahotoforecastpos-Sibleofindividualbehaviourin "peei"c Thefutluion,elfecl!> and ofA.arerevealedinstudy-mgIt!> roleIII aelivityregulation. Theba.. icfunctionsofA.inaClivity areas (a)A.determinesIhe stable, andna- ofactivity,andaelsa!> its bllisationallowingtopre-'>t'rve. II!> orientationincontinually changmgsilUations;(b)A.freesthe \ubJectfromthl!needtolakedeci-SIOlhandvoluntarilycontrolhisaetiv-lIy111. standard,previouslyencoun-tered\lIuations;(c)A.mayaboaetas a thatinertactivityand makesII difficultfordnindividualto tonewTheeffects 01 A.are onlydirl!ctlyrevealedwhen Ihecondlllom of activitychange.Hence, th!!adlvny"lI1terrupting"lechnique IS commonly to\tudythephenom-!!n(,"ofA.. Forin'.tance,thesubject askedtocomparetwodifferl'nt"crit_ ical" afterrl!peluedlybeing showntwOdlffNent"attitudinal"ob-jects(Uznadze\fixationmethod). ThecontentofA.woulddl!pendonthe placeoftheobjectivefactorinducing thatA.withinthestnll.: tureofactivity. Dependingontheobjectivefactorof activity(motive,goal,conditi on)A. isdirectedat ,psychologistsdistinguish threl!hierarchiclevelsofactivityregu-lation,namely,meaning-related,goal-related,andoperationalA's.Meaning-relatedA'sexpressanindividual'sat-titude,manifestinhisactivity,tothe objectsthathaveacquired . aper,wllu/-isedmeaf}.illg.Intheirorigin,meaning-relatedA'sarederivativefromsocial A's.Meaning-relatedA'scontainthe informationalcomponent(individual's worldoUllookandIheimageofthe Objecttowhichheaspires),thecom-ponentofaffectiveassessmentt EuropeanandUSp.,y-chologi,st.,giveIlumerouequently!.:ontinuedinbehaviouri\t studiesofverballearning(\ct'81.'1/(1 v;ourism).M.Mudiesinvolving complexmeaningfulmaterialbegan almostsimultaneously.Intheearly 20thcentury,theFrenchphilosopher HenriBergsoncontrastedM.of spirif',establishingcomprehended singleeventsfromthesubJe{;t's biography,to'memory.habit',rt'.',ulting frommechanicalrepetition.Therole ofmaterialorganisationinmemorising wasemphasisedbyGestult ogy.Psychoanalysisattemptedto explainforgettingphenomenathrough "suppression"ofunpleasant.traumatic impressionsfromconsciousneSs.Fre-derickBartlell.aBritishpsychologist, showedthecomplexreconstructive characteroftheprocessofre{;ollecting storiesanditsdependenceoncultural normsinagivenso{;iety.Thesignifi-canceofsocio-cul1uralfactorsillthe developmentof\'ariousformsof humanM.wasstressedbytheFrench psychologistPierreJanetandthe FrenchsociologistMauriceHalbwachs. Soviettbasing011 the dialecticalmaterial-l$tn,aconceptofM.asa purposefulaCliol1relyingontheuse ofsociallydevelopedsigns(st'"cCui rural-HistoricalTheory;Sign).Inad-ditiontovoluntarymemorisillJ.:,MmJies werealsomadeofiln olUluarymemo-. rising.Forinstance.PyotrZinchenko andAnatoliSmirno\'invC.')ligatedthe dependenceofsuccessful uponitspositionintheslructure ISO ------. 1J11il"it.\'.Inontogcneticdevelopment bt'eOnlO/.:'ntsislthereisachangt' inmethodsofmemorisingandtherole ofdistinguishingmeaningful,semantic relationshipsincreases.VariousIypes ofM.,\'i2.,motor,emotional,imaginal .andverbal-logical,aresometimesdes-,-.>cribedasstagesofsuchdevelopment (PavelBlonsky,JeromeBruner,and JeanPiaget).AnalysisofM.and perceptiondisordersperformedby AlexanderLuria,Hans-LukasTeuber, andRogerSperryinclinicof localbrainlesionsallowedthemto establishthatindextralpersonsthe processes inthe left cerebral hemisphere areusuallyassociatedwithverbal-logicalmemorising,andthosethat takeplaceintherightcerebral hemisphere-withimagememorising. arebasedonchanges IntheaC1lvllyofindividualneurons andtheirpopulations,andalsoon more.constantchangesonthebio-chemicallevel(inRN AandDN A moleculesl.Theseprocessesare normallyregardedasthesubstrate oftwOformsofM.,namelyshort-termandlong-termM.(seeMemory, Memory.Long-term) thishavingbeenconfirmedby.' expefl- evidenceabout the IIIquantityandmethods ofst?f1ngandretrievingdatainrepro-duction.Someanalogybetweenthe stagesofdataprocessingbyhumans andstructuralblocksofcom (Mn.l'puters _see_"uelilng)hadanoticeableeffect IIIposlllgtheproblemofMH thefunctionalstructureof'Mowever,, h.revea s mucgreaterflexibility.Forinslance Iheabsenceofafirmcorrelationof long-term11Icmorl\llIgwithverbal repetitionpro'-l ...... l' ... In... hnrttcrll1M iscvidt'IKl'dbydatawhichshowthe possibility(\r... un'c\sfulrCl'ognitionofa hugt!mas..... (asmanya ... 1.000and moreslidcs)ofcomplex lUredvisualmaterial urbanand rurallandscapes,ctl'.).ThepOientials ofima}!('M.arcc:-.posedincasesof outstandingmemorydescribedinscien-liflcliteratllre,aboveallthoseinvolving so-called"eidelism".IIIpsychological analysisofM.,itisimpertallttotake intoaccountthaithelalterisan elementoftheintegralstructureof humanpersonality.Asaperson's motivationsandneedsdevelop,hisal1i-tudetowardshispastmaychange; asaresult,thesameknowledgemay bestoredinhisM.indifferent ways. Memory,Long-Term.asubsystemof memoryensuringdurable(forhours, years,andsometimesdecades)reten-tionof knowledge,andalso ofcapabili-tiesandandcharacterisedbya greatvolumeofl)toredinformation. Themainmechanismofdatainput andfixationinM.,L.-T.isusually regarded10berepetitionwhichis achievedatthelevelof' short-Ierm memory(seeMemory.Short-Term). Yet,purelymechanicalrepetitiondoes 1.1Ot leadtostablelong-termmemoris-Ing.Besides.repetitionservesasa requisi.teforfixatingdatainM.,L.-T. only111 caseof\'erhalorreadily information.Intelligent mterpretationofnewmaterialand theestablishmentof be-tweenthatmaterialandsomething alreadyknowlitnthe!.ubjt,areof decisive\iglllfKilOl.;e.Theexternal. superficialformofthememori'M!d ., l'OmmUnll'atllll1,e.g.theprecise \equcnceofwt)nhinasentem;e,may belost,butthemeaningisretained toralongtime.Giventheenormou!. \olumeofinformation.. toredin memory,onecanreadilyunderstand thatsuccessfulsearchofdataisonly possiblewithwellSlrUl'lUredinforma-tion.Judgingfromexperimental evidence,severalformsofknowledge organisationfunctionsimultaneouslv inM.,L.-T.Oneofthemisorganisa--lionofsemanticinformationinhierar-chicstructuresbytheprincipleof distinguishingmoreabstract,generic notions andmore specificones.Another formoforganisationcharacteristicof commonsensicalcategoriesinvolves thegroupingofindividualnotions aroundoneorseveralrypicalrepre-sentativesofagivencategory.i.e_ prototypes.Forexample.a"table" mayservebetterasaprototypeof thecategory"furniture"thana "cabinet"ora"sofa".Semantic informationinM.,L.-T.involvesboth cognitiveandalTectiveelementswhich reflectdifferentpersonalanitude.sof thesubjecttowardsvarioustypesof information(seeMeaning;Personal-isedMeaning).Thestudyofinfonna-lionorganisationinM .. L.-T.isan importantmeansfordiagnosingcogni-tivespheresandpersonality(see Psychodiagnosis;P,\ychosemantksl. Memory.Sensory.ahypothetical subsystemofmemor),whichensures retentionforaveryshortperiodof 'R' - -time(normally,forles..thanone !>t!cond)oftheproduct'!oflatedthY extra otecharacteristicsofa personalitya\thesubJCct01" inter_ relationsthe.indi\' idually typicalemergesIIIqUItedllTt"rcmways dependingonthedevelopmentlevel oftheP\Y('holf)/(lculSde('lion) andvocationalorit'nlation,andfor numerousrelatingto mediculPf),cholo1(}'andthefamily. PsychologyofSport,abranchofpsy_ chologythatexaminesvarious ofactivitit."i.andphysicalculture. IntheLSSR,P.ofS.begantobt'in-tt'ruelystudiedinthe1960sand19i(h byPYOl:rRudik,A\'ksentiPuni,Vla- sumingthattheorderofideasisthe astheorderofthings,regarded thinklll!>:andexpansionasinseparable and.atthesamelime.causallyun-relatedattributesofinflllitematter, i.e.Nature.GottfriedLeibniz,bycom-biningmechanisticpictureoftheworld withtheideatilatpsycheisaunique substance,advancedIheideaofpsycho-physical paralleli.\"fn,according to which thesouland. bodyperformtheir operationsindependentlyofeachother, butwithhighprecisionthatcreates theimpressionthattheyarecoordinat-ed.Theyare,infact,likeapair ofwatchesthatalwaysshowthesame time,thoughworkingindependently. DavidHartleyandothernaturalists gavepsychophysicalparallelisma materialisticinterpretation.Psycho-physicalparallelismbecamehighly popularinthemid-19thcentury,when thediscoveryofthelawofconser-vationofenergymadeitimpossible torepresentconsciousnessasaspecific forcecapableofchangingbehaviour atrandom.Atthesametime, Darwin'steachingonevolutionofthe organicworldrequiredthatpsychebe understoodasanactivefactorin conlrollingvitalprocesses.Thisledto newversionsoftheconceptofpsycho-physicalinteraction(WilliamJames). Thelate19thandearly20thcenturies weremarkedbythespreadofMach's interpretationofP.P.,accordingto whichthesoulandbodyconsistofthe same"elements"and,therefore,the questionshouldconcernthecorrela-tionof"sensationcomplexes",notthe actualinterconnectionofrealphenom-ena.Present-daylogicalpositivism regardsP.P.asapseudoproblemand assumesthatthedifficultiesinvolved canbesolvedbyapplyingvarious ---languagestodescribeCOI1SClousne, behaviourand processes.IIIcontrasttotheorieeI> p')TItancou,>l),in themindCseeIn voluntaryR,of ,ollleevent.thesubjed rl""\()reshi1altitude thereto, andthismaybeaccompaniedby emotionsrelevanttothatevent.Reourcea certainsimilaritybetweenthematerial ofthatsource,thepro-of inthebrain, ontheonchand,andthatwhichrcpre:>entedinthesubject's formations.Leninmadeanexception_ allysignifIcantcontributiontoIhe teachingthatcognition R.ofreality. Hence,the theoryofR.isealledtheLsess-ofIhedegreeoftheirperSOnalR. forrheOUlcomeoftheircommon work. Rtltnlion.amemo,),ph",-h_ . ....,Larac-!eJ'lSlI1g:.torageofperceived anformallon111 ahidden\tat,R be'.may onlybyob..ervingother mnemOI1lCthaiprepread ofR.hdp,orgall1scinformational poliq'soastoreducc10aminimum ThelikelihoodofR.and,incase Iheydoart.'>c,10etTecti ... dycounteract them. SanguinePerson,an individualpO\Sessing ,1111' ofthefourbasic and characteris-edbyhigh mental(lcl;I'eneu, energy,wor/.;,('UIJa-,1/.1',agilily,diverseandabundant mimicry,andquil'kspeech.S.P.seeks frequentchangesofimpressions,read-ilyrespondstoallevents,andisa goodmixer.S.P.ischaracterisedby quicklydevelopingandchangingemo-lions:also,hegetsovt'rhisfailures relativelyeasilyand(Ildckly.The famedRussianphysilllogistIvallPavlov believedthat,inS.P ..excitativeand inhibiToryprocessesarequiteintellse, balanced,andmobile.Underunfavou-rablecondilionsand!legativt'educa-tionalinnuences..mobility111 S.P. mayilllackofconcentrallon, unju\tiftedhaste,andsuperficiality. Scale,anjnl>trunlcntformeasuring permanentpropertiesofallobjt'ct. consistingofanumericalsystemin whidlrelation),hClweenvilfiomprop-ertiesofobJet:tsarcexpressedbyIhe propertiesofnumericalseries.Inpsy-chologyandofotherpt"op\e\activity, whetherhedl'preC1ate,>theminIlf S.Intheirwork'>. SOHI.'I han'.,hownthe innuenreofS,011 humancognitive ad1Vltyrt'prnl'n/u/ion ...' so Illmn(IfII1tdlcclUalta.\ks)andit'>ol .. ,t1Il inll'rpl'r,\IIfw/rl'iuliof1.).They jlaVl' IlctC"rminedprocedurl"'>for anallequatcS,and.inca.. e ofdeformedS.,techniquesfortrans_ formingitthroughedUl.:ation. Self-awareness,seeSelfConc-cpt. Self-comfort,asensationofphysiologi_ calandpsychologicalcomfort.S. maybedef11leJbothasageneral characteristic(feelinggoodorbad, vigour,indisposition,etc,)andas morespecifICemotionall'xperiences pertainingtofuncitonsoforgans, andsystems(afeelingofdiscomfort indifferentpartsofthebody,dif-f,cultytoperformcertainmotorand cogn1l1veacls.etc.).Characteristic symptomsofchangesinS.areclearly seenindifferentindividualstates,e.g. infatigue,tension,andstress.Thatis whyS.characteristicsaretraditionally usedasthebasicgroupofsymptoms insubjecliveassessmentof311 indi-vidual'spsychicstate. SelfConcept.arelativelystableand moreorlessconsciousphenomenon, emotionallyexperiencedasaunique systemoftheindividual'sidea,;;abO_VI basingonwhich- he ' inieracts wIth'otherpeopleanddeveTopsan anitudetowardshimself.S.C.isan integralimaKl'ofone'sself.albeitnotII devoidofinnercontradictions.Itisan 311itudetowardshimselfinvolvingthe cognitivewhichistheindivid-ual'simageofhisownqualities. abilities,appearance, socialsignifICance. etc.(self-consciousness);theemotional whichinvolve..self_re.. pect. self -love,-depredat ion,etc.:and thee\'aluative-volitionalaspect.which inthedesiretoplayupone's x self-appru;sul,10winotherpeople\ respect.S.C. thecauseandeffectof socialinteraction _. isdeterminedby socialexperience,anditscomponents areasfollows:therealself(the ideaaboutoneself111 thepresent time).theidealself(whatthesub-jectthinksheshouldbeproceeding frommoralprinciples):thedynamic self(whatthesubjectintendstobe), andtheimaginedself(whatthe subjectwouldwish10beifthatwere possible).S.c.isanimportantstructu-ralelementinthepsychologicalimage ofagivenpersonaliTY,anidealimage, conceivedbytheindividualinhimself. asifinsomeotherperson.inthe courseofcomlmmicut;ml(I)and Beingintheendcaused byabroadsocio-culturalbackground. S.c.arise:,;insocialexchange,inthe courseofwhichthesubjecilooksat anotherpersonasifinalooking-grnssti:flhereli1.andcorrec!meimagesOfhisown self. Self-COfurol.rationalrefle;o;ifJfland assessmenlbyanindividualofhisown act lOllSonthebasisofpersonally signifICantmot;I'f'Sand involvingcomparison,analysisand correctionof'herelationshil)Sbetween theKouls.meansandconsequences ofactions. Theform,typearidconcrete comentofS.arcdeterminedbythe object,conditionsand,ypesofactions. andalsobythedegreeofthesubject"s awarenessofthem.Theindivid-ual'sabilityforsystematicS.i\. amongotherfactors,indicativeofhis willpower(seeWi//). 277 Self-determinationofPersonality,a conscIousactofidentifyingand a\sertingone'sownstandinproblem situations.Collectil'ist rio"andprofessionalself-determination arespecifIcformsofS.ofP. Self-education,controlbythe.mh-je(tofhisownactivityinorderto changehisownpersonalityinconfor-m,tywithhisconsciouslysetgoals andestablishedidealsandbeliefs. S.impliesadef11litelevelofpersonality developmentandofself-consciousness, andalsotheindividual'sabilityto analysebyconsciouslycomparinghis ownactionswiththoseofolherpeopk: S.alsoassumesastableattitllfJe towardsperpetualself-perfection.The individllal'sattitudetohispotential abilities.correct andthe abilitytoseehisshoncomingscharal'-tedsehismalurity,andturnmlo premisesfororganisingS.Whenthe ideals.normsandprinciplesofCom-munistethics become major componenls intheindividual'sconsciousness.the lauer'sdesiretofollowIhemwould acquireprofoundmeaning andtheybecomeconstantincentives forcontinued sociallyvaluable develop-mentoftheindividual.promptinghim tofurtherS.S.involvestheof suchtechniquesasself-commitmenl (volullIarysellingoneselfgoalsand tasksforself_perfection:decisionto l'ultivatecertainqual il ies): self _account (retrospectionofone'spastovera defmiteperiodortimeL comprehension andassessmentofonesownacTivilY andbehaviour(byrevealingtheofone'sown andfailures); 1'7 inwparatJly withthcsubJccts'sahilitytorevcal contradi.;tiOlI\in\urroundingreality. e.g.10110tCand ... cxaggerate thccontra\tofpO'>itiveandlIcga-tive trait,>IIIapcr\on,'>omehody"saffec-tationofIrllportanr.:caccompanied bycontrastingbehaviour.and 011. InmainLuusa friendlyallitude Q.fhumour,wholnhcsubJecbtoakind ofemOlionalcriticism.S.ofII.implic\ theinthe\lIbjectof11 pO'jitive ideal.withoutwhichitdegcllur,ltesil1-toanegativetrait.e.g.vulgari ty.cyni-cism.\!Ie.Onecanjudgeabolltthepre-senceorabsen(eofS.ofH.byhowa persontakesjoke,;.anecdotes.friendly jests.andcaricatures.andbywhether he,sec.sthecomicsidcofa..,ituat ioll alldbywhetherhecalllaugh1I0tonly atothers.butalsowhenhehimselfi.,madefunof.Lackoforullderdellel-opedS.ofH.isindicativeofthein-dividual'sdeclinedcll1oliollalk\dand inmc ie nti tit dlcct ua Idc\e\opmenl. SenseOrgans.nerveserving asreceivcr,>of,\i1>:I/(/1.\Ihatinform ofchangesinIhe,subject'.'Scnviron-ment(extcroccption)andbody(inte-roccption)(.'SeeSensalion).Itis cuSiol1ltlry10distinguishflYeexternal sensefacultics.viz.vi.,ioll.hearing. smell,taste.andtactilesemitivilY Inr..:ality,tIler..:arcnHlIlymore senses(forinstance.anelfecl011the skinalonecausesS('nsationsofprc\-sure.pain,cold.hcat.etc.).S.O. consistofreceplor,\.IIcrveconduct on. andnervccentre ...EveryS.O.pro-ducesonlyitsinherent"\ell\atioll(\ec Spl.'d/icElIl.'rf,(it',\/)oc/rill(').The specialisedS.O.ofhUOlan,andhigher animalshalleresultedfromtheellolu-lionof andnondifferen-tiatedS.O.ofloweranimals.Through-outthaIevolution.S.O.andthe effector{primarilythcmuscular-locomotor)systcmessentiallycor-responded:S.O.ensurethedciivery ofpreciselyIht!infonnati()\JIlceded fororganisingthe ofthe cffectorsystcm.TheworkofS.O. isindudedinthesubJel't"sadil'ily: itprovidesIhclanerwithIhe11CCl'S-saryinformatiol1and,atthesallie time,issubordinatetothatactivity: fromIheabundanceofsignalsaffec-tingthe theS.O.distinguish thosethatareneededtocarryon currenlactlYity.Thesciecti()nof certain mit S.information.The1I0tU)Il()fS.in Sovietp\ydHllogyplay,>animportant roleinthe("lIltllrullii\ioricultheory ofthe11I('lItuldevdf)pmt'llt. Signal,aproce,,,orphenomenon (externalorinternal;ofwhichan individualisawareorunaware)that carrie).ames,>ageaboutsomeevent toorientlivingorgani).maccordingly (seeIrrif(IIIIS).Inconformilywith thenatureofandother perceptualsystems. di stin-guishoptical,acoustic.tactile,ther-mal,electro-magm:lic,chemical,bio-rhyt hmi cal,andother signals.The con-ceptofS.iswidelyusedinpsycho-physiologyandneuropsychology(see SigflUWIIKSystems);inpsychophysics andinengineerillgandgeneral psychologywhenstudyi ngperceptual (seePerceptiot')processes; andinsoci-alp!>ychologywhenstudying commu"i-catioll(2)processes. SignallingSystems- thefirstandthe seconds ignalsyste ms( 1stS.S.and 2ndS.S.) - waysforregulatingthe behaviouroflivingcreaturesinthe enVironment,whosepropertiesare perceivedbythebraineitherinthe formofsignalsordirectlyintercept-edbythe.wmse(}rR(.I. /l Sassensutions ofcolour, sound,odour.etc.(lstS.S.). orarerepresentedinthesignsystem ofagivenlanguage(2ndS.S.).The termwasintroducedbytheRus-sianphysiologistIvanPavlovto charac-terisedistillctionsbetweenthesignal activitvoftheanimalandhuman brain, 'andtorevealspecificallyhuman 2S7 - -type..,ofhigherlIen'Ousactivity.In man,relativeprevalenceofthelSi S.S.inananbtictypeof .. lity.andtheprevalenceofthe 2ndS.S.IOanintellectualtype. The2nd5.S.arisesinthehistorical developmentof,>ocielYasan"emer-gencyaddition"Ihalintroducesanew principleintheworkofthecentral nervoussystem,itallowsreneet-ingtheworldinageneral(concep-tual)formintheprocessesofwork andspeech.The2ndS.$.intera(.:ts wilhthe1st$.S.toformaqualitatively new entity.Byorienting towards speech. IvanPavlovstartedtotransformthe signalconceptintonotion. ameaningfulunitofhumanintel-lectualactivity((hewordgeneralises. abstracts.etc.).Thisconceptwas funherdevelopedbyLeonOrbeJi.in whosetheorysignswereaformof ,ehiclesofculturalmeanings.encom-passing.alongwithspeech.othertypes ofsemioticrelations(musicalsounds, drawing!>,and soon). SignificantOther,ahumanbeingwho isanauthorityforthegivensubject ofcommunicationandactivity(see Re/ere"liality). The conceptwasintro-ducedbytheAmericanresearcher HarrySullivan. Situation.asystemofexternal(in relation10themhjed)inducingandmediatinghisactivity. Thequalityof"beingexternal:'in relation to the subject signifies: spallally. perceivedexternallocationwithregard 10thesubject;temporaIJ).autecedence to the \ubJe\.'t'sa.:tiol1; and.independ(l1t:cfrom.thcsubjectof l'{1rre'IHIIHlingatthemoment ofadi(lIl.S.elementsmayaholI1c1ude theown,tatesatthepreceding mOlllcnt,iftheyconditionhis qucnlhehMiour.Completedescript.ioll ofSimpliesidentiflCaltOllofrequlre-m(tltsimpo\edup(ltltheindividualfrom Clut\ide.and'(Irworkedoutbythe IIIdividualhit1l\dfasinitialrequire-ment,heeProhlemSiIU(l/inn).Imple-mentation(IfS.requirementscreates premi\e\fortransformingorover-(('tnmgagivenS.Thesubjectcango Ixy(mdtheboundsofagivenS. {w-e,ktil'em'\\,Silll(llionllily(nde-(wmknt).depending011 theextetll towhichhe(ifthcgivcnS.bsignifi-cantforhim)slart)de\elopingand implemenlingn(IVdemand,>!awards himselfthatwouldexceedtheinitial ()nl.... Skill.anuctimtformedbyrepe/ltlon andhyahighdegrec ofrerlormanceandperformedmore or automal1callv.Therearc intdlectual,andmOior Percepti\c S.IS automatisedsetl,>ual r(flectlonofthepropertiesandcharac_ Il'mtl ..\ofafamiliarobjectwhich ha,heenrepeatedlyearli-N,IntellectualS.i\anautomatised Il'\'hnlqur{Irtnetll(xIfora prllnlt'mt'nnllll1!credMotor s.IS anautomatiwdactionformed a,sart'Suhofrepeatedtransforma_ orth(onJect.MotorS\include percqmveandintellectualS\andare regula!C'([th(n'hythroughautomali\ed ren(,CllOnnttheobJet'landofthe conditionsandsequenceInwhich anactionaUlIedattransformingI b'd'"oJectstS pcrorrne..Alsotobedis. tlllguishedarebaSICautomalisMS' I .s forn)t'(wllhoutIheperence)f0helpt:orle. remo\alofpsychologio.:alb Ifers.and I I ) 290 enhancemenlofindividualaClivilYand performance.S.F.wasexperimentally studiedbyWalterMoede. x SocialPerception,perception,compre-IIensionandassessmentbyindividuals ofsocialobjects,suchasotherpeople, themselves.socialgroups,elc.The termS.P.wasintroducedin1947by the USpsychologist JeromeBruner, ini-tiallytodesignatethefactthaipercep-tionissociallyconditionedandde-pendsnOIonlyonthecharacter-islksofthestimulus,i.e.theobject, butalsoonthesubjecl'spastexpe-rience,goals,andintentions,andon thesignificanceofthesituationin question.Laler,psychologistsbeganto regardS.P.asintegralperceptionby thesubjectnotonlyofmaterial objects.butofso-calledsocialobjects, e.g.Olherpeople,groups,classes,na-tionalities,socialsituations,etc.They establishedthatperceptionofsocial objectsisdistinguishedbyanumber speci?c thatqualitatively 1\ fromperceptionofin-animateobjects.Firstly,unlikeinani-mate objects, socialobjects(individuals gro.ups,etc,)areneitherpassive,no; theperceivingsubject. Bymfluencmgthesubjectofpercep-tion, the perceived subject seeks tomake afavourableimpressionabouthimself. theattentionofthesubject ofS.P,IS focusedprimarilyonsemantic andevaluativeinterpretationsofthe object,thecausalones inclUSive(seeCausalAttribution) rather onthereflective ofthe. Thirdly,perception (If$oclalobjectsischaracterised by ofcognitiveand emotional(aITectlve)components,and bygreaterdepemlenl,.'conthemo-tivational-semanlic structure of theper_ ceivingsubject'sacl;\'ity.Hence,inso- ) cialpsycholoRY.theterm"perception" isinterpretedinabroadersensethan ingeneralpsychology . .Structurally, any perceptualactwouldmvolveasubject andobjectofperception,itsprocess andresult.Ingeneralpsychologyac-centismadeonthestudyofthepro-cessesandmechanismsofthearisalof sensoryimages,whereasinsocialpsy-chologythestudyofS,P.started withattemptstospecifythecharacter-isticsofthesubjectandobjectofper-ception,andalsooftheroleofS.P. the. andactivi-..... tiesofaindividualandsocial group(see -Cogfllti've-Balance,Theo-riesof).Initially(inthe1950s),psy-chologistsdistinguishedthreeclassesof socialobjects,viz.,anotherindividual, group,andsocialcommunity.Thein-dividualwasregardedasthesubject of perception.Later publications(inthe 1970s)considerednotonlytheindi-vidual,butalsothegroupasthesub-jectsofperception.Dependingonthe correlationofthesubjectandobject ofperception,researchersdistinguished threerelativelyindependentclassesof S,P.processes,viz.,interpersonalper-ception(seePerception,Interper-sonal),self -perceplion. _and _interscQllP perce.m..i(:lrl- (seePerception,.tnter-group).InSovietsOCiafpsycnology, firststudiesinS.P.weredevotedto perceptionandassessmentofmanby man(AlexeiBodalev,1965). tionoftheprincipleofactivitymtO S.P.studiesmadeilpo!>\ible10iden-tifythesocialgroupa\thesubjectof activity,andonthisgroundasthe subjectofpen.:eptionCGalinaAndreye-va,1977).EightS.P.variantswere distinguished,viz.,perceptionbygroup membersofoneanotherandmembers ofanothergroup;perceptionofone-self,one'sowngroup,andan"our' group:perceptionbyagroupofits ownmemberandamemberofan-othergroup;perceptionbyagiven groupofanothergroup(orgroups). Thus,the "group context"(affiliationto one's ownor "out"group)wasintrodu-cedintoS.P.studiestoaccountforthe principleofdependencyofinterperso-nalrelationsongroupactivities.This helpedtostartexaminingthespe-cificsofperceptualprocessesduring jointactivitiesingroupswithdifferent developmentlevels. These investigations concerntheformingofnormsand standardsofS.P.:thestructuraltypol-ogyofinterpersonalandintergroup perception:theperceptionofanindi-vidual's statuswithinagroup;accuracy and adequateness of people'sperception ofoneanother;theregularitiesand effectsofinter-groupperception;and soon(seePrimacyEffect;Novelty Effect;andHaloEffect). SocialPsychology,abranchofpsy-chologywhichstudiesthelawsgovern-ing men's behaviour and acti\,jty caused bytheinvolvementofindividualsin socialgroupS,andalsothepsycho-logicalcharacteristicsofsuch Foralongperiod,socia_psychological viewswere developedwithintheframe-workofvariousphilosophicaldoc-trines.SomeS.P.elementsIIIpsychologyandsociology.and inanthropology.ethnography,crimi-nology.andlinguistics.Initialaltempt, tocreateindependentsocia-psychologi-calconcepts,namely,"peoplt!S'psychol-ogy"(MoritzLazarus.HeymannStein-thai,andWilhelmWundt),psychology"(GustaveLt':Bon),and thetheoryof"socialinstincts"(Wil-liamMcDougall),datebacktothe secondhalfofthe19thcentury.The year1908isbelievedtohavestarted S.P.,forthatwasthetimewhenthe termfirstappearedinthetitlesof differentworks.AftertheFirstWorld War,anumberofsociopsycholog-icalproblemswerestudiedinindus-try.army.propaganda,etc.inthe UnitedStatesandothercapitalist countries.Atthesametime,general methodologicalprinciplesweredevel-opedfororganisingS.P.asanexperi-mentalscience.Yet,S.P.(primarilyin theUnitedStates),inwhichlaboratory experimentationplayedtheleading role,puttoomuchaccentonthesmall group(seeGroup,Smal/),andthisled tounderestimationofthetheoretical andideologicalaspectsofS.P ..disre-gardofrealsocialproblems,andlossof the'socialcontext".WorksbyMarx, Engels,andLenincontainbasictenets ofMarxistS.P.concerningthenature ofsocialrelationsandthecorrelation ofindividualandsocialconsciousness. Theinclusionoftheseprinciplesin actualinvestigationpracticehelped developsovietS.P.,andthiswaslarge-lydueto ingt',!eraipsy. chologywhichallowedSovietS.P.to relyonsuch- __________________________________ principle.as ofunityof andactivity.etc.Today.we(an speakoftheexistenceofasystemof Marxistsocio_psychologicalknowledge. Asa S.P.involveslhefollow-ingbasicareas:principles,ofhuman communication(I)andInteract Lon (fOfinstance.Iheroleofcommuni-..-:alioowithinthesystemofsocialand inlaper.lonal,elutions):psychologi-(81Characteristics of socialgroups,both large(classesandnations)andsmall (for studyingsuchphenomenaascohe-sion.leadership,groupdecision-mak-ing.elc.);thepsychologyofperson-aliI)'(which,amongotherthings, sludie:.l>ocialattitudes,.wxialisQtion, etc.):andpracticalapplicationsof S.P.InSmielS,P.,alltheseproblems areexaminedonthebasisofthe principleofactivity(seeActivityAp-proach).Socio-psychologicalphenome-naarestudiedinrealsocialgroups unitedbyjointactivities.providedthese acti\'itiesconditiontheentiresyslem ofIntragroupprocesses.Thismakes iltoeachgroupasaunit withinatotalityofsocialrelations, andtore .. ealthemechanismsofgroup developmentthattransformadiffuse group(seeGroup,Diffuse)intoacol-leetil'e.S.P.basedonsuchmethodo-logkalprinciplescanfulfililsmain practical i.e.help optimise manage-ment.of processesindeveloped soclahstsocl,ety.Theneed10organise aJ?SychologlcalserviceintheSoviel Union,whichhelp'Solveapplied S.P.problemsIntheeconomy,educa_ lion:media.spon,everydayand Iile,IS abobecomingincreas_ Inglyurgent. . So:c!al . Psychotherapy.antexhau-'>t ivdyindevelopmentalandpeda-f),\yc:holoKY.InWelxe,andSt'nlimt'nt(initselemen-lal yform).Theydenlt"dtheobjecti ... e nature01 pc-r..:epTil)f1.andascribedit toa.stimulus i.e.tothe sUDstliutionh)'the!;ubjlX:tofsen::.a-110"s oncofthelinc'iufthl'idC'vclupmcnl. Theontogcnctil:deveinplllC'nlofa child'sT.take'iplal:cIIIthecourse ofhi')object-uricntetla..:tivtlyand comrnunil.:ation,andiI ....... llflilallunof "iocialexperienl:e.A... perialrnll"ISplayedbytheplIrpo..,crulinnuel1l'eIlf anadultinthl"formofIraillingand education.Visual-active.vi ... uai-pi..: torialandverbal-logicalT,arcSlll,:' cessivestagesoftheontogenelil'tie-velopmentofT. Thinking,Creative,atypeofthinJ",inM characterisedbytheslIbject\creation ofanewproductandnewformal ions intheverycognitiveactidty duringits creation.The'it'newformation ... con-cernmoti\'ations.I:(Xl/.ychoJogisf. - 225. Gross,Hans(I847_ 1915) _ Ausman jurist. - 160 Guilford,JoyPaul(1897) - USpsy-chologisl. - 76,9?220 Gurevich,Konstantm(1906)Soviet psychologist.- 67 12_09\ 5 H" Haeckel,Ernst(1834-1919) -- German biologist.- 38,183 Halbwachs,Maurice(1877-1945)-Frenchsociologist. - 179 Hall,Stanley0846-1924)-USpsy-chologisl.- 38.183,207.275 Hartley,David(1705-1757) - English physicianandphilosopher.- 27.125, 134,174,251,252,283 Hartmann,Eduardvon(1842-1906)-Germanphilosopher.- 84,327 Hebb,DonaldOlding(1904)-Cana-dianpsychologisr. - 127 Heckhausen.Heinz(1926) - German psychologist. - 7 Hegel.GeorgWilhelmFriedrich (I770-1831)-Germanphilosopher. -61 Heider,Fritz(1896) - USpsycholo-gisl.-32.46,112 Helmholtz.,Hermann(1821-1894)-Germanphysiologistandpsycholo-gist.- 27,74,125,135,175,253 Helvetius.ClaudeAdrien(1715-177Il-Frenchphilosopher.- 174 Heraclilus(61hcenturyB.C. ) - Greek philosopher.- 174.296 Herban,JohannFriedrich(1774-1841) -Germanphilosopherand psychologist. - 28,174 Hippocrates(460?-377?B.C) - Greek physician.- 168,274 Hirzig.Eduard(1838-1907) - German psychialrist.- 223 Hobbes,Thomas( 1588- 1679) - Eng-lishphilosopher. - 125.174.252 Horney.Karen(1886-1952) - USpsy-chologist.- 127,197 HuartedeSanJuan,Juan(1520-1592- Spanishphysician.- 125 HS Hull.ClarkLl'OlIard(18S4-1Q52)US -- 154.I Q7 Humc-,Da\id(1711-lntl)phil('lsophl"r..27.SQ.174.28J Hunter.Waller Samuel(1880- I 954) USpS),,/tol('lgisl.- ,J6 Edmund