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“IN ISLAM, WORK IS VIEWED NOT AS AN END
IN ITSELF, BUT AS A MEANS TO FOSTER
PERSONAL GROWTH AND SOCIAL RELATIONS”:
ISLAM, HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, AND
HUMAN RIGHTS
A Geneva Centre for Human Rights Advancement and
Global Dialogue Report
Filippo Bigolin
Researcher at the Geneva Centre for Human Rights Advancement and
Global Dialogue
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Abstract
Current mechanisms for promoting and protecting human rights, while codifying
internationally accepted norms and standards, continue to be limited in their ability to affect
the everyday lives of citizens throughout the world. Enduring structural improvements in
human rights implementation requires the commitment of all state and non-state actors,
including international corporations and employers. Following the 2011 the UN Human Rights
Council’s endorsement the “Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights”, the link
between human rights and human resource management has gained significant momentum; an
interest which warrants the detailed study of the ways in which Islamic management can be
used to promote and protect human rights in the Arab world.
The present report analyses the challenges and opportunities incurred when focussing on
human resources management through the lens of human rights and Islamic best practice. It
firstly outlines the relationship between human rights and human resources management, then
discusses the cultural adjustments required to implement such a link, and finally offers
conclusions and recommendations for human rights oriented human resource management in
the Arab world.
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Table of Contents
Human Rights and HRM: Definitions and Common Objectives ........................................ 4
Human Rights .................................................................................................... 4
Human Resource Management (HRM) ............................................................. 4
Human Rights and HRM ................................................................................... 5
HRM and Cultural Difference ................................................................................................ 6
Hofstede’s Dimensions ...................................................................................... 7
HRM in Arabic Countries .................................................................................. 8
HRM and Islamic Work Ethic ........................................................................... 8
HRM in Arab Countries: A SWOT Analysis ...................................................................... 10
Strengths .......................................................................................................... 10
Weaknesses ...................................................................................................... 11
Opportunities.................................................................................................... 12
Threats.............................................................................................................. 13
HRM, Human Rights, and Development in the Arab Region ........................................... 13
Education ......................................................................................................... 13
Lifelong Learning ............................................................................................ 14
Private-Public Partnerships .............................................................................. 15
Managerial Training and Cultural Differences ................................................ 16
The Implementation of Human Rights through HRM ....................................................... 17
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Human Rights and HRM: Definitions and Common Objectives
Human Rights
‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed
by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the
pursuit of Happiness’ wrote Thomas Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence. In the
summer of 1776, Jefferson had come up with the first proclamation of human rights.
In 2014, a more practical, up to date definition of human rights can be found on Amnesty
International’s website: ‘The basic rights and freedoms that all people are entitled to regardless
of nationality, sex, national or ethnic origin, race, religion, language, or other status.’ Civil and
political rights include right to life, liberty and freedom of expression; social, cultural and
economic rights list participation to culture, food, work and reception of education as rights
that should be enjoyed by all communities.
International laws and treaties protect and uphold human rights, the foundation of which lays
in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Adopted by the United Nations
General Assembly on December 10th, 1948, it aimed to transcend political boundaries and
authority.
The limitation of human rights and the institutions that protect them is that they are only weakly
enforceable: Effective protection of human rights still requires voluntary action by the states.
As Maupain writes: The impact of human rights standards ‘depends on will and goodwill’
(2005).
Human Resource Management
Human Resource Management (HRM) is concerned with job descriptions, recruitment and
selection, training and development, compensation, performance appraisal and employment
security.
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A more passionate definition is given by Alan Price (2011), who sees HRM as 'a philosophy
of people management based on the belief that human resources are uniquely important in
sustained business success. An organization gains competitive advantage by using its people
effectively, drawing on their expertise and ingenuity to meet clearly defined objectives. HRM
is aimed at recruiting capable, flexible and committed people, managing and rewarding their
performance and developing key competencies.'
In an increasingly globalized world, where competition levels are high, companies need to
make the most of what is available to them to gain strategic advantages over their competitors.
As a result, HRM has become more and more influential in international business strategy.
In particular, the increasingly used notion of “modern HRM practices” refers to high levels of
delegation of decisions, extensive communication channels, high reward systems, often linked
to multiple performance indicators, and other practices deployed to achieve high performance
levels (Colombo and Delmastro, 2008). Guthrie (2001) states that: “The common theme in this
literature is an emphasis on utilizing a system of management practices giving employees
skills, information, motivation, and latitude and resulting in a workforce that is a source of
competitive advantage.”
Human Rights and HRM
The reason behind the definition of two apparently different areas is that human rights and
HRM have similar roots: Protecting the well-being of a community, they participate in
motivating its members by giving them the opportunity to express themselves and to give their
best. Given the universal nature of human rights, we can consider HRM as the practical
implementation of human rights in the workplace.
Modern HRM includes matching employees to jobs, allowing them to reach a sense of self-
efficiency by doing what they are good at; it includes the formation of a corporate identity,
where employees get to feel a sense of belongingness that promotes a healthy, motivating
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corporate environment. Motivated and effective employees will be more likely to participate
to the decision-making process, which draws more and more information from the bottom in
order to guarantee an increasingly informed top-managerial style. Workers are not seen as a
mere asset anymore, but as an active source of skills and knowledge.
Effective HRM practices can cover the holes left by the often-lacking international protection
of human rights. In particular, developing countries should start considering the protection of
human and labour rights as paramount to their economic improvement. Violating workers’
rights may seem to lead to enhanced productivity and lower costs (an example is China), yet in
the long run the respect for labour rights will outweigh the initial cost (Alston, 2005). Fewer
accidents, more social and political stability, and lower absenteeism, lead to higher levels of
productivity. The improvement of the country’s reputation will follow, and tourism and
international trade and investment levels are more likely to rise.
Business involvement in matters that were previously considered the preserve of charities or
aid agencies is increasing. In the words of Susan Meisinger (President and CEO of The Society
for Human Resource Management): “Socially responsible business practices now represent a
strategic issue”. The connection between management practices and the protection of human
rights, therefore, may not be as tenuous as commonly believed.
HRM and Cultural Differences
HRM is the area of management most likely to be subject to national differences (Rosenzweig, Nohria,
1994). Culture, ‘the collective mental programming of the people of any particular nationality’ (Hofstede,
2001), plays a key role in everyone’s perception, and causes us to judge the same event in different ways.
An example: a manager communicating to an employee that what he has done is ‘wrong’ will be
appreciated by a German, which culture is mainly based on facts and goes straight to the point. A Japanese
employee, however, would find it inappropriate and aggressive, and would not be willing to hold a
constructive conversation with his manager.
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Therefore, it is fundamental to understand the different aspects of the national context within
which the company operates in order to carry out successful HRM practices. Theories have
been developed in order to give meaning to such differences; the most relevant author on the
topic is Hofstede, whose model includes four dimensions that aim to highlight different cultural
approaches to business (1980, 1991).
Hofstede’s Dimensions
1. Power Distance: a measure of interpersonal power or influence between a superior and
a subordinate as perceived by the subordinate. The extent to which the less powerful
members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that the
power is distributed unequally (Hofstede, 2001).
2. Uncertainty Avoidance: intolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. The extent to which
members of a culture fell threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (Minkov,
Hofstede, 2011).
3. Individualism – Collectivism: The extent to which individual self-interest is prioritised
over the concerns of the group (McCoy et al., 2005).
4. Masculinity – Femininity: not related to gender, it separates the preference for output
and performance (masculinity) from the preference for processes and aesthetics
(femininity) (Herbig, Dunphy, 1998). The author will refer to it as Ends – Means, with
the belief that the original nomenclature could lead to unnecessary misunderstandings.
The understanding of cultural differences is becoming paramount to human resource managers:
Both developed and developing countries are being affected by emigration and immigration of
workers, towards the formation of an increasingly multicultural reality. Models like Hofstede’s
have played an important role, for example, in the interactions between individuals from
Western countries and the East Asian region, the latter adapting to the management practices
of the former.
Understanding cultural dimensions not only helps managers to work in multicultural
environments, but can also help HR managers to gain a better insight into their own country’s
trends and practices in the workplace.
There are several critics to Hofstede’s model, which the report does not require listing.
Hofstede’s study does not aim to give answers, but to provide us with general guidelines about
the effect of culture in a work environment.
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HRM in Arabic Countries
Despite the overall success of Western management practices, they are not well accepted
everywhere. In particular, Arab countries never reconciled their belief in Islam work ethic
(IWE) with Western theories (Leat, El-Kot, 2007).
IWE are the precepts concerning individual behaviour at work covered by the Quran, which
‘sees work as a source of personal growth, self-fulfilment and self-respect’, which are
considered more important than entrepreneurship and material prosperity - both Western
criteria of success (Jaeger, 1990).
At the same time, Arab countries have been developing quickly in the last decades, and the
pressures from the outside world have affected the way people behave in their workplace
(Nydell, 1996).
The result is a mixture of beliefs and practices that are not easy to reconcile, and that do not
give Arabic HR managers clear indications over which direction to follow (Aycan, 2001).
Islam, tribalism, state control and western influence have all shaped management practices in
Arab countries (Budwar, Mellahi, 2006). Such confusion has a negative impact on management
practices in the Middle East.
In particular, the role of HRM has been underestimated to the extent that it is often improvised
by unskilled managers or carried out through an "off-the-shelf" approach (Murphy, 2002). This
tendency causes to look at HRM as a bureaucratic must do, which is more likely to cause costs
and problems than solutions for an improved business method.
HRM and IWE
The peculiarity about Western HRM practices and the IWE is that, despite them being
perceived as conflicting doctrines, they have a lot in common. As pointed out by Branine and
Pollard (2010), some of the main principles of Islamic management are relevant for the practice
of HRM, and vice versa. Table 1 shows the similarities between HRM and IWE concepts.
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Islamic Management HRM
Nya (Intention) Actions are recorded to
intention and a person is
rewarded or punished
accordingly
The basis for employee’s
assessment should be based on
objectives, ideas, plans and
strategies rather than on factors
beyond their control
Ihsan (Kindness and Care) Behave at one’s best even
without supervision
Promotion of training and
development for employees to give
them opportunities to participate to
decision-making process
Adl (Justice) Every person should develop
such virtue, despite his\her
position
Sense of humility among those in
managerial positions
Amana (Trust) Everyone accountable for
own doing
Consultation and delegation to
employees
Sidq (Truthfulness) Forbidden to lie or cheat Validity of personal responsibility
and easier investigation to roots of
problems
Itqan (Self-Improvement) Continuous struggle for self-
betterment
Improvement of quality through
learning, training, innovation,
creativity
Ikhlas (Sincerity) Promises are moral
obligations
Infusion of trust and confidence in
an organisation, promoting
cooperation
Shura (Consultation) Leaders must seek advice
before making decisions
Managers should seek advice
before making decisions,
consulting subordinates
Sabar (Patience) Not losing hope when facing
difficulties
Reduction of number of mistakes
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As a result, HRM and IWE are more likely to unite rather than divide Arabic and Western
thought leadership. For this reason, any discussion referring to irreconcilable differences in
cultural beliefs when managing employees in the Middle East, and regarding Western practices
as threats to religious integrity, should be considered misleading and disregarded.
There are problems that need to be resolved in order for Arab countries to continue its current
fast pace of development, and a solution is not likely to be reached by keeping a closed mind
towards foreign influence. The opposite is also true: Implementing Western customs without
any critical evaluation can lead to the loss of valuable Arab expertise.
The following SWOT analysis highlights the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
involved in making progress in this regard.
HRM in Arab Countries: a SWOT Analysis
Strengths
Cultural
- Islam: Instead of being an obstacle to the acquisition of Western knowledge, the Quran
can be used as a source of valuable guidance in adapting to global trends without losing
national or cultural identity.
Cultural-professional
- Hofstede’s findings (Uncertainty Avoidance): According to Parnell and Hatem (1999),
Arab countries score low in uncertainty avoidance, which creates the a supportive
environment for employees’ empowerment. Following from the belief that God
controls all kinds of resources (Cavusgil et al., 2008), uncertain or unknown situations
are not seen as a threat. This translates into a potential workplace with high levels of
delegation and involvement;
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- Hofstede’s findings (Individualism – Collectivism): Arab countries were rated as
having a more collective than individualistic culture (Hofstede, 1994). In terms of
employee well-being, a collective culture makes it easier to invest in teamwork and to
create a sense of belongingness;
- Hofstede’s findings (Ends – Means): Being closer to the means side, Arabs give place
significant emphasis on friendly relationships at work (Bjerke, al-Meer, 1993), and
“work to live” rather than the opposite. This, in terms of HRM, means that Arabs are
more likely to choose their career path based on their vocation rather than trying to
maximise their income.
Weaknesses
Cultural-professional
- Hofstede’s findings (Power Distance): Inherited from the Ottoman Turks, who ruled
the Arab countries for 400 years, paternalism scores high (al-Rasheed, 1997). Decisions
are often made on the basis of favours to subordinates and loyalty to superiors, and not
on the basis of merit (Obeidat, Shannak, Masa’deh, al-Jarrah, 2012). Inequality is
accepted and a dependency relationship is emphasized between managers and
subordinates (Hofstede, 2001). This single cultural trait plays a key, negative role in the
effective HRM system in the Middle East. The unprofessional nature of the
relationships between employer and employee undermine the effective recruitment
system as well as the company’s internal environment. Delegation of authority is
limited due to a highly centralised management system (al-Rasheed, 2001), which
counters the positive aspects of paternalism listed by Aycan (2006);
- Islamic management system: It is, in theory, ideal. It is based upon participation,
consultation, diffusion of knowledge, creativity, and equal promotion of opportunities.
However, to a large extent Islamic values are only included in theory and not in practice
(Dadfar, 1984, 1987, 1990; Rehman, Askari, 2010);
- Adoption to Western principles without adaptation: Insufficient operations, lack of
direction, traditional work force patterns and shifts in the social structure are some
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- problems associated with Arab organisations as a result of not making Western theories
compatible with the Arab culture (Ali, 1995; Obeidat, Shannak, Masa’deh, al-Jarrah,
2012).
Professional
- Lack of education and training up to the standards required by the knowledge economy
(The World Bank, 2008) and the linkage with career advancement (OECD, 2010);
- Big role played by the public sector, often offering generous salaries and benefits as
well as low measurable requirements (Abdalla, al-Homoud, 2012);
- No connections between tasks, jobs and positions, and lack of performance appraisals
(often caused by the above point) (OECD, 2010).
Opportunities
Cultural
- A developing region has a benefit over developed areas: It has the time and the
possibility to learn from the mistakes of countries that went through the development
phase before them. An example is the diminishing influence of the Church in Europe,
which went on hand in hand with social and cultural development. The Church is ‘no
longer able to discipline the beliefs and behaviour of the great majority of the
population’ (Davie, 2006). The Arab countries have now the possibility to go through
the steps of development without compromising their faith in God;
- Mediation and avoidance of radical views on Islam and Western world: The possibility
to make opportunities out of differences. Cultural variety represents an opportunity to
learn from different ways to do things, allowing the identification of strengths and
weaknesses of our own beliefs towards a more open-minded society.
Professional
- The possibility to build an efficient HRM system from its roots, which is what also
developed regions like the EU often lack. Arab society is one of transition (Branine,
Pollard, 2010), and work-related changes still can happen.
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Threats
Cultural
- The mismanagement of diversity between nationalities and tribes within nationalities,
which makes it impossible to generalise to “Arab countries” and does not demarcate a
clear direction to follow. Differences within countries need to be taken into account and
respected, and models of how to do it successfully can be found in European history
(an example is the Elizabethan legislation, which was managed and organised
nationally, but delivered through local parishes to adapt the general directions to the
local needs) (Deakin, 2005);
- Extremism claiming the superiority of one culture over another;
- Enhancement of profit maximisation and other practices of developed countries.
Hofstede (2001) states that a country is likely to change its priorities as it develops,
towards a more ends-related vision and a more materialistic approach.
Professional
- No form of unity exists within the Arab world to protect the region from the threats of
globalisation (such as NAFTA for North America and the EU for Europe) (Zineldin,
2002).
HRM, Human Rights and Development in the Arab region
Education
Effective and efficient HRM practices aim to make the most out of the human capital of a
company or institution. It will never be possible to increase delegation of tasks if the workforce
lacks the skills needed in order to solve problems. Therefore, the first step is to create such
human capital through education.
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The MENA region has one of the largest “baby boomer” cohorts in the world. The implications
regarding formal education are two: increased quantity of demand and increased need for a
larger variety of educational outcomes (The World Bank, 2010).
In the Arab region, investment in education and training has grown significantly. However,
young graduates still find it hard to enter the working world, and companies hardly find the
people with the skills they need to improve and expand (ILO, 2010). This is possibly the result
of an educational system that rewards passive learning, not giving value to individual talents
and interests (The World Bank, 2010).
The region’s educational system derives from the belief that economic growth can be planned
and managed by central authorities. Such doctrine, which roots in the 1960s, still has an impact
on education in the MENA region. Specialisation was required at a young age, and programs
were organised by the state depending on its predictions regarding manpower (Heyneman,
1997). This translated into scarce choice and little opportunity to change from a program to
another.
The variety of educational choices needs to comprehend more areas of specialisation, in order
for younger generations to be able to make active choices regarding their life path. Changes
from one program to another should be encouraged, with credits that can be transferred when
changing course. This change will represent the roots of employee well-being, allowing one to
figure out what career is best suited to his/her needs. This availability of opportunity should
and must be the indirect objective of education.
Lifelong Learning
The flexible, mutable nature of a globalised world makes it fundamental to keep up to date with
the latest trends. In order for workers to be able to respond to such need, education must be
considered merely as the first step in one’s learning experience.
The concept of lifelong learning, romantically described by Longworth (2013) as ‘a rebirth of
creativity, of culture, of imagination, of invention, of partnership’, represents what humans
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need (whatever their job) in order to be efficient and effective in what they do. Lifelong
learning stimulates people throughout their career, avoiding the feeling of ineffectiveness that
often comes from routinized tasks. As a result, the organisation will benefit from a more active,
motivated and skilled management and workforce.
So far, there is no framework for lifelong learning, and no links exist between the education
sector and the economic and social actors (The World Bank, 2010). This would allow a constant
update of the learning opportunities that either the public or private sector could provide,
transforming education into a demand-driven system that constantly delivers quality.
An efficient public-private partnership (PPP), ‘an agreement between the government and one
or more private partners for the delivery of a service’ (OECD, 2010), could represent the
required connection.
PPPs
The role of the public sector in Arab countries is still highly influential upon national
employment. Public sector employees are often inefficient due to the ‘common practices of
public employment agencies, which do not pay attention regarding matching human skills to
jobs’ (Abdalla, al-Homoud, 2012). Highly paid and hardly demanding, public jobs offer a
comfortable employment position to those that want to avoid the risks involved in the private
sector, such as competition and requirements for specific, technical skills. As a result,
government expenditure is high while no progress is made.
Despite the belief that government-led interventions reinforce the dominance of the State in the
economy, PPPs can play an important role in strengthening the private sector as well as making
government interventions more effective.
As the institution which holds the most comprehensive information regarding its populace, the
government can work as a link between companies and the training courses needed by their
employees and managers. Either by actively providing training courses or by linking businesses
with private training services, the State can provide employment indirectly without having to
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be the employer itself. This would allow a more focused governmental approach to
employment matters, without the risk of underemployment.
Consequently, national HRM could count on a framework that ideally works for the country’s
own good, and that would link the sets of skills needed with the professional courses that can
provide them. The State can also play a role as cultural mediator, adapting HRM standards to
national cultural expectations.
Managerial Training and Cultural Differences
As previously mentioned in the report, there is a risk involved in transferring knowledge
without taking into account cultural differences. More specifically, importing best practice
guidelines from the EU or the Global North has created controversies and conflicting opinions
within the Arab region.
So far, Western influence through the passage of knowledge has been judged rather radically,
mainly through ‘yes or no’ approaches. However, like any other radical ideal, this approach is
limiting as well as dangerous.
Firstly, and obviously, fully embracing Western management practices can lead to loss of
Arabic managerial heritage. Furthermore, what Arabs have is an opportunity to evaluate
critically the consequences of implementing a model that is not perfect itself, and that, on top
of that, was not built upon the Arab culture and history. The pros and cons of Western practices
can be weighted by anyone by reading the copious literature available about them. This is the
same reason why a ‘no’ approach should be considered as limiting. What Arab management
can do is build upon the strong Western literature and knowledge to create a similar, yet
different set of principles that best suit the Middle Eastern culture.
It is easier to say “what” than to figure out “how”. A model suggested by the author is Indirect
Training. Instead of teaching Arab managers how to do things, HR managers should be taught
how to teach. If a Western teacher tries to transfer his knowledge to Arab managers, the latter
are likely to implement directly what they have learned. If an Arab is taught how to train HR
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managers, however, he will act as an “Arab filter” that will process the raw, Western concept
and adapt it to his\her national cultural aspects.
In this perspective, the UAE can take the role of multicultural platform of the Gulf. Its cultural
variety and openness to foreign investment and practices can make of a city like Dubai the
melting pot of the Arab region, from which knowledge is delivered to Middle Eastern countries.
(Diagram 1)
Diagram 1: the UAE as intermediary platform
Conclusion: the implementation of Human Rights through HRM
Only on the basis of the successful implementation of the aspects discussed above HRM will
have the potential to positively impact human rights’ protection.
Dedicated workers that have had the opportunity to choose their life path, and that are provided
with the right training and development chances, will have the opportunity to enjoy the
previously mentioned ‘unalienable rights such as Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness’.
The degree of control over their career will be enhanced, and consequently so will be their
ability to independently take action and participate to the decision making process. This will
result in an enhanced sense of effectiveness, and it will allow top managers to focus on broader,
future-related matters.
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Despite this report being based on the study of the Arabic region, there are margins of
improvement in developed countries as well. The HRM era has just begun.
As long as joint efforts are made in order not only to overcome cultural differences, but also to
benefit from them, there shall be no boundaries for the creation of a universal, yet diverse
reality. Awareness of global trends and local identity can go hand in hand, with one prerogative
only: that of avoiding dangerous extremism, by taking a mutual direction towards a self-aware
acceptance of each other.
Highly spoken and ambitious words, yet the only ones to keep in mind for the creation of a
prosperous future for the only world we have.
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