Chapter 1. Introduction Language anxiety has been frequently reported as a universal challenge in EFL contexts. Studies in EFL learning and teaching have addressed the necessity of reducing students’ anxiety in a foreign language class (Horwitz, 1988; Horwitz, 2001; Horwitz & Cope, 1986; Horwitz & Young, 1991; Huang, et al., 2010; Hussain, et al., 2011; Liu and Jackson, 2008; Liu & Zhang, 2010; Macintyre & Gardner, 1989; Macintyre & Gardner, 1991; Ohata, 2005). In particular, when it comes to a case of getting students to express their ideas or to respond orally to teachers, it is a common problem encountered by EFL teachers in English-speaking classes. Students were found to be very anxious when responding to teachers in English. Moreover, students tend to feel anxious when a situation is viewed as a threat which has effects on their performance. According to Liu (2006), “anxiety” is found as one of the major factors contributing to students’ reticence. However, a satisfactory 1
Transcript
Chapter 1. Introduction
Language anxiety has been frequently reported as a universal challenge in EFL
contexts. Studies in EFL learning and teaching have addressed the necessity of
reducing students’ anxiety in a foreign language class (Horwitz, 1988;
In particular, when it comes to a case of getting students to express
their ideas or to respond orally to teachers, it is a common problem
encountered by EFL teachers in English-speaking classes. Students were found
to be very anxious when responding to teachers in English. Moreover, students
tend to feel anxious when a situation is viewed as a threat which has effects on
their performance. According to Liu (2006), “anxiety” is found as one of the
major factors contributing to students’ reticence. However, a satisfactory
exploration on how to reduce EFL students’ anxiety has yet to be conducted.
This problem, therefore, has been obviously considered for foreign language
teaching and learning which requires a low-anxiety environment.
One possible way to reduce anxiety and increase confidence and
motivation is to utilize drama in the ELT classroom. In the last decades,
encouraging research in foreign language teaching and learning has shown that
drama can help this problem, generating desire to communicate in the target
language, and enhancing fluency, engagement and motivation (Kao and
O’Neill, 1998; Stinson and Freebody, 2006; Stinson, 2008). Drama can create
a “non-threatening” and “safe” environment for the learners to acquire and use
their target language (Radin, 1985; Stern, 1981). The participants feel more
comfortable speaking the target language without inhibitions when they are “in 1
role” within some imaginative situation that is removed from the immediate,
real world (Smith, 1984). Dodson (2000) and Phillips (1999) suggests that
drama activities such as role play and improvisation could be useful for
practicing and acquiring vocabulary and expression, lowering the affective
filter, and providing a genuine need for students. Moreover, Wagner (1998)
states, “Drama is powerful because of its unique balance of thought and
feeling makes learning exciting, challenging, relevant to real life concerns, and
enjoyable” (p. 9).
Furthermore, there are relatively more researchers supporting the use
of drama to lower anxiety, and increase motivation and confidence for
EFL/ESL students. Stern’s study (1981) examined participants’ feelings of
nervousness, uneasiness and embarrassment. The ESL participants agreed that
drama activities helped them become less inhibited when speaking in front of a
group (p. 93). Teachers from this study also commented that drama activities
created a safe class atmosphere and lower students’ anxiety about speaking (p.
94). Kao and O’Neill (1998) also conducted a qualitative study on a drama-
oriented second language classroom. They interviewed university students and
found that drama activities help to lower anxiety of beginning learners and
students were so involved in their imaginary roles that they forgot their fear of
speaking in public (p. 91). Students in a Korean English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) study also reported feeling more relaxed and confident
speaking English as a result of a drama-based English language program
(Coleman, 2005). Likewise, several studies confirm that drama use in language classes provides strong motivation to the learners and builds their confidence, and ultimately reduces the anxiety of students.
Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of drama on
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students’ anxiety in speaking in English. Considering the fact that language
anxiety is a problem of remarkable proportions in teaching English as a
foreign language, the study aims to explore its application possibility in the context of Korea, particularly in speaking classes. Accordingly, the
study aims to identify the anxiety levels of students and represent the
classroom situation throughout the teaching drama activities at a university in
Korea. Following that, drama activities, which are assumed to be instrumental
in reducing students’ speaking anxiety, were carried out in a-sixteen-week
study. The impact of the drama activities to anxiety levels of students in
speaking in English are investigated. Furthermore, the possible factors that
students believe contribute their anxiety in speaking in English during the
drama activities have been elaborated on. In many studies, qualitative analysis
was used to measure the effectiveness of drama. However, using both
quantitative and qualitative methods, this study seeks an answer to the
following questions:
1. How do the drama activities affect students’ anxiety level in speaking in English?2. What are the factors that affect students' anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities?
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Chapter 2. Literature Review
In this chapter, related literature on drama and language anxiety, especially
language speaking as a part of the focus of this research, is reviewed. First,
literature that discusses the use of drama in education in English second/
foreign language classes is reviewed. A brief historical review of drama
teaching and its effects in ELT will be presented. Next, the research discussing
the nature and concept of anxiety and foreign language anxiety, and its effect
in follows. Then, the research studies discussing possible factors contributing
to learners’ anxiety, as well as the impact of foreign language anxiety on
learning, in particular on speaking performance are presented. Finally, the
studies into the effects of drama on anxiety are investigated.
2.1 Drama in Education
2.1.1 Drama in a Historical Review
Traditionally theatre has been taken to refer to performance whereas drama has
referred to the work designed for stage representation, the body of written
plays (Elam, 1980). In the context of drama teaching however the terms have
been used differently. Theatre was thought to be largely concerned with
communication between actors and an audience; whereas drama was largely
concerned with experience by the participants, irrespective of any function of
communication to an audience (Way, 1967, cited in Zafeiriadou, 2009, p. 4).
In the 1980s and 1990s in England and many other countries there was
a fairly pronounced division between writers and practitioners who advocated
different approaches to teaching drama. Teachers who took a theatre approach 4
talked about acting, rehearsal and performance whereas teachers with a drama
focus referred more to experience or living through improvisations
(Hornbrook, 1989). In practice these tended to be more orientations in the
work rather than rigid distinctions but the differences are crucial in
understanding the way drama teaching developed; legacies of these approaches
are found in contemporary practice (Fleming, 2003).
The method of drama teaching which developed from the 1950s
onwards and embraced more free forms of dramatic play and improvisation
can be seen as a reaction to the stifling and uncreative approaches at the time
which involved children acting out in a rather formal way the words of others
rather than developing ideas of their own (Slade, 1954, cited in Zafeiriadou,
2009, p.4). It was suggested that when participants are engaged in more
spontaneous, improvised work (traditionally called drama) their level of
engagement and feeling will be more intense and genuine than when they are
performing on stage (traditionally called theatre). The theoretical perspectives
on drama education were at that time drawn from writings on child play and
the Humanistic School of psychology (Erikson 1963, 1968; Rogers, 1969,
cited in Zafeiriadou, 2009, p. 4) rather than on the theatre. The emphasis was
on the personal growth of the individual through creative self expression and
the search for personal meaning. The influence of progressive psychology
theorists as George Kelly in the 1950s and his personal construct theory that
urges people to uncover their own constructs with minimal intervention by the
'therapist' were also apparent in the advocates of drama in education.
The recent history of drama teaching being described here is
represented in the following diagram by Fleming (2003). At the time when the
separation of drama and theatre was happening what was being rejected was
the negative aspects of theatre practice (depicted in the upper right side of the
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diagram) when imposed prematurely on young people. A more contemporary
view of theatre practice is represented in the lower right quadrant (Theatre 2).
Here the approach is less authoritarian, there is a more fluid concept of what
acting and rehearsal involve and there is greater acceptance of non -naturalistic
approaches. Similarly there has been a change in the way drama has been
conceptualised. The changed conception at Drama 2 in the diagram means that
all drama in the classroom can draw on insights provided by the nature of
drama as art and writings from theatre practitioners (Bolton, 1992; Heathcote,
1980; Shewe & Shaw, 1993).
Figure 2.1 History of drama teaching (Source: Fleming (2003), p.11)
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In keeping with the tradition of drama use in teaching, the current
study considers both process (Drama)- and product (Theatre)-oriented
approaches, though treated simply as drama. As noted earlier, there will be no
attempt to test the efficacy or impact of one over the other, as might be done in
other disciplines.
2.1.2 Drama in English Language Teaching
The following two sections will review six types of drama activities and the
effects of drama in English language teaching, particularly focusing on its
benefits for foreign language classrooms.
2.1.2.1 Types of Drama in ELT
2.1.2.1.1 Role play
Budden (2007) defines role-play as “any speaking activity when you either put
yourself into somebody else's shoes, or when you stay in your own shoes but
put yourself into an imaginary situation” (p. 2). According to Kodotchigova
(2001) role play prepares L2 learners for L2 communication in a different
social and cultural context. Role play is really a worthwhile learning
experience for both the students and the teacher. Not only can students have
more opportunities to “act” and “interact” with their peers trying to use the
English language, but also students’ English speaking, listening, and
understanding will improve (Huang, 2008).
2.1.2.1.2 Mine
Dougill (1987) defines mime as “a non-verbal representation of an idea or
story through gesture, bodily movement and expression” (p.13). Mime
emphasizes the paralinguistic features of communication. From the point of
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the teacher, miming may as well be a good method how to integrate even those
students whose language abilities are not the best and in most of the activities
want to keep back (Hillova, 2008). Savignon (1983) says that the mime helps
learners become comfortable with the idea of performing in front of peers
without concern for language and that although no language is used during a
mime it can be a spur to use language.
2.1.2.1.3 Improvisation
Landy (1982) defines improvisation as an unscripted, unrehearsed,
spontaneous set of actions in response to minimal directions from a teacher,
usually including statements of which one is, where one is and what one is
doing there. In improvisation, students must create a scene, speak, act, react,
and move without preparing (Davis, n.d.). Maples (2002) emphasizes that
improvisation provides learners with opportunities to not only improve their
language communication skills, but also to improve their confidence, which
will ultimately lead to the development of positive self-concepts.
Improvisational exercises provide three main goals: student pronunciation
improves, proper use of a grammatical structure is reinforced, and vocabulary
practice is enhanced. It may be important to share with students these
functions in order to engage them in speaking and to build trust so they will
not lose face and will not fear making mistakes (Florea, 2011).
2.1.2.1.4 Simulation
Jones (1980) calls a simulation as case study where learners become
participants in an event and shape the course of the event. The learners have
roles, functions, duties, and responsibilities within a structured situation
involving problem solving. Simulations are generally held to be a structured
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set of circumstances' that mirror real life and in which participants act as
instructed. A simulation activity provides a specific situation within which
students can practice various communication skills like asserting oneself,
expressing opinions, convincing others, arguing eliciting opinions, group
problems solving, analyzing situations and so on (Smith, et al., 1984).
2.1.2.1.5 Reader’s Theatre
According to Sloyer (1982) readers’ theatre is an oral presentation of drama,
prose or poetry by two or more readers. Readers first read a story and then
transform the story into script involving several characters. The script is then
performed for an intended audience. To portray a character, readers strives
theatre has been adopted in Western educational settings to improve the
reading fluency and to enhance the reading comprehension of students (Henry,
2011). Because readers' theater focuses on vocal expression, and students have
the opportunity to practice repeatedly, pronunciation is a key component
(Davis, et al., n.d.). In creating RT scripts, students increase their knowledge
of language structure (vocabulary, syntax and meaning), and language use
(forms and functions of language use) and the meta-linguistic awareness such
as the ability to talk about the language (Hill, 1990).
2.1.2.1.6 Process Drama
Process drama is ‘a whole-group drama process, improvised in nature’, in
which the teacher and the students work together to create an imaginary
dramatic world and work within that world to explore a particular problem,
situation, theme, or series of related themes, not for a separate audience, but
for the benefit of the participants themselves (Bowell & Heap, 2001, p. 7). In a
process drama, students play a range of roles and engage in a variety of
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reflective out-of-role activities, requiring them to think beyond their own
points of view and consider the topic from multiple perspectives. They emerge
with an expanded self-awareness, and a greater sense of the challenges and the
possibilities facing the society in which they live. Process drama also carries
the potential for rigorous, standards-based learning to occur. Students not only
explore the dynamics, relationships, and conflicts that shape a given situation,
but also to acquire factual knowledge related to the topic of the drama.
Throughout this section six types of drama activities which aim
various functions in foreign language teaching have been introduced with their
benefits. It is important to note that these drama activities could be used for the
current study. Moreover, techniques other than improvisation could also used
while teaching.
2.1.2.2 Effect of Drama in ELT
The following are effects of drama for foreign language teaching provided
with their benefits.
2.1.2.2.1 Affective filter
Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition has been very influential in
the field of second language learning. His theory consists of five hypotheses:
(1) the acquisition-learning hypothesis, (2) the natural order hypothesis, (3) the
monitor hypothesis, (4) the input hypothesis, and (5) the affective filter
hypothesis (Krashen & Terrell, 1983), which teachers should take into account
when teaching a foreign language. The hypothesis that could encourage
teachers most to use drama in their classes is the hypothesis of Affective filter
that embodies Krashen’s (1988) view that a number of ‘affective variables’
play a facilitative role in second language acquisition. These variables include:
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motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen (1988) claims that learners
with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of
anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low
motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to ‘raise’
the affective filter and form a ‘mental block’ that prevents comprehensible
input from being used for acquisition (Krashen, 1988).
Drama helps students to overcome resistance to the foreign language
and the fear of making mistakes. It creates a natural need for speaking because
it does not concentrate on language itself, but on creating drama. Focusing on
the creative process more than on final linguistic output enables students to
learn almost unconsciously. As Maley and Duff (1982) opine “every student
needs periods in which he or she has a chance to practice what he or she
knows without restraint, without fear of being wrong. Students need the
occasional chance to take risks in the language, to try out new ways of
combining words, and of course, to find out where the gaps are in their
knowledge” (p. 14).
To provide learners with such opportunities for free practice, teachers
using drama in their classes should create a safe and comfortable atmosphere
where students would not be afraid of speaking in the target language. “This
kind of stress-free, fun teaching encourages pupils to participate without
embarrassment” (Hamilton and McLeod, 1993, p. 4) and it helps them to
overcome the psychological barrier from speaking in a foreign language.
Maley and Duff (1982) give a list of categories of language that
learners use naturally and without further thinking during drama activities:
“Transactional language - the language needed for getting things done
in a groupsituation.
Discussion language - used to come to agreement about something, to
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describe, comment on, or recall the activity in questions.
Performance language - it is the end product of some of the activities,
but it is inmany senses the least important precisely because it
involves the most preparation. Clearly, almost any language function
can come into play here, depending on the nature of the activity.”
(Maley and Duff, 1982, p. 17)
2.1.2.2.2 Motivation
Good motivation is one of the factors necessary for efficient learning. Harmer
(2001) defines motivation as “some kind of internal drive which pushes
someone to do things in order to achieve something” (p. 51). Drama gives
students the chance to learn by doing “where students are involved in
experimentation in order to arrive at knowledge” (Harmer, 2007, p. 20), which
is much more engaging than just learning by rote.
When concerning the student’s motivation, it is often referred to two
types: extrinsic, which “may be influenced by a number of external factors
such as attitude of society, family and peers to the subject in question (...), and
intrinsic motivation that is generated by what happens inside the classroom;
this could be teacher’s methods or activities that students take part in”
(Harmer, 2007, p. 20). Harmer (2007) also proposes that if we “involve the
students or excite their curiosity and provoke participation, we will help them
to stay interested in the subject” (p. 20).
The use of drama undoubtedly represents one of the methods of work
used by teachers to provoke intrinsic motivation. Not only does it help to build
a good teacher student relationship, but it also actively engages all the students
and all the time, so “in a sense, motivation is not needed when working
through drama, because the enjoyment comes from imaginative personal
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involvement” (Maley & Duff, 1982; 13). As Maley and Duff further (1982)
explain “drama activities also help to get rid of the diffidence and boredom
that come from being forced to stay passive most of the time” (p. 13).
2.1.2.2.3 Meaning in context
Appropriate understanding of the context of the discourse is one of the most
important elements for understanding the meaning. As Harmer (2007) claims
“meaning of language depends on where it occurs within a larger stretch of
discourse, and thus the relationship that the different language elements have
with what comes before and after them” (p. 59). In other words, speakers and
writers have to be able to operate with more than just words and grammar;
they have to be able to string utterances together (Harmer, 2007).
Drama represents an ideal method of work if teachers want to put the
meaning for students into a sizeable context. Unlike in guided practice,
students are involved in real communication while they “activate language to
communicate real meaning, rather than just practicing language” (Harmer,
2007, p. 270) and thus develop their communicative competence in a natural
way, using body language, making pauses and interruptions, showing
emotions, and creating relationships. Phillips (1996) encourages using drama
in second language teaching because “it encourages children to speak and
gives them the chance to communicate, even with limited language, using non-
verbal communication, such as body movements and facial expressions” (p. 6).
Moreover, making students focused on the process of the creation of
the drama rather than the final language product provides them with natural
and purposeful need for speaking, which describe Maley and Duff (1982) by
stating that “the problem of not wanting to speak or, more often, not knowing
what to say is practically resolved because the activity makes it necessary to
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talk” (p. 13-14). According to Maley and Duff (1982) “drama techniques have
the singular merit of directly engaging students’ feelings and, as a result, often
making them aware of the need to be able to express them appropriately” (p.
11).
2.1.2.2.4 Learning styles and multiple intelligences
Harmer (2007) stems from the theories of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming
and Multiple Intelligences and warns that “in any one classroom we have a
number of different individuals with different learning styles and preferences,
which means that we have to offer a wide range of different activity types in
our lessons in order to cater for individual differences and needs” (p. 16). Such
classroom forms a perfect environment for using drama work which includes
all kinds of stimuli and can develop all types of human intelligences.
The theory of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming introduces to the
educational theories different stimuli that students prefer while learning and
that predetermine their learning style. According to this concept, the learners
can be divided between visual learners, responding the best to the visual
stimuli such as pictures, written texts and diagrams; auditory learners,
benefiting most from the auditory input such as traditional lecturing or music;
and kinaesthetic learners who are the most successful when they are aged with
the learning activity. They acquire information fastest when participating in a
science lab, drama presentation, skit, field trip, dance, or other active activity.
Because of the high numbers of kinaesthetic learners, education is shifting
toward a more hands-on approach; manipulatives and other ‘props’ should be
incorporated into almost every school subject, from physical education to
language arts (Butterfield, 1989).
Another concept of students’ individualities in learning that teachers
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should take into consideration is the theory of multiple intelligences, first
introduced in 1980’s by an acknowledged American psychologist Howard
Gardner. His theory claims that each individual disposes of different types of
intelligences defined as “abilities to solve problems that are of consequence in
a particular cultural setting or community” (Gardner, 1993, p. 15). The
problem-solving skill allows one to approach a situation in which a goal is to
be obtained and to locate the appropriate route to that goal (Gardner, 1993).
An individual can demonstrate an extraordinary facility in one of the seven
described intelligences: musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, logical-mathematical,
linguistic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal; but each individual has
usually developed several of them. An educator’s task is to create a variety of
learning activities that would help particular students to develop their
intelligences.
Considering the fact that drama includes all kinds of stimuli, visual,
auditory, and kinaesthetic, and encourages students to develop all the
intelligences through active exploration of reality and problem-solving, its use
in education can be regarded as extremely beneficial.
2.1.2.2.5 Psychological benefits
Wessels (1987) provides the best definition of what drama in education is and
how it benefits students’ learning and personality development. For example,
according to Wessels (1987), “If a learner of English asked you ‘What is a
blind person?’ you might simply reply, ‘A blind person cannot see’, and this
probably may satisfy him intellectually. But if you replied, ‘Shut your eyes
and try to find your pen on the desk in front of you’, you would be involving
him in the actual experience of being blind, and would thus satisfy him not
only intellectually, but emotionally as well, and possibly inspire feeling of
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empathy with all blind people. He would be more likely to remember the
meaning of the word as a result of this moment of direct experience (p.7).
As drama gives the direct experience of human reality, students are
first getting to know themselves and then also the others. They naturally
develop empathy, by creating and taking over different social roles and asking
questions like ‘What is he or she thinking?’, ‘What does he or she feel?’, and
‘How would I feel being in their shoes?’, etc. Hamilton and McLeod (1993)
describe drama as a process of social learning: “Involving relations with
others, it promotes social and adaptive skills which in their turn feed in to the
process of learning a foreign language. (...) Learners are encouraged to explore
themselves and their reactions in relation to the outside world in a way which
can be both strengthening and enriching” (p. 5).
In general, drama, as an important means of fostering development of
a personal and social aspect of learner’s personality, has been used in
education (Reddy et al., 1997). Drama stimulates creativity, imagination and
also critical thinking as students are often asked to find solutions to diverse
problems. It also improves students’ self-esteem and self-confidence as they
are capable of performing in front of the audience, although the audience is
only composed of their classmates. At best, using drama in education forms
creative and socially susceptible individuals.
To conclude, the studies reviewed in this section suggest that drama
used in education provides many beneficial factors in terms of affective filter,
motivation, meaning in context, learning styles and multiple intelligences, and
personality development, encouraging teachers to take advantage of its
methods and techniques. However, it remains unclear whether anxiety levels
related to speaking are reduced by drama. The aim of the current study is to
provide a systematic examination of the effects of drama on anxiety.
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2.2 Anxiety in Language
In this section, literature of foreign language anxiety in terms of concept,
construct, effects, sources, and impact on foreign language learning and
speaking performance is reviewed. The following section first considers
anxiety in general terms in order to understand the specific type of anxiety that
learners experience in a foreign language classroom.
2.2.1Definition and Anxiety
In psychology, anxiety is described as “a state of apprehension, a vague fear
that is only indirectly associated with an object” (Scovel, 1991, cited in
Tanveer, 2007, p. 3). Speiberger (1976, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 13)
distinguished anxiety from fear by pointing out that although anxiety and fear
are both “unpleasant emotional reactions to the stimulus conditions perceived
as threatening,” fear is usually derived from a “real, objective danger in the
external environment” while the threatening stimulus of anxiety may not be
known. Spielberger (1983, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41) defined anxiety as the
“subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry
associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system.” More
specifically, Morris, David, & Hutchings (1981, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41)
claimed that general anxiety consists of two components: “worry and
emotionality.” Worry or “cognitive anxiety” refers to “negative expectations
and cognitive concerns about oneself, the situation at hand, and possible
consequences,” and emotionality or “somatic anxiety” concerns “one’s
perceptions of the physiological-affective elements of the anxiety experience,
which are indications of autonomic arousal and unpleasant feeling states, such
as nervousness, upset stomach, pounding heart, sweating, and tension”
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(Morris, David, & Hutchings, 1981, cited in Wilson, 2006; 41, & cited in
Cubucku, 2007; 134).
2.2.2 Trait, State and Situation-Specific Anxiety
Over the years, the term anxiety research has been conducted from different
points of views. They are trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific
anxiety. Trait anxiety, a motive or acquired behavioral disposition that
predisposes an individual to perceive a wide range of objectively non
dangerous circumstances as threatening, and to respond to these circumstances
with anxiety state reactions disproportionate in intensity to the magnitude of
the objective danger, is relatively permanent and steady personality feature
(Spielberger, 1966). State anxiety is apprehension experienced at particular
moment in time, for example, prior to taking exams. This anxiety can be
provoked in the confrontation of the perceived threat (MacIntyre & Gardner,
1991b). However, it is temporary and altered in time. In order to attribute the
experience to a particular source, researchers adopt situation specific
perspective to the study of anxiety. This perspective focuses on the situations
in which anxiety is aroused and this kind of anxiety is therefore termed as
situation-specific anxiety. Unlike trait and state perspective, situation-specific
perspective requires the respondents to ascribe their anxiety to particular
sources. Specific situations can offer more understanding to particular anxiety
in diverse situations.
In sum, the discussion of trait, state, and situation-specific anxiety
provides a more comprehensive understanding of what used to be simply
considered “anxiety”. For example, foreign language anxiety is reflected in
specific situations related to environments of foreign language learning and is
felt when one is required to use a foreign language (MacIntyre, 1999).
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Therefore, in foreign or second language learning contexts, it seems more
plausible to use instruments that measure situation-specific anxiety.
2.2.3 Foreign Language Anxiety
According to Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986), foreign language anxiety
belongs to situation-specific anxiety. In the following, the concept and
construct of foreign language anxiety, and the effects of foreign language
anxiety will be reviewed.
The role of anxiety in language learning was not put much emphasis
because previous studies usually generated contradictory results and were hard
to interpret (Chastain, 1975; Scovel, 1978). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993a)
believe that using general measures of anxiety is the reason to generate
contradictory results. Based on the situation-specific perspective, recent
studies have focused on anxiety which is specific to language situations. After
examining the concept of language anxiety empirically, researchers find
language anxiety is distinct from any other type of anxiety and is not merely a
composite of other anxieties (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre &
Gardner, 1991b). In order to identify and measure foreign language anxiety,
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) developed the Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), in which 33 question items ask
respondents to respond to situations specific to foreign language learning
anxiety and reflect the three components of foreign language anxiety:
communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation
(Ganschow & Sparks, 1996). For example, they ask questions about students’
anxiety in situations like speaking in front of the language class, taking exams
in language course, and perceiving other students’ evaluation of them. Due to
the scale’s success on construct validation and reliability, FLCAS has been
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widely adopted by many researchers to explore learners’ foreign language
anxiety (Aida, 1994; Chang, 1999; Ganschow et al., 1994; Ganschow&
Sparks, 1996; Liao, 1999).
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) describe three components of
foreign language anxiety: communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear
of negative evaluation. According to McCroskey’s (1978) definition,
communication apprehension is an individual’s level of fear or anxiety
associated with either real or anticipated communication with other persons.
Horwitz , Horwitz, and Cope (1986) submit the construct of communication
apprehension to their conceptualization of foreign language anxiety. They
think interpersonal interactions are the major emphasis in the English class. In
a foreign language classroom, language learners’ oral tasks include not only
learning a second language but also performing the language. Therefore,
communication apprehension in a foreign language context is different from
that in other context. Oral communication consists of two components:
listening and speaking. Speaking is anxiety-provoking in foreign language
activities (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991c). Daly (1991) and Young (1986) find
that most students are particularly anxious when they have to speak a foreign
language in front of their class. As to listening, it is a problem for language
learners, too. Foreign language learners usually have difficulty understanding
others. Because of the lack of control of oral communication, communication
According to Nunan (1992), journals may provide ‘insights in psychological
aspects of language development’ (p. 121). Keeping journals could benefit
students as they would reflect more on their second language learning. It is
also a useful tool to look at what students experience in the drama class.
The participants’ were also provided with guided questions which
were mainly consisted of 3 sections (See the Appendix B). The first section
was an overall lesson writing task that required the students to write what they
learn from the drama lesson. In the second section, the students were
39
encouraged to write their experiences or observations, and their reflections in
the learning drama activity. They were also encouraged to connect their
thoughts and feelings and experiences with the drama activity they were
engaged in. In the last section, they could write about their anxiety experienced
in the drama activity. They were told they could write as much as they wanted
in English, but at least 2 pages. They got feedback from the researcher but they
did not be correct the grammatical mistakes.
3.4.3 Interviews
To get a more comprehensive insider view of anxiety in the drama classroom,
1 high-anxious, 1 moderate-anxious, and 2 low-anxious students from the post
survey result of the PSCAS were invited for a semi-structured interview. The
researcher modified the questions and procedures according to the
interviewees’ responses. There were nine questions for student interview (See
the Appendix C). These prepared questions were designed based on the
research questions. Interview questions covered such aspects as personality,
educational experience, personal experience, participation and level of anxiety
in University English lessons, self-assessed oral English proficiency, and
reasons for feeling anxious. These questions were not asked in a fixed order,
and the actual wording was not determined in advance. Modification was
made according the survey results and participants’ responses. Just as Patton
(1990) suggested that participant’s response format should be open-ended, the
interviewer did not supply and predetermine the phrases or categories that
must be used by respondents to express themselves. The strategy of open-
ended response helped capture the complexities of the respondents’ individual
perceptions and experiences.
In case the interviewees may have difficulty understanding the
40
questions in English or do not like speaking English, all the interviews were
carried out in Korean.
3.5 Procedure
Table 3.5 Research scheduleProcedures Date Methodology
Pre-survey March 5th, 2014 Execute and submit the PSCAS
Classroom observation
March 5th, 2014~June 20th, 2014
Observe the experiment group
Reflective journals
March 12th, 2014~June 4th, 2014
Write and submit journals
Post-survey June 13th, 2014 Execute and submit the PSCAS
Interviews July 3rd~14th , 2014 Conduct 4 interview sessions
Evaluation March 5th, 2014~August 8th, 2014
Collection of data and analysis complete
3.5.1 General procedure
The study were conducted during one semester (16 weeks for undergraduate
students, the last of which was for final exams) of the academic year 2014,
from March, 5th to June, 20th (see Table 3. 5). The PSCAS was administered
twice for pre- and post-survey until the day before the final exams. For the pre-
survey, students were asked to complete the questionnaire included a
background questionnaire at home and then submitted them to the researcher
on March 7th, 2014 in the first week. Also, students were complete the same
survey for the post-survey on the last day of 15 weeks. The students started
journal writing in the second week and made one entry per drama activity for
nine weeks.
In the last four months of the study, the researcher observed and 41
video-recorded the students’ participation and level of anxiety in the various
drama activities on a weekly basis from March 5th, 2014 to June 20th, 2014,
from the first week on till the last week (16 weeks in all), two classes a week.
Each class lasted for 50 and 100 min each time. Each time before video-
recording, the students were required to check their attendances so that the
researcher could be sure of the seating in the classroom. In case the students
might feel nervous when video-recorded for the first time, only one video-
recording were used for analyses in the study.
The semi-structured interviews were held on July 3rd, 2014 (after the
final-term exam was over) and conducted in Korean. At the beginning of the
interviews, the researcher informed the students about the purpose of the study
and assured them that the information provided would be kept confidential.
Nevertheless, the results would be shared with them. After some small talk, the
researcher started the interviews by asking the students to talk about interview
questions. Each student interview lasted for 45-50 min, which were audio-
recorded. Four students were interviewed individually, and the study was
ended.
3.5.2 The procedure of the drama class
The drama class involved two lessons per a week. Each lesson lasted 50 and
100 min. In order to understand of drama in ELT and to apply this in Korean
ELT effectively, theories underpinning drama activities, such as,
multiculturalism, interactionism, pragmatism, and psycholinguistics were
studied as well as variety kinds of activities and tasks. Drama activities were
explored in terms of using there in a real context. One drama activity was
taught in two or three lessons. Overall 9 drama activities were covered in the
class (See Table3.6).
42
Table 3.6 Schedule for the drama class
Week Name of the drama activity Date/time
1
2
Scripted role-plays I
Scripted role-plays II-Eco drama
March, 5th & 7th
March, 12th & 14th
3 Mime March, 19th & 21st
4
5
Situational role-plays I-Still picture
Situational role-plays I-Still picture
March, 28th
April, 2nd & 4th
6
7
Situational role-plays II-An imaginary person in an
imaginary situation
Situational role-plays II-An imaginary person in an
imaginary situation
April, 9th & 11th
April, 16th & 18th
8 Midterm presentation April, 25th
9 Simulation April, 30th & May 2nd
10
11
12
Connecting reading texts into drama activities I
Connecting reading texts into drama activities II
Three types of reading
May, 7th & 9th
May, 16th
May, 21st & 23rd
13 Three types of reading May, 28th & 30th
14 National Holidays (No classes)
15 Process drama June, 11th & 13th
16 Final presentation June, 20th
Students were provided with the basic information about drama to
meet there needs for theoretical information about drama during the first two
classes (three hours total). During these presentations, the students focused on
things they should pay attention to during the drama activity, and the students
were provided with answers to their questions regarding the activity. After the
students were basically informed about drama, the weeks which the groups
were expected to perform the plays were determined randomly.
The researcher was asked to create the groups with which the students
43
would perform their plays together. The groups were limited to 4-5 students
and had been changed 3 times for 16 weeks. The drama groups made use of
the creative writing technique while preparing their plays. The basic reason
was not restrict the creative and free thinking of the students. After they wrote
their scenarios, a copy of those scenarios was presented to the researcher at the
end of the drama. While the drama groups stuck to the scenarios they wrote,
they also made use of the improvisations depending on the flow of the play.
When and which group will perform their plays were determined by drawing
lots or the instructor among the group. After these, each group continued their
work until it was their turn to perform. In this way, all the groups took part in
the drama activity. The conference hall of the school was used for the drama
activity. The classroom contained movable chairs, which enabled enough room
for physical activities. The conference hall, on the other hand, was equipped
with an overhead projector and the stage was available for students’
performances. The researcher monitored the process of all which the plays
were recorded. Every week a performance was done, and after each
performance, all the groups provided the researcher with a reflective journal
mentioning the experiences of the students in the drama activity.
3.6 Data analysis
In sum, there were four types of data collected: (a) the students’ responses to
the PSCAS items; (b) their self-reports in the reflective journals to, and (c)
informants’ responses to the un-structured interview.
The student data were collected and analyzed quantitatively and
qualitatively to answer the research questions in this study.
Quantitatively, to answer Research Questions (1) “How do the drama
activities affect students’ anxiety level in speaking in English?”, the results of
44
the survey were computed using the Statistical Package for Social Science
(SPSS, version 20.0) in terms of percentage, mean, frequency, and standard
deviation to determine the students’ anxiety levels. When computing these
scores, the researcher reversed the values assigned to different alternatives
from ‘Strongly Disagree’ (1) to ‘Strongly Agree’ (5) of some items. Namely,
for items 5, 10, 12, 14, and 15 which expressed comfort in using English, the
response ‘Strongly Disagree’ got a value of 5 instead of 1, the response
‘Strongly Agree’ got a value of 1 instead of 5, and so on. Thus, the total scores
of the PSCAS revealed the respondent’s anxiety at the beginning and end of
the semester. The higher the total scores are, the more anxious the student is.
According to Liu and Jackson’s (2008) suggestion (See Table 3.7), since there
are 25 items on the PSCAS, each item having five alternatives with a value of
1–5 assigned to them respectively, a total score of more than 100 implies that
the respondent is a high level anxiety. A total score of 75–100 signifies a
moderate level of anxiety and a total score of less than 75 indicates a low level
of anxiety. A paired samples t-test was conducted to test the significant
differences in anxiety scores before and after the drama activities.
Table 3.7 Liu and Jackson (2008) Anxiety Levels
Score of a PSCAS (25) Anxiety Level100 - 125 High Anxiety75 - 100 Moderate Anxiety
75- 0 Low AnxietyNote: (Number of items)
In addition, the PSCAS offers a four-dimensional conceptualization of
anxiety, such as communication apprehension, test anxiety, fear of negative
evaluation, and comfort in using English (Yaikhong & Usaha, 2012). By
calculating the scores of the items related to each category, the distribution of 45
the four dimensions of public speaking class anxiety were analyzed in figure to
determine the types of anxiety levels from the students’ responses before and
after the drama activities.
Qualitatively, to answer Research Question (2) “What are the factors
that affect students' anxiety in speaking in English during the drama
activities?”, verbatim transcripts were produced of reflective journals and
interviews, and content analysis was done to identify the theme and categories
of responses. Processing of the data from journals and interviews started with
reviewing all the data and sorting into categories, and transcribing the
interview audiotapes. . All 27students’ journals were examined. Since two
students were sick for one lesson and they skipped the class, the total number
of journal entries was 241. Individual entries with special units of information
were sorted and placed into categories provided meaningful information
related to students’ anxiety of speaking English. All the interview audiotapes
were transcribed into word-by-word transcripts in Korean. Only those events
that were necessary for data analysis and related to the study would be
transcribed. After making sure that all the data from the interview source were
completely transcribed, it was further translated into English and transferred to
approximately 420 entries with separate units of information. Based on the
analyses, some calculations were carried out, for example, about how many
students personally felt anxious in each drama activity, which is the reason
why students’ anxiety experiences were reduced, and which factor affects
students anxiety in speaking in English so on.
3.7 Summary
This chapter outlined the research design of this study. It first stated the
tworesearch questions of this study. It then gave an account of the research
46
design. A questionnaire, observations, interviews and reflectivejournals from
participants were the methods used to collect data. This chapter also described
how the research instruments were developed. The results and discussion will
be illustrated in the next chapter.
Chapter 4. Result
This section presents the results from the data collected by survey,
participants’ reflective journals, and interviews to answer the two research
questions.
47
4.1 Results from the survey
The results of pre and post survey public speaking class anxiety elevation
indicate that the drama activity actually affected positively in leveling down
anxiety of the students.
Table 4.1 Results of the comparison of pre and post survey PSCA mean scores
N Mean Std.Deviation
df t p
Pre survey 27 71 15.6 26 2.58 .016Post survey 27 64.7 15.16Note: P<0.05: Result significant.
As illustrated by Table 4.2, there was a minor decrease (about a score
of 7) in mean scores after the drama activities. Students’ PSCA level seemed
to be alleviated from 71 in the pre survey to 64.7 in the post survey. Both
results indicate that students were categorized as low anxiety based on Liu and
Jackson’s (2008) suggestions. It was seen that there was a significant
difference in favor of post survey between the pre and post survey PSCA mean
scores of the students (t: 2.580; p (.016) < 0.05).
Figure 4.1
Four dimensions of anxiety levels of pre and post survey PSCA
48
pre survey post survey2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
2.76
2.46
2.93
2.642.72
2.51
2.88
2.73
Communication Apprehention Fear of Negative EveluationTest Anxiety Comfort in using English
Types of Anxiety
Mean
Note: To determine mean values, the values of rating scores of all the items in the Comfort in using English aspect were reversed to obtain precise results because they were all positively worded items as discussed in Chapter III.
Moreover, analysis of each type of anxiety of the PSCAS, as shown in
figure 4.1, shows that there was a slight change for all types of anxiety as a
whole after the drama activities. According to the interpretation of the results
found in data analysis of the pre survey result of the PSCAS, it was found that
the participants’ test anxiety level was the lowest in its mean score (2.72)
amongst the other levels and followed by communication apprehension (2.76),
comfort in using English (2.88), and fear of negative evaluation (2.93).
However, the post survey result of PSCAS revealed that the scores decreased
after the drama activities. Communication apprehension (0.30) was lower than
the other types of anxiety, followed by fear of negative evaluation (0.29), Test
anxiety (0.19), and comfort in using English (0.15) respectively.
49
Obviously, the results confirmed that there were traces of public
speaking class anxiety reduction after the drama activities. It could be stated
that the drama activities had made some influence on the students’ anxiety of
speaking in English.
4.2 Results from the reflective journals
The results of the reflective journals indicate that students expressed that the
drama activities alleviated their anxiety in speaking in English from time to
time.
Figure 4.2
Students’ self-reported anxiety in different drama activities reflected in journals
Entry
1(activ
ity1)
Entry
2(activ
ity2)
Entry
3(activ
ity3)
Entry
4(activ
ity4)
Entry
5(Midt
erm pr
esenta
tion)
Entry
6(activ
ity5)
Entry
7(activ
ity6)
Entry
8(activ
ity7)
Entry
9(activ
ity8)
Overall
81 74 7859
7452
6750
63 66.4
19 26 22 27 2241
2646 37 29.6
Did you personally have anxiety in the drama activity?
Yes(%) No (%)
Note: Some students did not finish all the 9 journals and thus theirs were considered invalid for analysis.
Each time in reflective journals subjects should choose between “Yes”
50
or “No” to the question which asks whether they had felt the speaking anxiety
during the lecture.
As Figure 4.2 shows, a majority of students felt anxious/nervous or a
little anxious/nervous when speaking in English at the very beginning of the
drama activities. However, the students’ anxiety experiences reported at each
journal entry were reduced from time to time after the use of the drama
activities. Comparing with the average students’ anxiety experience percentage
of 66.4%, interestingly, the students’ anxious experiences ranked three times
higher than the average percentage before the midterm presentation and their
anxious experiences ranked three times lower than the average percentage after
the midterm presentation. Moreover, the students expressed positive feelings
towards the drama activities over times. It could be stated that students’ self-
reported anxiety experiences reduction in reflective journals were also in line
with their levels of anxiety reported on the survey, according to which, the
drama activities affected positively in leveling down anxiety of the students.
The students further claimed that the drama activities yielded positive
effects on their anxiety reduction in speaking in English. Students stated that
the drama activities helped reduce their anxiety with various reasons, in terms
of frequent opportunities of speaking (46%), motivation (22%), self-
confidence (12%), interesting activities (10%), and team spirit (10%). These
responses of the students are summarized in the following chart.
Figure 4.3 Students’ responses, with percentage, regarding of the effects of drama
for decreasing their anxiety
51
It provides frequent oppor-tunities of speaking.
46%
It improves self-confidence.12%
It provides interesting activi-ties. 10%
It enhances motivation.22%
It enhances team spirit.10%
Percentage of students' responds on the effects of drama for decreasing their
anxiety
Note: 50 out of 241 journal entries were described positively.
With a percentage of 46%, as reflected in Figure 4.3, one of the
reasons for anxiety level reduction stated mostly in the reflective journal was
frequent opportunities of public presentation and speaking practice. Students
reported that drama allowed them to do many performances in public. The
students commented that they were able to become aware of patterns and
sequences in the drama that indicated familiar activities and could help them
anticipate what happened next. Thus, they made improvement on oral
presentation skills and gained confidence to speak English. As indicated in the
following students’ journal excerpts:
Actually, I become very used to those ‘presenting’ and ‘showing’ situations which the drama class includes most. Still I feel a bit anxious, but I am getting better to talk in front of the class, and I become more confident than the first week. (6th journal, Yunng).
52
What I feel ‘accomplished’ is that I have overcome my anxiety a lot compared with week 1~2 when I was first presenting. Doing lots of presentations in the drama class, I think my anxiety coming out when speaking in front of other people started fading away (8th journal, Hyun).
Also, some of students reported that the drama activity provided the
opportunity to practice on speaking in English. They wrote that their speaking
anxiety was reduced and they understood how a speech should be prepared.
This made presentation easy before delivering. The following is an excerpt
from one student journal:
I enjoy the class. Speaking English is always challenged to me but I tried to say whatever without shameless. Through this activity, I learned the importance of context. Also, I should speak in English continually; that is, I could practice my oral ability before presentation. (…) I’m still poor at speaking in English but my fear about it is a little bit reduced (6 th journal, Jang).
The second reason was that 18% of students noted that their speaking
anxiety had reduced because drama enhanced their motivation. The students
reported that the drama activities helped them know that they could learn new
things and helped their motivation. They believed that it helped in learning and opening their mind. They also indicated that they
enjoyed the drama activities and were motivated to participate in more, as
indicated in the following student journal excerpt:
Unlike before I felt that I become much better to control the nervousness while I present in front of others. Also, I could experience the enjoyable moment while I prepare the presentation. Furthermore, it was a good opportunity not only enjoy with group members but also to learn today’s social issues from exiting drama activity. (…) therefore, I could feel the power of drama once again. If I can have another chance to participate the kind of activity, I will put more effort in performance and I will keep trying to other many ideas which will be helpful to our group work (Midterm presentation journal, Yoon)
53
The third reason was that students with a percentage of 12% reported
that their speaking anxiety was reduced because drama improved their
confidence. Most of the students commented on the confidence that they felt after completing their performances in the drama activity. They also said that it helped them improve communication
with proper voice modulations and appropriate gestures. Consequently, drama
reduced their speaking anxiety and they gained more confidence. The
following is an excerpt from one student journal:
I feel comfortable now. It is a big change for me. I wrote in my first paper I felt anxiety in almost every situation when I talk something in English. I am still not very good at speaking, but not that shy anymore about it. I always try to do it, and everybody looks like understand to my words. If they looked confused, I use body languages draw a picture. The best value I learned from this class is that if we have a confident of myself, we could do everything well (7th journal, Lee).
The fourth reason was that 10% of students noted that their speaking
anxiety was reduced because of interesting activities. Most of students
reported that they often became involved in the drama activities because it was
fun and enjoyable. The students described that drama also built up their
engagement and motivation to speak, as the following excerpt suggest:
This time, I did not feel any anxiety in the drama activity. Taking with other students in English was fun and exciting and showing our intelligence in front of class was fun as well (5th journal, Neui)
The last reason was that the same percentage of students (10%)
believed that their speaking anxiety was reduced because the classes enhanced
the spirit of working in a team, and build trust and confidence. The students
were aware that teamwork during the drama activities was of critical
importance for their anxiety, as the following excerpt suggest:
I’m always nervous when I’m standing in front of many people to present
54
something. However, I could overcome it with our team members’ help. I could have courage after seeing their great presentation (4th journal, Yoo).
In conclusion, students repeatedly expressed that the drama activities
were effective for reducing their personal anxiety levels in speaking in
English. With the drama activities, they did many presentations in public and
practiced speaking English repeatedly, developed their motivation, often
became involved in the drama activities, increased their self-confidence and
gained more communication skills. Furthermore, the use of drama activities
enhanced team spirit.
4.2.1. Factors contributing to anxiety
Analysis of anxiety factors given by the students through the reflective
journals suggested that there were 8 different factors which they believed had
negatively contributed to their anxiety in speaking in English, namely fear of
stage fright, poor in English, lack of preparation, lack of self-confidence, fear
of failure, afraid of perception of others, introvert/shy, and conflict of opinion.
Table 4.2
Reported factors based on reflective journals data when speaking in English during the drama activitiesFactors N(161) %Fear of stage fright 47 29Poor in English(in terms of grammar, pronunciation, etc) 34 21Lack of preparation 29 18Lack of self-confidence 22 14Fear of failure 14 9Afraid of perception of others 12 8Introvert/shy 2 1Conflict of opinion 1 1Note: (Number of the journal entries)
As can be seen in the table above, the majority of the students had fear 55
and anxiety of speaking in public or with performance on a stage when
speaking in English where 47 out of 161 entries indicated the same response.
With a percentage of 29%, fear of stage fright was placed as the major cause of
anxiety and of speaking English. Most of the students concerned about some
degree of nervous apprehension when preparing to speak or perform in front of
an audience. Some of them commented on the presentation situation, for
example they would try to avoid eye contact with the audiences, even if they
were sure of the drama activities being performed. The students also were
afraid of being singled out to speak English in front of an audience of
individuals when they did not know for the first 1 or 2 weeks especially if they
had lack of experience in speaking in public, as indicated in the following
student journal excerpt:
When I should act or doing things in front of audience, I felt anxious. Whenever I talk before the audience, I feel embarrassed, so I blush. I don’t like this habit. When I was freshman, I acted play, but it’s long time ago. I think if get familiar with other classmates, it will be better than now (1st
journal, Shin)
The second factor that could be identified was a lack of English
proficiency with 21% of the students expressing a similar response. Some of
them reported that they were weak in English, some were afraid of making
mistakes in terms of grammar, pronunciation and arranging of words, and also
their perceived lack of knowledge about the drama activities that they were
participating. But the most frightening classroom situation experienced by
most of the students was when their perceived lack of English proficiency was
combined with their lack of unpreparedness of the activities in presentations.
These factors contributed to their level of anxiety. The following is an excerpt
from one student journal:
When I have to explain a story or situation to other students in English, I 56
sometimes feel frustrated because I can’t express myself well in English. Therefore I usually need much time for preparing in English but I couldn’t do this time. I should train harder to improve the fluency and provide precise expressions (5th journal, Keum)
The next factor was lack of preparation, with 18% of the students
writing the same answer. This was because the students felt anxiety when they
entered the class and not doing the practicing before the presentation, not
being able to do the assignments or not making their script before the
scheduled performance. This factor also involved the anxiety that the students
felt when they was given a task on the spot and were happened
when they were not prepared.
Moreover, the lack of time to prepare for the upcoming performance was
pointed out by most of the students. The students were aware that preparation
was the key to attaining success in the drama activities, as the following
excerpts suggest:
When I went in front of people, I was so nervous to present the picture. The practice is important for me. I did practice normally but it was so lack of presenting fluently. Everyone has to be person who want to be the best presenter, if so, the practice will be the best way, all so (3rd journal, Pack)
The fact that we had less time than other groups made me feel anxious and a little uncomfortable. I feel anxious when I am not well prepared. When I am not prepared, I lose control of my mind because I start to worry about the presentation while I am giving the presentation. However, I was not anxious on Friday at all because I was well-prepared (7th journal, Sun).
The fourth factor was lack of self-confidence with 22 students said
that they believed they did not have the confidence to express themselves in
English. Most of the students indicated that they felt anxious in speaking
classes even if they were well-prepared. They never feel quite sure of
57
when
somebody not prepared
themselves and always think about others better than them when speaking in
English. Also, this factor that caused anxiety when speaking in English is
when speaking with people who are fluent in the language. One of the students
wrote that she felt her confidence was lowered when she had to speak with a
foreigner in her group. There was also one student who wrote that she felt
anxious when she had to speak with people with a higher status as she believes
these people are proficient in their English. The two following excerpts are
students’ reflective journals:
I feel I’m not a good English speaker. Most students in our class were very good at English speaking, and that makes me feel anxious to speech to them. However, that’s the reason why I take this class, so always; I try to overcome it (4th journal, Jea).
We had to have a presentation in front of the class again. It was a little nervous for me because I didn’t feel confident and there were many other groups who did a great job and felt we were not as well prepared. However, I tried to talk calmly. I wanted to act as a read the script but I wasn’t confident enough. I felt unsatisfied with not able to be more confident and really act. I will try to practice more and be more confident next time! (3 rd
journal, Joo)
The fifth factor that the students experienced anxiety before, during or
after a performance because of worry or fear of failure, or about making
mistakes while speaking English (9%). Most of the students said that they
feared taking tests, because test-taking situations would make them anxious
about the negative consequences of getting a bad grade. In addition, they said
they sometimes felt pressured to think that they had to organize their ideas in a
short period of time (e.g., improvisations) while caring about grammar errors
at the same time. Some of them expressed such anxious feelings, as indicated
in the following student journal excerpt:
I was very nervous when I had to perform. I was not sure if I could do well 58
because I was worried in case I forget my part or have mistakes. Performing and acting in front of many people was pretty challenging (Midterm journal, Eun)
The sixth factor that the students were afraid of the perceptions of
others when they spoke in English where 12 out of 161 respondents indicated
the same response. With a percentage of 8 %, most of the students were
concerned about various kinds of evaluative situations in which their
knowledge and performance of English were to be monitored by students
around them. They were conscious about the facial expressions of other
students and also of the instructor. They were afraid if their audiences looked
bored and confused, and could not understand the information they were trying
to deliver, as the following excerpts suggest:
I felt anxious when we were up playing; because I worried that maybe the audience might not understand what our intention was (8th journal, Chun).
Hopefully, I think that the anxiety that I had last time decreased. I felt less nervous when I performed. However, another anxiety arose; my new anxiety is that I worry about the response of the audience. In other words, I worried whether the audience liked our performance or not. The situation that I felt was right after I finished my performance because after the performance I can listen to the feedback from the professor and other classmates (2th journal, Jieu)
An introvert person or feeling shy also contributes as one of the causes
of speaking English anxiety with 2% of the total respondents expressed as
shown below:
Whenever I do presentation I feel really nervous and it stresses me out. I am quite introvert so I need much courage (3rd journal, Sung).
The last results were similar with conflict of opinion with one
respondent said that she felt anxiety when the group had different opinions
59
against her. One student noted:
When I am in situations that my opinion is against the team’s opinion, I feel anxious and I don’t know how to do and what to do. However, through many drama activities and group activities, I could find that making group opinion is much more important than only thinking my opinion right (5 th
journal, Hye).
It can be concluded that among all of the factors that can be listed
from the response in the reflective journals, the top cause that affected on
student’s anxiety in speaking in English was fear of stage fright during the
drama activities.
4. 3 Results from the interviews
The results of analysis of the transcripts in interviews showed that all four
interviewees revealed positive reactions towards the drama activities, in which
the students could engage with their own roles during the drama activity and
kept them speaking in English all the times, even though their post anxiety
survey results were different after the drama activities.
The researcher conducted four individual interviews; 1 high-anxious
(participant D), 1moderate-anxious (participant G), and 2 low-anxious student
(participant J and S) from the post survey results of the PSCA in order to get in-depth data about speaking anxiety experienced by the students in the drama classroom,. All the names reported here are
pseudonyms. Below is a brief description of the participants.
Three (participants G, J, and S) were native Korean undergraduate
students majoring in Education. One (participant D) was a native Chinese
undergraduate student, whose major was English language and literature.
Comparing with the pre survey results of the PSCA, the D and G participants
of anxiety levels were increased and the J and S participants of anxiety levels
60
were decrease in the post survey results of the PSCA. All participants shared
almost the same educational background in terms of the length of learning
English (10 to 12 years), except for differing lengths of studying or living
abroad experiences. Age differences ranged from 19 to 25 years old. Their
own estimate on the ratio of Korean and English use within a week was
approximately 8 (Korean): 2 (English) on average (See the Appendix 5for
detailed descriptions of each participant).
From the findings, the students D and G who felt more anxiety after
the drama activities stated that they got stressed and worried very much about
their performing in the activity with their personal anxiety factors such as
stage fright and lack of confidence. However, they expressed positive feelings
about the drama activity because they could have a lot of chances to speak in
English and did not feel bored, as they said:
When I attended in this class, I felt more uncomfortable than the other English class. The more I thought about the upcoming performance, the more depressed I become. However, now that I think about the drama class, it was good for me to have many chances to speak and write in English in the drama activities (Students D).
I couldn’t enjoy the drama class. There were many good English speakers in my class and I didn’t know how to do what I thought. Also, (…) I had to have my own roles and had to speak in English during the drama activities. These situations made me stressful all the times because I am not good at English. Afterwards, I felt relaxed and did not feel bored at all in the drama activity. I still have anxious of speaking in English but I had a lot of practice of speaking (Student S).
On the other hand, the student J and S who felt much lower anxiety
after the drama activities commented that their anxiety level was reduced
because of the frequent speaking opportunities. Consequently, they increased
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their self-confidence. They recounted:
At the first drama activity I feared to speak English and felt nervous, after practicing many times, now my anxiety was reduced and I became more confident. Moreover I enjoyed the drama activities a lot (Student J).
The drama activities didn’t help me improve my speaking fluency, but I used to perform in front of others… so… I felt less anxiety on speaking in English (Student S).
To sum up, although the students anxiety levels varied after the use of
the drama activity, the students found that the drama method encouraged them
to speak in English, in terms of frequent opportunities. This finding was also in
line with students’ self reports in the reflective journals that suggest one of the
effects of drama for decreasing anxiety of the students.
4.3.1 Factors contributing to anxiety
After the analysis of student interviews, the factors of students’ anxiety on
the drama class collected in this study (See Appendix 6). Four students
expressed in the interviews that students’ lack of self confidence to speak in
English was a major source of anxiety about speaking and they felt that other
students are better than mine. The following interview between the
researcher (R) and student (S) illustrates what she experienced in an interview,
R: What do you think are the factors of your nervousness in speaking English on the drama class?S J: I am a very extrovert … but I was not confident to speak in English.R: Do you have any problems with your English?S J: No… but I felt that other students’ English was better than mine and it was burden for me to speak English in front of them.
The students were also anxious when they experienced lack of self
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confidence in their English Proficiency. Moreover it was the main factor for
low-anxiety student J and S. They seemed to agree upon the anxious feelings
associated with their lack of English proficiency. They expressed a deep
concern about the difficulty communicating in English. Student S said their
frustrated feelings to their lack of English proficiency.
If I could write in the same way in English, I wouldn't feel so nervous (when asked to clarify my points in class). Even if I am quite familiar with the topic in my group discussion, I somehow tend to hesitate to comment on that because I have to think about the proper words, grammar, and pronunciations at once, and after class I feel so bad about myself (Interview, student S).
In another interview, student D and G who felt more anxiety after the
use of the drama activities explained how the students being afraid to speak in
English and fear of negative evaluation mainly cause anxiety. Their
anxiety happened when they were speaking in front of the class because the
students thought other students would be ridiculing them. As student
D clearly noted:
R: What kind of situations caused anxiety when you were speaking English?
S J: I prepared a lot for the presentation but I was afraid to be in front of others.
R: Why did you feel like that?S J: Because I was the only one foreigner in this class and I
was not good at speaking English (…) so I thought that other students ridiculed me when I made errors.
From the student interviews the obtained results revealed that
students’ anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities arose from
three major factors. These were lack of self-confidence, low English
proficiency, and fear of negative evaluation. The results of these factors were
also in line with self-reports in the reflective journals, according to which,
63
students felt anxious/nervous or a little anxious/nervous when speaking
English in class.
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Chapter 5. Discussion
The goal of this research was to investigate the effect of drama on students’
anxiety of speaking English. In this chapter, each research question will be
discussed in light of the results of the study. After summarizing findings by
research questions, a more detailed account of the study's limitations will be
provided as well as avenues for further research.
5.1 Research question 1
The first research question asked how the drama activities affect students’
anxiety level in speaking in English. After analyzing the results of the pre and
post survey PSCA, this study confirmed that the drama activities positively
affected on students’ anxiety levels. In terms of anxiety reduction in English
public speaking, there were significant changes in public speaking class
anxiety levels after the drama activities. A slight reduction of mean scores
after the drama activities (M = 71, 64.7) and the students were categorized as
low anxiety before and after the drama activities based on means values
distribution suggested by Liu and Jackson (2008). Mean scores for four
anxiety types of the PSCA such as, communication apprehension, test anxiety,
fear of negative evacuation and comfort in using in English decreased after the
drama activities; particularly communication apprehension was most affected by
drama. The results showed that drama was effective in lowering the PSCA
levels of the students. This finding supports the studies that suggest the
positive impact of process- and product- oriented drama on L2 learners’
Piazzoli, 2011; Stern, 1980; Turecek, 1998). However, drama activities may
not be applicable to all students. This shows how some learners enjoy certain
task types and others dislike them or equally how some students find a task
comfortable whilst another finds it stressful. This would correspond to findings
by Koch and Terrell (1991) who note that there is variation in the ways in
which students respond to certain learning activities and tasks. This appears to
be due to individual learning styles and changes that take place within the
individual and hence “activities and instructional techniques should not be
thought of as intrinsically ‘good’ or ‘bad’ but rather ‘useful’ or ‘not
recommended’ for certain students at particular levels of language acquisition”
(Koch & Terrell, 1991, p. 124).
Through the journals and interviews, students further expressed
positive feelings towards the drama activities. Most of the students claimed
that their anxiety level reduction may have resulted from the drama learning
environments in which they were able to have frequent opportunities of
speaking, did many presentations in public and had repeated practices of
speaking English and experienced less anxiety. This can be attributed to the
fact that drama positively affect on students’ anxiety level and enhance self-confidence and motivations towards speaking
66
English. This finding correlates with Phillips’ (1999) emphasis that some of the areas where the drama method could be useful.
The Review of the Literature (Chapter II) also supports this
conclusion. Korean EFL participants in Coleman's (2005) study perceived
drama as a tool to manage anxiety and apprehension, making them feel more
relaxed while speaking English. Coleman's learners indicated that play
presentation and play rehearsal were the most helpful activities. Kao (1994)
also indicated that drama provided learners with more opportunities to speak
the L2. The learners felt less nervous speaking English in front of the group
and gained self-confidence. Shand’s (2008) study reveals that creative drama
use in language classes provides strong motivation to the learners and builds
their confidence, and ultimately reduces the anxiety of third grade pupils
whereas the same impact was not observed for sixth and seventh graders. A
study of EFL students in Singapore by Stinson and Freebody (2006) also
indicated that students felt much more confident speaking English and
improved oral language skills as a result of participating in an English
speaking drama program, and most of them expressed a desire to continue to
participate in a drama program.
Finally, learners in the study indicated that they are likely to feel more or
less anxious during the drama activities. Although the quantitative and
qualitative results confirm what previous literature suggests that drama
activities reduce levels of anxiety, drama may help to alleviate anxiety to some
students but they may become anxiety producers to others with different
experiences.
5.2 Research question 2
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The second research question asked the factors that affect students’ anxiety in
speaking in English during the drama activities. Although the students did not show a high level of anxiety in the pre and post survey results of the PSCAS, six major factors that negatively contributed to their
anxiety levels in class were often mentioned in the journals: fear of stage
fright, poor in English, lack of preparation, lack of self-confidence, fear of
failure, and afraid of perception of other. Results from the interview also
showed similar findings.
Fear of stage fright was the most cited theme among the students. The
comments suggest that they felt anxious when they performed in class.
Sometimes for some students who are high proficiency levels in English, even
a stage was frightening. This finding correlates with previous studies (Bailey,
1983; Hilleson, 1996; Jackson, 2002; Price, 1991) that many students appeared
to be anxious when speaking in the English classroom. The students felt the
least/not anxious during pair work and group work but the most anxious when
asked to speak English in class, especially when unprepared.
Another reported factor was lack of English proficiency. 34 students
suggested that anxious caused by poor language ability. They were afraid of
making mistakes in terms of grammar, pronunciation and arranging of words,
and also their perceived lack of knowledge about the drama activities that they
were participating. Sparks and Ganschow (1991) also state that those who
have difficulties with native language systems are liable to experience the
similar problems when they attempt to learn a foreign language and thus make
them anxious.
The third contributing factor was related to lack of preparation. Not
doing the practicing before the presentation was reported by 29 students who
indicated feeling somewhat uncomfortable using English. It was possible that
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students had time to rehearse a speech that they had already prepared so their
anxiety was not very high. It may be possible that speech rehearsal was
important in building students’ confidence in public speaking and decreasing
their anxiety level. This supports the study of Menzel and Carrell (1994),
which showed that oral rehearsal contributes to students’ success in their actual
speech performance.
Lack of self-confidence was the fourth contributing factor for
students’ anxiety when speaking in English. 22 students reported that they did
not have the confidence to express themselves in English. They found that they
could easily get anxious when speaking with people who are fluent in the
language. The problem of self-confidence (lack of confidence) experienced by
the lower intermediate learners is likely to be caused by their limitation in
foreign language mastery. This claim is also supported by Pappamihiel (2002)
who argues that learners limited competence in foreign language use, such as
lack of vocabulary, can contribute to their FL anxiety.
The fifth factor that negatively contributed to students’ anxiety in the
drama activities is related to fear of failure. 14 students reported they
experienced anxiety before, during or after a performance because of worry or
fear of failure, or about making mistakes while speaking English. In addition,
as a study conducted by Ohata (2005), task difficulty, time limit, the fear of
getting bad grades and lack of preparation for a test are the other factors that
make learners worried.
The last factor that was frequently reported in the journals was the perceptions of others when speaking in English. This has been supported by Pappamihiel (2002), where in one of her interview processes, one participant in her study said that one cause that made him feel anxious was being afraid that the
69
other students will laugh at him when he says something in a class. This finding is also similar with the study of Ohata (2005) where in one of his interviews with five Japanese who studied in the USA, the respondents agreed that they felt anxious when they thought about the perceptions of others when they had to speak in English especially because their peers are native speakers of English.
Thus, from the findings, it can be concluded that English speaking anxiety is multi-dimensional where it affects students differently depending on the context of the situation. The students’ anxiety levels vary depending on the situation. This result is also supported by the study of Pappamihiel (2002) where she finds that English language anxiety is of a dynamic nature where it can possibly affect students in many different ways.
70
Chapter 6. Conclusion
This chapter will include a summary of the conclusion, and a discussion of the
limitations of this study followed by recommendations for the future.
6.1 Conclusion
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of drama activities on
Korean university students’ anxiety in a public speaking context. Furthermore,
the anxiety factors were examined. In the current study, the data were collected
by quantitative and qualitative methods. The level of speaking anxiety
experienced by the students was identified via a questionnaire, and 27 students
were also asked to write reflective journals and interviewed for a deeper
analysis of this anxiety.
According to the findings and discussion in the previous chapter, it
was found that the effect of anxiety on students varied. The pre and post PSCA
mean scores of the students were compared and it was seen that there was a
significant difference (p=0.016) in favor of the pre survey. This finding
supports the studies that suggest the facilitative role of language anxiety. In
spite of this, through journal writings and interviews a number of students
showed that they experienced anxious/nervous or a little anxious/nervous in
the lessons from time to time. These findings show that there is no clear
answer to the question whether the drama activity had a positive effect on
71
students’ anxiety reduction.
The study provides some insights into the major factors of students’
anxiety by clustering their responds. When related responds were clustered,
fear of stage fright, poor in English, lack of preparation, lack of self-
confidence, fear of failure, and afraid of perception of other were categorized
as some issues which were found to be contributing to students’ anxiety in
speaking during the drama activities. The results have indicated that the
majority of students have problems with speaking anxiety and the anxiety
causes in fact differ in several ways between these different activities of
drama.
One of the significant findings of this study is that, it is critical factor
that drama provides opportunities of frequent public presentation and repeated
speaking practices. This finding showed that most of the students experienced
their anxiety reduction and improved motivation and confidence towards
speaking English. The results support the findings of the past studies
conducted within different contexts and settings (Coleman, 2005; Freebody,
2006; Kao, 1994; Shand, 2008). The findings demonstrate that the drama
activity has the potential to be an effective way to address the problem of
students’ anxiety, by providing this supportive climate in ELT classrooms.
Consequently, through drama students may forget their fears about speaking and experience decreased factors of anxiety, promoting the
development of communicative competence.
6.2 Limitation
Based on the findings and conclusion of this study, the study has a number of
limitations. The number of participants in this study was limited to only 27
female undergraduate students from the central part of Korea. Therefore, more
72
participants from other parts of Korea and from other levels of education are
needed so as to increase the generalizability of the research results. However,
there may be some parts of the findings which can be used as reference to deal
with students’ anxiety in ELT. In addition, the class in the present research
was observed and recorded with only one camcorder. Through the video-
recorded observations conducted over the term partially compensated for this,
it would have been better for the researcher to observe the class throughout the
term for a better understanding of the changes in students’ anxiety in different
drama activities. This would have also helped reduce student anxiety resulting
from camcorders and make them adapt to the existence of the equipment so
that more of their natural behavior could have been recorded. It would also
have been better to record the class with more camcorders to better identify to
what degree each student remained anxious in various drama activities.
6.3 Recommendations for Future Research
The following recommendations are presented for future research. First of all,
more drama activities should be integrated into the speaking curriculum
because, as our study demonstrates, these activities bring variety and
enthusiasm to lessons. Second, further research on the effects of drama in ELT
classes on motivation, learner autonomy, self-esteem or self-efficacy could be
conducted. Third, a comparative study to reduce speaking anxiety using the
drama activities between a control group and an experimental group should be
conducted. Finally, as this study investigated the effect of drama activities and
factors contributing to speaking anxiety, further research on the other methods
or techniques that students use to manage their anxiety is needed in order to
find ways to help students cope with their anxiety. Thus, this will lead to
73
effective English speaking among Korean students in the long run.
References
Aida, Y. (1994). Examination of Horowitz, Horowitz, and Cope's construct of
foreign language anxiety: The case of students of Japanese. Modern
Language Journal, 78(2), 155-68.
Budden, J. (2007). Role Play. Retrieved March 14, 2008 from
Young, D. J. (1991a). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What
does language anxiety research suggest? The Modern Language,
Volume 75, No. 4, 426-439.
Zafeiriadou, N. (2009). Drama in language teaching. Issues, 23.
Zheng, Y. (2008). Anxiety and Second/Foreign Language Learning Revisited.
Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 1, (1), 1-12.
85
Appendix APublic Speaking Class Anxiety Scale (PSCAS)
:Name
:Date
DIRECTIONS: Read the following statements and place a check in the box under the column which fits your opinion of yourself. Work quickly, but be sure to consider each item individually. There are no right or wrong answers.
Item No.
Statement Opinion(5)StronglyAgree
(4)Agree
(3)Undecided
(2)Disagree
(1)StronglyDisagree
1 I never feel quite sure of myself while I amspeaking English.
2 I tremble when knowing that I am goingtobe called on to speak English.
3 I start to panic when I have to speak English without a preparation in advance.
4 In a speaking class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.
5 I feel confident while I am speaking English.
6 I feel very self-conscious while speaking English in front of other students.
86
7 I get nervous and confused when I am speaking English.
8 I am afraid that other students will laugh at me while I am speaking English.
9 I get so nervous when the language teacher asks me to speak English which I have prepared in advance.
10 I have no fear of speaking English.
11 I can feel my heart pounding when I am going to be called on.
12 I feel relaxed while speaking English.
13 It embarrasses me to volunteer to go out first to speak English.
14 I face the prospect of speaking English with confidence.
15 I enjoy the experience of speakingEnglish.
16 The more speaking tests I have, the more confused I get.
17 Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while speaking English.
18 I feel anxious while waiting to speakEnglish.
19 I want to speak less because I feel shy while speaking English.
20 I dislike using my voice and 87
body expressively while speaking English.
21 I have trouble to coordinate my movements while speaking English.
22 I find it hard to look the audience in my eyes while speaking English.
23 Even if I am very well-prepared I feel anxious about speaking English.
24 I keep thinking that other students arebetter at speaking English than I.
25 I always feel that the other students speak English better than I do.
88
Background Questionnaire
The questions below are for research purposes only, and your individual answers will not be made available to anyone. Please answer the following questions or check the proper answers.
The categories are taken from: Jeehwan, Y. & Jinsohn, H. (2012). A Study of the Relationship between L2 Learners’ Language Anxiety and Proficiency. Foreign Language Education, 19(3), 81-100.Appendix B
Interview Questions91
1. How would you describe your personality? Are you an introvert or an
extrovert?
2. How do you feel about speaking in English in general?
3. How did you feel about speaking in English during the drama activities?
4. Have you ever feel anxiety when you speak in English in general? Please
explain.
5. Did you personally have anxiety when you speak in English in the drama
class?
6. In what situations did you feel anxious speaking in English during the
drama activities?
7. What kind of factors did you affect your anxiety in speaking in English
during the drama activities?
① Different types of drama
② Communication apprehension(e.g. difficulty in understanding the
teacher’s instruction, lack of preparation, and lack of confidence)
③ Text anxiety(e.g. performance evaluation stemming a fear of failing)
④ Fear of negative evaluation(e.g. fear of correction and fear of making
mistakes)
⑤ What else/other made you anxious in speaking in English during the
drama activities?
8. Would you want to participate in another drama class in the future? Yes/No
Why and why not?
9. Is there anything else you’d to say about the drama class and your
experience?
Appendix CDrama Reflective Journal
:Name92
:Date
Please share with me what you experience in the drama course. I would like to listen to you. (Write down at least 2 pages.)
Overall lesson
① How did you like the lesson?
-Waswhatyou learnedfromthe lesson new to you?
-Was it useful (in practice, in my studies, in my life)?② What parts of the lesson did you like or enjoy most? And least? And
Why?
Drama activity③ How did you think (feel) about the drama activity we did today? And
why? -Was what we did too easy or too difficult? -What are the advantages and disadvantages of the activity?
④ How did you participate in the drama activity? And why?-Were there any problems with you or your group? -What went well? What went not so well? -How did you resolve them? -If you were faced with the same problem again, would you do anything differently?
Students’ anxiety⑤ Did you personally have anxiety in the drama activity? Yes/No
-In what situations did you feel anxious? And why?
Appendix D
PSCAS Items with Mean Scores and Numbers of Students Selecting Each Alternative (N=27)
SA* A N D SD Both Strong Mean SD
93
1. I never feel quite sure of myself while I am speaking English.(pre) 1 7 5 13 1(post) 1 5 11 8 2
2.782.81
1.010.96
2. I tremble when knowing that I am going to be called on to speak English.(pre) 1 7 6 10 3(post) 1 7 6 10 3
2.702.74
1.11.1
3. I start to panic when I have to speak English without a preparation in advance.(pre) 2 6 3 13 3(post) 1 6 6 10 4
2.672.63
1.141.11
4. In a speaking class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.(pre) 2 7 5 12 1(post) 1 5 7 13 2
2.892.56
1.090.89
5. I feel confident while I am speaking English.(pre) 1 8 9 8 1(post) 3 7 12 5 1
3.002.78
1.041.01
6. I feel very self-conscious while speaking English in front of other students.(pre) 1 17 4 4 1(post) 1 14 5 7 0
3.483.33
0.940.92
7. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking English.(pre) 1 10 4 10 2(post) 1 2 8 14 2
2.932.48
1.110.89
8. I am afraid that other students will laugh at me while I am speaking English.(pre) 2 4 3 14 4(post) 0 4 3 12 8
2.482.07
1.161.04
9. I get so nervous when the language teacher asks me to speak English which I have prepared in advance.(pre) 1 4 5 12 5(post) 0 4 5 13 5
2.412.30
1.080.95
10. I have no fear of speaking English.(pre) 1 9 2 11 4(post) 0 11 4 9 3
3.303.07
1.201.11
11. I can feel my heart pounding when I am going to be called on.(pre) 3 9 7 8 0 3.26 1.02
