A DISCUSSION OF THE METHODS FOR CONDUCTING AN ALL TAXA

BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY BASED ON THE WORK OF THE GREAT SMOKY

MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK AND DISCOVER LIFE IN AMERICA

A Professional Paper

by

JESSICA ANN HOFFMAN

Submitted to the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences of Texas A&M University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF WILDLIFE SCIENCE

December, 2005

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A DISCUSSION OF THE METHODS FOR CONDUCTING AN ALL TAXA

BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY BASED ON THE WORK OF THE GREAT SMOKY

MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK AND DISCOVER LIFE IN AMERICA

A Professional Paper

by

JESSICA ANN HOFFMAN

Approved as to style and content by: Chairman, Advisory Committee- Dr. Jane Packard Committee Member- Dr. Lee Fitzgerald Committee Member- Dr. Amanda Stronza

December, 2005

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank a number of people who have assisted me in the work of this

paper. First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor, Jane M. Packard, for all of her

guidance and support throughout my schooling. In addition, I would like to thank my

committee members, Amanda Stronza and Lee Fitzgerald for all of the assistance they have

offered me as well as Gillian Bowser for facilitating my experiences with Great Smoky

Mountains National Park.

In addition, this work would not have been possible without the experiences I gained

from working with Great Smoky Mountains National Park and Discover Life in America. I

especially would like to thank Jeanie Hilten for all of her devoted time to the All Taxa

Biodiversity Inventory and assisting me in all that she could. I would also like to include the

fantastic staff of DLIA, especially Chuck Cooper and Anne Ramdenson as well as the hard

working Park staff including Keith Langdon and Becky Nichols.

I’d also like to say thanks so much to Michael Sorice for his patience and help with

all of my millions of questions. And last but not least, I would like to thank my father and

my grandmother for all of their support and belief in me throughout my life.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGEMEN………………………………………………………………………3 TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………...……4 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………….....5 BACKGROUND…………………………………………………………………………...…8 HISTORY……………………………………………………………………………………11 METHODS…………………………………………………………………………………..13 INFRASTRUCTURE………………………………………………………………….…….19 SCIENCE………………………………………………………………………………….…21 EDUCATION………………………………………………………………………………..30 COMMUNITY/VOLUTEERS……………………………………………………………....36 MARKETING/PUBLIC RELATIONS………………………………………………….…..43 INFORMATION SHARING……………………………………………………………..….48 FUNDRAISING……………………………………………………………………………..51 POLITICS…………………………………………………………………………………....53 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………....58 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………...….61

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INTRODUCTION Understanding the wealth of biodiversity within our world is critical to managing our

natural resources. Biodiversity affects every aspect of our lives from food production and

manufacturing to technological innovation and medical research. Currently, around 3,000

plant species have been determined fit for human consumption and over 90 higher order plant

species have been used in medications, a resource that has barely been tapped (Gaston and

Spicer, 1998). Yet, scientists believe that we only know about 10-20% of the estimated 5-30

million living organisms on this planet (Hawksworth and Kalin-Arroyo, 1995). As a result,

the question remains, how can we effectively make decisions to protect our environment

while knowing so little about it? This is like trying to manage a library and knowing only a

few books in the collection, or running a store and not knowing the stock on the shelves, It’s

certainly not very effective. Especially for our National Park system where a study by

Stohlgren & Quinn (1992) found that for 40 parks researched, information on the lesser

known taxa was either generally poor or non-existent and the National Park Service put

biodiversity understanding at less than 50% for any one park. Conducting inventories in

national parks is not only good science; it is also a requirement of the National Park System

that each one of its units conducts baseline inventories. However, very few parks actually

have complete inventories even for any one plant or animal group (Stohlgren et al. 1995).

This is why the idea to conduct an inventory of all living organisms within the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park (GRSM) was first developed (DLIA, 2004d). An inventory of this

size and scope, that truly investigates every single form of life, is known as an all taxa

biodiversity inventory or ATBI. GRSM is a park known for its high diversity of plant and

animal life as well as its unique ecology. Unfortunately, GRSM is also known for the threats

6

facing the park, such as pollution and exotic species invasion, but through greater

understanding, it is the hope of park staff that solutions to such threats may be discovered.

Since its inception, the inventory at GRSM has become one of the most ambitious scientific

endeavors of the National Park Service.

Before I began working with the inventory project at GRSM, I knew there was a

growing interest from other national parks to also begin ATBIs. However, it wasn’t until I

became involved in the project myself, through my graduate internship, that I realized just

how far this interest spread. In a survey conducted by Jeanie Hilten, Administrative Officer

for Discover Life in America, over 30 parks, including some state parks, expressed interest in

conducting ATBIs to some degree (Hilten, prs. comm.). In fact, Point Reyes National

Seashore has already followed GRSM’s lead and is conducting an ATBI of marine

specimens; documenting 2,015 specimens in Tomales Bay as of December, 2004 (NPS,

2004). To date however, there has been very little in available resources to help guide

interested parks with this process. A great deal of labor, money and effort goes into

conducting an ATBI and the process has been challenging for GRSM and Discover Life in

America (DLIA), the non-profit organization responsible for conducting the inventory. The

purpose of this professional paper is to discuss the methods GRSM and DLIA have us,

analyze the potentials and pitfalls learned through the process so far, and to address some of

the implications of conducting additional ATBIs on a Service-wide scale. Also in this paper.

I will share the success of DLIA and GRSM, as well as the lessons learned throughout the

process. This way, other parks beginning this endeavor can learn from what has been done

and use this information to develop their own programs. Those who will benefit most from

reading this paper are park managers and staff, researchers, educators, and any other

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individuals who may be involved with ATBI planning or activities such as potential board

members and advisory groups. The intent was to provide a broad synthesis of a complex

project while highlighting some key points. Also, although this is geared towards the

National Park Service, others interested in conducting ATBIs such as state parks and wildlife

management areas should also find this information valuable. Though the conclusions are

broad, it is not a definitive example of what is “right” or “wrong” to do in conducting an

ATBI. This is a learning process for all those involved and this paper provides an overview

of what one particular park has done.

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BACKGROUND

Before delving into the methods of conducting an ATBI, I will first define some key

terms that will be mentioned throughout the paper. I will start with a brief definition of

biodiversity as it relates to ATBI activities. Then, I will provide clarification as to what an

ATBI is and finally, I will discuss who Discover Life in America is and the key role that they

play in the ATBI at GRSM.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity can be defined in many different ways. However, for any park

considering an ATBI, it will be important to have a definition in place that states clearly what

will be included in the inventory process. For the purposes of this paper, I use the definition

put forth by the Convention on Biological Diversity as quoted from Gaston & Spicer

(1998;2):

Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.

In other words, biodiversity is a representation of all life on earth, from every ecosystem. In

respect to the All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (ATBI), taking place within the Great Smoky

Mountains National Park, the definition is every living thing down to the cellular level and

representing every biotic community within park boundaries (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory

An all taxonomic biodiversity inventory (ATBI) is more than just counting and listing

every living thing within a location (Langdon, pers. comm. 2004). After all, merely a list of

organisms would be of little help for management implications. What is needed is an

understanding of relationships and how each organism is connected to its environment, and

9

then, how those environments are connected to each other (Langdon, pers. comm. 2004).

Value is placed not just on what is found, but also on discovering the organisms’ park-wide

distributions (modeled, if possible), relative abundances, seasonality, and ecological

relationships (Hilten, 2003). Thus, data is collected not only on the organism itself, but also,

for example, on nearby plants, the elevation, possible food sources, other organisms found

near it, and soil types.

Discover Life in America

The concept of Discover Life in America (DLIA) was born out of the first meeting in

1997 to discuss an ATBI at the Smokies. In 1998, the concept turned to reality when DLIA

was set up as the non-profit entity made up of scientists, educators, and other expert

personnel to represent and coordinate the inventory at the Park (DLIA, 2004a). DLIA saw its

first field season with the ATBI in the spring of 1999. The relationship between the Park and

DLIA is very close, with every attempt made to maintain open lines of communication and

cooperation. In fact, an official “Cooperative Agreement” exists between the National Park

Service, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and Discover Life in America (Hilten, pers.

comm. 2004). Offices for DLIA are located at the Twin Creeks property of GRSM which is

located near the Gatlinburg entrance to the park, allowing DLIA and park staff to have

constant opportunity for collaboration and communication through the entire inventory

process. DLIA held its first board meeting in the spring of 1998 where officers were elected

and committees formed to address the many needs of the ATBI project. The first committees

consisted of science, education, data management, development, and communication. Also,

within its first year, DLIA adopted a charter and became recognized as a 501(c)(3)

organization. Since that time, DLIA has developed a science plan, education plan, and its

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own website as well as maintaining a staff of one full-time and three part-time employees

with occasional internship positions as well as a large network of volunteers recruited and

trained by DLIA (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

Now that the groundwork has been laid regarding the key terms and players in the

current ATBI activities at GRSM, I would like to discuss a brief history of how the idea of

all-taxa inventories first began.

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HISTORY

The concept of an all taxa biodiversity inventory did not originate within the

Smokies. It was in fact based on the ideas first developed by Dr. Daniel Janzen, Professor,

Department of Biology, at the University of Pennsylvania.

With an expertise in tropical biology, Janzen envisioned an ATBI that would catalog

an entire conservation area within the country of Costa Rica. The site chosen was the

Guanacaste Conservation Area, an area Janzen has studied since1963 (Kaiser, 1997). The

ATBI within Guanacaste was to be a joint venture between the Guanacaste Conservation

Association (GCA) and Costa Rica’s Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio). The

ATBI had an estimated time frame of 7 years with a budget of $90 million (Kaiser, 1997).

Janzen was able to gain a great amount of support both monetarily and otherwise and, by the

start of the project, Janzen had raised $22 million (Kaiser, 1997). Soon after, the inventory

began running into problems. Of greatest concern, the first money obtained specifically for

the ATBI was being diverted to other projects throughout Costa Rica and to INBio’s overall

operating budget (Kaiser, 1997). Janzen refused to continue the inventory under such

conditions and thus, the project came to a halt. Janzen has since separated himself from the

Costa Rican government and continues with limited inventorying throughout Guanacaste but

has not given up hope of an ATBI still being conducted either in Costa Rica, or elsewhere in

the world.

The idea of attempting an ATBI at the Smokies originated one day during a lunch

discussion between John Pickering, an ecologist with the University of Georgia, and Keith

Langdon, Inventory and Monitoring Coordinator at the Great Smokies National Park. After

some initial meetings, the idea was presented to Park Assistant Superintendent, Phil Francis,

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who expressed a keen interest. In December of 1997, more than 100 scientists and educators,

including Janzen, met in Gatlinburg to discuss the logistics of conducting an ATBI at the

park. Two important issues arose from this meeting. First, the GRSM alone did not have the

resources to run such a project. Second, it was decided that, based on the problems faced in

Costa Rica, the project should not be government-run, but rather, a non-profit entity should

be developed to operate many of the aspects of the ATBI. The hope was for the ATBI at the

Smokies to become a national and global model, one that parks and other areas around the

world would be able to use to take the methods developed and conduct their own ATBIs.

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METHODS

The following is a discussion of where and how I acquired the data to synthesize for

this paper and what my role was in working with DLIA. Information was collected primarily

through three methods: talking with key stakeholders, observing ATBI events and related

activities, and investigating any available documentation related to the ATBI. Each of these

will be elaborated on in the following sections.

Geographic Setting

GRSM itself is approximately 800 sq miles (2,200 sq km) and lies on the border of

Tennessee and North Carolina (Figure 1). The habitats of GRSM are quite unique due to

glacial movements stopping just north of the Appalachian Mountain chain. This, combined

with a warmer latitudinal range, provided a much older, undisturbed, and incredibly diverse

habitat. It is home to large tracts of old-growth forests and over 2,000 miles of stream and

river systems (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004). Beautiful as they are, the Smoky Mountains also

face many problems such as air pollution, acid deposition, high ozone concentrations,

invasive exotic plants, animals, and diseases, and large amounts of visitor impact. These

threats illustrate why the information gained from an ATBI is so important for the

conservation of the Park. Understanding every organism within the park and being able to

track changes may shed clues on how impacts, both good and bad, will affect the park.

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Figure 1: Reference location of Great Smokies National Park. Image obtained from the National Park Service Work Setting

I worked from June of 2004 through August of 2004 as an intern for Discover Life in

America. I worked 40 hours per week with the sole function of gathering information on

how the ATBI process is implemented, identifying involved participants, documenting

successes, and identifying downfalls. My work was conducted under the guidance of Jeanie

Hilten, Administrative Officer for Discover Life in America. Work included a variety of

locations throughout GRSM and in the communities surrounding the park.

Data Collection

Although this was not a research project, it was necessary to collect a variety of

information in order to write an accurate synthesis of the ATBI process. Inventories

generally tend to be very quantitative, however, understanding the workings of the entire

inventorying process required gathering information through various qualitative approaches

based on standard techniques of program evaluation. This was the best method for getting a

wide variety of perspectives from all those involved with the ATBI at GRSM. With the

information gathered, I hoped to gain an understanding of the many intricacies of the entire

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ATBI process. I was particularly interested in the variety of stakeholders involved in this

project was well as how such a multitude of data was collected and what have been the

biggest challenges to the ATBI. From June through August of 2004, data were collected

from GRSM through participant observation, informal discussions, and document analysis. I

attended all summer collecting events, assisted researchers in the field, was provided with

publicly available contacts to all board members of DLIA, researchers, and related

stakeholders and I was able to meet with various park staff on a number of occasions, and

worked with several different school and community groups.

Participant Observation

Participant observation allows the observer to get an up-close and personal viewpoint

of a setting. In regards to this paper, participants are defined as professional or volunteers

within the DLIA program. In order to gather the most accurate information, I played the role

of participant-observer, which is the most common method of observing (Bernard, 2000).

Before any meeting or event, I was introduced as an intern with Discover Life in America,

specifically to compile information on the ATBI process and under the direction of Jeanie

Hilten. Had I acted solely as a participant, then none of the groups I observed would have

been aware of my purpose and I felt this was an important fact to make known and helped

facilitate conversations (Bernard, 2000). On the other hand, had I acted only as an observer,

I would not have interacted or participated in any activities with the different groups

(Bernard, 2000) and I felt that gaining information first-hand through participation was also

vital.

My internship duties included taking part in many DLIA/ATBI related events. Most

frequently, I was able to assist with scheduled collecting events of various degrees which

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allowed me ample time to talk with and observe volunteers, staff members, researchers, and

students. I was also able to assist and observe researchers on informal collecting events that

did not necessarily involve volunteer labor. I would help with collecting and identifying

specimens, gather GPS data, or sometimes help set traps or carry equipment. Finally, I also

had the opportunity to assist with several public education events that allowed me to see how

Park and DLIA staff interacted with the various participant groups of the ATBI. I would sit

among audience members and watch, participate in various workshops, or give presentations

and mingle with attendees before and after the presentations. In addition, my role as DLIA

intern also provided me the opportunity to observe Park and DLIA staff on a daily basis to

better understand the business side of the ATBI.

Approximately half of my time at GRSM was spent engaged in participant

observation. I attended a total of 12 collecting events, worked independently with 5 different

researchers, attended 5 educational events and presented at two of those.

Informal Discussion

Informal discussion consisted of gathering information from individuals through

either in-person meetings, phone conversations, or through email correspondence. Any

private information collected was only to aid in interpretation of public information received

during participant observation. Contacts were provided to me through DLIA from

individuals who had provided consent to be contacted regarding ATBI related activities.

Discussions were conducted with a variety of participants including park staff members,

DLIA staff, researchers, members of the DLIA board and scientific advisory panel, as well as

some volunteers. Information gathering was based loosely on the method of Delphi

questioning. This method serves to gain the most reliable opinions through the use of

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repeated questioning (Powell 2002). I felt this was appropriate for GRSM and DLIA because

Delphi is known to be useful in situations where there are a variety of individuals involved

with differing levels of knowledge and involvement and to provide synthesis of different

viewpoints (Delbech et al. 1975). All of these factors were evident in looking at the ATBI

process at GRSM. When speaking with the various participants, rarely, but with exception,

did I find any one person who really had a clear understanding of all of the many components

of the ATBI program. Instead, there were many “experts” within one or several areas such as

marketing, research, science or education. To incorporate the Delphi methodology, I

developed an informal worksheet broken down into categories which I then used to direct my

discussions. This insured that I covered the same topics with each participant while allowing

me to easily compare their different viewpoints. Although I followed the questionnaire, I also

allowed the person to direct the discussion and speak for as little or as long on a topic as they

liked and depending on their expertise and interests. I would correspond with the same

individuals on several occasions to address questions or issues that may have arisen after

speaking with them the first time and try to determine where there was consensus or conflict.

Document Analysis

Document analysis can be a very useful source of information in qualitative

research. Many times, there is a very large amount of existing documentation that contains

valuable data but is unfortunately often overlooked. Also, such information is not changed

by the process of collecting or analyzing it (Fitzpatrick 2004). And finally, document

analysis is typically very cost effective. It is important to note that no private information

was associated in files with the names of private citizens.

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Jeanie Hilten, Administrative Officer of DLIA, has been very diligent in keeping

organized collections of all documents, both, new and historical, pertaining to the ATBI. The

collection of data includes videotapes of previous collecting events, news features, archived

power point presentations, photographs, Great Smokies National Park literature, Friends of

the Great Smokies literature, and the director’s program notes on a myriad of topics.

By exploring the all of the many available documents, I was able to again compare

and contrast what I would read from what I was physically observing. In addition, document

analysis provided me a unique historical account that I would not have been able to gain

solely from participant observation and informal discussions.

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INFRASTRUCTURE

Although there is a wide variety of individuals and groups that help with the

inventorying, there needs to be a central core that is essential to keeping the ATBI working to

achieve its goals. Any park or related facility looking to start this type of project should

make sure that they have a strong base of support and structure installed before beginning the

actual inventorying process. For the ATBI at GRSM, this internal core is made up of the

DLIA staff, Park staff, the DLIA board of directors, and the Science Advisory Committee.

One of the most important and usually first steps in the formation of a non-profit

organization is choosing a board of directors (Nanus, 1999). The board of directors for

DLIA currently sits at 20 but can fluctuate higher and lower. A strong board should

represent a diverse collection of backgrounds and expertise and offer a number of resources

to the organization. Board members for DLIA include lawyers, professors, researchers,

marketing and public relations specialists, and local community leaders.

Along with having a strong board of directors, a successful non-profit also needs to

have strong leadership and a supportive staff. A leader of a non-profit organization is skilled

in the management of its resources including the people, finances, and skills within the

organization and who has the ability to move the organization forward (Nanus, 1999). In its

beginning years, DLIA struggled with finding the right leadership. By the summer of 2000,

DLIA had already lost its first Board chairman to resignation and only had one full time

employee working primarily in an administrative role (Fordney, 2000). Currently, Jeanie

Hilten has filled the role of Administrative Officer and has been a guiding force in the

success of the program. The remainder of the DLIA staff is still quite a small group but has

been able to accomplish great things thanks to its strong leadership. Being able to do a lot

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with a small number of people is perhaps one of the most important things I learned from my

observations at GRSM. When speaking with members of other parks, one of the largest

concerns voiced was the problem of having a limited staff with many time constraints. DLIA

is a perfect example of just how much a few dedicated people can accomplish. But, it is

necessary to make sure that those few people are able to give their full attention to the ATBI.

This is why, once again, it is so beneficial to have a separate, non-profit, organization

designated to oversee the management of the ATBI. Obviously, it is also necessary for park

staff to be strongly involved with the ATBI, but, with much of the work being handled by

DLIA, this allows park staff members to attend to all of their other duties as well, not just

ATBI related activities.

Creating a solid infrastructure does not require a large amount of people. What is

does require are a few organized and dedicated individuals who can be creative and work

with whatever resources are available to them. Like the ATBI itself, an infrastructure is

something that can build with time and can be added to and altered to serve whatever

purposes are necessary at any given time.

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SCIENCE

By the term “science”, I am referring to the scientific processes of conducting the

ATBI and some of the problems associated with current activities. Included in this section

are the collection methods used by GRSM, as well as a discussion of problems associated

with increased taxonomic study, researcher needs, and the curation of specimens.

The Problem: Not Enough Taxonomists According to staff at Discover Life in America, as of August 2004, 504 new species

to science have been identified within GRSM since 1998 (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004). That’s

a large number of never before seen species that need to be identified and cataloged. This

requires extensive effort from taxonomists in all areas of study. However, the plight of

taxonomy has been the topic of great concern in recent years. Although there is some debate,

the general consensus is that there are far fewer people with high-quality taxonomic skills

than there are taxa which need identification (Hopkins & Frecklton, 2002). Based on the

study by Hopkins and Frecklton (2002), the study of taxonomy appears to have hit its peak in

the 1950’s and 1960’s and since that time has faced a long and continuing decline. A

decline in taxonomists can be a large detriment to biodiversity conservation. One of the

greatest necessities in conservation study, particularly for an ATBI, is being able to identify

and understand exactly what it is that is being studied. The largest roadblock to this

understanding is not having enough taxonomists with the skills needed to complete the

process. Skills such as distinguishing among similar species of organisms, describing and

attaching a name to the life forms, and publishing natural history information for each

species (Janzen, 1993). Specimens can continually be collected and pinned, frozen,

mounted, preserved, and put up on shelves. However, without published descriptions, geo-

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referenced data, and taxonomic work, little progress can be made toward understanding the

ecological relationships and making management decisions for biodiversity.

The growing interest that more and more parks are exhibiting to begin conducting

their own ATBIs can have great impact on the taxonomic field. Based on the many

conversations I have had with those currently interested in ATBIs, this impact could be either

a blessing or a curse. On the one hand, some argue that the lack of taxonomists is due largely

in part to the lack of job opportunities to keep them adequately employed. This is known as

the “law of diminishing returns” where the focus of scientific research is primarily attached

to species which are already clearly defined and cataloged (Hopkins & Freckleton, 2002)

thus, not needing the employment of taxonomists. Taxonomy is also a field that has

difficulty in attracting workers as it is rarely taught to undergraduates and lacks the glamour

of many other fields in biology (Pimm & Lawton, 1998). Whether or not this is the case, it is

the hope that with the increase of ATBIs being conducted, this will help to fuel the fire to

provide a greater need for taxonomists. In addition, ATBIs will serve to highlight the

importance of this profession more and provide greater exposure to the needs of this field.

Also, many researchers bring graduate and undergraduate students with them to collection

events associated with the ATBI and this younger generation can gain more insight into

possibly pursuing taxonomy as their field of study.

Twig Groups

Although Discover Life in America is responsible for the management and

organization of the ATBI, the fundamental details of specimen collection, preparation, and

research design are best left to the experts. This is what led to the development of

Taxonomic Working Groups or TWIGs. TWIGs allow for a coordinated effort in protocols

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and guidelines throughout the life of the ATBI (DLIA, 2004f). Each major group of living

things: coleopterans, dipterans, fungi, algae, etc. is under the organization of a TWIG leader

but each TWIG is not necessarily a representation of each order. Some, such as lepidoptera

or coleopteran are large enough that they are under one TWIG. Other groups, such as aquatic

insects, which are made up of smaller or more obscure orders, are combined. The specific

tasks of the TWIGs are highlighted in the ATBI Science Plan for GRSM and on the DLIA

website and I will highlight some of the key points here (DLIA, 2004e).

First, one of the most important tasks of a TWIG is to assess the current state of

knowledge (White et al. 2000). In other words, one must first understand what is known

before delving into the unknown. Next, the TWIGs are responsible for collecting new

species information for the park. This includes developing proper collection techniques,

designing preparation methods for each taxon, and organizing field sessions. Finally, TWIGs

also serve an important role in disseminating information to other audiences.

Through the TWIGs, the ATBI project seeks to reach professional societies and

individual investigators to expand the taxonomic efforts within the park by creating stronger

interest and increase research proposals for ATBI projects (White et al. 2000). TWIGs are

also responsible for keeping up-to-date checklists of species accounts, descriptions, and

assessments and providing this information to the Park in a timely fashion.

Sampling Method

Having such a diverse range of specimens to collect brings with it a diverse

population of researchers as well as a mixture of varying methods to collect data. During the

planning stages of the ATBI, it was decided that there should be some form of consistency

developed regarding data collection. Ecological sampling focuses on a large amount of data

24

for a small number of specimens while systematic sampling looks more at a little data for a

larger number of specimens (GRSM, 1997). Because of this, it was decided that both

traditional and structured sampling approaches would be used simultaneously throughout the

ATBI study (White et al. 2000) while leaving some room for ‘free range’ sampling that

would branch the two methods (GRSM, 1997). Traditional methodology has been defined

by the taxonomists of the ATBI as active collection, not related to specific sites, that takes

place intermittently over days, months, and even years (White et al. 2000). Traditional

sampling tends to facilitate more collaboration between researchers as well as providing

more opportunities for volunteer support (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004). Collecting events

known as Bio-Blitz’s are included in this type of sampling (White et al. 2000). Also included

in traditional sampling are any casual observations reported by park staff or visitors to the

park (White et al. 2000). Structured sampling is as it sounds, more structured. Sampling

focuses on pre-determined locations that are sampled repeatedly and utilize a variety of bulk

collecting devices such as Malaise traps and pitfall traps (DLIA, 2003). To aid in developing

this type of sampling, an ATBI Pilot Study was coordinated by Chuck Parker, of USGS, from

2000 thru 2003. The Pilot Study included 19 plots, one hectare in size, that were established

throughout various plant communities (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004). 11 of these were

instrumented with a variety of traps including malaise, lindgren funnel, and pitfall (Hilten,

pers. comm. 2004). It is hoped that more standard plots can be developed and maintained in

the future (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004). The benefit to standard sampling is that results can be

used in statistical analysis (DLIA, 2003). Not all taxa can be sampled utilizing any one

method so it is important that several methods are part of any collection process. In addition

25

to sampling standards, other standards in recording are required for all data collected

including area vegetation type, GPS location, weather conditions, and soil type.

Curation of Specimens

Having a great increase in data and specimens to prepare, sort, label, and store has

become a necessary byproduct of the ATBI but with it come several issues that Parks should

be aware of. Parks need to make a concerted effort in managing specimens collected through

ATBIs. This has resulted in many concerns over the lack of storage space, labor, and the

necessary funds to cover current regulations of specimen curation in National Parks. Most

parks, including GRSM, do not have the facilities or human resources needed to handle the

shear number of specimens resulting from ATBI activities. Cooperation and creativity are a

necessity in dealing with these issues.

To increase efficiency, sorting centers and immediate data entry have become a part

of every organized specimen collecting event such as the Bio-blitzs. For the Lepidoptera

Blitz, a central location was designated as the sorting center. Here volunteers, students, and

staff awaited those collecting data in the field. As collected specimens were brought in, they

were sorted as far down as expertise would allow and cataloged into the database system

used by DLIA. Volunteers can be used to do rough sorting, which leaves more experienced

specialists to work on fine, detailed sorting. Universities and related institutions can also be

a resource to assist with the sorting of specimens. GRSM and DLIA have worked with the

University of Tennessee to propose a sorting and extracting center that would provide

assistance to the ATBI project (Bright and Nichols, 1998).

Once specimens are sorted and entered into the database system, the data must be

tracked and stored. Because so many different researchers and organizations work with the

26

specimens collected at the ATBI, an efficient method to track specimens must be developed.

To address this, DLIA and GRSM have discussed the use of barcodes to track data. When

purchased in bulk, bar codes can be an inexpensive way to follow specimens. Bar codes can

either be designated to an individual specimen or to a bulk sample and then, as individuals

are identified, they can receive their own bar code (Bright and Nichols, 1998). For example,

a trap can be emptied in the field and all the specimens collected can be placed in a jar with

details of the event. This entire jar receives a tracking number through the use of a bar code.

Then, as each of the individual specimens inside are sorted and identified, they receive a

secondary bar code. Bar codes are flexible and can be used to track slides, dry specimens, or

groups of collections (Bright and Nichols, 1998).

Storage of specimens is not as easily remedied. Data is collected through many

different researchers and organizations; however, it is the park itself that is responsible for

housing all of the data. Under current regulations set by the National Park Service, any

specimens found on Federal property must remain accessible to the public (Bright and

Nichols, 1998) and therefore cannot be given to any other interested institutions. Collections

can be sent out on temporary loan but must continue to be managed by the park and

eventually must be returned to their original ownership.

Database Design

An interim database designed to store information for the ATBI is functional at this

point but continually faces bugs, is difficult to use, and will eventually need to be replaced by

a new program. Currently, the database system is a blend of Microsoft Access 2000 tables

and an interface that was created using Visual Basic 6.0 (Cooper, pers. comm. 2004). This

interface also incorporates a GIS mapping program which is able to utilize digital park maps.

27

Most data is submitted from researchers in either Excel or Access format or FileMaker Pro,

for Macintosh users (Cooper, pers. comm. 2004). Ideally, a standardized format for data

submission will be seen in the future, but for now, data is received and then converted, if

necessary, to work with the current system. Although Access is the current format used by

the National Park Service for data management, it has its limitations and a higher capacity

system will be needed in the future. Data tables in Access can only handle about 100,000

records before the system ceases to function (Cooper, pers. comm. 2004). Although this is

not an immediate issue, as more and more data is compiled data tables will reach numbers

well above 100,000. Programs such as MS SQL Server or Oracle, which run at higher

capacities, are being considered when upgrading the database is necessary (Cooper, pers.

comm. 2004).

Needs of Researchers

Researchers play a core role in any ATBI project and require special provisions in

order to maintain success. Surprisingly, the number one thing that researchers found most

helpful at GRSM was the availability of housing. Most often, lodging is one of the largest

monetary constraints for researchers and, by offering a place to stay, GRSM provided many

more opportunities to researchers that may have not otherwise been able to assist with the

ATBI. Housing should include basic amenities and computer availability. Most parks have

at least some type of housing that could be offered to researchers and this is not something

that should be overlooked. At the very least, if no housing is available, volunteers can also

play an important role in providing places for researchers to stay.

Another area where parks can aid researchers is by providing general assistance to the

researchers. This is an opportunity once again to utilize volunteers, interns, or temporary

28

staff of the park. Many days during my internship at GRSM, I spent time assisting

researchers with a variety of tasks. Most of the time researchers are not familiar with the

area and it can be very helpful to have individuals assisting them that know the roads and

trails and who may already be familiar with designated collection sites. This helps save

precious time for those that may be on a tight schedule. It can also be very beneficial to

provide someone that can help with carrying things, setting up equipment, recording data, or

anything else an extra pair of hands can provide. In addition, having an extra person

provides a safer environment than someone going out into the field alone.

Just like anyone else who is visiting the park for the first time, researchers need

information about the park to aid them in conducting their activities and to familiarize

themselves with expectations for research activities. In order to provide assistance to

researchers in this respect, DLIA and GSMNP have assembled orientation materials to

address many of the questions that visiting scientists may have. Within the packet

researchers can find contact information for all staff related to the ATBI. In addition,

previously collected park data and maps such as geology, vegetative cover, and topology are

included, along with descriptions of each ecological region in the park. The orientation

packet is not a substitute for proper direction from Park and DLIA staff; rather its purpose is

to be a resource to complement information gained from direct discussion and training. In

addition, a great deal of information is now available for researchers on the DLIA website at

www.dlia.org.

DLIA also assists researchers by providing granting opportunities to encourage

participation in the ATBI (DLIA, 2004b). Single grants awarded have been as high as

$5,000 and yearly totals have ranged from $45,000 to $100,000 (DLIA, 2003). Funding for

29

the DLIA granting program comes primarily from the support of the Great Smoky Mountains

Association and the Friends of the Great Smoky Mountain National Park, both non-profit

partners of the Park, and of Discover Life in America. Researchers interested in DLIA grants

are required to submit a proposal before the start of each field season. Required with the

application is a proposal highlighting the researcher’s objectives, reasoning, methods, and

expectations. Proposals can either be for new research or based on existing projects. A

justified budget must also be included that focuses on “in-kind” support because funds will

not be allocated for equipment purchases or indirect charges (DLIA, 2003). Proposals are

evaluated by the DLIA Board’s Science Committee and the number of awards given is

dependent on available funds for that year. If a researcher’s proposal is chosen for funding

then, as follow-up, the researcher is required to submit a final report by the end of the field

year as well as some product, such as a poster or PowerPoint, which can be presented at the

yearly ATBI conference. Increasingly, there is an emphasis on geo-referenced data, to be

incorporated into the ATBI Interim Database (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

Clearly, understanding the science of how to conduct an ATBI is crucial, however, it

is still only one piece of the puzzle. Although the science of the ATBI would likely be

viewed as a necessity, it is in my opinion that combining the science with a developed

educational program is just as crucial and would benefit all participants. This educational

purpose has been a key component of the mission of Discover Life in America since the

beginning (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

30

EDUCATION

Combining a strong educational program along with the research components of the

ATBI has been a number one priority for both DLIA and GRSM. A great amount of effort

has been put into developing programs that can be used throughout the educational facilities

within the park.

Parks as Classrooms

National Parks inherently are strong educational resources because, by their very

design, they contain a wealth of ecological and cultural resources. Robin Winks, the late

chair of Yale’s history department, once described the parks as “the world’s greatest outdoor

university, one with over 300 branch campuses, and each with a unique and compelling

“curriculum” (Yaunches, 2004). This thought led to the development of the Parks as

Classrooms Program (PAC), a National Park Service and National Park Foundation program

that began in 1992 and now includes over 200 parks (Dulin, 2002). Visits to any park can be

incorporated into school curriculum that meets state standards while offering a great diversity

of teaching methods (Yaunches, 2004). The PAC program is more than just a field trip; it

combines teachings from both park rangers and teachers while working in a variety of

environments. Since 1991, the Phi Beta Phi elementary school located in Gatlinburg,

Tennessee, has had a strong partnership with GRSM and in 1992 joined the Park’s PAC

program. Phi Beta Phi is a small community school serving about 450 students ranging

from kindergarten through eighth grade (Dulin, 2002). With the PAC program at GRSM,

clusters of themes have been developed that are broken down into different age groups.

Kindergarten through second grade students are introduced to having an awareness for the

natural resources around them, third through fifth grade students delve into more information

31

and knowledge about those resources and explore their related issues, while sixth through

eighth grade students take what they have learned and move into areas of stewardship and

service (Dulin, 2002). Within each one of these clusters, students may have up to 6 different

sessions in the park. Though activities are split into different clusters, there are several

themes that are incorporated throughout each, including diversity, making connections, and

understanding the National Park Service (Dulin, 2002). Because diversity was already such

an important component of the PAC program, it was considered a perfect fit to include the

ATBI project within the existing curriculum. This has been done in two different ways. In

third grade, students are introduced to the idea of discovering life by investigating soil

samples for living organisms (Dulin, 2002), often using the same techniques that scientists

use. Then in eighth grade, students are taken a step further and actually participate in ATBI

collecting activities where they have a first-hand chance to meet researchers and understand

the scientific process of biodiversity study.

Educational facilities

The Great Smoky Mountain Institute at Tremont is another non-profit entity involved

with GRSM. Tremont provides both youth and adult education in a variety of formats and

also offers lodging and meals to accommodate multi-day programs. During my time at

GRSM, I was able to observe several different programs at Tremont. One was a 2-day

teacher workshop to expose science teachers to the many ways that learning about the ATBI

can used in classroom curriculum. Teachers were guided through activities and projects that

could be geared towards almost any age group and done either inside the classroom or in

easily accessible outdoor areas. One example of what teachers learned was to easily and

affordably construct leaf litter sampling boxes to understand what kinds of organisms can be

32

found through simple leaf litter collecting and what programs can be developed around the

findings. In another example, teachers learned how to use tardigrades as a study tool in the

classroom. Tardigrades are an aquatic organism that can be easily collected in any mossy

environment. Tardigrades, commonly known as “water bears,” have been the focus of several

ATBI collecting events. They are easily identifiable and can be viewed clearly under either a

microscope or dissecting scope. They are hardy and can be kept alive in classroom

environments, or, they can even be thrown in a paper bag and left on shelf for years. Under

the direction of Dr. Paul Bartels, ATBI researcher and Professor at Warren Wilson College in

Asheville, NC, teachers learned how to collect and prepare tardigrade specimens as well

what biological concepts can be taught through them.

One of the newest additions to the GRSM has been the Appalachian Highlands

Learning Center located at Purchase Knob, on the North Carolina side of the Park, an area

previously not as active with biodiversity education as the Tennessee side (Hilten, pers.

comm. 2004). The learning center operates under a similar goal of Tremont with a strong

focus of integrating scientific education of youth with current, on-going research at the park.

Students play an active part in research activities and are involved in collecting and

processing data for the ATBI, as well as other projects. Over 700 students, mainly middle

and high school aged, have contributed their time assisting with ATBI activities. Information

collected at Purchase Knob has yielded almost 200 new species records for the park (Hilten,

2004). In addition to working with students, Purchase Knob has also become a resource for

teachers by providing workshops and seminars as well as new curriculum for science and

research education. Finally, in addition to providing educational opportunities for the ATBI,

the facilities can also be used for housing and research space.

33

Internship Opportunities

Internship opportunities are a valuable resource for students and the facilities they

work for. Any facility that begins an ATBI should also consider offering internship

opportunities as part of their educational program. The National Park Service already has a

strong working relationship with internships through the Student Conservation Association

and there is no reason why this work could not be incorporated into ATBI activities. During

my experiences at GRSM this summer, I witnessed several different SCA interns working on

ATBI related activities. One young woman, who worked partly under entomology and partly

under the museum collections, spent expansive amounts of time assisting in the cataloging of

specimens both for the park and for the ATBI. In addition, she also worked on several

occasions assisting researchers in data collection. Another intern, who I worked with

regularly, had a dual position working for both vegetation management and the ATBI. Her

duties for the ATBI consisted of working with the fern TWIG and assisting them in

developing a website on the data collected through foray activities. She also performed

many of the same duties I did including assisting researchers, helping with collecting events,

and providing educational programming. Aside from working with the SCA, ATBI

programs could also work with local universities to provide internship opportunities to

students in areas such as taxonomy, database design and entry, marketing, or graphic design.

The possibilities are endless and properly trained, well chosen interns can be a valuable

resource, providing assistance where staff is limited.

34

Similar to internships, ATBI projects should also promote the opportunity for

graduate and undergraduate research, especially in such fields as taxonomy, entomology,

botany, aquatic biology, and microbiology. Students are continually in need of research

opportunities and have the ability to provide a park with valuable research data, if given the

opportunity. Although the majority of college students I met worked directly under

researchers involved with the ATBI, I did speak with a few that contacted the park directly to

discuss their own research and interests and ask about opportunities to assist with the ATBI.

Opportunities need not necessarily be in the realm of scientific research and can also include

marketing, computer information systems, and journalism.

Public Education

In addition to what has been mentioned thus far, there are also several other ways in

which an organization can educate the public. One is through the use of displays, which can

be in any number of forms or locations. At GRSM a unique and artistic display has been

developed that hangs in one of the visitor centers at the park. This display contains drawings

and paintings of newly discovered species found through ATBI studies. Other displays can

include things like actual preserved specimens or various kinds of equipment used by

researchers for scientific collection. Displays and posters in some of the other facilities at

GRSM depict the importance of biodiversity in the park and how the ATBI plays an

important role in the process of understanding biodiversity.

Another way to provide public education is by offering presentations and workshops.

These can be either formal or informal and may be requested by interested parties or offered

by the park or organization. On several occasions, another intern and I were asked to do such

presentations to varying audiences. One was at the Tennessee state meeting of the Sierra

35

Club who had requested information on the ATBI project, its importance, and ways people

could become involved. The other intern and I had dinner as well as informal discussions

with the group and then presented a slide show on the ATBI. This was a successful evening

all around in that audience was very interested in learning about the many aspects of the

ATBI and by the end of the evening, many had asked us about how they could help. Another

example was a program for the Ripley’s Aquarium of the Smokies summer camp group.

Ripley’s had contacted DLIA looking some type of activity that could be done with grade

school age students that would complement the biodiversity camp program at the aquarium.

An all-day activity was developed where students were given the chance to pretend to be

ATBI researchers. They went on three different collecting events and then “studied” their

findings. Both experiences received tremendous positive feedback and served to educate

both children and adults in a non-traditional manner.

36

COMMUNITY/VOLUNTEERS Having a strong volunteer base and support from the local community is essential for

any park considering conducting an inventory. An inventory concentrating on all taxa will

require a large work force, not just data collection, but also for documenting finds,

organizing information collected, putting together events, and assisting with programming.

In addition, community support is essential for a variety of other reasons.

Funding seems to be a growing issue these days for any organization or project.

There are some who believe that contemporary science lacks both the human capital and the

financial resources to meet current research demands (Foster-Smith and Evans, 2003). The

use of volunteers offers a source of not only free labor, but one that can also be skilled

enough to conduct extensive surveys (Darwell and Dulvy, 1996). Through the use of

volunteers, advocacy for a project can also be created while procuring individual monetary

donations. This is very important, both economically and as a reflection of the involvement

of the community (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

According to Carr (2004;2):

Local people are often the best placed to take action on local issues, combining an ethic of care with an interest in restoring local environments. As interaction between policy processes, legislation, funding providers, research and development agencies, and public-interest science increases, there is expanding recognition of the validity and utility of voices from outside science institutions in contributing to environmental decision making. The policy analyst, the planner, the practitioner, the activist, the journalist, even the layperson is recognized as having a stake in the environment.

With that said, the use of volunteers is still criticized on the grounds that the information

collected will be unreliable due to a lack of training or inconsistency in collecting methods

(Darwall and Dulvy, 1996). To combat this, parks must make sure that an adequate effort is

37

made to properly train volunteers. This does not mean that extensive time must be spent

training each volunteer, it just means that training must be done efficiently and effectively.

Volunteer Training

At GRSM, training of volunteers for the ATBI is divided up into two different

sessions and is done separately from the general volunteer training related to the Park. The

first session, known as orientation training, is to address the basic elements of working with

the Park, DLIA and the ATBI. This includes back country safety, identification of dangerous

plants and animals, and how to navigate around the park. Also, in this first session,

information is presented on what exactly the ATBI is, who DLIA is, and the different ways in

which volunteers can help. There are also presentations on some of the current activities

being done by active TWIG groups, and there may also be some hands-on activities for

participants to experience. At the end of the orientation day, participants are given the

opportunity to sign up for areas they would like to help with or where their interests or

experiences lie. Although orientation training takes up an entire day, it is only offered two

times during the spring of the year so that staff members are not constantly tied up in

training. Summers at GRSM are considered the prime time for collecting and other ATBI

activities, so orientation is held before the season starts, typically in early and late March.

Also, since the park is so large and branches into two different states, the orientation training

is held at two different sites to allow for easier accessibility for all those interested.

For participants in the orientation that had a specific interest in helping out with

collection of specimens, a second, more in-depth skills training is held usually in April. Due

to the intensive nature of the topics covered in this training, this event is spread over the

course of three days. Day one covers topics geared towards returning volunteers and

38

assistants and how they can help facilitate training of those participating for the first time.

Information is also presented on keeping a field journal and an introduction to the scientific

method. Day two instructs participants on the methods for working on surveys including

map usage, orientation of equipment such as GPS, field sheets, flags, measuring devices and

even how to construct and use plots. Finally, time is spent on the proper way to collect the

specimens volunteers will be looking for and how to document the information for that

collection. On the third day, the focus is on equipment usage again, but this time it is

equipment that will be specific to the bio-quests and forays that will take place during the

summer collecting season. Work is also spent on photographic methods. Not just for data on

the specimens themselves, but also to record the people and the workings of the collecting

events as a whole. Training in these three days consists of presentations from not only staff

of DLIA and the Park, but also from researchers, local educators, and others involved with

the work of the ATBI. Also, there are slide shows, videos, and hands-on sessions to practice

with collecting equipment. At the end of the three days, participants are asked to sign up for

the specific collecting events they are interested in. Unlike the orientation training, the skills

training is held only once before the start of the field season and, with few exceptions,

participation in collecting events is not allowed unless interested parties have attended the

skills training. This does not mean that someone calling in, for example, July, who has just

heard about the ATBI for the first time, cannot volunteer. Rather, it means that, unless they

have required skills obtained through other experiences, they cannot participate in the actual

field collection events until the next year if they go through the proper training. There is still

a multitude of other areas where volunteer help is greatly needed and appreciated.

39

Volunteer Opportunities

The following is a listing of areas where anyone interested in volunteering for the

ATBI can help out. I have elaborated on this list to offer more information and examples but

the content is similar to what has been provided to volunteers during orientation training.

Assisting Researchers:

The primary opportunity that comes to mind is volunteers being able to assist

researchers. This may be one of the most advanced opportunities for volunteers but

experience has shown that there is a wealth of amateur scientists within local communities

that can be quite knowledgeable on various taxa and on field methods. Volunteers can aid

researchers in hiking to remote locations, collecting data, setting up traps, preparing

specimens, making labels, and caring for equipment.

For those not interested in field techniques but still interested in helping researchers,

volunteers may also offer to house researchers or assist with airport pick-up and

transportation. If a park has housing available for researchers, volunteers are also going to be

necessary to make sure these areas are kept clean and presentable for visitors.

Hospitality:

With collection events, researchers often have little if any funds to go towards extra

comforts. There have been several volunteers at GRSM that love to cook and have provided

wonderful lunches, dinners, and snacks, for various events. In addition, just having

volunteers to greet people and help with whatever needs may come up will be very valuable.

40

Education:

If retired or current teachers are present in your volunteer base, they may be well

needed for developing curricula to teach the community about the importance of biodiversity.

They can also provide assistance to teacher workshops and training, and give programs for

interested school groups.

Community Relations:

Along with doing programs at the park, ATBI projects get many requests for

programs at organizational meetings, schools, and other community events. Volunteers with

a background in public speaking, outreach, and public relations should be utilized. Aside

from doing programs, there may also be a need for assistance with information booths and

special events. Volunteers with a communication background can assist with media services,

such as writing articles for local papers or newsletters. Clerical services are also very

valuable for managing mailing lists, answering phone and email inquiries, and maintaining

records of activities.

Website:

Website design is also a complex and time-consuming task. Volunteers with graphic

design, publishing, web and data entry skills will help to make this job easier.

Documentation of Specimens:

Documenting collected specimens is not only going to be important for the scientific

aspects of the ATBI, but is also necessary for media and public education. Photographers

and local artists can provide visuals such as photos, drawings, and paintings of obscure or

interesting specimens for use on websites, signage, displays, and in education programs, or

even for t-shirts and other media. The Smokies has several highly skilled artists who have

41

provided paintings and drawings of slime molds, fungi, and many microorganisms. These

paintings have been in gallery shows, used for t-shirts, coffee mugs, and mouse pads, as well

as put on display in the visitor center to drawn much needed attention to the ATBI and its

efforts. DLIA also obtained a high resolution scanner that can scan the actual specimen at

2540 dpi. These images, blown up to poster size, are very impressive but take time and

volunteers with computer skills to produce.

The role of the Bio-Quest

Parks or related organization can gather researchers, volunteers, and staff in an

organized fashion to collect data through something called “Bio-Quests” (DLIA, 2004c).

Blitzes, Forays, and Quests are all creatively-named organized events focusing on data

collection of specific taxa. These events are highly publicized and volunteers sign-up for

participation in these events shortly after going through volunteer training. Providing a

catchy and attractive name for collecting events can help make them more understandable for

the participants and media as well as provide a level of consistency when similar events

happen over and over again. For instance, Fern Foray, one of the more popular events,

happens several times each summer. When the local community hears about Fern Foray,

they already have a base understanding of the type of research going on within the Park.

Fern Foray has also built a strong volunteer base with many “forayers” coming back for

repeated collecting sessions. Others such as the Myco-Blitz participants have gone so far as

to create shirts or slogans for the events. Beyond that, the “blitzes” also provide a more

concentrated effort in collection over a short period of time, allowing researchers and

volunteers to get a lot done while not using up valuable resources of time and money that

would otherwise hinder the search efforts. In the summer of 2004, during Lepidoptera Blitz,

42

the TWIG leader was able to organize about 40 taxonomists, researchers, students and

volunteers to come together, focusing on different taxonomic groups, and within three days,

they were able to collect a large amount of data. In total, 795 species were collected which

included 9 new to science and 24 new park records (Wagner, 2004). For this particular blitz,

a DNA team was also assembled to start vouchering specimens and of the 795 collected, 642

were able to be DNA vouchered (Wagner, 2004). In addition to connecting the community

with researchers, an established blitz can also help to bring in high profile support. At the

most recent Lepidoptera Blitz, DLIA and GRSM were pleased to have the participation of

two well known authors: Paul Opler, author of the Peterson Field Guide to Butterflies and

Robert Pyle, author of the Audubon Field Guide to Butterflies. Both offered their expertise

throughout the collection and identification process. In addition, Pyle gave a presentation for

the GRSM visitor center on butterflies. These are just a few of the reasons why organizing

the ATBI methods and turning it into a popular event, can really benefit the entire

inventorying process.

43

MARKETING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

Many would agree that the most important part of conducting an ATBI is the valuable

scientific data that it results. This of course is the end goal; however, in order to reach this

goal, the process must be looked at not only in a scientific manner, but also as a business.

And like any business, the ideas must be marketed to gain financial support and public

appreciation. There are many different and creative ways that marketing an ATBI can be

accomplished.

Numerous studies have shown that Americans believe strongly in supporting

environmental issues (Lankard and McLaughlin, 2003) but it is often difficult for an

organization to tap into this resource. To market an ATBI, what must first be developed is a

clear message and statement of the purpose that can easily be conveyed to the public sector.

But to accomplish this, an organization must first know about the community where it will be

marketing (Lankard and McLaughlin, 2003), who makes up the community, and what the

popular trends are with regard to decision making and supported activities. Once this is

known, a strong marketing plan can then be developed with a number of different elements

incorporated to relay the importance of biodiversity and inventorying. With such an action

plan, the financial and community support, crucial for any successful ATBI project, can be

obtained (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

Media Opportunities

One of the easiest and most affordable ways to market the ATBI, as well as any other

project, is through the media. This can happen in a variety of ways. A park should be active

in announcing unique or interesting findings through press releases or the submission of

articles into local, state, or national papers. Interviews with park staff or researchers about

44

their work can also be an interesting and informative way to show others what an ATBI all

about.

DLIA also houses a collection of videos which hold highlights of ATBI related news

spots, as well as a wide variety of information gained from ATBI studies. The reports

commented on a wide variety of topics, including new species findings, visiting researchers,

and upcoming events and training. Developing positive relationships with local media

sources can open up a wide range of possibilities that draw more attention to the ATBI.

DLIA is also in close communication with the public relations division of Great Smoky

Mountains National Park, to ensure that press releases are understood and OK’d by the Park

(Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

Art and Photography

Perhaps one of the greatest connections that GRSM and DLIA have made with the

community and potential supporters has been through the use of visual imagery. DLIA has

hosted local artists and photographers. Nancy Lowe, an artist in the area specializing in

drawing and watercolor, has developed a series of pieces dedicated to the new species

discovered through the ATBI. Many volunteer photographers have also captured the world

of the ATBI through their lenses and provided a wealth of graphic resources to DLIA. These

resources have been used for web layout, brochures, newsletters, posters, and a variety of

other media. Creating visual imagery of the ATBI is especially important because many of

the taxa being worked on are not particularly perceived as exciting or noteworthy. When

trying to develop an interest in the public about the necessity to learn about and discover new

slime molds, this can be a hard sell. But when you add in some of the beautiful photographs

45

and paintings of slime molds highlighting their intricate structure, beauty and rainbow of

colors, suddenly, a stronger interest is generated.

In addition to the artwork provided by volunteers, DLIA has another source of

graphic display created by a more technical source. Through donations, DLIA acquired a

high resolution scanner able to capture images to the smallest detail. Each scale of a moth’s

wing or the slightest difference in the reproductive structures of a fern can be visible through

the scans. This has become a valuable tool for identification purposes, and the images have

been used to create beautiful posters and prints that may become a potential source of future

income.

Merchandising

Creating merchandise for the ATBI not only brings in extra funds, but also helps to

increase awareness. Although GRSM and DLIA have not explored this extensively, there is

some merchandise that has been created for the ATBI. Primarily, t-shirts have been

developed with an artistic rendition of the DLIA logo and background. These t-shirts are

sold through the visitor center stores within the park with all proceeds going to DLIA. In the

past, coffee mugs and mouse pads with the same logo were produced but not in large

quantities. Other possibilities discussed were calendars or posters with photography and

artwork of various specimens or even various plush animal toys that could be sold to

represent ATBI activities. As of July, 2005, the Great Smoky Mountains Association is

producing ATBI notecards, from some of the scanned images, and other products in

development (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

46

Mascot Development

In keeping with the theme of gaining public interest in the ATBI, there has been a

great deal of discussion at DLIA about the possibility of creating a mascot for the ATBI. A

mascot, professionally known as a trade character (Phillips, 1996), could be another tool

which DLIA could use to promote themselves in the community. The idea of an all taxa

biodiversity inventory is very scientific in nature and can be a difficult concept for the

general public to grasp. Because so many children and volunteers are part of the ATBI,

putting friendly face on project could potentially gain more support. A well designed trade

character has personality and with this personality, it can take a product’s meaning, transfer it

to an image, and elicit emotional appeal (Phillips, 1996). The character can be used in a

variety of ways to additionally market a product by appearing in advertisements and

promotions as well as in newsletters, TV, and other forms of media (Phillips, 1996). In

2005,With the recommendation of the DLIA Development and Marketing Committee, a

design firm has been contracted to work with staff to create a mascot (Hilten, pers. comm.

2004).

DLIA would not be the first organization to struggle with creating a trade character

representative of a multi-species effort. In the last five years, the American Zoo and

Aquarium Association (AZA) has been working to develop a mascot to represent all that the

AZA does as well as the many species involved with zoos and aquariums. According to

Urist (March, 2004) the first thing that AZA did to develop their mascot was to survey 50 of

their professional members in order to determine what the needs were for the mascot. Some

of the responses from this initial survey, which could work for any organization, included

“wanting the character to appeal to the target audience”, “wanting a character that was

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entertaining”, “wanting a character to represent the values” and most importantly for the

AZA as well as the ATBI, an acknowledgement that there is no single species that could

represent everything (Urist, March, 2004).

After initial designs were created and submitted to AZA, four characters were chosen

as tests subjects. In order to determine what kind of reaction the new mascot would get, it

was tested through internet sources and targeted 600 kids, 600 parents, 113 AZA members,

and 40 professionals in character licensing and publishing (Urist, March, 2004). One

character stood out above the rest and was deemed a great success. Seventy percent of kids,

and over half of parents agreed. The new mascot was described by testers as “friendly,”

“different,” “smart” and “interesting” (Urist, August, 2004). In addition, seventy percent of

kids and parents also agreed that knowing, caring, and teaching about nature were all aspects

that could be attributed to this character (Urist, August, 2004). Finally, it is interesting to

note that, when asked where audiences would most like to see the mascot, the internet and

television were the overwhelming favorites. This could have important implications for the

tools an organization chooses for marketing.

If more and more parks begin implementing their own ATBIs, the development of a trade

character on a National Park Service level would be beneficial to gain and maintain support

and understanding. This would create continuity across the many different communities and

regions that would be learning about the ATBI.

48

INFORMATION SHARING

When conducting a scientific study of such size and scope as that of an ATBI, there

will be a great deal of information created that must be shared with a variety of sources.

Scientists and researchers will need information such as what discoveries have been made or

what methods and study sites have been used by others. The public will also be interested in

how the project is going and providing such information will help to gain and maintain

support. There are many different ways to provide such information; some of which have

been discussed earlier. The following are some of the more formal ways that DLIA was able

to do so.

Newsletter

One of the ways DLIA found to disseminate information about the ATBI was through

the formation of its newsletter, the ATBI Quarterly. It is available to any interested parties as

a free resource on the DLIA website or, through the mail with a ten dollar donation. The

Quarterly includes submissions by a variety of authors. TWIG leaders may write about

current research activities or recent events while volunteers submit articles about their

experiences. Writings are accompanied by beautiful photos submitted by staff, researchers,

and volunteers. Also included in each newsletter is a current tally of species found to date

with the ATBI. Production of the newsletter is sponsored in part by the Great Smoky

Mountains Association and the Friends of the Smokies.

Conferences

Even before the ATBI at GRSM saw its first field season, it had already experienced

its first conference. Since that time, yearly conferences have proven to be an invaluable tool

for researchers, Park and DLIA staff, educators, and the local and scientific communities as a

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whole. Conferences are conducted in typical fashion to any other professional conference.

They are hosted in a hotel or conference center, have a keynote speaker, and sessions

throughout the conference days. Topics can include items such as interesting new findings,

effective collecting methods for different species, preparation methods for organisms,

educational ideas on how to teach about the ATBI, or perhaps, methods that have worked to

gain volunteer support. There are also fundraising opportunities such as live and silent

auctions which help raise funds for DLIA and ATBI activities. Social opportunities

associated with conferences are also important for participants to get to know each other and

learn from each other. The idea of a conference for an ATBI is not to appeal to just one

specific audience such as researchers or managers, the idea is to incorporate a variety of

interests so learning can be achieved across varying expertise.

Website

DLIA has taken the time to develop a very comprehensive website that can be viewed

at www.dlia.org. The website is hosted and supported by the Southern Appalachian

Information Node of the National Biological Information Infrastructure, a partner in bio-

diversity resource education. The website has recently gone through some re-designing in

order to better meet W3C standards which make accessibility by all users easier as well as

allowing the site to stay current and consistent. Recently, with the hiring of a part-time

technician, the website has improved dramatically (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004). While

exploring the website, one will find a wide variety of information. Descriptions of whom

and what DLIA is are included as well as information on upcoming DLIA activities. There is

also a great in-depth description of the many components that are involved with the ATBI.

In addition, DLIA has included a species search page which will eventually contain natural

50

history information for every species found within GRSM as well as links to the many

different groups participating in the ATBI. For scientists and researchers, DLIA has

provided information on funding opportunities as well as a link to DLIA’s Science Plan, the

document which highlights the goals and methods of the ATBI. Future additions could also

include items such as discussion postings or listserves to facilitate communication between

researcher groups.

Production of a website is something that should not be overlooked. Especially when you

consider the sheer number of people the internet reaches each day as well as the increasing

number of user friendly website design programs. If web design is too time consuming or

sufficient staff is not available, it can be another area where the use of volunteers or interns

may be especially valuable. Comment [JP1]: transition?

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FUNDRAISING

Earlier, I touched on the importance of gaining financial support as it relates to

marketing an ATBI and developing public relations. Although a respectable amount of funds

are brought in through marketing, in my opinion, to be effective, any ATBI project will need

to rely on large scale funding to support intensive research efforts. This will require a strong

network of donors gained through varied fundraising efforts. In addition, funds collected

need to managed in a conservative manner in order to fully benefit the ATBI.

Regardless of the project, the search for funding can be an exhaustive matter,

especially today when funding sources seem to be fewer and farther between (Hilten, pers.

comm. 2004). Even though the ATBI may be a unique project, never before done in the

United States, it is nonetheless a product that needs to be supported and marketed to a variety

of audiences. Currently, the bulk of the funding for the ATBI project comes from two main

sources: the Friends of the Great Smokies and the Great Smoky Mountains Association

(DLIA, 2002). The rest of the funding comes from a combination of grants, in-kind

contributions, as well as individual and corporate donations. Although these sources have

been stable over the past couple years, a non-profit cannot depend on its current funders

indefinitely and thus a non-profit should continually be looking for other options for funding

(McNamara, 1999). Promotion requires a number of necessities including ongoing

advertising, sales, customer service, and media relations (McNamara, 1999).

First, to prevent the need for additional funding due to unnecessary expenses, a non-

profit must ensure that they keep overhead costs to a minimum (McNamara, 1999). DLIA

does this by having a minimal staff, seeking donations of goods and equipment, and relying

only on the bare necessities for administration and office space. It is also important to utilize

52

the expertise of volunteers and staff to provide services that an organization may otherwise

have to outsource. As I’ve mentioned earlier, for parks with volunteers or staff that are

naturally artistic or take great pictures, then such resources should be used. The goal is to

avoid paying for a company to design a logo, or hire a photographer to capture images if the

resources are available in-house.

Although some corporations have already donated to the ATBI, this is an area that

requires more exploration. Creativity is a main component of seeking corporate funding as

well as utilizing the resources within the area. For example, one of the areas that Jeanie

Hilten, Administrative Coordinator of DLIA, is exploring for possible funding is working

with a local natural personal care products company (Hilten, pers. comm. 2004). The

company has an office located in North Carolina and has an interest in supporting projects

related to the environment.

One suggestion is that as more parks become involved in ATBIs, they should

consider a collaborative strategy so as not to exhaust existing funds. For instance, parks

could join together and submit proposals for research studies on specific taxa (eg. algae or

ants) throughout several parks at once, thereby avoiding competition. Proposals could also

be submitted for studying various biotic communities. One park could be working on

wetlands while another could be working on high elevation sites. The possibility of an

“Alliance of ATBI’s” has been discussed at several of the annual conferences (Hilten, pers.

comm. 2004). Again, this would help to reduce monetary and resource competition between

parks.

53

POLITICS

Like any multi-faceted project, an ATBI is not free from disagreements and

controversy. A park must be prepared to deal with a variety of issues that may not be fully

supported by all stakeholders. Such hot topics may include questions such as who should be

responsible for the large amount of scientific specimens that will result from ATBI activities

or what kind of legal standing newly discovered species should carry. Although finding

resolutions to any of these questions may be years away, issues surrounding them will still

play a role in current inventorying activities. Other political issues have to do with

legislation related to Park Management, including the aforementioned threats, as well as

local, regional, and national environmental and social issues affecting biodiversity of an area

(Hilten, pers. comm. 2004).

Ownership of Specimens

Unfortunately, the topic of the curation of specimens yields more questions than

answers. It is an area that is still hotly debated and any type of resolution does not seem

imminent. Perhaps the greatest question under debate is ownership of specimens. The

prevailing interpretation that I, and many others have is that all specimens collected on NPS

lands became the property of NPS and thus, should be managed accordingly. However, this

appears to be a very loose interpretation of current regulation. Section 2.5 of the NPS

regulations taken from title 36 of the U. S. Code of Federal Regulations is the primary source

for supporting this claim with the most relevant statements being:

(1) Specimens placed in displays or collections will bear official National Park Service museum labels and their catalog numbers will be registered in the National Park Service National Catalog.

54

(2) Specimens and data derived from consumed specimens will be made available to the public and reports and publications resulting from a research specimen collection permit shall be filed with the superintendent.

Neither of these statements, nor the rest of the section offer any suggestion as to who actually

has ownership of the specimens. It also does not address any kind of management for

specimens that will not be going into displays or collections, of which there will be

increasing numbers due to ATBI activities. The other source most frequently cited regarding

ownership of specimens is the USGS organic act as stated here:

The Service thus established shall promote and regulate the use of the Federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and reservations, which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.

Basically, this states that the NPS is responsible for the management of the natural resources

found on NPS designated lands, but there is no reference stating that NPS maintains

ownership. So who does own specimens collected? According to one writer, it is the public

who maintains ownership of specimens collected on public lands and further states that if a

researcher is representing a scientific or natural history institution, then samples should

belong to that institution (Anonymous, 2001). If this truly is the case, then this would open

the door to many more resources to assist with sorting, preparing, and housing specimens.

This does not however alleviate the need for the NPS to maintain responsibility of voucher

specimens for both park records and records at the national level. Ensuring that the NPS

receives the first specimens collected is essential to management purposes to account for all

specimens discovered in the park.

55

Classification of Newly Discovered Specimens

Along with ownership, the classification of new specimens is also an issue that has

been raised, especially in recent legislation regarding the park. After speaking with several

park staff members, I learned that the ATBI played an important role in a recent land transfer

with the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indian Nation (EBCI) whose lands border that of

GRSM. EBCI was interested in a land exchange for the Ravensford Tract of property to

construct a new elementary, middle, and high school (Yancy, 2004). GRSM had some

reservations about this transfer due to the cultural and natural resources found at the site. In

fact, in 1982, the Ravensford property received registration as a Historic Place in the

National Register (Yancy, 2004). To address this, the EBCI and the NPS entered into a

General Agreement to document and appraise the resources of the property. Using the

techniques of the ATBI, findings from this appraisal have included soils, geology, and

habitats unique to the park as well as 55 new species to science (Yancy, 2002). Although the

species discovered are new to science, they carry no federal classification, such as protective

status, and therefore cannot be seen in a similar manner as would an endangered species.

Although an EIS was also conducted on the site, there was still not enough supportive data to

block the land exchange and thus, the property will soon be developed by the EBCI. Too

little information is known about the new species found at this site to determine if they can

be found anywhere else within the park. Therefore, under current legislation, new species to

science could be lost before they are ever even understood. If more parks are to continue

with the ATBI process, this is definitely an issue that should be addressed at the national

level.

56

Bioprospecting

Most products humans use everyday come directly from the natural world, including

the foods we eat to the medicines we use to cure diseases. It has been suggested that if a

dollar amount were actually attributed to how much nature has provided to us, it would have

a yearly value of $33 trillion dollars (Wilson, 2002). Typically, when one thinks of hotspots

for bioprospecting, they direct their thoughts towards the tropical environments. However,

bioprospecting became a reality for the National Park Service with the discovery of the

microorganism, Thermus aquatics. T. aquatics was discovered by Dr. Thomas Brock back in

1966 when he was performing studies on the microorganisms living in the thermal pools of

Yellowstone National Park. Although T. aquatics represented a new species to science, its

potential to the scientific world was not fully realized until 1983 when Cetus Corporation

was able to isolate heat resistant enzymes within the organism to assist with the reproduction

of DNA (NPS, 2004). Eventually, Cetus sold the patents from this research for over $300

million and today, yearly earnings reach as much as $200 million (Hull, 1998).

Unfortunately, Yellowstone National Park was unable to receive any monetary benefit from

this discovery. Under the 1983 Code of Federal Regulations, there is nothing that states that

the NPS should receive any monetary benefit from research data derived from park

resources. So, in 1997, when a biotechnology research firm known as Diversa Corporation

showed an interest in harvesting and studying additional organisms within the thermal pools,

things were done a little differently. Yellowstone developed a cooperative research and

development agreement (CRADA) with Diversa to protect the interests of the Park. Through

this agreement, Yellowstone receives $20,000 per year from Diversa for the collection of

specimens as well as an additional percentage of profits that may be gained through specimen

57

research (Hull, 1998). Although this money will be directly reinvested back into the park,

there is opposition to this agreement on the grounds that it crosses federal regulations that

state that biological material from National Parks may never be sold to researchers. In fact,

several groups including the Edmonds Institute, the International Center for Technology

Assessment, and the Alliance for the Wild Rockies filed a challenge against Yellowstone

based on this regulation however; the agreement was upheld as of April 12, 2000 (NPS,

2000). In addition, there are others who feel that these actions are unethical and may result

in the exploitation of National Parks.

Bioprospecting again brings up the issues of ownership and classification of

specimens. In addition, it also brings up concerns with ethics of profiting from a natural

resource. Bioprospecting has the potential to become a very real and pressing issue for parks

to deal with as they become more involved in inventorying activities. There is every

possibility that, of the 500 and sum organisms that have been discovered in GRSM so far, at

least a couple will yield significant findings to the scientific community, and once again, this

is only scratching the surface. On one hand, bioprospecting may be the golden key that helps

fund this very valuable research, on the other, it may serve to alienate parks from the public

they are meant to serve.

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CONCLUSION

As stated in the beginning, the purpose of this professional paper was to discuss the

methods GRSM and DLIA have used to begin the first ATBI in the United States. Other

goals were to analyze some of the potentials and pitfalls learned through the process so far,

and to address some of the implications of conducting additional ATBIs on a Service-wide

scale. This way, other parks beginning this endeavor can learn from what has been done and

use this information to develop their own programs.

Regarding the methods of an ATBI, a fortunate thing about conducting an ATBI is

that it is constantly a work in progress. The process can continually be changed as new

lessons are learned. However, in my opinion, there are some basic requirements necessary in

order for an ATBI to begin and remain successful. First and foremost, a separate

organization should be developed to organize and manage the ATBI. Once a strong

leadership base has been determined, an effective science plan should be developed to

address just exactly how data will be collected and how that data will be processed. Creating

strong ties to the community should also be included to build support and create partnerships,

as well as to form a trained volunteer base. An education plan should also be considered

that is geared towards school groups and the public to help foster and understanding of the

reasons behind an ATBI. I believe that creative marketing and fundraising methods will also

be necessary in order to sustain financial support for ATBI activities. Finally, a park should

be aware that not all stakeholders involved with the project will have the same goals or ideas

and disagreements and compromise will be regular parts of the process.

When reviewing what lessons have been learned, one should keep in mind that a

disappointing situation or something that has gone wrong can provide as much in the way of

59

learning as something that went well. Not everything with DLIA and GRSM appears to have

gone according to plan. Cataloging all the many specimens collected through the ATBI

seems to result in many more challenges than what participants may have thought.

Challenges such as maintenance and storage of specimens, having newly discovered

specimens properly identified, and realizing the role the ATBI might play in other political

issues related to the park. In speaking with Hilten, I learned that all though a great deal of

effort was put into a science and education plan, a business plan for DLIA was not as well

thought out and has become a later priority (Hilten, pers. comm.). Some pleasant surprises

that park and DLIA staff have mentioned included the success of the Bio-Blitz collecting

events as well as the quality of volunteers who have helped to support the ATBI and the

effectiveness of many of the TWIG groups.

Again, the purpose of this paper was not just to review an interesting activity done at

one park. Rather, it is the hope of this author that the information provided be used, by those

who may become involved in ATBIs at their own facilities, as an additional planning

resource. By providing an open discussion of one park’s activities it has been my intent that

this will result in further discussion and creative problem solving to develop better and better

methods for conducting ATBIs. For example, by becoming aware of the increased need for

more taxonomists, perhaps a park, or even several parks, might develop a creative solution to

this issue. This is a process that should ultimately benefit everyone through a sharing of

information and include those parks that may have already started the process.

Over 200 scientists are currently or have worked on the ATBI at GRSM so far and

over 500 new species to science have been discovered along with over 3000 new species

records for the park. This vast number is still just the tip of the iceberg for GRSM and

60

GRSM is only one of hundreds of parks in the NPS system. One can just imagine the

possibilities that additional inventorying efforts on a nation wide scale will have on the

understanding and management of our natural world.

61

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