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TeachingSilentSpringinWisconsin

GreatWorldTexts:AProgramoftheCenterfortheHumanities,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison©2017TheBoardofRegentsoftheUniversityofWisconsinSystem

TeachingSilentSpringinWisconsin:AGuideforEducators

2017-2018GreatWorldTextsProgram

oftheCenterfortheHumanitiesPreparedby:

DevinM.Garofalo,Dept.ofEnglishFacultyAdvisor:

GreggMitman,Dept.ofHistory

320UniversityClub,432EastCampusMall,Madison,WI53706

humanities.wisc.edu



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“TeachingSilentSpringinWisconsin”:HowtoUsethisGuide 3Unit1•PostwarAmerica,DDT,NaturalHistories 5Unit2•Ecology,Nature/Culture,Agency 21 Unit3•AmericanEnvironmentalism,Race,Inequality 35 Unit4•Nature,Sexism,Feminism 53 Unit5•GoodScience,BadScience,ThePublicIntellectual 68Unit6•LiteratureandScience 82 Unit7•TheAnnualStudentConference 96 WhatisCloseReading? 99Handouts 87

CONTENTS



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READINGACROSSTIME&SPACESilentSpringisaworkofnonfiction.Whileitssocioculturalandgeopoliticalcontextsareintegraltoitsimpact,andtoourcriticalreflectionsonthetext,itisalsoimportanttorememberthatthisisaworkofliterature.Whileliteraturecanhelpusteachculture,history,politicsandsoon,noonetextcanbeartheburdenofrepresentinganentirenation,culture,orpeople.Asyouteachthistext,pleasekeepinmindandemphasizewhereyoucantheculturalspecificitiesthatmakeitunique.Doingsoinaclearandexplicitwaywillalsohelpyouandyourstudentsappreciatethetext’sabilitytospeakacrosstimeandspace.Certainsectionsoftheteachingguide,suchasUnit3,willbeespeciallyhelpfulinthiscontext.HOWTOUSETHISGUIDEThematerialinthisguideisintendedtoprovideavarietyofoptionsforteachingRachelCarson’sSilentSpringanditsmanycontexts.Webelievethatthehistoricalandculturalbackgroundisnecessaryforunderstandingthisworkandthequestionsitprovokes,butweencourageyoutoteachthetextthematicallyaswell,tyingitintootherdisciplinaryissuesandregularfeaturesofyourcorecurriculumwhereverpossible.READINGS:Therecommendedreadingsintheguideareintendedforteachers,butsomearealsoaccessibletostudents.Thesereadingsprovidefurtherbackgroundinformationforinstructorsaswellasavarietyofmaterialsthatmightaidinstructorsincreatinghandoutsandsupplementingclassdiscussion.POINTSFORDISCUSSION,ASSIGNMENTS&ACTIVITIES:Therecommendedpointsfordiscussion,assignmentsandactivitiesprovidedinthisguidearedesignedtobetailoredtothewayyouteachthetextinyourowncourse,aswellasyourparticulartimeconstraints,interests,andgoals.Theindividualunitsmightbetaughtoveroneorseveraldays,oroverthecourseofafewweeks.Youcanmixandmatchideasfromthevarioussectionstocreateyourownsyllabus.Eachunitisorganizedaccordingtothemesthatincludepointsforlectureanddiscussion,suggestionsforclosereading,specificquotesfromthetextorotherreadings,aswellasin-classactivitiesandassignmentsthatmightbeusedtofurtherdiscussion.Eachsectionalsoincludessuggestedpreparatoryreadingsandresources.CLOSEREADINGSTRATEGIESTheguideassumesthatyouwillhavereadtheentiretext,butallunitsalsooffersuggestionsforspecificpassageswithinthetextthatwouldbenefitfromcarefulandattentivereading,analysisanddiscussion.Duringdiscussionandforassignments,studentsshouldbeencouragedtosupporttheirinterpretationswithevidencefromthetext.Closereadinglendsitselfwelltobothlarge-groupworkandsmall-groupdiscussions,andisanexcellentwayforstudentstodeveloptheircriticalthinkingskillsastheymakeconnections,useevidencetosupporttheirviews,anddiscusstheimpactofvariousliterarytechniques.Forclosereadingtoworksuccessfully,it’simportantthattheteacheralwaysremindthestudentstopointtothepassage,line,oroccurrencethatsupportstheirpositionwhenthey’resharingtheirideas.Closereadingteachesstudentsthedifferencebetween“opinion”or“personalreaction”and“analysis.”Italsohelpsteachstudentstoassessthetextonitsownmerits,andtoavoidessentializingtheculturalcomponentsofthetextorstereotypingbasedongeneralizations.

“TEACHINGSILENTSPRINGINWISCONSIN”:HOWTOUSETHISGUIDE



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Readingaportionoftextoutloudasaclassorsmallgroup,followedbydiscussion,canbeanexcellentwaytodevelopclosereadingskillsintheclassroom.Theguideincludesahandoutonclosereadingthatweencourageyoutouseinyourclasses.TEACHINGTOWARDTHESTUDENTCONFERENCEYourstudentswillcometotheUniversityofWisconsin-MadisononApril9,2018topresenttheirworktotheirpeers,listentolecturesfromexpertsonthetext,andworkshopwithfaculty,graduatestudentsandundergraduatesfromtheuniversity.Attheconference,theywillhavetheopportunitytomeetandlistentobiologist,author,andcancersurvivorSandraSteingraber.Unit7inthisguideisexplicitlydevotedtopreparingstudentsforthisvisitandforthestudentconference.Preparethemforasuccessfulconferencebyencouragingthemtochallengethemselveswithprojectsthatprovidecriticalinterpretationsofthetextinuniqueandcomplexways.Thereisnolimittothetypeofprojecttheymightprepare.Pastprojectshaveincludedessays,painting,sculpture,weaving,culinaryprojects,photography,filmandothermultimedia,dramaticperformances,song,dance,andmore.Theonlyrequirementisthatthestudents’projectsmustpresentacriticalanalysisofthetext.Studentswillberequiredtowriteashortsummaryoftheirprojects,whichwillbesubmittedtoAaronFai([email protected])approximatelytwoweeksbeforethestudentconference.Eachschoolwillselectonestudent,orgroupofstudents,whoseworkisexemplary,topresentattheplenarysessiononstage.It’srecommendedthatthestudentsthemselvesselect(byvoting)the“best”projectforthispresentation,whichwillbeabout5minutesinlength.Itisourexpectationthatthesepresentationswillbepolished,rehearsedandtimed,andthattheywillprovideanopportunityforyourschooltofeelprideandinvestmentinitsparticipationintheprogram.Allotherstudentsareexpectedtopresenttheirworkinpostersessionsduringtheconference,andwillhavetheopportunitytostandnexttotheirprojectsandanswerquestionsaboutthemfromotherstudentsandconferenceparticipants.Everystudentwhoattendstheconferenceshouldpresenther/hisworkattheconference.



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OBJECTIVE:Toprovideabroadoverviewofthepost-WorldWarcontextsthatinformSilentSpring;therelationshipbetweenDDTandthescience-military-industrialcomplex;andRachelCarson’stheorizationofnaturalhistoryandhumankind’sgeologicfootprint.PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADINGBonneuil,ChristopheandJean-BaptisteFressoz.TheShockoftheAnthropocene:TheEarth,Historyand

Us.Verso,2016.Buell,Lawrence.TheEnvironmentalImagination:Thoreau,NatureWriting,andtheFormationof

AmericanCulture.HarvardUniversityPress,1996.Dunlap,Thomas.DDT:Scientists,Citizens,andPublicPolicy.PrincetonUniversityPress,2014.Egan,Michael.BarryCommonerandtheScienceofSurvival:TheRemakingofAmerican

Environmentalism.MITPress,2007.Hynes,Patricia.TheRecurringSilentSpring.Pergamon,1989.Kennedy,DavidM.TheAmericanPeopleinWorldWarII:FreedomFromFear.Volume2.Oxford

UniversityPress,2003.Lear,Linda.“Introduction.”SilentSpring.HoughtonMifflin,2002.x-xix.Lutts,Ralph.“ChemicalFallout:SilentSpring,RadioactiveFallout,andtheEnvironmentalMovement.”

AndNoBirdsSing:RhetoricalAnalysesofRachelCarson’sSilentSpring.Ed.CraigWaddell.SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress.17-41.

Maguire,Steve.“ContestedIcons:RachelCarsonandDDT.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.194-214.

McNeill,J.R.&PeterEngelke.TheGreatAcceleration:AnEnvironmentalHistoryoftheAnthropocenesince1945.Belknap,2016.

Nixon,Rob.SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor.HarvardUniversityPress,2013.Oreskes,NaomiandEricConway.MerchantsofDoubt:HowaHandfulofScientistsObscuredtheTruth

onIssuesfromTobaccotoGlobalWarming.Bloomsbury,2011.Patterson,JamesT.GrandExpectations:TheUnitedStates,1945-1974.OxfordUniversityPress,1997.Purdy,Jedediah.AfterNature:APoliticsfortheAnthropocene.HarvardUniversityPress,2015.Russell,Edmund.WarandNature:FightingHumansandInsectswithChemicalsfromWorldWarIto

SilentSpring.CambridgeUniversityPress,2001.Smith,Michael.“‘Silence,MissCarson!’:Science,Gender,andtheReceptionofSilentSpring.”Rachel

Carson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.168-87.

Steffen,Will,JacquesGrinevald,PaulCrutzenandJohnMcNeill.“TheAnthropocene:ConceptualandHistoricalPerspectives.”PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSociety369(2011):842-67.

Wilson,EdwardO.“Afterword.”SilentSpring.HoughtonMifflin,2002.357-64.UNITORGANIZATIONThisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“PostwarAmerica,”“DDT:WartimeHero,PostwarVillain,”and“NaturalHistories.”Eachofthesesub-sectionsdevelopspointsforuseinlecture,followedbysuggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.

UNIT1•POSTWARAMERICA,DDT,NATURALHISTORIES



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OPENINGQUESTIONS

• WhatistheUnitedStates?Whatdoyouknowaboutit?Itsliterature?Whatcomestomindwhenyouhear“WorldWarII,”“ColdWar,”or“1960s”?Whatabout“DDT,”“atomicbomb,”“industry”or“agriculture”?

• Whatisenvironment?Howisitthesameordifferentfromnature?Orfromecology?Doesnaturehaveahistory?Whatistherelationshipbetweennaturalhistoryandhumanhistory?Whatistherelationshipbetweennatureandtheglobalortheplanetary?

• Whatisliterature?Whatisworldliterature?Doesnonfictioncountasliterature?Whataboutscientificwriting?Howmightreadingscienceasliteraturechangeyourassumptionsaboutwhatcountsasliterature?AndwhyreadAmericanliteratureinaglobalcontext?WhatdoesitmeantoreadAmericanliteratureasworldliterature?

• Whatdoyouthinkofwhenyouimaginespringtime?Whatthingsmightyouseeorhear?Whatdoestheseasonofspringrepresent?Whataboutthephrase“silentspring”?Whatdoesitevoke?Isitpeaceful?Orominous?Howisitdifferentfromthespringtimeasyouimagineit?WhytitleabookaboutenvironmentSilentSpring?

POSTWARAMERICAFirstserializedintheNewYorkerin1962,RachelCarson’sSilentSpringdebutedatamomentofunprecedentedmilitaryandscientificpower,environmentaldestruction,andapocalypticpossibility.Carson’sworkasabiologistbeganalongsidetheriseofatomictechnologyandtheonsetofWorldWarII,andherworkonSilentSpringunfoldedduringtheColdWar.Overthecourseofhercareer,andperhapsmostemphaticallyinSilentSpring,Carsontracedhow“thepostwarcultureofscience”thatmaterializedinthewakeoftheWorldWarswassymptomaticofhumankind’sarrogantorientationtowardnature.LindaLeararguesthatforCarson“thephilosophicroot”ofthevariouscrisesthatconfrontedtheUnitedStates(andtheworld)inthepostwaryearscouldbetracedbacktohumankind’snaïvebeliefthatitcouldcontrolnature—toitsfailuretorecognizethathumanbeingsconstituteonly“oneof[nature’s]parts”andthat“thesurvivalofonepartdependeduponthehealthofall”(xvi).ButasCarsonshowsus,the“philosophicroot”oftheproblemwasnotsimply—orattheveryleastnotonly—oneofspecies.ItwasalsotheunintendedproductofAmericannationalism.AsEdwardO.Wilsonputsit:“Toapopulacewhoseforebearshadwithinlivingmemorycolonizedtheinteriorofavastcontinentandwhosecountryhadneverlostawar”—andhadveryrecentlywonthewartoendallwars—“argumentsforlimitandconstraintseemedalmostunpatriotic”(358).ThiswasinlargepartduetotheGreatDepressionandtheGreatWars,whichcontinuedtoexertsignificantinfluence“onthepostwarAmericanpsyche”(Egan15).TheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcenturyleftAmericancitizens“desperateforarest—areturntonormalcy…—andthepromiseofarestoredindividualandnationalaffluence”(Egan15).WorldWarII“restimulatedalong-flaggingeconomyandcreatedanoutletforproduction”thathadonlyyearsearlierseemedunattainable(Egan15).Therewasanewandunbridledfaithinscience,technologyandindustry,whichtogetherhadwonthewaragainstfascism,increasedfoodsupplies,pioneeredwonderdrugsthateradicateddeadlydisease,andmadeavailablenewandincreasinglyaffordableconveniencesthatdrasticallyimprovedtheAmericanqualityoflife.FortheAmericanpublicintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingWorldWarII,sciencewas,asCarsonputsit,a“magicbullet”thatpromisedtosuccessfullyfight“decisivebattlesinthewaragainstinfectiousdisease”andusherinaneraofedenic,widelydistributedprosperity(240).



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FollowingWorldWarII,then,theUnitedStateswasincreasinglygrippedby“anethicoflimitlessprogress”(Wilson358).TheUnitedStatesalonepossessedatomictechnology,whichwasputtodevastatinguseintheJapanesecitiesofHiroshimaandNagasaki.AsJ.R.McNeillandPeterEngelkenote,nuclearpowerisunusualinthatit,“unlikeotherformsofenergyuse…hasabirthday:December2,1942,”whenItalianémigréphysicistEnricoFermioversawthefirstcontrollednuclearreactionontheUniversityofChicagocampusinarepurposedsquashcourt(27).Whatfollowedwasmonumental.TheUnitedStatesmobilizedthispowerinWorldWarIItovictoriousorchillingeffect,dependingonone’sperspective.Followingthewar,thispowerwasrepurposedandreimaginedformorepeacefulends—asasolutionforourceaselessneedforenergy.ThisandothermilitarytechnologiesunderwentamakeoverofsortsintheyearsfollowingWorldWarII.Theywere“billedasmid-twentiethcenturyprogress”with“legitimate”useinpostwarpubliclife(Hynes7).The“deep-seatedtechnologicaloptimism”ofthepostwaryearswasgalvanizedbytheprospectthat“humaningenuity”—and“Americantechnologies”originallydevelopedforwar—wouldtogether“re-createthelandscapeinwaysheretoforeunimagined”by“put[ting]natureanditsresourcestoevenmoreeffectiveuse”(Egan16).Theadventofthebombandotherwartimetechnologiesinthiswayproducednotonlyaseismicshiftinthewar,butalso“inthebalanceofpowerbetweenmenandnature”(Hynes7)and,byextension,theUnitedStatesandtherestoftheworld.Humanwarandhumankind’scontrolofnatureareinthiswayinextricablefromoneanother.Carsonsaysasmuchwhenshenoteswithironythatnuclearpowermadethehumanspeciesnewlycapableofdominatingtheplanetand,consequently,producingitsownextinction(8).AsEdmundRussellsuggests,“warandcontrolofnaturecoevolved:thecontrolofnatureexpandedthescaleofwar,andwarexpandedthescaleonwhichpeoplecontrollednature”(2).Toputitanotherway:controloftheatom—nature’sbuildingblock—arguablywonthewar.Italsoconsolidatedhumankind’spowerovernature.Carsonpointstotwentieth-centurydevelopmentsinchemistryasanotherexampleofthiscoevolution:“theGermangovernmentrecognizedthevalue”ofcertainchemicals“asnewanddevastatingweaponsinman’swaragainsthisownkind”and,byextension,hiswaragainstnature.Someofthesechemicalswentontobecome“deadlynervegas,”whileothers“closelyalliedinstructure”wereusedaspesticides(28).Theinterrelationshipofwarandnatureisalsovisibleinthepostwarpopulationbooms.TheseboomsoccurrednotonlybecauseAmericansenjoyednewheightsofprosperityinthewakeofWorldWarII,butalsobecauseoftheknowledgetheyhadgainedastheysearchedoutevermoreefficientwaysofkillingenemies:“Americansgotbetteratsavinglivespartlybecausetheygotbetterattakingthem”(Russell8).Inotherwords,thewar’soutcomedependedlargelyonthehealthofthetroopsinvolved,soevenastheUnitedStatesworkedtoimprovethelethalityofitsweaponry,italsodedicatedsubstantialenergytopreservinghumanlife(albeitselectively).Inthisway,“[w]ar’sexigencieshadlegitimatedmassivepublichealthinterventionsandtaughtadministratorsandhealthprofessionalshowtodelivervaccines,antibiotics,andsanitationtothemassesatmodestcost,evenindifficultconditions”(McNeillandEngelke41).WhileWorldWarIIwasmarkedbyunprecedentedcasualties,then,ithelpedmakepossibletheoverallimprovementofpublichealth—orwhatMcNeillandEngelkehavecalled,inaFrankensteinianturnofphrase,a“rollbackofdeath”(45).TheUnitedStatesgainedmuchfrommobilizingnatureformilitarypurposes.Inadditiontoimprovingthehealthofthenation,itemergedfromthewarwithincredible“surpluses”thatincreasedindividualandnationalwealth.FollowingWorldWarII,theUnitedStatesdevelopedan“ever-enlarging”and“thrivingeconomy”whosegrowthculminatedinthe1960s,whichmarked“thelongestperiodof



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uninterruptedeconomicgrowth”inthenation’shistory(Patterson451-2).Italso“commandedfullyhalfoftheentireplanet’smanufacturingcapacityandgeneratedmorethanhalfoftheworld’selectricity.”It“ownedtwo-thirdsoftheworld’sgoldstocksandhalfofallitsmonetarypreserves,”“producedtwotimesmorepetroleumthantherestoftheworldcombined,”andpossessed“anearmonopoly”onarangeofenergyandtechnologyindustries(Kennedy432).Writingforanationalaudience,CarsondocumentshowAmericanswere“releasingfarmoretoxinsintowindsandwaterwaysthantheyhadeverdonebefore”(Purdy202).Prosperitycameataprice:sustainingincreasinglevelsofwealthrequiresconsumingresourcesingreaterandgreateramounts.SilentSpringisalsosetagainstthebackdropofglobalenergyconsumption.AccordingtoMcNeillandEngelke:“Ourspecieshasprobablyusedmoreenergysince1920thaninallofpriorhumanhistory.Inthehalfcenturybefore1950,globalenergyuseslightlymorethandoubled.Then,inthenexthalfcentury,itquintupledfromthe1950slevel”(9).Thecarbonfootprintofthehumanspeciesmultipliedexponentially.Whereasin1750“humankindreleasedperhaps3milliontonsofcarbonintotheatmosphere”bywayofburningfossilfuels,attheendofWorldWarIIthatfigure“hadincreasedmorethantwenty-fold,toabout1,200milliontons.”After1945,“humankindembarkeduponafiestaoffossilfuelconsumption”(66).ThoughCarsonisfocusedonpesticidesandnotfossilfuelsinSilentSpring,statisticslikethesesituateinstarktermstheunsettlingrealitiesofthepostwarworldinwhichshewrote.Thisworldwasmarkedbyanincreasinglyunevenrelationshipbetweenhumankindandnature—arelationshipthat,howevermuchitseemedtippedinhumankind’sfavormightatanymoment“boomerang”(Carson’sword)tocatastrophiceffect(80).AsourceofgrowingterrorthataffectedAmericansandnon-Americansalikeweretheimplicationsofweaponsliketheatomicbomb—and,morebroadly,theout-of-kilterrelationshipbetweenhumansandnature—especiallyinthecontextof“theuniquelydifficultandbipolarworldthatsuddenlyaroseafterWorldWarII”(Patterson135).Here,JamesT.PattersonspeaksoftheColdWar,wherein“twoverydifferentsocietiesandculturesfoundthemselvesface-to-faceinaworldofawesomeweaponry”(135).“Awesome”inboththemagnificentandfrighteningsensesoftheword,weaponsliketheatomicbombplungedtheUnitedStates,theSovietUnion,andtheirrespectivealliesintoanew,pervasive,andtenaciouscultureoffearandparanoia—aculturedrivenbyaclashinworldviews,heighteningconcernsaboutsecurity,andatendencyto“believ[e]theworstoftheother,”allofwhichmadeitdifficult“tocurbtheescalationoftensions”(Patterson136).TheColdWarintensifiedWorldWarII’stechnologicalandindustriallegaciestonegativeeffect.LiketheSecondWorldWar,theColdWarwascharacterizedby“heroiceffortstomobilizeoralternatureforpoliticalends”andsolidifiedthe“military-industrialcomplexes”—theproximityofmilitary,industry,andscience—thattookshapeduringthe1930sand1940s(McNeillandEngelke160)anditsroleinbuildingaprosperouseconomythroughtechnologicaladvances.ItwasinthiscontextthatmanyofthesoaringoptimismsofWorldWarIItransformedintoterrors.WhereasAmericansinitiallyenvisionedtheatomicbombassymbolicofscience’suntappedpowerandpotentiality,theyre-imaginedthebombintheColdWaryearsasindicativeofscience’sendlessandunstoppablecapacityfordestruction.Inotherwords:“Ifsciencecouldcreatesomethingsodestructiveofhumanlifeasanatomicbomb,whatcoulditnotdo?(Russell166).Fromthisperspective,pesticidestookonaparticularlysinisteraspect.Onescientist,OrlandoPark,speculatedpriortothepublicationofSilentSpring“thathumanscouldannihilatethemselvesequallywellwithatomicbombsorinsecticides”(Russell166).



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How,inthemidstoftheColdWar,didtheUnitedStatesrespondtothisnewwayofviewingscientificadvancesbywayofthemilitary-industrialcomplex?Bydoublingdown.Russelloutlineshow“theColdWarrepeatedthepattern”establishedduringtheGreatWars:“Demandforchemicalsincreased,militaryandindustrialinstitutionsgrewcloser,”and“theUnitedStatesaddedpowerfulnewchemicalweaponstoitsarsenal”(184).Inthiscontext,SilentSpringmobilizedAmericans’growingconcernsaboutnuclearpower,thescience-military-industrialcomplex,andpotentialapocalypsetoconservationistends.Takingadvantageof“aresurgentconcernwithpollutionandpublichealth,”CarsonsoughttomakeAmericansawareofanenvironmentalthreatthatposedhazardsjustasgreatasthoseofnuclearfallout(Nixon252).AsRalphLuttsobserves:“Shewassoundinganalarmaboutakindofpollutionthatwasinvisibletothesenses,”thatmight“accumulateinbodytissues”overtime,andwhich“couldresultincancer”andotherhealthproblems(19).PollutionbypesticidewasnotafamiliartopicofconversationintheaverageAmericanhouseholdpriortothepublicationofSilentSpring,butsomethingequallyinvisibleanddeadlywas:nuclearfallout.Positingpesticidesas“anotherform”oragent“offallout,”Carson“t[ook]advantageofthedeep-seatedclusterofsocialconcernssurroundingitinthepublic’smind”(Lutts36).“[U]s[ing]thepublic’sexistingunderstandingaboutthehazardsoffallouttoteachaboutthesimilarhazardsofchemicalpoisons,”CarsonmadeacaseagainstthewidespreaduseofpesticidesandtheproliferationofenvironmentaltoxicitythatAmericanscouldnotignore(36).TheopeningchapterofSilentSpring,“AFableforTomorrow,”isacaseinpoint.AsLuttsargues,“[i]tisnoaccident…thatthefirstpollutantCarsonmentionedbynameinSilentSpringwasnotapesticidebutstrontium90”(34).Strontium90,aradioactiveisotopeand“long-lastingcomponentoffallout,”wasalltoofamiliartoCarson’saudience:mobileandaccumulative,itservedasausefulanalogforintroducingreaderstoastorythat,thoughitfeaturedanewcharacter,wasonetheyalreadyknew—“all[they]neededwasalittlereminding”(Lutts37).Thisstrategywasremarkablyeffective.Framedinfallout,SilentSpringtriggeredthepostwarenvironmentalmovement.SerializedintheNewYorker,thetextwasavailabletoabroadreadingaudiencethatincludedPresidentJohnF.Kennedy.Compelledtoaction,PresidentKennedytaskedthePresident’sScienceAdvisoryCommittee(PSAC)withthejobofassessingthevalidityofthebook’sscienceandclaims,theseverityofitsimplications,anditsdemandforaction.AsNaomiOreskesandEricConwaynote,thiswas“adifficultcharge”(221).Tocompleteitstask,PSAChadto“contrasttheobvious,rapidbenefitsofpesticideuseindiseasecontrolandfoodproductionwiththesubtle,longterm,poorlyunderstoodriskstohumansandnature,”toassess“amultitudeofacknowledgedscientificcertainties,”and“toaddressthedifficultiesofpredictinglong-termeffectsbasedonthefewexistingclinicalstudies”(OreskesandConway221).Despitethesedifficulties,PSACcametoadefinitivejudgment:“itwastimeforimmediateactiontorestrainpesticideuse”(OreskesandConway221).SilentSpringthuspavedthewayforadecadeofenvironmentally-mindedlegalreform.Notonlywerepesticidessubjecttonewregulation,butCongresspassedaseriesoffoundationallaws:theCleanAirActof1963,theWildernessActof1964,theCleanWaterActof1965,andtheEndangeredSpeciesActof1966.TheEnvironmentalDefenseFundwasestablishedin1967andtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencywasestablishedwiththesigningintolawofthe1970NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct.ThenationalsocelebrateditsfirstEarthDayin1970,andfurtherlegislationfollowed:anotherCleanAirAct(1970),theFederalWaterPollutionControlActof1972,andasecondEndangeredSpeciesAct(1973).SilentSpringalso“provokeddebateandlaidthegroundworkforlaterenvironmentallegislation”incountriesbeyondtheUnitedStates(Hynes40).Thetextwastranslatedintonumerouslanguagesanddistributedwidely.Duringa1963“debateonpesticidesintheHouseofLords,London,”forinstance,



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“[n]earlyeveryspeakermentionedRachelCarsonandherbook”(Hynes40).Butthoughthebooktriggereddecisiveactionintheshortterm,itslong-termlegaciesareperhapslessdeterminate.The“surgeofenvironmentalismrecededabit”inthelate1970sastheenvironmentalmovementencountereditsownuniquechallenges,includingaccusationsofelitismandneglectofnon-white,non-affluent,non-Americanaudiences(Patterson728)—asubjecttakenupinUnit3.However,whetherornotthisisthecase,thelegacyofRachelCarson’sSilentSpringisonethatleftanindeliblemarkonenvironmentalhistory,activismandlawintheUnitedStates.CLOSEREADING:Studentsmightexploretherelationshipbetweenwarandthecontrolofnaturebyclosereadingthefollowingpassage(seetheoriginaltextfortheunabridgedquotation).Askstudentstoconsiderhowthenotionof“totalwar”thatemergedoutofWorldWarIImightresonatewithCarson’sdescriptionhereofakindof“total”orall-encompassing,universallydevastatingwaruponnature:

Itisnotpossibletoaddpesticidestowateranywherewithoutthreateningthepurityofwatereverywhere.SeldomifeverdoesNatureoperateinclosedandseparatecompartments,andshehasnotdonesoindistributingtheearth’swatersupply…[Groundwater]travelsbyunseenwaterwaysuntilhereandthereitcomestothesurface…Exceptforwhatentersstreamsdirectlyasrainorsurfacerunoff,alltherunningwateroftheearth’ssurfacewasatonetimegroundwater.Andsoinaveryrealandfrighteningsense,pollutionofthegroundwaterispollutionofwatereverywhere.(42)

Carson’sfirstmentionofachemical—Strontium90—occursinthefollowingpassage,whichstudentsmightusetoconsidertheanalogybetweenatomicfalloutandpesticidepoisoninginSilentSpring.Forfurtherconsideration,seetheopeningchapterofthetext,titled“AFableforTomorrow”:

Themostalarmingofallman’sassaultsupontheenvironmentisthecontaminationofair,earth,rivers,andseawithdangerousandevenlethalmaterials.Thispollutionisforthemostpartirrecoverable;thechainofevilitinitiatesnotonlyintheworldthatmustsupportlifebutinlivingtissuesisforthemostpartirreversible.Inthisnowuniversalcontaminationoftheenvironment,chemicalsarethesinisterandlittle-recognizedpartnersofradiationinchangingtheverynatureoftheworld—theverynatureofitslife.Strontium90,releasedthroughnuclearexplosionsintotheair,comestoearthinrainordriftsdownasfallout,lodgesinsoil,entersintothegrassorcornorwheatgrownthere,andinnotimetakesupitsabodeinthebonesofahumanbeing,theretoremainuntilhisdeath.Similarly,chemicalssprayedoncroplandsorforestsorgardenslielonginsoil,enteringintolivingorganisms,passingfromonetoanotherinachainofpoisoninganddeath…AsAlbertSchweitzerhassaid,“Mancanhardlyevenrecognizethedevilsofhisowncreation.”(6)

DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS:

• SilentSpringraisesdifficultquestionsaboutunbridledindustrialpower.Whatdowemakeoftechnologieslikenuclearpowerorinsecticidesthatweredevelopedinwartime?Howdowemakesenseofthecontradictionsatissueinthishistory:that,onetheonehand,thesetechnologiesweremadepossibleby—iftheydidnotalsofacilitate—thelossofhumanlife?Yet,ontheotherhand,theyinspirednewhopeforanimprovedqualityoflife?Howdoweassesswhenthecostsofaparticulartechnologyoutweighitsrewards?



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• Carsongesturestoatleasttwodifferentwaysofthinkingaboutscienceandtechnology:asmagicbulletsthatproducewondroussolutionstobigproblemsandasuncheckedpowerswhoseinventionsnowexceedhumancontrol.Howdidthesetwonotionsofscienceandtechnologycometoexistatthesametime?WhicheventsinAmericanand/orworldhistoryinformedthesedrasticallydifferentviewsandhowdowereconcilethem?Howmightthiscontexthelpusrethinkourpresentscientificandtechnologicalmoment?How,forexample,dowesupportandvaluescientificresearchortechnologicalinnovationwhileatthesametimeensuringtheydonotbecomeunaccountabletocitizensandtotheworld?

• SilentSpringalsoraisesquestionsabouttherelationshipbetweenhumanprosperityandenvironmentalprotection.Howdowebalancethewelfareofhumanswiththatofnature?Wheredotheyoverlap?Aretheyeverinconflict?Isitpossibleforenvironmentalreformtohavenegativeconsequencesforparticularhumancommunities?Howdoweassessthesetrade-offswithoutdefaultingtothelogicofanthropocentrism—theassumptionthathumanspossesshighervaluethannonhumans?Howdowesustaingoodqualityoflifewhilealsoprotectingnature?(Studentsmightfocusonthesecondclosereadingpassageastheydiscuss.)

DDT:WARTIMEHERO,POSTWARVILLAINAsdiscussedintheprecedingsub-section,warandthecontrolofnaturecoevolved.Historiesofmilitaryconflictmightinthiswaybeunderstoodashistoriesofnatureor,rather,historiesoftherelationshipbetweenhumankindandthenonhumanworld.InSilentSpring,Carsonisbroadlyconcernedwiththeironiestheseintertwinedhistoriesmakevisible:theincreasinglycertainpossibility,forinstance,thatinitswaragainstnaturehumankindwagesawaragainstitself,orhowduringthepostwaryearsmilitarytechnologywasthemeansbywhichhumanbeingsacquiredabetterunderstandingofnaturethatthenfueled,howeverparadoxically,boththeindustrializationofthenonhumanworldandthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement.Carsonwasstruckbythestrangenessofthefactthatmuchofwhatweknowaboutnatureemergedasaresultofwartimescienceandtechnology.SatellitesoriginallydevelopedduringWorldWarIIfacilitatedearlyresearchintoearthsystemsandclimatechange;“Americansdrilledthefirsticecoreinthelate1950s,forpurelymilitaryreasons”thatneverthelessprovidedscientistswith“usefuldata”;andsonar“enabledfisherstomaptheseafloor”and,ifusedintandemwithothermilitarytechnologiesincluding“shipboardcomputers”and“globalpositioningsystems,”totransformcommercialfishingintoa“highlylethal”enterprise(McNeillandEngelke74-5and93).TheColdWarwasthusdistinguishedbytherepurposingofinstrumentsandknowledgethat“hadbeendevelopedinitiallyformilitarypurposes”(McNeillandEngelke93).Carsonwasmostconcernedaboutonetypeofchemicaltechnologyinparticular:DDTanditsrelatives.SilentSpringisinpartahistoryofchemistryandthebiographyofachemical.ShechartsDDT’sinception,recountinghowit“wasfirstsynthesizedbyaGermanchemistin1874”and,whenscientistsdiscoveredmanydecadeslaterthatitwasanespeciallyeffectiveinsecticide,itsmilitaryuse(20).Appliedinpowderform,DDThelpedkeepAmericantroopshealthyandfighting:iteradicated“numerouspests,includingmosquitoesandlice,”andwas“usedtostopthespreadofdeadlyinsect-bornediseaseslikemalariaandtyphus”(OreskesandConway226).Asthatwhicheradicatedinsects,DDTrepresentedthehopeofsecuring“theendofinsect-bornediseases”(Dunlap3).Forsome,itwastheharbingerofaneweraofnationalandglobalhealth.Thus,likepenicillin,DDTwasimaginedasamagicbullet.ItpromisedtheeradicationofdeadlydiseasesintheAmericanpopulaceaswellasinsoldiersfightingtoprotectthatpopulaceoverseas.“War,”asRussellobserves,“mademalariaa



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federal—andmorespecifically—amilitarythreat”(112),butDDTaffordedtheUnitedStatesanopportunityto“turnanenemyintoanally”(117).DDTenabledtheUnitedStatesmilitarytoweaponizenaturefor,solongastheycouldmaintaincontrolofthischemicalsecrettopestanddiseasecontrol,Americantroopswouldremainhealthywhiletheirhumanenemieswouldbedecimatedbynaturalenemies.NatureinthiswaybecameanAmericanallyinwartime.AsRussellargues,“chemistry”thusbecame“theworkhorsescience”ofWorldWarIIandDDTbecameawartimehero(202).Hailedas“amiraclechemical”(OreskesandConway218),DDTwas“creditedwithsavingmillionsoflives”(Maguire195).PaulMüller—theSwisschemistwhoresynthesizedDDTanddiscovereditsinsecticidalproperties—wouldgoontowintheNobelPrizeforPhysiologyorMedicinein1948.Canonizedasawartimehero,DDT“camehomein1945onawaveofpublicityandhighhopes”—itwasa“technicalmarve[l]”thatpromisedtomakeimmenseimprovementstofoodsuppliesandpublichealthintheUnitedStates(Dunlap3).ItisnoexaggerationtosaythatintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingWorldWarIIDDT“becameaculturalicon”that“inspiredpoetry”and,later,afteritsfallfromgrace,elegiacobituaries.DavidMcCordsingsthechemical’spraisesinverseina1944issueoftheNewYorker,declaringthat“DDTmeansbattleswon”whetherinwartimeorinthedomesticconfinesoftheAmericansuburbanhome(qtd.inRussell129).AnobituaryforDDTpublished25yearslaterintheNewYorkTimesMagazineinresponsetothestateofMichigan’sbanonDDTfromagriculturaluselamentsthemiraclechemical’sunjustdeath.TheobituarypersonifiesDDTasthe“greatest”ofwarheroes,whodied“age95”followinghis“murderbyauthorRachelCarson”andissurvivedbyhisbrothersinarms:“dieldrin,aldrin,endrin,chlordane,heptachlor,lindaneandtoxpaphene.”Thisimaginativeandfigurativework—thepersonificationofDDTasaheroandlifesaver—pavedthewayforDDT’spostwarafterlifeinbigagricultureandtheAmericansuburbs.AsOreskesandConwayputit:“EveryonebelievedDDTwassafe”(218).Thus,Carsonwrites,“thenewchemicalscomefromourlaboratoriesinanendlessstream”(7)and“anyonemaywalkintoastoreand,withoutquestionsbeingasked,buysubstancesoffargreaterdeath-dealingpowerthan”thosestrictlycontrolled“medicinaldrug[s]”obtainedatapharmacy(174).ThefreeavailabilityofDDTandothertoxicpoisonsintensifiedbecauseofthemid-twentieth-centuryexpansionofagriculture.“Duringthetwentiethcentury,”McNeillandEngelkeobserve,“theareadevotedtocroplandandpasturesonEarthmorethandoubled,withroughlyhalfofthatoccurringafter1950”(88).Theexpansionofagriculturecontributedtosubstantiallossesinbiodiversity.“Landscapesalreadylongagobiologicallysimplifiedbyconversiontofarmorpasturegrewstillmoresimplifiedin1945”asaresultofagriculturalpracticeslike“monocropping,”orgrowingthesamecroponthesamelandoverandoveragainwithoutrotation(McNeillandEngelke88).Thismeantthat,amongotherthings,cropswereespeciallyvulnerabletoinsectpredatorsandthatinsects,findingthemselveswithfewernaturalpredators,posedincreasingthreatstofoodsupplies.Inthiscontext,theproductionofDDTandotherpesticidesincreasedexponentially.“TheproductionofsyntheticpesticidesintheUnitedStatessoaredfrom124,259,000poundsin1947to637,666,000poundsin1960,”which,Carsonnotes,amountsto“morethanafivefoldincrease”(17).Theseinsecticideswere,asCarsondocumentsextensively,indiscriminateintermsofboththeirtargetspeciesandusage.Theywereintendedtotargetasmanypestspeciesaspossible—tomaximizeeffectivenessinthefield—andassuchdecimatednon-targetspeciesintheprocess.Likewise,theinsecticidesofwhichCarsonwriteswere“indiscriminatelysprayedontheland,”creating“adepressingrecordofdestruction”that,ultimately,onlycontributedtothepestcontrolproblembycompoundingchemicalresistanceininsectspecies(85).Inadditiontobeingrepurposedasanagentofdomesticandagriculturalsecurity,



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DDTwasasourceofeconomicwealthand,onceagain,aninstrumentofmilitarypower.LargeamountsofDDTwereexportedtoothernationsinthehopesofnotonlymakingaprofit,butalsoof“increase[ing]foodsupplies,”“decreas[ing]diseases”and,byextension,“winningalliesinthefightagainstcommunism”(Russell189).Pesticides,then,constitutedanimportantfrontinthearmsrace.IfDDTandthewaroninsectsyieldedpowerfulmetaphorsforAmericandominanceinapostwarworld,Carsonmobilizedthosemetaphorstoverydifferentends.Tracingthe“similaritiesbetweeninsecticidesprayingandnationaldefenseprograms,”Carson’s“searchforaframingmetaphorledhertowar”(Russell221).WhereastheUnitedStatesmilitaryandagriculturalindustryusedsuchmetaphorstocapitalizeonColdWaranxietiesandtojustifysustainedmilitarism,Carson“redirected”fear“awayfromtheRedPeriltotheaerosolcanofDoomperchedonthekitchenshelf”(Nixonxi).Deployingtheimageryofwar,CarsonarguedforcefullythattherealthreattotheUnitedStatesandtohumankindwasnotCommunismbutthehumanspecies’capacitytoannihilatenatureand,insodoing,itself.CentraltoCarson’scasewastheindiscriminateuseofDDTanditscatastrophicconsequences.TheprecedingsubsectionoutlinedtherangeoflegislativeoutcomesthatSilentSpringhelpedmakerealizable.Oneofthemostsignificantwas,ofcourse,the1972banningofDDTuseintheUnitedStates.ThestateofWisconsinplayedakeyroleintheprocurementoftheban.In1968,theCitizens’NaturalResourcesAssociationofWisconsin,Inc.(CNRA)joinedwiththeEnvironmentalDefenseFund(EDF)to“fil[e]acomplaint”againstDDT“withtheWisconsinDepartmentofNaturalResources”(Dunlap152).Thegoal,howeversurprising,“wasnotsomuchtobanDDTinanyparticularplaceastofindapublicforumandanimpartialarbiterbeforewhomtopresenttheirscientificevidenceandgetajudgment”(Dunlap153).Doingsowouldpavethewayforabanatthenationallevel.Wisconsinwasanidealplaceforpursuingthisgoalbecausestatelawallowed“[a]nyWisconsincitizen”to“askagovernmentdepartmentforarulingontheapplicabilityofaparticularsetoffactstoanyruleenforcedbythedepartment”(Dunlap153).Apublichearingwouldfollow.TheformatofthehearingwasespeciallywellsuitedtotheCNRAandEDF’saimsbecause“[t]herewasnoconcreteissue,noparticularuseofDDTatstake”—onlythequestionofwhether,“accordingtothewaterpollutionlawsofWisconsin,DDTwasapollutant”(Dunlap154and157).ThisallowedtheCNRAandEDFto“setthetermsofdiscussion,andforcetheindustrytocomeanddefenditself”onconservationists’“ground”(Dunlap159).Inthisway,scientificexpertsandconcernedcitizensinWisconsinplayedaformativeroleintheeventsleadinguptothe1972nationalbanonDDT.UniversityofWisconsin-MadisonbotanyprofessorsOrieLoucksandHughH.Iltishelped“establishtheecologicalpart”oftheargumentagainstDDT,and“facultyandgraduatestudents”atUW-Madison“arrangedascientificreferenceservicefortheEDF”sothatthoseworkingontheconservationistsideofthedebatecouldobtaininformationtorefuteopposingtestimonyinrealtime(Dunlap162and156).Perhapsmostsignificant,however,wasthepublicitythehearinggarnered.TheEDFwasknownforits“friendlyrelationswiththepress”and“itmadeeveryefforttogivereportersastoryandmakesuretheygotitright”(Dunlap166).TheCapital-Timeswouldeventuallycovertheproceedingsofthehearingonadailybasisand“Milwaukeepapersalsogavegoodcoverage”(Dunlap166).Soon,thetidebegantoshift.InNovember1968“theWisconsinDepartmentofAgricultureandtheUniversityofWisconsinhadannouncedthattheywouldnotrecommendDDTforthecontrolofDutchelmdisease”andinAprilofthenextyearthe“WisconsinNaturalResourcesBoardhadannouncedthatit‘wouldissuenopermitsfortheuseofDDTduringtheplantgrowingseason’andwoulddiscourageitsuseduringthedormantseason”(Dunlap171and177).OverthecourseoftheWisconsinhearing,thestorywaspickedupbynationalnewsoutletsliketheNewYorkTimes.Support



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fortakingdecisive,legislativeactiongrewacrosstheUnitedStates,leadinguptothe1972decision.Ultimately,thebanwasa“substantial”accomplishment“onbothmaterialandsymbolicgrounds”(Hynes46-7).Itwasalsoanadmittedly“partialvictory,”forwhileDDTcouldnolongerbeusedintheUnitedStates,itsproductionandexporttoforeigncountriesremainedinfullswing(Hynes47).BeyondthebordersoftheUnitedStates,then,theindiscriminateuseofinsecticidescontinued.Inaworldwhereeverythingisconnected—inaworldwhere“add[ing]pesticidestowateranywhere”inevitably“threaten[s]thepurityofwatereverywhere”(Carson42)—thethreatofDDTanditschemicalrelativespersisted.CLOSEREADING:Inthefollowingpassage,CarsoncomposesabiographyofDDT.Askstudentstoclosereadthepassageand,astheydoso,tomakenoteofthewaysCarsoninterweavesvariouskindsofhistoriesandknowledges—military,scientificorchemical,physiological—totracetheoverlapbetweenandramificationsofwarswagedamonghumanbeingsandhumankind’swaragainstnature.

DDT(shortfordichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane)wasfirstsynthesizedbyaGermanchemistin1874,butitspropertiesasaninsecticidewerenotdiscovereduntil1939.AlmostimmediatelyDDTwashailedasameansofstampingoutinsect-bornediseaseandwinningthefarmers’waragainstcropdestroyersovernight.Thediscoverer,PaulMüllerofSwitzerland,wontheNobelPrize.DDTisnowsouniversallyusedthatinmostmindstheproducttakesontheharmlessaspectofthefamiliar.PerhapsthemythoftheharmlessnessofDDTrestsonthefactthatoneofitsfirstuseswasthewartimedustingofmanythousandsofsoldiers,refugees,andprisoners,tocombatlice.ItiswidelybelievedthatsincesomanypeoplecameintoextremelyintimatecontactwithDDTandsufferednoimmediateilleffectsthechemicalmustcertainlybeinnocentofharm.Thisunderstandablemisconceptionarisesfromthefactthat…DDTinpowderformisnotreadilyabsorbedthroughtheskin.Dissolvedinoil,asitusuallyis,DDTisdefinitelytoxic…Onceithasenteredthebodyitisstoredlargelyinorgansrichinfattysubstances…Thefattystoragedepotsactasbiologicalmagnifiers,sothatanintakeofaslittleas1/10of1partpermillioninthedietresultsinstorageofabout10to15partspermillion,anincreaseofonehundredfoldormore…aminutequantitycanbringaboutvastchangesinthebody.(20-1)

UsethefollowingpassagestostudyCarson’smetaphorsofwar.

Asmanproceedstowardhisannouncedgoaloftheconquestofnature,hehaswrittenadepressingrecordofdestruction,directednotonlyagainsttheearthheinhabitsbutagainstthelifethatsharesitwithhim.Thehistoryoftherecentcenturieshasitsblackpassages—theslaughterofthebuffaloonthewesternplains,themassacreoftheshorebirdsbythemarketgunners,thenear-exterminationoftheegretsfortheirplumage.Now,totheseandotherslikethem,weareaddinganewchapterandanewkindofhavoc—thedirectkillingofbirds,mammals,fishes,andindeedpracticallyeveryformofwildlifebychemicalinsecticidesindiscriminatelysprayedontheland.(85)

Noresponsiblepersoncontendsthatinsect-bornediseaseshouldbeignored.Thequestionthathasnowurgentlypresenteditselfiswhetheritiseitherwiseorresponsibletoattacktheproblembymethodsthatarerapidlymakingitworse.Theworldhasheardmuchofthetriumphantwaragainstdiseasethroughthecontrolofinsectvectorsofinfection,butithasheardlittleoftheothersideofthestory—thedefeats,theshort-livedtriumphsthatnowstronglysupportthealarmingviewthattheinsectenemyhasbeenmadeactuallystrongerbyourefforts.Evenworse,wemayhavedestroyedourverymeansoffighting.(266)



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• WhywasDDTaveritablewarhero?ConsiderDDT’spersonificationasawartimemagicbullet.Whatispersonification?Whatdoesitmeantopersonifynonhumanobjectsasactorsinhumanhistory?HowwasDDTre-personifiedorrepackagedbyCarsonandenvironmentalactivists?HowdidCarson’suseofmilitaryanalogypositionDDTasaweaponofmassdestructionakintotheatomicbomb?InwhatwaysdoesDDT’swartimeandpostwarhistorymapontothetwonotionsofscienceandtechnologydiscussedabove?Carsondiscussesmanyother,equallyifnotmorepowerfulchemicalsinSilentSpring.WhywasDDTanidealtarget?Wasitonlyamatteroftimebeforeitfellfromgrace?

• SilentSpringillustrateshowhumankind’swaragainstnatureisalsoawaragainsthumankind.AccordingtoCarson,whatroledidnatureplayinWorldWarII—forexample,intheAlliedpowersagainsttheAxis?Howdidnatureinterferewithwartimestrategy?HowdiditbecomeaweapontheUnitedStatescouldharnessformilitarypurposes?Doesthishistorysurpriseyouand,ifso,why?Doesit,forexample,complicatetheideathatnatureisapassiveresourceoverwhichthehumanholdsabsolutepower?Studentsmightconsidertheissueofinsectresistanceastheyanswerthesequestions.

NATURALHISTORIESTheprecedingsub-unitsprovideanoverviewofSilentSpring’spostwarhistoricalcontexts.Naturalhistory,asCarsonremindsus,isacrucialstrandofthisnarrative.SilentSpringisaclosereadingoflandscape,earthsystemsandevolutionarytime.Writingofthe“unthinkingbludgeoning”of“thesagebrushlandsoftheWest,”forinstance,Carsonshowsherreadershowhumankind’s“vastcampaign”againstnatureisimmortalizedinthelandscapeitself(64).Likeningnatureto“thepagesofanopenbook,”shereadsthelandscapetodiscover“whythislandisthewayitis,andwhyweshouldpreserveitsintegrity”(64).KeytoCarson’sunderstandingofnaturalhistoryisherinsistencethathumans—andhumanhistory—donotstandapartfrombutratherareintegraltoit.“Thehistoryoflifeonearthhas,”afterall,“beenahistoryofinteractionbetweenlivingthingsandtheirsurroundings”(5).Theselivingthingsincludehumanbeings.Forthosewhoknowhowtoreadit,thebookofnaturetellsthestoryofhowhumankindaltersparticularlandscapesand,indeed,theentireplanetdramaticallyandperhapsirrevocably,transforming“radiation”intoan“unnaturalcreationofman’stamperingwiththeatom”andmanipulatingnaturesuchthatitmust“makeitsadjustment”notonlyto“minerals”butalsoto“thesyntheticcreationsofman’sinventivemind”(7).GiventhatSilentSpringisanaccountof“thecontaminationofman’stotalenvironment”byhumankinditself,itisperhapsnosurprisethatCarsonconsideredalternative,equallychilling,andperhapsmoretellingtitlesthanSilentSpring,including:ControlofNature,TheWaragainstNature,andManagainsttheEarth.ThesetitlesdemonstrateemphaticallyhowCarson“wantedtobringoutthethemeofman’srelentlessstruggletosubduenature”(Smith179).WhatCarsondescribesinSilentSpringiswhatsomenowcalltheAnthropocene.ManyclimatescientistsusethistermtodescribeEarth’sshift“outofitscurrentgeologicalepoch”asaresultof“humanactivity”(Steffenetal843).Thebalancebetweenthehumanspeciesandtheplanethasundergoneamassiveshift:“humankindisnowageologicalforceinitsownright”(Steffenetal843).WhereastheHolocenenamed“anintergalacialmoment”characterizedbya“stable”climate—amomentthatcontainsalmost“[a]llofwhatisconventionallyunderstoodashumanhistory”—theAnthropocene



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names“humaninterferenceinthenaturalcyclingofcarbon”(McNeillandEngelke1and65).Thisinterference,facilitatedbyhuman-engineered“chemicalsandotherindustrialemissions,”isnowapermanentpartofthegeologicalrockrecord(Purdy1).Pesticides,asCarsondemonstrates,areanimportantpartofthisstory.WhileCarsondoesnotusetheterm“theAnthropocene,”wemightneverthelessunderstandherasoneofitsearliesttheorizers.SilentSpringisdeeplyconcernedwiththeways“humanityisimplicatedinnaturalhistory”(Buell7)—withhowthelivelihoodsofwholespeciesandentireearthsystemsarecaughtupinhumanactionanditsconsequences.SilentSpringmakesvisiblethedifficultiesofunderstandingsuchactionandreimaginingitsconsequences—ofreroutingtheincreasinglygloomyplanetaryfuturethattheAnthropocenewouldseemtopromise.Publishedin1962,thebookgivessupporttotheideathattheAnthropocenebeganinthemid-twentiethcentury,whereinthefirstatombombwasdetonated,“three-quartersofthehuman-causedloadingoftheatmospherewithcarbondioxidetookplace,”and“thehumanimpactonEarthandthebiosphere…escalated”(McNeillandEngelke4).McNeillandEngelkecallthisconjoinedmomentinhumanandgeologicalhistory“theGreatAcceleration”(4).ButotherspointoutthatthebeginningoftheAnthropoceneisnotsoeasilyestablished.ChristopheBonneuilandJean-BaptisteFressozofferarangeofalternativestartingpoints:theemergenceofthespeciesHomosapiens“inAfrica200,000yearsago”;humankind’sfirstmeasurableinterferencesinthenaturalcyclingofcarbon,whichresultedfrom“deforestation,ricecultivationandstock-raising”(14);theonsetoftheindustrialrevolution(16);oreven“theEuropeanconquestofAmerica”(15).ThisisalltosaythatthenaturalhistoricalmomentinwhichSilentSpringissituatedandtowhichitrespondsisnotsoeasilymapped.TheAnthropocenemarks,amongotherthings,theconceptual,historical,andscientificdifficultyofpinpointingbeginningsandendings,causeandeffect.Treatingthethreatofnuclearfalloutnotnecessarilyasadefinitivehistoricalstartingpointforenvironmentalcrisisbutratherasthemostproximateanalogforunderstandingtheconsequencesofhumankind’swaruponnature,SilentSpringillustrateshowweneednotchooseonebeginningoveranother.Rather,eachofthesebeginningsisaniterationofthesamewide-rangingproblem:theout-of-kilterrelationshipbetweenhumankindandthenonhumanworlditexploitsforitsowngain(and,ironically,toitseventualextinction).AsCarsondemonstrates,thisproblemhasalongandvariablehistorythatcutsacrossthehumanandthenonhuman.SilentSpringinthiswaytakesupachallengethatiscentraltothinkingtheAnthropocene:mappingandthinkingacrossdifferenttimescales,aswellasdifferentrelationshipstotime.Carson’swritingabouttoxicityhighlightsdisjunctionsbetweentheshallowsofhumantimeandthedepthsofevolutionarytime.WhereasSilentSpringdescribesnaturalhistoryasunfoldingacrossdeeptime—across“hundredsofmillionsofyears”wherein“thelifethatnowinhabitstheearth”evolvedslowlytoachieveacarefullycalibratedstateof“adjustment”or“balance”—shedescribesthe“modern“world”aspossessing“notime”(6).HumanshavesubjectedtheEarthto“rapidityofchange.”“[T]imeis[an]essentialingredient”tomaintainingecologicalbalance,butthe“pace”ofhumankindis“impetuousandheedless,”undoingthe“deliberatepaceofnature”anditseonsofslowtransformationintheblinkofaneye(7).Perhapsparadoxically,the“impetuousandheedless”actionsofhumankindhavelong-rangingconsequences:thepotentialtooutlivenotonlygenerationsofhumanbeings,butalsothehumanspeciesitself.Thisisbecausesuchactionsenactapoisoningoflifeformsandoftheearththat,likenatureanditshistory,isdeliberate,accumulative,andslow.“[U]nseenandinvisible”(41),theenvironmentalpoisoningwithwhichCarsonisconcerned“lie[s]dormantlikeaslumberingvolcano”inthebodiesofhuman,animalandplanet(25).Thus,RobNixonarguesthatCarsontacklesanenvironmentalcrisisdefinedbywhathe



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calls“slowtime,”or“gradual”and“imperceptiblechange”(11).Suchchangeisdifficulttoobservenotonlybecausehumankindoccupiesaverytinyportionofgeologichistoryand,thus,possessesalimitedcapacitytoobserveslowformsoftransformationandviolence,butalsobecausemanyhumanbeingslive“inanageofonrushingturbo-capitalism,whereinthepresentfeelsmoreabbreviatedthanitusedto”—whereinwearepreoccupiedwith“technologicaltime-savers”andembrace“aself-justifying,propulsiveethic”(8).This“propulsive”modeloftimeisnotonlyoutofsyncwiththeviolenceofpesticidetoxicity,whichunfoldsacrossmoreprotractedtimescales,butalsohelpstoeraseevidenceofsuchviolence.Inanageofmassmediaand24-hournewscycles,whatisnotableandnoticeablehaschanged.Thatwhichisnotimmediatelyvisible,orsensational,orheadline-worthyisoftenignoredoraltogethererased,meaningstoriesofenvironmentalpollutionandotherformsofslow,difficult-to-document,uneventfulviolenceremainlargelyunseenandunheard.Furthercomplicatingthisissueisthetemporalityofelectoralpolitics.Manypoliticiansrealizethat“thepoliticalrewardsoftheiractionswillnotaccruetothem”whenitcomestotacklingenvironmentalissues(Nixon9).Thisisthecasenotonlybecauseenvironmentalissuesescapetherhythmsofthe24-hournewscycle,butalsobecausethelegalactionthat“targetsslowviolence”often“cannotdeliverdependableelectoralresults”—suchactionrequires,inotherwords,moretimetobeimplementedandassessedthanpermittedbyelectoralcyclesintheUnitedStates(Nixon9).Inevitably,then,“environmentalaction”isconsidered“criticalyetnoturgent,”anattitudethatcreatesa“pileupofdeferrableactionsdeferred”withthefamiliarexcuseof“yes,butnotnow,notyet”(Nixon9).ThisisperhapswhysometheoristsinthehumanitiesandsocialsciencesargueagainstthinkingtheAnthropoceneintermsofcrisis.AsBonneuilandFressozargue,“[t]heterm‘crisis’denotesatransitorystate,whiletheAnthropoceneisapointofnoreturn”(21).“Crisis,”here,isamisnomer.Otherssuggestthattheterm“crisis”isappropriateinsofarasitstandsinstarkcontrasttothe“complacency”thatoftensurroundsenvironmentaldisaster(Purdy5).OneoftheAnthropocene’smostunsettlingcharacteristicsisthatithasbecome“thenewnormal”or“businessasusual”(Purdy5).AsJedediahPurdyputsit,“whateverisnotactivelykillingyou”(5)inan“acute”manner—whateveris“chronic,”slow,invisible,deferrable—willinevitablyfeelnormal(226).CarsontrackspreciselythistypeofignoranceandcomplacencyinSilentSpring,arguingthatawarenessof“ubiquitoustoxicity”requires“anactiveeffort”—forinstance:ahousewifetakingthetimetocarefullyexaminethelabelingofseeminglysafebutpotentiallypoisonousgardeningproductssoastounderstandwhat,exactly,sheisputtinginthesoiland,byextension,herbody.AsSilentSpringtracksthedisjunctionsbetweengeologicalandhumanhistories,thebookshowshowtimeisacentraldifficulty—perhapsthecentraldifficulty—ofunderstandingtheoff-kilterrelationshipbetweenhumansandnonhumans.Inconflictwithandoftenerasedbytheworkingsofotherformsoftime,environmentaltoxicityillustrateshowtimeitselfhas“becom[e]anactorincomplicatedways”inattemptstointerveneinenvironmentalcrisisandrestoreecologicalbalance(11).Carsontakesupthenotionoftimeasactormostexplicitlyinherdiscussionsofevolutionarytimeor,rather,thewaysdifferentspeciespossessdifferentrelationshipstotemporalchange.Bugtime,forinstance,isverydifferentthanhumantime.Addressingthe“hopefulquestion”ofwhetherhumans,likeinsects,mightdevelopresistancetopesticides,Carsonremindsherreadersthat“newinsectgenerationsariseinamatterofdaysorweeks,”whereas“[h]umanpopulationsreproduceattherateofroughlythreegenerationspercentury”(274).Thismeansthataninsectspeciesmightdevelopresistancetoaparticularpollutantwithinaspanoftimethattousseemsveryshort,whilesuchchangeinhuman



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beings“take[s]hundredsoreventhousandsofyears”(274).Here,asinmanyotherways,timeisnotonourside.Carsonarguesthattorestoreecologicalbalanceand,byextension,humankind’sfutureonthisplanet,humanbeingsmustrecalibratetheirrelationshiptotime—toitsmultiplicityanditsshadesofdifference,itsgradationsanddisjunctions,itsunanticipatedself-collisionsandstrangeworkings.SilentSpringremindsusoverandoveragainthatthereismuchwedonotunderstandaboutnatureandtheworldinwhichwelive.Theseunknownscallintoquestiontheimpulsetowardknee-jerk,premature,uninformedaction—towardafreneticrelationshiptotime.Suchunknownsdemandthathumanbeingsinsteadattendtoandoccupythespaceofslowtime,anditsseeminglydistantbutever-loomingandpotentiallyworld-shatteringfutures.CLOSEREADINGStudentsmightexploretherelationshipbetweenhumanandnaturalhistoryusingthefollowingpassage(seetheoriginaltextfortheunabridgedquotation,unfoldsacrosspages5,6and7).Askstudentstoconsiderhowthetemporalityofthehumanspecies—howitsrelationshiptotime—differsfromthatoftheEarth.Theymightnextdiscussinwhatwayshumantemporalityisimplicatedinenvironmentalcrisis:

Thehistoryoflifeonearthhasbeenahistoryofinteractionbetweenlivingthingsandtheirsurroundings.Toalargeextent,thephysicalformandthehabitsoftheearth’svegetationanditsanimallifehavebeenmoldedbytheenvironment.Consideringthewholespanofearthlytime,theoppositeeffect,inwhichlifeactuallymodifiesitssurroundings,hasbeenrelativelyslight.Onlywithinthemomentoftimerepresentedbythepresentcenturyhasonespecies—man—acquiredsignificantpowertoalterthenatureofhisworld.(5)Ittookhundredsofmillionsofyearstoproducethelifethatnowinhabitstheearth—eonsoftimeinwhichthatdevelopingandevolvinganddiversifyinglifereachedastateofadjustmentandbalancewithitssurroundings…Giventime—timenotinyearsbutinmillennia—lifeadjusts,andabalancehasbeenreached.Fortimeistheessentialingredient;butinthemodernworldthereisnotime.(6)Therapidityofchangeandthespeedwithwhichnewsituationsarecreatedfollowtheimpetuousandheedlesspaceofmanratherthanthedeliberatepaceofnature.Radiationisnolongermerelythebackgroundradiationofrocks…cosmicrays…thesun…;radiationisnowtheunnaturalcreationofman’stamperingwiththeatom.Thechemicalstowhichlifeisaskedtomakeitsadjustmentarenolongermerelythecalciumandsilicaandcopperandalltherestofthemineralswashedoutoftherocks…theyarethesyntheticcreationsofman’sinventivemind,brewedinhislaboratories,andhavingnocounterpartsinnature.Toadjusttothesechemicalswouldrequiretimeofthescalethatisnature’s;itwouldrequirenotmerelytheyearsofaman’slifebutthelifeofgenerations.(7)

Usethefollowingpassagetoexploretheconceptofslowviolenceasitrelatestoenvironmentaltoxicity.Studentsmightdevelopavocabularyfordescribinghowslowviolenceworks,theobservationalorrepresentationaldifficultiesitpresents,etc.:

Themostalarmingofallman’sassaultsupontheenvironmentisthecontaminationofair,earth,rivers,andseawithdangerousandevenlethalmaterials.Thispollutionisforthemostpartirrecoverable;thechainofevilitinitiatesnotonlyintheworldthatmustsupportlifebutinlivingtissuesisforthemostpartirreversible.Inthisnowuniversalcontaminationoftheenvironment,chemicalsarethesinisterandlittle-recognizedpartnersofradiationinchangingtheverynatureoftheworld—theverynatureofitslife.Strontium90,releasedthroughnuclearexplosionsintotheair,comestoearthinrainordriftsdownasfallout,lodgesinsoil,entersintothegrassorcornorwheatgrownthere,andinnotimetakesupitsabodeinthebonesofahumanbeing,theretoremainuntilhisdeath.Similarly,chemicalssprayedon



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croplandsorforestsorgardenslielonginsoil,enteringintolivingorganisms,passingfromonetoanotherinachainofpoisoninganddeath.(6)

DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS

• Whatishumanhistory?Whatisnaturalhistory?HowaretheyintertwinedinSilentSpring?Inwhatwaysaretheydifferent?HowdoesCarsonreconstructthesehistories?Whatrecordsdoessheuse?Whatevidencedoesshecite?Canwe,asCarsonargues,readthelandscapemuchlikewecanthewrittenrecordsofhumanhistory?Whatotherstoriesmightwediscoverthere?Onwhichaspectsofthelandscapeshouldwefocustorecoverthesestories?HowisinterpretingatextlikeSilentSpringsimilartointerpretingthestoryofalandscape?Inwhatwaysmightyourskillsasreadersofliteraturetransferovertoothermodesofreadingorotherobjectsofinterpretation?

• SilentSpringtracksaninvisibleformofviolencethatraisesquestionsabouttemporality,ortheexperienceoftime.HowmightyoudescribeenvironmentaltoxicityasimaginedinSilentSpring?Isitfastorslow?Linearormultidirectional?Howdoesitconfuseorobscuretherelationshipbetweencauseandeffect?Whatdifficultiesdoesthisformofenvironmentaldestructionpresenttotheimagination?How,inotherwords,doesitstretchourcapacitytounderstand?Inwhatwaysarethesedifficultiesrelatedtotheperceptionoftime,orthecoexistenceofmultipletemporalities?

• CarsondescribestheAmericanpublicasnotonlyunawareofbutinsomecasescomplacentwithwidespreadenvironmentalpollution.Atthesametime,shewarnsagainsttheimpulsetowardknee-jerkactioninresponsetoenvironmentalcrisis.HowdidCarsonprovokeanawakeningintheAmericanpublic?WhataspectsofSilentSpringeffectivelyshookpeopleawaketothepollutiontakingplaceintheirownbackyards?Asweattempttocometogripswithanenvironmentalcrisisofourown,whatmightwelearnfromSilentSpring’sstrategy?Howdoweprovokeandsustaininterestinenvironmentalissues,andenactsystemicchange,whenitissoeasyforpeopletoignoreenvironmentalissuesandforlegislatorstodeferaction?Andhow,atthesametime,doweensurewearetakingtherightaction?Thatwearenotfallingintothetrapofactionforaction’ssake—ofrash,uninformedactionthatmightproduceunintendedconsequences?

ACTIVITIES,ASSIGNMENTS&PROJECTIDEAS:

• AskstudentstowriteaminiatureversionofSilentSpringfocusingonanobjectatstakeincontemporaryenvironmentaldebates.Possibilitiesmightincludeenvironmentalpollutantsorthingsdamagedbythem.Forexample,oilorseabirds,fossilfuelsorcoralreefs,etc.Studentsshouldmakeanargumentfortheirchosenobject:howitiscentraltoandrepresentativeofenvironmentalcrisisatpresent.Throughthisassignmentstudentswillapplytheirclosereadingskillstonon-traditionaltexts(i.e.theirchosenobjects)andgainabettersenseofSilentSpring’slegacies—oftheenvironmentalstrideswehavemadeandtheworkstilltobedone.

• HavestudentscreateatimelinerepresentingthemanytemporalitiesatissueinSilentSpring.Thesemightincludethatofnaturalhistoryordeeptime,humanhistoryorshallowtime,evolutionarytime(whichvarieswidelyacrossspecies),thespeedofmediacoverageoroflegislativeaction(considerhowDDTwasbannedafulltenyearsafterthepublicationofSilent



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Spring),therelationshipbetweenshort-termneedsandlong-termeffects,etc.Thisprojectwillhelpstudentsdevelopasenseofthedifferenttimescalesatissueinenvironmentalcrisis,andthechallengeofthinkingacrossthem.



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OBJECTIVE:Tointroducetheconceptof“ecology”;theconceptsofandinterrelationshipsbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman;andthequestionofagencyasitisimaginedinSilentSpringandasitinformsphilosophicaldebatesaboutrightsandpersonhood.

PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADINGBennett,Jane.VibrantMatter:APoliticalEcologyofThings.DukeUniversityPress,2009.Bonneuil,ChristopheandJean-BaptisteFressoz.TheShockoftheAnthropocene:TheEarth,Historyand


AmericanCulture.HarvardUniversityPress,1996.Callicott,J.BairdandElyssaBack.“TheConceptualFoundationsofRachelCarson’sSeaEthic.”Rachel

Carson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.94-117.

Clark,Timothy.TheCambridgeIntroductiontoLiteratureandtheEnvironment.CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.

Haraway,Donna.“ACyborgManifesto.”Simians,CyborgsandWomen.FreeAssociationBooks,1996.Heise,UrsulaK.SenseofPlaceandSenseofPlanet:TheEnvironmentalImaginationoftheGlobal.Oxford

UniversityPress,2008.Herron,JohnP.ScienceandtheSocialGood:Nature,Culture,andCommunity,1865-1965.Oxford

UniversityPress,2009.Keller,DavidR.andFrankB.Golley.ThePhilosophyofEcology:FromSciencetoSynthesis.Universityof

GeorgiaPress,2000.Mitman,Gregg.TheStateofNature:Ecology,Community,andAmericanSocialThought,1900-1950.

UniversityofChicagoPress,1992.Morton,Timothy.TheEcologicalThought.HarvardUniversityPress,2010.Norwood,Vera.MadeFromThisEarth:AmericanWomenandNature.UniversityofNorthCarolina

Press,1993.Purdy,Jedediah.AfterNature:APoliticsfortheAnthropocene.HarvardUniversityPress,2015.Sideris,LisaH.“TheEcologicalBody:RachelCarson,SilentSpring,andBreastCancer.”RachelCarson:

LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.136-148.

Williams,Raymond.Keywords:AVocabularyofCultureandSociety.OxfordUniversityPress,1976.UNITORGANIZATIONThisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“Ecology,”“TheNon/Human,”and“Agency,Politics,Personhood.”Eachofthesesub-sectionsdevelopspointsforuseinlecture,followedbysuggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.ECOLOGYSilentSpringtookecologypublic,distillingcomplexscientificideasandrelationalmodesofthinkingsothattheymightbeaccessibletotheaverageAmericanreader.Carsondefinedecology,atitsmostbasic,

UNIT2•ECOLOGY,NATURE/CULTURE,AGENCY



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asthenotionthat“innaturenothingexistsalone”(51).Rather,allofnature’slifeformsandprocessestogetherconstitute“aweboflife”shapedbythe“intimateandessentialrelations”betweentheecologicalwholeanditsmany,manyparts(64).The“interwovenstrands”ofthisrelationalweb“leadfrommicrobestoman”(69).SilentSpring’sstructureinternalizesthisecologicallogicofinterconnection.Movingbetweenchaptersongroundwaterandoceans,soilandvegetation,atmosphereandanimallife,thesuburbsandhumanbodies,Carson’sargumentisorganizedsuchthatitmakesvisibletheecologicalwebwithwhichsheisconcerned.SilentSpringinthiswayparticipatesinatraditionofstudyingthenaturalworldthat,accordingtoGreggMitman,occupies“theborderlandbetweenbiologicalandsocialsciences”(1).Asthatwhichexploresthe“interrelationshipsbetweenandamongindividualorganismsandtheirenvironment,”ecologyaffordedCarsonanideallensnotonlyforviewingnatureasaninterconnectedweboflife,butalsofor“bring[ing]biologicalunderstandingtoproblemsconfrontinghumansociety”(Mitman1).SilentSpring,inotherwords,mobilizesanecologicalunderstandingofthenaturalworldtoidentifyandinterveneinpotentiallydevastatingproblems—includingthemismanagementofagriculturallandsandresultingwidespreadtoxicity;theslow,irreversible,accumulativepoisoningofbothhumanindividualsandfuturegenerations;theout-of-kilterrelationshipbetweenhumansandnaturethatmightatanymomentboomerangcatastrophically.Ecologyisfirstandforemostascience.Itnames“theinclusivestudyoforganismsintheenvironment,incontradistinctiontothenarrowerstudyoforganismsinthelaboratory”(KellerandGolley9).Itisalsodistinctfrombiologyinsofarasitdoesnotstrictly“dea[l]withthestructureandclassificationoforganismsthemselves,”butratherwith“theinvestigationoforganismsintheirnaturalsettingandtheoperationsofnaturalselection”astheyunfoldintheenvironmentandacrossecosystems(KellerandGolley9).Unlikemanyotherformsofnaturalscience,ecologyputs“emphasisontheprimacyofdirectobservation,”arguingthat“discoveryofpatternsinnaturedoesnotnecessarilyrequireinstrumentsormachines”(KellerandGolley11).“Naturecan”infact“bedirectlyexperienced”(KellerandGolley11).Thoughthereareunifyingprinciplesthatcutacrossecologicalresearch,ecologyhasnever“achiev[ed]conceptualunity”(KellerandGolley11).Itis“acomplexandweaklyorganizedsubjectthatfindsitsfoundationsnotinlogicalthoughtbutfrompatternsofnatureobservedthroughculturalfilters”(KellerandGolley16).Therearemanysubdisciplineswithinthefieldofecology,including:animalecology,marineecology,macroecology,systemsecology,molecularecology.Eachsubdisciplinepossessesitsownunderstandingofthesepatternsandtheirsocialdimensions.Thus,Carson’sinterestin“thesocialdimensionofecology”isnottheexceptiontotherule(Mitman1).Itis,rather,characteristicofthefieldinwhichshewastrainedasascientist.DuringtheGreatDepressionand,later,WorldWarII,ecologistslocatedinnaturemodelsofsocialorganizationthatemphasized“cooperation,”interdependence,andmutualbenefitthatmightbereparativeinthefaceoftotalwar.AfterWorldWarII,however,thevalencesofthisemphasison“community”changedradically:as“thespecteroftotalitarianismintheSovietUnionwasincreasinglyseenasathreattodemocracy”(Mitman6),ecologicalmodelsthatemphasizedcooperation“resonatedtoocloselywiththeideologyoftotalitarianism”(Mitman202).“Community”begantolooktoomuchlike“conformity”andthus“threatenedtoundermineindividualidentity”(Mitman205).Thus,ecologicalmodelsthatemphasizedaDarwinian“worldofcompetinggroups”andthedrivetoprotect“personaladvantageandself-interest”rosetothefore(Mitman206).BoththeoriesofecologythatcirculatedduringWorldWarIIandthepostwaryears—onepredicateduponcommunityandtheotheruponcompetition—arevisibleinSilentSpring.ThisisalltosaythatCarsonwasworkingandwritingduringacriticalmomentinthehistoryof



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biologywhereinscientistswereputtingtheirresearchintoconversationwithpressingsocialissues.Sciencewasnotproducedanddidnotexistinabubble.Itwasdeeplyengagedinandengagedbysociopoliticalquestionsevenasitalsogeneratedempirical,verifiable,specialistknowledgeaboutthematerialworld.Like“naturalsystems”and“thebodiesoflivingthings,”ecologicalscienceandsocialstudieswere(andare)“linkedandinterpermeable”(Purdy200).ThispermeabilityanditsimplicationsforscienceandforpoliticsisexploredingreaterdepthinUnit5.Ecologyemphasizestheinterrelationshipsbetweenlifeformsandnaturalsystemsand,insodoing,destabilizesotherwiseconventionalboundaries.RaymondWilliams’setymologicalaccountoftheword“ecology”demonstratespreciselythispoint:craftedfromtheGreekoikosfor“household”andlogosfor“discourse,”ecologyisatitsmostliteral“thesystematicstudy”of“household”or“home”—of“therelationsofplantsandanimals,”thewebofwhichconstitutesandgivesshapetoone’slivedexperienceinthemostintimate(andsometimesinvisible)ofways(70).Thisideaoftheecologicalasthatwhichisbothexternalandinternal,expansiveandinterpenetrative,informsnotonlytheresearchofscientistsworkinginthefield,butalsoscholarsinthehumanitiesandsocialscienceswhopracticeecologyasamodeofthought.Here,ecologynamesakindofimaginativework:anaesthetic,philosophical,politicalconcernwith“ethics,”or“thekindofrelationshipthathumanbeingsoughttohavetothenaturalworld”(Clark152).Thiswayofthinkingtakestheworkofecologicalscience—theempiricalexplorationofhow“innaturenothingexistsalone”(Carson51)—asapointofdeparture,exploringwhethersuchknowledgemightmakeavailablenewmodelsforimaginingtherelationshipbetweenhumansandnonhumans(Clark152).TimothyMorton—recentlynamedbyTheGuardianthephilosopher-prophetoftheAnthropocene—theorizeswhathecalls“theecologicalthought”:amodeofseeingorimaginingtheworldthat“isn’tjustaboutglobalwarming”butalsoabout“society”andthemeaningof“coexistence”(2).Ecologicalthinkinggoesbeyondtheboundariesofdisciplinetoencompassnotonlysciencebutalso“art”—it“includesallthewaysweimaginehowwelivetogether,”whetherscientificoraesthetic(Morton4).ForMortonandothersworkinginthehumanities,“ecology”isanexpansiveandvariabletermthatcontainswithinitselfmanymeanings,waysofthinking,andobjectsofstudy.Inthisway,itisverydifferentfromscientificecology,whichunfoldsacrossmanysub-disciplines,eachofwhichhasitsown,particulardefinitionfortheterm.Here,wehaveanexampleofhowthehumanitiesandthesciencessimultaneouslyoverlapanddifferwithoneanother.SilentSpringrangesacrossbothapproachestotheterm“ecology.”Ontheonehand,thetextisfoundeduponaconceptthatwasverynewatthetimeofSilentSpring’spublication,thoughitisfamiliartousnow:ecosystem,orthematerialandenergyflowsbetweenlifeformsandtheirphysicalenvironment.Ontheotherhand,SilentSpringemploys“ecology”asbroadtermforrelationalitiesthatgiveshapetotheworldand,toborrowMorton’sphrasing,potentiallyreroute“thewaysweimaginehowwelivetogether.”LikeCarson,Mortonemphasizesthat“[n]omanisanisland”—thatnohumanbeingexistsinisolationfromthemanyotherhumansandnonhumansonthisplanet(8).Shealsodemonstrateshowecologicalthinkingmakesvisible“avast,sprawlingmeshofinterconnection”or“radicalintimacy,”toborrowMorton’sphrasing—awebthatencompassesandcutsacrossallbeingsofallkinds(Morton8).Tothinkecologically—tore-imaginetheworldintermsofsuchintimaciesandtofollowthroughontheirspeculative,ethicalimplications—istotakeupdifficultquestionsabouttherelationshipbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman.ItistoconfrontwhatJaneBennettdescribesas“astrangeandincompletecommonality”thatjoinstogetherallthings,includingoneself(17).Reimaginedinecologicalterms,youareandarenotyourselfinsofarasyouarepermeabletoandinterpenetratedbymultitudesofother



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beingsandforces.ThisispreciselywhatCarsonsuggestswhenshedescribesecologicalthinkingas“somethingthattakesusoutofourselves,thatmakesusawareofotherlife”(162)andourprofoundinterrelationshipwithit.ForCarson,too,ecologyisadeeplyspeculativewayofthinking.Ecologymakesvisiblethewaysthatscienceandimaginationarenotnecessarilyopposed(anideatakenupinmoredetailinUnit6).SilentSpringisfullofimaginativethought.Carsoninvokesliterature—includingGreekmythology,thefantasyworldsofLewisCarroll,andthepoetryofRobertFrost—toillustrateherpoints.Shealsoemploysanovertlypoeticmodeofwritingwhereinthebanalityofthesmallorthefamiliarityoftheeverydaytakesonanew,vibrant,gorgeouslife.SeenthroughCarson’seyes,anordinary“lacewing”isrevealedasabeautiful,mysterious,unimaginableconfectionof“greengauzewingsandgoldeneyes”whose“shyandsecretive”waysevolvedslowlyandevenmagicallyfromabiologicalancestorwho“livedinPermiantimes”(250).Ecologyisnot,however,allsunshineandrainbows.Anecologicalworldviewdefamiliarizeswhatisknownandrevealsnotonlyunexpectedandperhapsbeautifulkinships,butalsopreviouslyunimaginedhazards.If“allbodiesarekin”—if“toharmonesectionoftheweb”istoharmanotherpartofitoreven“oneself”(Bennett13)—thepossibilitiesofsuchkinshiparejustasterrifyingastheyare“idyllicorutopian”(Heise20).Ecologicalthinkingenlargedthescopeofuncertaintyandmenacetotheenvironmentandtohumanlifebymappingtheconsequencesofwidespreadindustrialization,overconsumptionofresources,andpollution.ManyoftheecosystemsdescribedinSilentSpringareincrediblyfragile.Carsonwritesthat“[t]hespecializationofsomeofthese”seemingly“minutecreatures”issoparticularandyetsocriticalthatthedisappearanceofasinglecreaturemightdevastateentireecosystems(55).Showinghowthe“boundariesamongorganisms,places,andsystemsareneitherstablenorsecure”—documentingthefragilityofthoseecologicalinterconnectionsuponwhichmanyorganismsandecosystemssubsist—SilentSpringrevealedhow“[t]hesuburbswereunsafe”and“thebody…notsecure”(Purdy41).Conjuring“theapocalypticspecterofa‘poisonedworld’,”CarsondemonstratedhowthenewenvironmentalhazardsthatemergedinWorldWarIIandthepostwaryears“werevasterbyordersofmagnitudethantheworstenvironmentalprospectsofearliertimes”(Purdy2000).Disastersascatastrophicastotal“systemicfailure”suddenlyseemedalltoorealizable(Purdy200).AsLawrenceBuellnotes,theecological“totalizationofphenomena”wasinthisway“readilyadaptabletoapocalypticendsbyconcernedindividualslikeCarson”(302).Carsondeployspreciselythiskindofapocalypticnarrativein“AFableforTomorrow,”theopeningchapterofSilentSpring,whereinshegatherstogetherandimaginestoterrifyingeffect“thekindsofriskthataregeneratedby[ecological]connectivity”(Heise121).Tracinghowecologicalrelationshipsmightbetransformed“irreversibl[y]”into“chain[s]ofevil”(6)—how“therobins’fateislinkedtotheelmtreesbywayoftheearthworms”(107)whomovethroughtheDDT-treatedsoilofthesuburbanhousewife’svegetablegarden—SilentSpringmadenewlyvisibleecosystemsthatareasvulnerableandmacabreastheyarecommunalandbeautiful,as“ominous”astheyare“inspiring”(Purdy200).CLOSEREADING:Thefollowingpassagetracestheinterconnectionsbetweensoil,plantandanimallife,andhumanagricultureandsubsistence.StudentsmightclosereadittoexploreCarson’scoreargumentthat“innaturenothingexistsalone”(53):

Thethinlayerofsoilthatformsapatchycoveringoverthecontinentscontrolsourownexistenceandthatofeveryotheranimaloftheland.Withoutsoil,landplantsasweknowthemcouldnotgrow,andwithout



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plantsnoanimalscouldsurvive.Yetifouragriculture-basedlifedependsonthesoil,itisequallytruethatsoildependsonlife…Forsoilisinpartacreationoflife,bornofamarvelousinteractionoflifeandnonlifelongeonsago.Theparentmaterialsweregatheredtogetherasvolcanoespouredthemoutinfierystreams,aswatersrunningoverthebarerocksofthecontinentsworeawayeventhehardestgranite,andasthechiselsoffrostandicesplitandshatteredtherocks.Thenlivingthingsbegantoworktheircreativemagicandlittlebylittletheseinertmaterialsbecamesoil.Lichens,therocks’firstcovering,aidedtheprocessofdisintegration…andmadealodgingplaceforotherlife.Mossestookholdinthelittlepocketsofsimplesoil—soilformedbycrumblingbitsoflichen,bythehusksofminuteinsectlife,bythedebrisofafaunabeginningitsemergencefromthesea.Lifenotonlyformedthesoil,butotherlivingthingsofincredibleabundanceanddiversitynowexistwithinit;ifthiswerenotsothesoilwouldbeadeadandsterilething.Bytheirpresenceandbytheiractivitiesthemyriadorganismsofthesoilmakeitcapableofsupportingtheearth’sgreenmantle.(53)

Ecologyrevealshowtheconceptsofinterconnectionandinterdependenceconnotenotonlyincrediblebeautyandkinship,butalsodeathandevenapocalypse.UsethefollowingpassagetoexploreCarson’swarningthatecologicalsystemsmightturnveryquicklyunderhumankind’scontrolfrom“web[s]oflife”intowebsof“death”(189):

Watermustalsobethoughtofintermsofthechainsoflifeitsupports—fromthesmall-as-dustgreencellsofthedriftingplantplankton,throughtheminutewaterfleastothefishesthatstrainplanktonfromthewaterandareinturneatenbyotherfishesorbybirds,mink,raccoons—inanendlesscyclictransferofmaterialsfromlifetolife.Weknowthatthenecessarymineralsinthewateraresopassedfromlinktolinkofthefoodchains.Canwesupposethatpoisonsweintroduceintowaterwillnotalsoenterintothesecyclesofnature?(46)


• Carsonusestheword“ecology”todescribeascientificfieldofstudydividedintovarioussubdisciplinesandawayofthinkingrelationalitythatpossessesasocialdimension.Howwouldyoudefinethesedifferentformsofecology?Whataretheirobjectsofinquiry?Whatformsofknowledgedotheyproduce?Whataretheirimplications?Howaretheydifferent?Howaretheysimilar?Dothesedifferentusesofecologytellusanythingaboutthehumanitiesandthesciences?Abouthowtheyaredifferentorsimilar—aboutnotonlyhowtheydivergebutalsowhattheymighthaveincommon?WhatdowemakeofCarson’sinfusionofimaginationwithscience?

• PriortoreadingSilentSpring,howmightyouhavedefinedtheconceptsoftheindividualorofself?HowdoesSilentSpringprovokeyoutoreimaginetheseterms?How,accordingtoCarson,istheselfneverjusttheself?Ifallthingsareinterconnected,howandwheredowedrawthelinebetweenbeings?DoesCarsonsuggestthatweloseallsenseofboundarywhenwethinkecologically?Oristherestillasenseofboundaryinherwork?Howdoestheecologicaldisruptionofboundariescauseyoutorethinkyourassumptionsabouttherelationshipbetweenselfandother,orthehumanandthenonhuman,orcultureandnature?

• Carsonusesthemetaphoroftheweb.Whatisaweb?Whatdoesitlooklike?Whatisitsform?Howisdifferentfromothercommonwaysofdescribingecologicalinterrelationships?Forexample,theideaofafoodchain?Whatareitsstrengths?Whatareitsweaknesses?WhatdowemakeofthefactthatCarsondescribestheweboflifeas,ontheonehand,all-encompassingandas,ontheother,incrediblyfragileorprecarious?



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• InSilentSpring,ecologicalbeautyvergesquicklyintoenvironmentalapocalypse.HowisCarson’svisionofnatureatonceidyllicandapocalyptic?Atonceutopiananddystopian?InwhatwaysdotheseideascoexistinSilentSpringandforwhatpurpose?Wheredowelocatethelinebetweenthem?Canwe,accordingtoCarson,comebackfromapocalypse?Whatistherelationshipbetweenthesetwowaysofthinkingandtime,orthequestionofthefuture?

THENON/HUMANEcologicalthinkingunsettlestheconventionalassumptionswemightotherwisebeinclinedtomakeaboutnature,thenonhuman,andthehuman.Insofarasecologicalknowledge“takesusoutofourselves”(Carson162),italsotakesnatureoutofnatureandthehumanoutofthehuman.Toputitanotherway:ecologicalthinkingdisruptsthenotionthatnatureandthehumanexistinhermeticallysealedcontainers;thattheyaremutuallyexclusivetoanddistinctfromoneanother,theformerpassivetoandunderthejurisdictionofthelatter.Accordingtothislineofreasoning,natureis“definedaseverythinghumansarenot”—asa“pristineotherness”thatstandsapartfromthehumanworldanditssociopoliticaldimensions(Herron12).Thenotionthatadivideexistsbetweencultureandnature,andbyextensionthehumanandthenonhuman,hasalonghistoryandacomplicatedpolitics.JohnP.Herronobservesthat“[d]efiningconceptsofthenatural”especiallyinrelationshiptothehumanhassparkednotonly“philosophical”orabstract“debate”butalso“carriesaheavyload”withmaterialandpoliticalimplications(12).Fuelingthesedebatesisthesheercomplexityoftheword“nature.”Asscholarshavedocumentedextensively,thetermisnotonewecantakeforgranted.Itismultifariousandmobile,havingaccruedapluralityofmeaningsandvalencesthatareoftencontradictory.Williamsfamouslyspeculatesthat“[n]atureisperhapsthemostcomplexwordinthelanguage”(166).Describingan“essentialqualityorcharacterofsomething,”an“inherentforce”atworkintheworld,andatthesametime“thematerialworlditself,”“nature”hasevolvedtotakeon“precisemeanings”that“arevariableandattimesevenopposed”(Williams166).Amplifyingthesecomplexitiesandcontradictionsistheextenttowhich“nature”collapses“multiplicitytoasingularity”:itcanconnote,paradoxically,“aspecificsingular”(forexample,“thenatureofsomething”inparticular)andatthesametimearangeof“abstractsingulars”(“thenatureofallthings,”forinstance,“thewholematerialworld,”or“acommonquality”thatcutsacrossmultiplicities)(Williams166).Etymologicallyandlexically,theword“nature”isnotoriousforitsrefusaltostayput.Alreadyatthelevelofthesentence—atthelevelofclosereading—wecanseewhatCarsonsees:avast,complexandcomplicatedwebofforcesandcounterforcesthattogetherconstitutenatureinallofitsunityandmultiplicity.Historically,however,thissenseofinterdependenceandcomplexityhasnotalwaysbeenacknowledged.Eighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryphilosophyandscience,forinstance,arelargelycreditedwithflatteningnatureintoameremechanismcomprisedoffixedand“discoverablelaws”(Williams168).Castingnatureasaknowable“objectofobservation,”thesethinkershelpedtoconsolidatethedividebetweennatureandculture—topositionnatureasapassive,“static”and“primary”materialitythatwouldrevealitselfwillinglytohumankind:nature’sself-made,dynamic,reasoningOther(Williams169).Theconsequencesofsuchthinkingreachfarbeyondquestionsofscienceorempiricalmethod.Suchthinkingenablesnaturetofunctionasanapriorigroundforpolitics—asaseemingly“primary”orpre-established,natural,apoliticaljustificationforhumanprojectsthatareinfactdeeplypolitical.JedediahPurdyarguesthatnatureispowerfulbecauseitpossesses“manypoliticalmeaningsandalliances,asdiverseasdemocracyandmonarchyandhierarchyandequality”(21).Yet,atthesametime,natureisalso“thethingwithoutpolitics,thehomeoftheprinciplesthatcomebeforepolitics”(Purdy21).Nature



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isthatwhichnaturalizespoliticsandthenerasesevidenceofthatnaturalization—thatcastspoliticsasapriori;aspre-given;asthestuffofnature.Thisisespeciallytrueof“Americanusesofnature,”which“havealwaysbeenbothpoliticalandanti-political”(Purdy45).ThereisalonghistoryintheUnitedStatesof“enlistingnatureinsupportofpoliticalagendas”to“concea[l]”whatwouldotherwise—withoutnaturalization,withoutnature’sjustification—beseenasexpresslypolitical.Natureinthiswayseems“distinctfromthecultural”andyetsomehow“remainsthesourceofauthorityweusetounderstand,orjudge,thequalityandauthenticityofoursociety”orourculture(Herron12).If,asCarsonwrites,“[t]hereisnoseparatinghumanbeingsfromecologicalnature”(42),thereisalsonoseparatingnaturefromhumanbeings,cultureandpolitics.SilentSpringdemonstrateshowthenature/culturedivideisinvalidatednotonlybytheentanglementofnatureandpolitics,butalsobyhumankind’sincreasingcapacitytocontaminatethe“totalenvironment”—totransformtheplanetintoahybridthatispartnatural,partman-made(Carson8).Itispreciselythisideathathasledsometospeculatethat“[i]nthelimitedsenseofplacesunaffectedbyhumanactivitythereisno‘nature’assuchleftontheplanet”(Clark6).Perhapsnature,thematerialentity,isdead.Somescholarslamenttheenvironmentalconsequencesofindustrializationandyetatthesametimecelebratethisdeath,whichrepresentsthegrowingobsolescenceofnatureasaconcept.ArguingthatthesamekindsoftotalcontaminationwhichareatissueinSilentSpringforcehumanstoacknowledgethat“thereisnomorenaturethatstandsapartfromhumanbeings”(3)—thatthematerialworldis“partnatural,partmade”(15)—Purdyspeculatesthattheveryideaofnature“isnolongeruseful”inpartbecauseitreinforces“thefamiliardividebetweenpeopleandthenaturalworld”thatdoesnotexistandperhapsneverexistedinthefirstplace(2).Natureasaconceptcannotexistwithoutitshumanother:culture.Accordingtothislineofthought,thenature/culturedivideisengrainedinthoughtandlanguage.Wecannotthinknaturewithoutitsopposingbinaryunit;wecannotunderstanditasanythingotherthanan“overyonder,”“areifiedthinginthedistance”(Morton3)thatremains“alienandalienated”(Morton5)fromthehuman.Thus,Mortonarguestheconceptofnature“failstoserveecologywell”andarguesinsteadforthedeathofnatureor,rather,anecologywithoutnature.WhetherornotCarsonwouldagreewithMortononthequestionof“nature”asacategory,SilentSpringtakesemphaticissuewiththefalsedividebetweennatureandculture,demonstratinghowitenablesandnaturalizesawayofthinkingandactingwhosematerialconsequencesarecatastrophic.Ifinanecologicalcontextthequestionofnatureisupforgrabs,sotooisthatofthehuman.Whereasnatureisconventionallyimaginedasastaticandpassiveobject“overyonder,”humankindisenvisionedasitsdynamic,active,rationalmaster.Thisnotionofthehumanaspossessiveindividualmapsonto“thenowdominantliberalhumanistconceptionofthehumanself”as“aseeminglypre-given,personal,uniqueidentity,arealmofunshakeableprivacy,centerofitsownworldofvalues,perceptions,beliefs,commitmentsandfeelings”(Clark65).Thisideaofthehumanasaconsolidated,bounded,isolablelocusofidentityandpowerseems“self-evidenttomanypeople,”especiallyinthecontextoftheAnthropocene(Clark65).Likethenature/culturedivide,thismodelofthehumancanbetracedmostimmediatelybacktotheeighteenthcentury,whereinEnlightenmentthinkersfromJohnLocketoImmanuelKant“emphasizedthevalueofman,themodernsubject,asautonomousagentactingconsciouslyonhishistoryandsettlingsocialconflictsbydominatingnature”(BonneuilandFressoz19).Closeattentiontotheword“man”indicateshowtheveryconceptofhumankindwas(andcontinuestobe)aspecializedone.Whileitmightseem“todescribethewholehumanrace,thehumanspeciesormankind,”whattheconceptofhumankindoftenactuallyspecifiesisaselectiveimageofhumanityas



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predominatelywhite,male,heterosexual,andableist.Here,humankind’sothersincludenotonlynature,butalsopeopleofcolor,women,thosewhoidentifyasqueer,andthosewhosebodiesdonotconformtotraditionalideasabouthumanphysiology.Thus,Williamswarnsthatitis“importanttobeawareoftheimplicationsofthecapitalizedsingular”—Man—and“theabstractMen”(159).Thesewordsmakevisiblehowthehumanasaconceptinvokes“assumptionsofuniversality”thatareoftenfalse;thatexcludeoreraseimportant“historicalandculturalvariation”(159);andthatcastparticularkindsofhumansassomethingotherorlessthanhuman.(TheseideaswillbetakenupingreaterdepthinUnits3&4.)Generallyspeaking,Carsonisdeeplyskepticalofthecategoryofthehuman,andtheformsofpower,domination,andexclusionitmightnaturalize.InSilentSpring,theconventionalmodelofthehumanasaprivilegedlocusofpoweristhedrivingforcebehindhumankind’sapocalypticpoisoningofthe“totalenvironment.”AccordingtoCarson,thismodelofthehuman—whileithascausedreal,materialproblems—ispatentlyfalse.Itisthestuffoffantasy,coveringoverhowhumansfailtounderstandandcontrolhugeswathesofthenaturalworld.Organismsassmallandseeminglyineffectualas“insectsarefindingwaystocircumventourchemicalattacksonthem”(245),Carsonwrites,whilehumans“areseldomawareoftheprotectionaffordedbynaturalenemiesuntilitfails”(249).Humanbeingsarealsointertwinedwiththeworldoutsidetheirbodiessuchthattheconventionalwaysofimaginingthehumaninevitablycollapse.Howevermuchhumansmayliketo“pretendthecontrary,”theyexistin“interdependence”andcommonalitywithnature(Carson189).Ecologyisasmuchinternalasitisexternaltothehuman.Carsonwrites:“thereisalsoanecologyoftheworldwithinourbodies”wherein“themysteriousandwonderfulfunctioningofthehumanbody”isreconfiguredasanecologicalprocess—astheproductofashifting“web”ofrelationshipsthat“areseldomsimpleandeasilydemonstrated”(189).Here,Carsonrevealsthehumanasothertoitself.Shedefamiliarizesself-knowledge,suchthatherreadersmightreimaginetheirbodiesassimultaneouslyknownandunknown,intimateandalien,individualandcollective,boundedandporous.(SeeUnit3foramoredetailedexplorationofthehumanbodyasanecology.)Here,wecanbegintoseehowSilentSpringconsiders,bothimplicitlyandexplicitly,thewaysinwhich“[s]eeingyourselffromanotherpointofviewisthebeginningofethicsandpolitics”(Morton14).Ifthehumanisnotsingularbut“compound,”asBennettputsit,then“thedifferencebetweensubjectsandobjectsisminimized”and,byextension,“thesharedmaterialityofallthingsiselevated”(13).If,inotherwords,humanandnonhuman,aswellascultureandnature,arekin,thenweashumansmustrerouteourthinkingaboutandrecalibrateourorientationtowardthosecreaturesandsystemsthatwouldseemtostandapartfromourselves.Carsonisalsodeeplyconcernedwiththequestionofhumanresponsibility—withhumankind’s“incrediblepotential”andprovencapacitytodoharmtotheenvironment.Asitdocumentstheextentofthisresponsibilityandimagineshowhumansmighttakeownershipofit,SilentSpring’sdocumentationofhumankind’sdestructivecapacitiesandethicalresponsibilitiesbegsthequestion:doweneedtopreservethecategoryofthehumaninordertoproperlyaccountforandassesssuchcapacitiesandresponsibilities?SilentSpringtakesonthechallengeofthinkingbothsidesofthehumantogether:of,ontheonehand,providinganaccountofhumanactionanditsenvironmentalconsequenceswhileatthesametimethinkingbeyondthehumantoimagineamoreecological,moredistributedwayoflivinginandinteractingwiththeenvironment.



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CLOSEREADING:Studentsmightusethefollowingpassagetoconsiderthefollowingideas,whicharecentraltotheargumentofSilentSpring:thathumankinddoesnotexistapartfromnature;thatecologyencompassesnotonlynaturebutalsoculture,notonlyanimalbodiesbutalsohumanbodies;andthattheseecologiesarecomplexanddynamic—theyoftenexceedthelimitsofourknowledgeandourcapacityforcontrol.(Seepages188-189toreadthispassageinitsunabridgedform.)

Man,howevermuchhemayliketopretendthecontrary,ispartofnature.Canheescapeapollutionthatisnowsothoroughlydistributedthroughoutourworld?(188)Foreachofus,asfortherobininMichiganorthesalmonintheMiramichi,thisisaproblemofecology,ofinterrelationships,ofinterdependence…Thesearemattersofrecord,observable,partofthevisibleworldaroundus.Theyreflecttheweboflife—ordeath—thatscientistsknowasecology.Butthereisalsoanecologyoftheworldwithinourbodies.Inthisunseenworldminutecausesproducedmightyeffects;theeffect,moreover,isoftenseeminglyunrelatedtothecause,appearinginapartofthebodyremotefromtheareawheretheoriginalinjurywassustained…Whenoneisconcernedwiththemysteriousandwonderfulfunctioningofthehumanbody,causeandeffectareseldomsimpleandeasilydemonstratedrelationships.(189)


• HowwouldyouhavedefinednaturepriortoreadingSilentSpring?Wherewouldyouhavelocatedit?Whatcolorwasit?Whatlivedinit?Whatwasnotapartofnature?Whatseemedtobeitsopposite?HowhasyourthinkingchangedafterreadingSilentSpring?Doesnaturestillseemdividedfromthehumanordoyounowthinkthetwotogether?Why,accordingtoCarson,isitcrucialthatwepreservetheirinterconnection?

• Thehumanisbothauniversalizingandrestrictivecategory.Carsondemonstratesthelatterinherfrequentreferencesto“man”or“mankind.”DoesCarsoneversuggestthatthecategoryofhumankindisalsoexclusionaryorselective?Doessheeverimagineaparticulargroupofhumansasmoreresponsibleforenvironmentalcrisisthanothers?Whymightitbeimportanttomaintainthedistinctionsbetweendifferenthumancommunitiesevenasweattempttocometogripswithenvironmentalcrisesthatareman-made?Howdowedoboth?

• SilentSpringimaginesaworldinwhichthereisarguablynopartofnaturethehumanhasnottouched.Sometheoristsarguethatweshouldgiveuptheterm“nature”altogether—thatitobscureshoweverythingeverywhereisatleastpartiallyman-made,andthatitsveryexistencemakesitdifficulttothinkbeyondthedualismofnatureandculture.DoesSilentSpringthinknature—inthepurestsenseoftheword—exists?Oriseverythingnowmade?Doestheword“nature”everpresentdifficultiesforCarson?Aretheremomentswhereitlimitsherabilitytoexpressanidea,orwhereyoucanseeherstrugglingwiththeinadequaciesofthelanguagetowhichshehasaccessforexpressingideas?Shouldwestopusingthetermnature?Isitinadequatefordescribingandrespondingtoenvironmentalcrisis?Whatwordshouldbeitsreplacement?

AGENCY,POLITICS,PERSONHOODGiventhatSilentSpringworkstounsettletheconventionaldistinctionsbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman,itmightcomeasasurprisethatsomehavecharacterizedCarson’sfinalworkas



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anthropocentric,whichisthebeliefthathumansarethemostsignificantentitiesintheworld.Forexample,somescholarsspeculatethatCarsonhasbeenoverlookedbyparticularschoolsofenvironmentalphilosophy—suchasecofeminism—becauseherconcernsabout“chlorinatedhydrocarbonsindiscriminatelybroadcastintheenvironment”turnsagainandagaintothequestionof“humanhealth”(Callicott&Back94).Suchaccusationsseemlessthanconvincing,forCarsonpayssubstantialattentiontothesufferingandpotentialextinctionofawiderangeofnonhumanlifeformsandtheecosystemsofwhichtheyareapart.Moreconvincing,however,arecritiquesofCarson’santhropocentrismthatfocusonheradvocacyforamanagerialrelationshipbetweenthehumanandthenonhuman(albeitoneinwhichhumanstaketheircuefromnature’sownprocessesofself-regulationandcontrol).LisaH.Siderisnotesthatwhile“Carsonmaintainedaprimafacierespectforecologicalrelationships,”shenevertheless“didnotcounselscientiststorefrainfrommanipulatingorcontrollinglifeprocesses”(142).PerhapsoneofthemostcomplexaspectsofSilentSpringisCarson’sdualandsometimesconflictingdiscussionofthehumanmanipulationofnature:itisthatwhichgotusintotroubleinthefirstplace,butitisalsothatwhichwithsometweakingmightprovegenerative.AccordingtoCarson,thedifferenceliesinwhethersuchmanipulationremainsinformedbythefactthathumansarepartof—notseparatefrom—natureandthatallattemptsto“manipulate[nature’s]processestosuitourends”areultimatelyfocusedonmaintainingthehealthoftheecologicalworldonwhichalllifeformsdepend(Sideris144).SilentSpringmightinthissensebeunderstoodasatonceanthropocentricandbiocentric.Sometimesitmakesapleaonbehalfofnaturethatappealstothe“all-pervadingassumptionthatitisonlyinrelationtohumanbeingsthatanythingelsehasvalue”(Clark2).Still,atmanyotherpointsitundercutsthisanthropocentrismbyemphasizingthathumansarenot“atomisticindividual[s]engagedintheworldasaresourceforconsumptionandself-assertion,”butareinstead“apartofagreaterlivingidentity”thatmakesvisible“theintrinsicvalueofallnaturallife”;thatemphasizes“theneedsofotherspecies”;andthatresituates“[a]llhumanactions”intermsofethicalresponsibility,orof“whatisgoodforthebiosphereasawhole”(Clark2).The unsettled relationship between human and nonhuman, as well as between anthropocentrism and biocentrism, is important because it points toward a set of questions about and contradictory possibilities for agency and personhood as imagined in Silent Spring. As discussed in Unit 1, the creation and detonation of the atomic bomb catapulted humankind to new heights of power over one another and over nature. This notion of the human species as a privileged, all-powerful, even omnipotent locus of power catalyzed Carson’s work on Silent Spring and characterizes our present geological moment, which some now call the Anthropocene. But even as Silent Spring acknowledges and outlines the consequences of such power, it takes pains to remind its readers that human beings are not as powerful as they might think—and that we should be careful about overestimating our capacities. “[W]e are seldom aware,” for instance, “of the protection afforded by natural enemies” (Carson 249), or of how “dependent” we are on seemingly insignificant or powerless nonhuman creatures. “Some agricultural crops and many wild plants are partly or wholly dependent on the services of the native pollinating insects” (Carson 73). Without the insects we so often view as pests, in other words, we wouldn’t have food. Carson argues that these forms of “dependence” and, most significantly, the failure of DDT makes visible how the “sign[s] of our power” are also the signs “of our impotence” (Bonneuil and Fressoz xi). Silent Spring reminds its readers of the following the paradox: “the more we understand and the more our power increases, the more our control over nature seems a precarious fantasy” (Purdy 16).



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This is because, as Carson puts it, “nature is not a status quo” (246). It is not static, passive and docile, but rather “a complex, precise, and highly integrated system of relationships” that is “fluid, ever shifting, in a constant state of adjustment” (Carson 246). SilentSpringsuggeststhatthiscoalescingof“livingpopulationsandalltheirpressuresandcounterpressures,theirsurgesandrecessions”—thisweboflifethatis“ontheonehanddelicateanddestructible,ontheothermiraculouslytoughandresilient,andcapableofstrikingbackinunexpectedways”—revealsnatureashavingagency.Inotherwords,natureiscapableofactingofitsownaccordandinwaysthatroutinelyelideoraltogetherexceedhumancontrol(Carson297).Thus,VeraNorwoodarguesthatinSilentSpringreadersdiscoverhow“[t]henewecologyofferedacompetingparadigm”thatcounteractedtheideaof“theearthasapassivesubjectforman’sprobingandcontrollingmind”(169).Carsonrecastsnatureinsteadasprofoundly“activeandresponsive”(Norwood169).SilentSpringinthiswayarguesthatnature“act[s]uponus”(Purdy272).Insodoing,thetextcontendsthat“whatwesharewiththerestofnature”includesthepossessionofagencyorthecapacityforaction(Purdy273).The“strangeandincompletecommonality”thatecologicalthinkingrecoverspointstowardalternative,moredistributed,andperhapsradicalwaysofimaginingagencythatcutacrossthehumanandthenonhuman(Bennett17).Carsonmakespreciselythispointinhermanydescriptionsoflivingbeingsandtheforcesofnatureatworkinandupontheworld.Forinstance,shedescribes“earthwormsasgeologicagents”who“transportsoil…inannualamountsrunningtomanytons”(55).Earthwormsworkslowlybutforcefullyandintandemwithoneanotherto“addalayerofsoilaninchtoaninchandahalfthickinaten-yearperiod”anditisthissoilwhichlendssupporttoavastecological“community”—“awebofinterwovenlives,eachinsomewayrelatedtotheothers”andeach“depend[ent]onthesoil”(Carson56).Worms,likehumans,possessextensivegeologicpower,givingshapetotheplanetandbyextensionprovidingthe“vital”materialthatenablesthis“community”to“flouris[h]”(Carson56).SilentSpringalsoemphasizesecologicalmodelsofagencythat,insofarastheytakeshapethroughinterdependenceandinterpermeability,aredistinctlycollective(asopposedtoindividual).Carson’svignettesillustratehow“anactor”—whetherhumanorearthworm—“neverreallyactsalone”(Bennett21).ThefarmerwhosprayshisfieldswithDDTtoprotecthiscropsisonepartofacollectiveofactorsthatincludestheplantsandinsectstowardwhichthesprayisdirected,thewindthatfacilitatesthespray’smobility,thewaterthatcomesintocontactwithDDT-treatedsoilandcarriesitspoisonsdeeperintotheground,theevolutionaryforcesthatproduceresistanceininsects,andsoon.ThatSilentSpringnoteswithfrequencythecapacityforinsectstorespondtothesepesticidalassaults—toactagainsthumansastheyworktocontrolnature—demonstratesthat“natureisnotsoeasilymolded”(Carson245).Itpossessesacapacitytoactofitsownaccordandtoitsownends—tofightback.Thatfarmer,insect,andevolutionaryprocessesarejoinedtogether,too,showshowagencyoractionisnotnecessarilythatwhichis“governedbyanycentralhead”(Bennett24).SilentSpringdemonstrateshowagencyunfoldsacrossandthrough“confederations”ofhumanandnonhumanactors,someofwhomareworkingwithandjustasoftenagainstoneanotherevenastheyarealsopartofthesamecollective(Bennett23).AsCarsonputsit,theyarecollectivesoflifeforms,forcesandsystemsthatare“fluid,evershifting,inaconstantstateofadjustment”(246),”comprisedof“pressuresandcounterpressures”thatrevealdynamic,complex,metamorphosinglandscapesofagencyandaction(Carson297).Humansmightthusshapetheworldinformativeways,butnonhumansdosoaswellandinwaysthatarejustasformative,thoughtheymightescapenotice.Inapowerfulandparticularlytellingpassage,Carsonfiguresscoresof“deadgroundsquirrels”asofferingupa“mutetestimony”towhichhumansare



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obligedtolistenandrespond(99).Here,theword“testimony”suggeststhatanimals,howeverstillorsilentorinvisibletheymightbetothehumanswhoseektocontrolthem,arecapableofspeech.Thecourtroomresonanceoftheword“testimony”mightalsoimply,howeversubtlyorunconsciously,thatanimals,likemurdervictims,possessvoicesandrightsthatshouldberecognizedunderthelaw.Theconflictsamonghumandisempowerment,nonhumanagencyandthepoliticsofanimalrightsissomethingstudentsmighttakeupasasubjectoftextualdebate.CLOSEREADING:Inthefollowingpassage,Carsonexploresthecapacityfornonhumanbeingstoactaspowerfulandtransformativeagentsintheworld.StudentsmightclosereadittoexploreCarson’sinterestinnonhumanandcollectiveformsofagency,howtheseformsunsettletheconventionalnotionofthehumanaspossessingaprivilegedandunmatchedcapacityforaction,andwhetherthiswayofthinkingaboutagencyoffersusnewwaysofunderstandingenvironmentalcrisis(andhowwemightrespondtoit)atpresent.

Ofallthelargerinhabitantsofthesoil,probablynoneismoreimportantthantheearthworm.Overthreequartersofacenturyago,CharlesDarwinpublishedabooktitledTheFormationofVegetableMould,throughtheActionofWorms,withObservationsonTheirHabits.Inithegavetheworlditsfirstunderstandingofthefundamentalroleofearthwormsasgeologicagentsforthetransportofsoil—apictureofsurfacerocksbeinggraduallycoveredbyfinesoilbroughtupfrombelowbytheworms,inannualamountsrunningtomanytonstotheacreinmostfavorableareas.Atthesametime,quantitiesoforganicmattercontainedinleavesandgrass(asmuchas20poundstothesquareyardinsixmonths)aredrawndownintotheburrowsandincorporatedinsoil.Darwin’scalculationsshowedthatthetoilofearthwormsmightaddalayerofsoilaninchtoaninchandahalfthickinaten-yearperiod…Thissoilcommunity,then,consistsofawebofinterwovenlives,eachinsomewayrelatedtotheothers—thelivingcreaturesdependingonthesoil,butthesoilinturnavitalelementoftheearthonlysolongasthiscommunitywithinitflourishes.(55-6)

AskstudentstousethefollowingpassageastheyconsiderhowSilentSpringtakesuptheissuesofpersonhoodandanimalrights.Studentsshouldpayparticularattentiontotheword“testimony,”aswellastoCarson’semphasison“moral”responsibilityandtheramificationsofhumanactionastheyrelatetohumanpersonhood.

IncidentsliketheeasternIllinoissprayingraiseaquestionthatisnotonlyscientificbutmoral.Thequestioniswhetheranycivilizationcanwagerelentlesswaronlifewithoutdestroyingitself,andwithoutlosingtherighttobecalledcivilized.Theseinsecticidesarenotselectivepoisons;theydonotsingleouttheonespeciesofwhichwedesiretoberide…Thesecreaturesareinnocentofanyharmtoman.Indeed,bytheirveryexistencetheyandtheirfellowsmakehislifemorepleasant.Yetherewardsthemwithadeaththatisnotonlysuddenbuthorrible.ScientificobserversatSheldondescribedthesymptomsofameadowlarkfoundneardeath:“Althoughitlackedmuscularcoordinationandcouldnotflyorstand,itcontinuedtobeatitswingsandclutchwithitstoeswhilelyingonitsside.Itsbeakwasheldopenandbreathingwaslabored.”Evenmorepitifulwasthemutetestimonyofthedeadgroundsquirrels,which“exhibitedacharacteristicattitudeindeath.Thebackwasbowed,andtheforelegswiththetoesofthefeettightlyclenchedweredrawnclosetothethorax...Theheadandneckwereoutstretchedandthemouthoftencontaineddirt,suggestingthatthedyinganimalhadbeenbitingattheground.”Byacquiescinginanactthatcancausesuchsufferingtoalivingcreature,whoamongusisnotdiminishedahumanbeing?(100)



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• Whatisanthropocentrism?Whatareitsconsequences?Whatisbiocentrism?Whatareitsconsequences?InwhatwaysisSilentSpringatonceanthropocentricandbiocentric?Howdowemakesenseofthisparadox?IsitpossibleforCarsontodobothwithoutcontradictingherownargument?Howmightthetext’santhropocentrismspeaktoadifferentaudience—oradifferentsetofconcerns—thanthetext’sbiocentrismandviceversa?AndwhatdowemakeofCarson’sargumentthat,ontheonehand,humansshouldnotactuponnatureand,ontheother,thathumanscanmanagenature(albeitinmoreethicalways)?Ismanagerialismafactoflife?Musthumansresignthemselvestomanagingnatureinsomewaysinordertosecuretheirhealthandsafety?WhatguidingprinciplesdoesSilentSpringtellustokeepinmindtopreventresponsiblemanagerialismfrombecomingirresponsible?

• SilentSpringimaginesbothhumansandnonhumans,individualsandcollectivesascapableofagency.Wasthissurprisingtoyouand,ifso,why?Whatdoyouconventionallyimagineaspossessingthecapacitytoact?Whatdoyouconventionallyimagineaspassiveorincapableofaction?HowdoesSilentSpringupendthesetraditionalwaysofthinking?Whatdoesitmeantothinkofpopulationsorecosystemsasactors?Howdoesitchangeourunderstandingofrelatedconcepts,suchaspurposeorintent?

• SilentSpringsuggeststhatnaturepossessesthecapacitytoact.When,ifever,doesimaginingnatureascapableofactionbecomedangerous?Howdowemakesenseofthefollowingcontradictoryideas:that,ontheonehand,ifnatureiscapableofactionwemustgiveitgreaterrespectand,ontheother,ifnatureiscapableofactionthenitwillbefineonitsown—thatitdoesn’tneedourhelpintheformofenvironmentalprotectionsandreforms?Howdowekeepourselvesfromidealizinginanunrealisticwaynature’sagency?DoesSilentSpringgiveusanyclues?

• Evenasitadvocatesforamoreethicalmanagerialism,SilentSpringalsosuggeststhathumansarenotaspowerfulastheymightseem.How,accordingtoCarson,arehumanslimitedintheircapacitytoknowandtoact?Whyisitimportantthatwerecognizetheselimitations?Howarehumansvulnerabletononhumanlifeformsandforces,andwhydothesevulnerabilitiesmatter?Whatdotheytellusaboutthehumanthatwemightnototherwisebeinclinedtoassume?Atthesametime,howdowemakesurethatthisnotionofthehumanaslimitedandvulnerabledoesnotvergeintocomplacency?Or,rather,anexcuseforinaction?Howdowemakesenseofandalsomovebeyondtheparadoxofneedingtotakeastepbackfromourself-assumptionsofpowerwhileatthesametimenotslippingintothemisguidednotionthatweareincapableofredressingenvironmentalcrisis—thatallislostandnoactioncanbetaken?


• Havestudentsmapaplacethat’sfamiliartothem:theirhomeorschool,afavoriteparkorhangout.Oncethey’vecreatedapreliminaryblueprint,askthemtoidentifywhatportionsofthemapare“nature”andwhichare“culture.”Theyshouldconsidercarefullytherationaletheywillusetodrawthesedistinctions,andkeepinmindCarson’sargumentthatnature,likeculture,isfoundinthemostsurprisingofplaces.Theymightthinkaboutthematerialsofwhichtheirchosenplaceiscomposedorconstructed:wheretheycamefrom,andwhatotherbeings,



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objects,orplacesarepresentintheirmateriality.Theymightthinkaboutthehumansand/orotherorganismsthatfrequenttheseplaces:whattheirbodiescontainandwithwhatelsetheymightbeinterconnected.Attheendoftheassignment,studentswillhavecreatedtheirownecologicalwebsthatillustrateboththespecificityofagivenplaceanditspositioninabroadernetworkofinterconnection.

• AskstudentstowriteacreativenonfictionessayinthestyleofCarson’sSilentSpringandherearlierworksonthesea.Studentsshouldidentifyabeing,orobject,orforceinnature—forexample:aneel,orarock,orthewind—andwriteanessaythatcapturesitsnonhumanworldview,itswayofexperiencingtheworld.Astheycrafttheiressays,studentsmightthinkcarefullyaboutthedifferencesbetweenanthropocentricandbiocentriclanguage.Theyshouldconsiderhowtheywillinhabitanonhumanperspectiveandthechallengesthatwillinevitablyemergeastheyattempttodoso.Forexample,howwilltheycraftarepresentationofnonhumanexperiencethatdoesn’tsimplyreflectahumanperspective?Studentsmightdiscusstheirchoicesandthedifficultiesofthistaskinanaddendumtotheessay,ortheymightusetheessaysasthebasisforaclassroomdebateaboutwhetherandhowhumanscanescapetheirhumanpositionalityorthepitfallsofanthropocentrism.

• Havestudentswriteanessayaboutanecologicalcollective(forexample:amaninaboatholdingabaitedrodwithafishthrashingattheendoftheline).Studentsshouldidentifytheirchosencollective’scomponentparts,theirinterrelationshipswithoneanother,howtheyactindividually,andhowtheyinteractwithoneanotherasawhole.HowdothesecollectivesresonatewithCarson’swritingaboutecology?Aretheyfluid—dopartscomeandgo—oraretheyfixed?Areallpartsinterrelatedwithoneanother,oraretheirconstituencieswithintheassemblage?Howdotheindividualactionsofeachpartinfluenceorcomplicatetheactionsofthewhole?Aresomesubsumedbyothers,ordoeseachpossessequalforce?Studentsmightalsoconsiderhowthesecollectivescomplicatetheveryconceptsofthehumanandthenonhuman.Andbycomparingtheiressaystooneanother,theywilllearnmoreaboutthevariabilityofecosystemswithinecology,andaboutwhythescienceofecologyiscomprisedofsomanysubdisciplines.



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OBJECTIVE:ToprovideabroadoverviewofthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement’sconcerns,aswellasitsexclusions;issuesofenvironmentalinequality,especiallyastheyaffectcommunitiesonthebasisofraceandsocioeconomicstatus;andtheunsettledrelationshipbetweenenvironmentaltoxicityandfreemarketeconomicsasimaginedinSilentSpring.PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADINGBonneuil,ChristopheandJean-BaptisteFressoz.TheShockoftheAnthropocene:TheEarth,Historyand


AmericanCulture.HarvardUniversityPress,1996.Bullard,RobertD.DumpinginDixie:Race,Class,andEnvironmentalQuality.WestviewPress,1990.Clark,Timothy.TheCambridgeIntroductiontoLiteratureandtheEnvironment.CambridgeUniversity

Press,2011.Dawson,Ashley.Extinction:ARadicalHistory.ORBooks,2016.GuhaandMartinez-Alier.VarietiesofEnvironmentalism:EssaysNorthandSouth.Routledge,1997.Hynes,Patricia.TheRecurringSilentSpring.Pergamon,1989.Koenig,Bronson.“WhatIFoundinStandingRock.”ThePlayers’Tribune.1December2016.

[https://www.theplayerstribune.com/bronson-koenig-wisconsin-basketball-standing-rock/]McNeill,J.R.&PeterEngelke.TheGreatAcceleration:AnEnvironmentalHistoryoftheAnthropocene

since1945.Belknap,2016.Nash,Linda.“TheFruitsofIll-Health:PesticidesandWorkers’BodiesinPost-WorldWarIICalifornia.”

LandscapesofExposure:KnowledgeandIllnessinModernEnvironments.Ed.GreggMitman,MichelleMurphyandChristopherSellers.UniversityofChicagoPress,2004.203-19.

Nixon,Rob.SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor.HarvardUniversityPress,2013.O’Loughlin,Ellen.“QuestioningSourGrapes:EcofeminismandtheUnitedFarmWorkersGrape

Boycott.”Ecofeminism:Women,Animals,Nature.Ed.GretaGaard.TempleUniversityPress,1993.146-66.

Oreskes,NaomiandEricConway.MerchantsofDoubt:HowaHandfulofScientistsObscuredtheTruthonIssuesfromTobaccotoGlobalWarming.Bloomsbury,2011.

Pulido,Laura.EnvironmentalismandEconomicJustice:TwoChicanoStrugglesintheSouthwest.UniversityofArizonaPress,1996.

Purdy,Jedediah.AfterNature:APoliticsfortheAnthropocene.HarvardUniversityPress,2015.UnitedChurchofChristCommissionforRacialJustice.ToxicWastesandRaceintheUnitedStates:A

NationalReportontheRacialandSocio-EconomicCharacteristicsofCommunitieswithHazardousWasteSites.1987.

Wallerstein,Immanuel.World-SystemsAnalysis:AnIntroduction.DukeUniversityPress,2004.Williams,Raymond.Keywords:AVocabularyofCultureandSociety.OxfordUniversityPress,1976.Williams,TerryTempest.“OnePatriot.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.Siderisand

KathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.16-28.Wilson,EdwardO.“Afterword.”SilentSpring.HoughtonMifflin,2002.357-64.

UNIT3•AMERICANENVIRONMENTALISM,RACE,INEQUALITY



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UNITORGANIZATIONThisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“TheAnthropocene‘We’”;“EnvironmentalEmpire,ColonialEnvironmentalism”;and“Poverty,Labor,Economics.”Eachofthesesub-sectionsdevelopspointsforuseinlecture,followedbysuggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.THEANTHROPOCENE“WE”SilentSpringmakesfrequentreferencetothedestructivecapacityofthehumanspeciesanditscollectiveresponsibilitytorightenvironmentalwrongs.Carsoncatalogues“man’sassaultsupontheenvironment”(6);“thecontaminationofman’stotalenvironment”(8);andcitizens’humanrightsto“besecureagainstlethalpoisons”(12).Thetextmakesapowerfulcaseforenvironmentalreformbyinvokingtheconceptofaunifiedhumanspeciesandbymappinganecological“chainofevil”(6)thatspanstheentireplanet.Thissenseofhumanresponsibility—ofauniversalhuman“we”—isubiquitousincontemporaryenvironmentalandpoliticaldiscourse.Itisimplicitintheveryterm“Anthropocene,”whichpositsgeologicchangeandclimaticcrisisashuman-driven.Atthesametime,scholarswarnagainsttakingtheuniversalityofthehumanforgranted.RaymondWilliamsremindsusthatwordslikeman,mankind,humanityandhumankindarenecessarily“abstract,”flatteningoraltogethererasingimportantdistinctionsthatmightbemadebetweenandamongdifferenthumancommunities(159).Insofarasitemploysthe“abstract”languageofspecies,SilentSpringmakesvisiblethetensionbetweendescribingandaddressingenvironmentalproblemsthataremostcertainlycausedbyhumanswhileatthesametimedispellingthemythofanundifferentiatedhumanity.Thecategoryof“humanity,”inotherwords,issometimesmorehurtfulthanhelpfulbecauseit“ignoresvastdifferencesbetweenhumangroups”(Clark122).Onereasonwhysuchdifferencesmatterinthecontextofenvironmentalismisbecausetheyrevealhowparticularhumanbeingsaremoreculpablethanothers—aculpabilitythattheuniversalizingcategoryofthehumanthreatenstoerase.Blanketemphasesonthehumanandtheglobal,forinstance,“belietremendousvariationinenergyusearoundtheworld”(McNeillandEngelke).Whereas“[i]ntheearlytwenty-firstcentury,theaverageNorthAmericanusedaboutseventytimesasmuchenergyastheaverageMozambican,”the“benefits”andconsequencesofthisunequalaccesstoresourcesandenergywerenotevenlydistributed(McNeillandEngelke9-10).Theseinequities—unevendistributionofaccess,profitandloss—helpedtoconsolidate“thepoliticalandeconomicdominance”ofnationsliketheUnitedStates(McNeillandEngelke10),whileotherpeoplesandcountries“paidahighprice”withoutreapinganyadvantage(McNeillandEngelke19).ScrutinizingSilentSpring’srepresentationofpesticidesas“indiscriminate”—aswreakingevenlydistributedhavoceverywhere,oneveryoneandeverything—RobNixonpointsouthowCarsonfailstograpplewiththe“unevenlyuniversal”consequencesofbiocide(65).Pesticides“dodiscriminate,”Nixonargues,“intheunadvertisedsenseofsaddling”particularcommunities—suchas“thelocalandglobalpoor”—withthebruntofthe“risk”(65,emphasismine).OneofthesubtletiesoftheenvironmentalcatastrophesCarsontracksisthatwhile“[w]earealldownwindersnow,some”willmostcertainlybe“soonerthanothers”(Nixon232).Thesedistinctionsandinequitiesmatter.Theypossessdeeplymaterialconsequencesforparticularcommunities,andtheyhelpusbetterunderstandtheenvironmentalismofSilentSpringandthemovementithelpedtrigger.SomescholarsarguethatCarsonobliquelyaddressestheseinequitiesandtheirconsequencesinsofaras“shewaspassionatelyconcernedwiththecomplicityofthemilitary-



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industrialcomplexindisguisingtoxicity”(xi).ShewasalsodeeplycriticalofwhatLawrenceBuellcallsenvironmental“doublethink”(293).PrivilegedAmericanswere(andare)pronetothis“doublethink,”whichoneofCarson’shistoriancontemporariesdescribedas“the‘paradoxicalability’oftheAmericanpeople‘todevastatethenaturalworldandatthesametimetomournitspassing’”(qtd.inGuhaandMartinez-Alierxiii).RamachandraGuhaandJoanMartinez-AlierarguethisfauxbrandofenvironmentalismisdistinctlyAmerican.Ithingesupontheideathat“[t]hetwopolesof‘wilderness’and‘civilization’mutuallycoexistinaninternallycoherentwhole,”whereinnatureandcultureexistapartfromoneanother.Thosewhoembracethisconsumeristformofenvironmentalismbelieve“itisperfectlyconsistent”forsomeone“todriveathousandmilestospendaholidayinanationalpark”—to“simultaneouslyenjoythematerialbenefitsofanexpandingeconomyandtheaestheticbenefitsofunspoiltnature,”eventhoughtheformerdoesinfact“spoil”orpollutethelatter(GuhaandMartinez-Alier99).CarsoncritiquesthiskindofthinkinginSilentSpring,showinghowherAmericanreadingaudienceis“atonceanature-lovingandresource-consuming”onethat“lik[e]sbeingsurroundedbygreenerybutignore[sits]relianceontoxicsubstances”(Buell4).SilentSpringdescribesitsaudienceinpreciselytheseterms.CarsontailoredhermessagemostimmediatelyforwhiteAmericansuburbia,arguingthat“suburbanite[s]”areunawareofpollutionbypesticidebecauseitsunspectacularviolenceremainsrelativelyinvisible:“toxinsmaysleeplongin[the]body”and,meanwhile,“gardener[s]andhomeowner[s]”visitstoresthatsell“death-dealingmaterials”using“display[s]”thatare“homeyandcheerful,”the“picklesandolives”situatedinnocuouslyalongside“rowsuponrowsofinsecticides”(174).AccordingtoCarson,Americansuburbaniteshaveremainedblissfullyandperhapswillfullyignorantoftheirbiocidalreality.SilentSpringprovideditsaudiencewiththeknowledgeandtoolsnecessarytoawakefromthedreamofaworldinwhichenvironmentaltoxicityisneatlycontainedinthe“overyonder”thatisnature.Andyet,evenasSilentSpringiscriticalofAmericansuburbia,thetextinsomewaysinternalizesthewhiteprivilegeoftheaudienceitseekstomobilize.Scholarshavenoted,forinstance,that“thehazardsofpesticidescouldnotbeseparatedfromthepoliticaleconomyoffarmlabor”and,inparticular,theworkingconditionsofmigrantfarmworkers(Nash211).ButwhileCarsonturnsfrequentlytothefigureoftheAmericanfarmer,andthoughshedidofcourse“generat[e]massivepopularandpoliticalattentiontotherisksofpesticides,”SilentSpringand“thepublicdebate”itcatalyzed“focusedalmostexclusivelyonorganochlorinecompoundsandtheriskstoconsumers”(Nash213).WeshouldkeepinmindhowCarson’salmostexclusivefocusontheAmericanconsumer—onwhite,middle-classsuburbanites—erases(orattheveryleastsetsaside)therealitythatsomehumancommunitieswereandcontinuetobedisproportionatelyvulnerabletoenvironmentaltoxicity.WhenSilentSpringspeaksof“man’sassaultsupontheenvironment”(6)—whenthetextinvokesthehumanasauniformanduniversalcategory—itobscuresthewaysthatthese“assaults”areperpetratedbyparticulargroupsofhumanbeingsandexperiencedmoreacutelybyothers.AttendingtoCarson’sAmericansuburbaniteaudiencehelpsustoseethedifficultyoftacklingenvironmentalproblemsthatareplanetaryinscopewhileatthesametimeavoidingthedangersofimaginingthehumaninhomogeneous,monolithicterms.KeepingacriticaleyeonSilentSpring’saudienceandthebroaderquestionofanundifferentiatedhumanityalsohelpsustoseehowecologicalthinkingcanveerintohazardousterritory.GuhaandMartinez-Alierarguethatthe“shiftfromananthropocentrictobiocentricperspective”—ashiftthatecologypositsasabsolutelynecessary—can,howeverunintentionally,possessdireconsequencesfor



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particularpopulationsofhumanbeings(93).Forinstance,theecologist’sargumentthatenvironmentalism“shouldbeguidedprimarilybytheneedtopreservebioticintegrityratherthanbytheneedsofhumans”ignores“fundamentalecologicalproblems,”suchas“overconsumption”and“growingmilitarization”(GuhaandMartinez-Alier95).Theseproblemsaremostimmediatelycausedbythedominationofhumansbyotherhumans—theyaresystemicsociopoliticalissuesthataresymptomaticofglobal“economicandpoliticalstructures,and,atamicrolevel,thelifestylechoicesofindividuals”(GuhaandMartinez-Alier95).Theyareproblemsthatdonotnecessarilyaccommodatethe“anthropocentric/biocentricdistinction,”thoughtheirenvironmentalconsequencesaremostcertainlyprofound.JedediahPurdynotes,too,thatecologysometimesenables“afiercelymisanthropicpessimismabouthumanbeings”andoften“insist[s],sometimessilently,thatsomethings,someconnectionscountmorethanothers”(206).Effortstopreservenonhumanlifeformsandthebioticintegrityofecosystemsfrequentlyaffectparticularhumancommunitiesindevastatingways.“Treating‘bioticequality’asamoralabsolute”toooftenmeansthat“tigers,elephants,whalesetc.”aregiven“morespacetoflourishandreproduce”attheexpenseofthemarginalizedhumanbeingswhoare“expectedtomakewayforthem”(GuhaandMartinez-Alier107).AchillingexampleofthewaysenvironmentalismiscomplicitinandcanjustifysuchinequalityistheforgottenhistoryoftheUnitedStates’nationalparksystem,whichwasestablishedbyandthroughthemassevictionoftheindigenouspeopleswhooccupiedandsubsistedonthem.Here,wecanseehowecologicalthinkingand,byextension,environmentalreformsometimescausesandevenprofitsfromhumansuffering—sufferingthatisselective,ratherthanuniversal.Forthisreason,howeverparadoxically,somethinkershavecalledforareturntohumanismor,rather,fortherestorationofthehumanasapointoffocusincontemporaryenvironmentalistdebates.Theyarguethathumanismmakesitpossibletokeepinviewthewaysthedominationofhumansbyotherhumanscoincideswiththedominationofnonhumansbyhumans,aswellashowattemptstopreservenaturemightactuallycompoundhumaninequality.Whetherornothumanismhasaplaceinenvironmentalism,thereisattheveryleastconsensusthat“wehavetothinkecologyandpowerrelationstogetherifwearetounderstandtheformationofsocialandenvironmentalinequalities”(BonneuilandFressoz36).AshleyDawsonargues,forinstance,that“[w]ecannotunderstandextinction”andotherenvironmentaldisasters“withoutananalysisoftheexploitationandviolencetowhichpostcolonialnationshavebeensubjected”(12)—withoutaddressinghowenvironmentaldisasteristheproductof“aglobalattackonthecommons”byaprivilegedfewwhoexploit“theplanet’scommonwealth,”theearth’s“greattroveofair,water,plants,”inordertoconsolidatepowerandwealthattheexpenseof“peasantfarmers”andothermarginalizedgroups(12-3).Weneed,inotherwords,“analternativeecology”thataccountsforhow“colonialandcapitalistexpansionhasbothaccentuatedsocialinequalitiesandsignaledaprecipitousfallinecologicalwisdom”(GuhaandMartinez-Alier101).Wealsoneedanalternative,moreinclusive,moreflexiblesenseof“we”thatcanaccountforglobalenvironmentalcrisisinwaysthatthenotionofanundifferentiatedhumanitydoesnot(Purdy5).Weneedawayofnamingandaccountingfor“commonresponsibility”thatbringstogether“certainquestionsthatwehavecalledecologicalandothersthatwehavecalledhumanitarian,questionsofconservationandquestionsofjustice”(Purdy6).WhileSilentSpringattimesinternalizestheprivilegeofitsaudience,itneverthelessthinksacrosstheenvironmentalandthehumanitarianasitencouragesreaderstoquestionwhoisinpowerandwhoisauthorizedtospeak.AcommonrefraininSilentSpring



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beginswiththeword“who”:“Whohasmadethedecisionthatsetsinmotionthesechainsofpoisonings…?”(127).“Who,”Carsonasks,“hasdecided—whohastherighttodecide—forthecountlesslegionsofpeoplewhowerenotconsultedthatthesupremevalueisaworldwithoutinsects”(127)?Inmomentslikethese,Carsongesturesexplicitlytowardtheintersectionsbetween“authoritarianpower”andenvironmentaldegradation—betweenregimesofpowerthatcometobearuponboththehumanandthenonhumaninexpansivebutalsodifferentiatedways.WhenSilentSpringquestionstheauthorityofthedeciding“who,”itunsettlestheundifferentiatedhumanity—theflattenedsenseofthe“we”—itmighttakeforgrantedelsewhere.CLOSEREADING:ThefollowingpassageswillhelpstudentsexploreforwhomSilentSpringwaswritten.AskthemtoconsiderwhatwemightlearnaboutCarson’saudiencebypayingcloseattentiontothekindsofpersonsandspacesrepresentedinthetext,aswellasthetext’sattentiontoparticularconcernsandconsequences.

Sothoroughlyhastheageofpoisonsbecomeestablishedthatanyonemaywalkintoastoreand,withoutquestionsbeingasked,buysubstanceoffargreaterdeath-dealingpowerthanthemedicinaldrugforwhichhemayberequiredtosigna“poisonbook”inthepharmacynextdoor.Afewminutes’researchinanysupermarketisenoughtoalarmthemoststoutheartedcustomer—provided,thatis,hehasevenarudimentaryknowledgeofthechemicalspresentedforhischoice.

Ifahugeskullandcrossbonesweresuspendedabovetheinsecticidedepartmentthecustomermightatleastenteritwiththerespectnormallyaccordeddeath-dealingmaterials.Butinsteadthedisplayishomeyandcheerful,and,withthepicklesandolivesacrosstheaisleandthebathandlaundrysoapsadjoining,therowsuponrowsofinsecticidesaredisplayed.Withineasyreachofachild’sexploringhandarechemicalsinglasscontainers.Ifdroppedtothefloorbyachildorcarelessadulteveryonenearbycouldbesplashedwiththesamechemicalthathassentspraymenusingitintoconvulsions.Thesehazardsofcoursefollowthepurchaserrightintohishome.AcanofamothproofingmaterialcontainingDDD,forexample,carriesinveryfineprintthewarningthatitscontentsareunderpressureandthatitmayburstifexposedtoheatoropenflame.Acommoninsecticideforhouseholduse,includingassortedusesinthekitchen,ischlordane.YettheFoodandDrugAdministration’schiefpharmacologisthasdeclaredthehazardoflivinginahousesprayedwithchlordanetobe“verygreat.”(174)

Littleisdone…towarnthegardenerorhomeownerthatheishandlingextremelydangerousmaterials.Onthecontrary,aconstantstreamofnewgadgetsmakeiteasiertousepoisonsonlawnandgarden—andincreasethegardener’scontactwiththem.Onemaygetajar-typeattachmentforthegardenhose,forexample,bywhichsuchextremelydangerouschemicalsaschlordaneordieldrinareappliedasonewatersthelawn.Suchadevice[speakingofaparticularhoseattachment]isnotonlyahazardtothepersonusingthehose;itisalsoapublicmenace…Consideringthenumberofsuchdevicesthatareinuse,andthescarcityofwarningssuchasthis,doweneedtowonderwhyourpublicwatersarecontaminated?(176)

CarsonoriginallyconsideredthetitleManagainsttheEarth.Withthisandthefollowingpassageinmind,studentsshouldexploretheconceptofanundifferentiatedhumanity,especiallyasithelpsorhurtsourabilitytounderstandenvironmentalcrises,theircausationandtheirconsequences.Here,theymightfocusonCarson’srepeateduseof“who,”whichhighlightsproblemsofrepresentationintheAmericanenvironmentalmovementandinlegislativereform.



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Ineachofthesesituations,oneturnsawaytoponderthequestion:Whohasmadethedecisionthatsetsinmotionthesechainsofpoisonings,thisever-wideningwaveofdeaththatspreadsout,likerippleswhenapebbleisdroppedintoastillpond?...Whohasdecided—whohastherighttodecide—forthecountlesslegionsofpeoplewhowerenotconsultedthatthesupremevalueisaworldwithoutinsects,eventhoughitbealsoasterileworldungracedbythecurvingwingofabirdinflight?Thedecisionisthatoftheauthoritariantemporarilyentrustedwithpower;hehasmadeitduringamomentofinattentionbymillionstowhombeautyandtheorderedworldofnaturestillhaveameaningthatisdeepandimperative.(127)


• Whenyouimaginethecategoryofthehuman—orhumankind,orhumanity—whodoyouimagine?Whatdoesyourimaginedideaofthehumanlooklike?Doesitconsistofpeoplethatlooklikeyou?Orisitrepresentativeofhumankindinallofitsdifference?Whatareitsinclusionsandexclusions?HowdoesCarson’svisionofhumankindresonatewithorunsettleyours?InwhatwaysisCarson’svisionofhumankindpartialorselective?HowdoesSilentSpringdemonstratetheimportanceofpreservinghumandifferenceandofincludingmanyvoicesinenvironmentaldebate?Whydothesedifferencesmatter?Howdowemakecentraltotheenvironmentalmovementamorerepresentativesenseofhumanity—amoreinclusivesenseof“we”?

• Ecologyimaginesrelationalityinexpansive,complex,dynamicways.Butdoesecologyeverobscureoreraseparticularrelationshipsorthings?Doesitexcludeevenasitincludes?ConsiderCarson’sfocusontheAmericansuburbanite.InwhatwaysdoesSilentSpringprivilegecertainecologicalunitsorrelationshipsoverothers?HowdoesCarsonclarifyorcomplicatethedifficultyofre-valuingnonhumanlifeandenvironmentalhealthwhileatthesametimeensuringparticularhumancommunitiesarenotsubjecttohardshiporsacrificeforthesakeofenactingenvironmentalreform?

• SilentSpringcritiquesthedoublethinkatissueinAmericanenvironmentalism.HowdowemakesenseofthecoexistenceofenvironmentalismandconsumerismintheUnitedStates?Whatdoesitmeantogoonanatureexcursion—forexample,tovisitanationalpark?Whatpublicservicesdonationalparksprovide?Whatkindsofresourceconsumptionandconsumerismdotheseexcursionsnecessitate?Towhomaresuchexcursionsaccessible?Whopossessestheprivilegeandresourcestogoonnatureexcursions,whodoesnot,andwhymightthismatter?Howdosuchexcursions,howeverironically,contributetothedestructionoftheenvironment?Dotherewardsoutweighthecosts,ordoweneednewlyethicalmodelsforexperiencingandappreciatingnature?Andhowdowesquarethehistoryofinequalityonwhichnationalparksarebuiltwiththeirfunctionasapublicgood?

ENVIRONMENTALEMPIRE,COLONIALENVIRONMENTALISMTheprevioussub-sectiondiscussedhowuniversalisticnotionsofthehumanandtheecologicalemphasisonbiocentrismoveranthropocentrismcanreinforcesimplisticunderstandingsofglobalenvironmentalcrisisandexacerbatehumaninequality.Itisimportant,inthiscontext,tounderstandhowAmericanenvironmentalismhasbeencomplicitincolonialenterpriseandinenvironmentalracism.Thisandthenextsub-sectiontogetherexplorehowpeopleofcolorandthepoor,bothwithinandoutsideofthe



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UnitedStates,havebeenmarginalizedbythemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement.CarsongesturestothisissuewhensheacknowledgestheintersectionsbetweencolonialandenvironmentalhistoryinSilentSpring.Sherecounts,forinstance,howAustralia’sBritishcolonistsimported“variousspeciesofcactusintoAustralia”attheendoftheeighteenthcentury,“intendingtousetheminculturingcochinealinsectsfordye”(82).But“[h]avingnonaturalcontrolsinthisnewterritory,”thecacti“spreadprodigiously”(83).The“landwassodenselycoveredastobeuseless,”aproblemthatremainedunresolveduntilscientistsintroducedaninsectpredatorthatcouldbringthecactiundercontrol(83).Intheinterim,thelandremainedrelativelyinhospitableto“settlementandgrazing”—aproblemthataffectednotonlythecolonists,butmoreimportantlytheindigenouspeopleswholivedthereoriginallyanddependedonthelandforsubsistence(83).Whilestorieslikethese—and,morebroadly,theverynotionofempire—mightseemobsolete,theyarestillverymuchaliveandwell.Thus,Nixonarguesthatwenowlivein“aneraofresurgentimperialism”whereintheenvironmenthasbeeninstrumentalizedforimperialpurposes(37).InthedecadesfollowingWorldWarII,“energyuseandeconomicexpansionproceededinlockstep”(McNeillandEngelke132).CountriesthatemergedfromtheGreatWarsinpositionsofpoliticalandeconomicpowerconsumednaturalresourcesatincreasingspeedandusedtheircloutto“appropriat[e]”—whetherpeacefullyorthroughtheuseofforce—“productivelandaroundtheworldforconsumption”(Wilson363).TheUnitedStateswasoneofthesecountries.Consumingadisproportionateamountofenergytoconsolidateitswealthandpower,andappropriatinglandandresourcesoutsideitsbordersinordertodoso,theUnitedStateshelpedtoestablishwhatpostcolonialtheoristslikeGuhaandMartinez-Aliercall“[e]xtractiveeconomies”(39).“Toextract,”inthiscontext,“meanstotakeoutwithoutputtingback,andsopetroleumandmanyothernaturalresources…havebeenextractedanddestroyed”tothedetrimentofthelocalcommunitieswhodependonthem(GuhaandMartinez-Alier40).These“dispossessed”communitiesarecomprisedlargelyofpeopleofcolorandtheglobalpoor(GuhaandMartinez-Alier40).Theyliveincountriesthat“suffe[r]fromapoorstructuralpositionintheglobaleconomy”asaresultofthe“legac[ies]ofthecolonialera,whenimperialpowers’investmentintheircolonieswenttolittlemorethanextractiveenterprisessuchasplantationsandmines”(McNeillandEngelke149).Empireinthiswaytakesonenvironmentalformsinthetwenty-firstcentury.Intheseimperial“conflicts”marginalizedlocalcommunities,who“dependveryheavilyonthenaturalresourcesoftheirownlocality,”mustfendoff“individualsandgroupswiththesocialpowertocapture,transformandusenaturalresourcesfromamuchwidercatchmentarea”(12).WhileSilentSpringdoesnotaddressthisextractiveformofimperialpowerdirectly,itsconcernsaboutpesticidesandenvironmentaltoxicitygesturetowardasecondkindofenvironmentalempirethatisjustasdevastating:theestablishmentofenvironmental“sacrificezones.”DuringtheGreatWars,theUnitedStatesmilitary,intandemwith“[t]henuclearweaponsindustry,”designatedwhatarecalled“sacrificezones”:areasfornuclearweaponstestinglocatedinruralareasandothernations(McNeillandEngelke165).Theydidsotoprotectwhite,affluentAmericansfrom“letha[l]contamination”(McNeillandEngelke165).Theconceptofthe“sacrificezone”inthiswaydescribesthecurrentandwidespread“outsourcingofenvironmentalcrisis”(Nixon22).Asglobalsuperpowersconsolidatetheirextractiveempiresandbyextensiontheirwealth,theyincreasetheir“powertoresistnaturalshocks”andenvironmentaldisasters(Purdy46).“[N]aturalcatastropheamplifiesexistinginequality,”andglobalenvironmentalcriseslikewidespreadtoxicityandclimatechangecreate“alandscapeofartificialdroughtandplenty”wherein“thealreadywealthypeopleswhohavecontributedmosttotheproblem



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seetheiradvantagesmultiplied”(Purdy47and46).Theyremainenclavedin“ecologicalexemptionzones”—zonesthatremainrelativelywell-protectedfromenvironmentaldisaster,atleastfornow—whileothersarelockedin“placesthatwillbecomeuninhabitable”(Purdy47).Theformeroccupythecolonialcenterofextractivepower,whilethelatterareconfinedtotheincreasinglyinhospitableperipheryitexploits.Perhapsthemostinsidiouspartofthisarrangementisthatthoseinpowercan,doandwillpointtotheworkingsofclimatechangetorationalizeorjustifywhyenvironmentalcatastrophedisproportionatelyaffectsthoseattheperipherywhentheyknowfullwellthatthesecatastrophesarenotstrictlynatural:theyarecreatedandexacerbatednotbytheungovernableandimpersonalforcesofnature,butbythoseprivilegedhumanbeingswhoexploitednatureandotherhumansalikefortheirowngain.ButhowdoesthisdiscussionleadustoSilentSpring?Theansweris,asalways,tobefoundinpesticides.Pesticidesandothertoxicpollutantsillustratehow“sacrificezones”giveshapetolandscapesofpowernotonlyoutsideofbutalsowithintheUnitedStates.Perhapsnowherearetheselandscapesmorevisiblethaninthedesignationofdumpingzonesforthedisposalofdangerouschemicals.Inoneofthefirst—ifnotthefirst—systematicstudiesofexposuretopoisonsandother“hazardouswastes,”theUnitedChurchofChristCommissionforRacialJusticerevealedthat“racialandethnicAmericansarefarmorelikelytobeunknowingvictimsofexposuretosuchsubstances”(xi).Inhisfoundationalstudyofenvironmentalracism,RobertD.BullardtracestheinterconnectionsbetweenthehistoryofsuchunequalexposuresandthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement.Oneofhismostchillingpointsofdiscussion:theclosingofachemicalplantthatproducedDDTanditssociopoliticalfallout.InTriana,Alabama,“asmallall-blacktown,”theCenterforDiseaseControl(CDC)discoveredthatresidentswere“contaminatedwiththepesticideDDTandthehighlytoxicindustrialchemicalPCB(Bullard19).WhiletheCDCwasunabletopinpointthesourceofthePCBcontamination,theydiscoveredthat“theDDTwasproducedatnearbyRedstoneArsenalArmymissilebasefrom1947to1971byOlinChemicalCompany”(Bullard20).AsdiscussedinUnit1,DDTwasbannedfromuseintheUnitedStatesin1971.Followingtheban,thechemicalplantinTriana“wastorndown,”but“over4,000tonsofDDTresidue”was“buriedintheareaandeventuallyworkeditswayintoIndianCreek,apopularfishingplaceoftheTrianaresidents”(Bullard20).Thistragicstoryissignificantontwocounts.First,itisareminderthatproductionfacilitiesfortoxicchemicalsandotherhazardousmaterialsaremoreoftenthannotlocatedineitherurbanorrural“sacrificezones”whereresidentsarepredominatelypeopleofcolorand/orimpoverished.Second,itisasadexampleofhoweventhemostwell-intendedenvironmentalreformscancontributetoorevencreateenvironmentalinjustice.Whileduringitsyearsofoperationthechemicalplantalmostcertainlypollutedthesurroundingenvironment,andwhiletheDDTbanandtheshutteringofchemicalplantswasanimportantaccomplishmentforAmericanenvironmentalists,theTrianacaseillustrateshowmarginalizedcommunitiesaremuchmorelikelythanotherstobecomecollateraldamageinconflictsoverenvironment.Thishistory,likeslowviolence,isnearlyinvisibletothoseofprivilege,butthatmakesitnolesssignificant.ItisahistorythatlurksbetweenthelinesofCarson’sSilentSpring—thathauntsitsedges.Noneofthisistosaythatenvironmentalreformisbadorthatitsrisksnecessarilyoutweighitspotentialrewards.ButwhatSilentSpring’shauntingsdotellusisthatenvironmentalmovementsarestrongestwhentheyareintersectional—whentheymakespaceforandamplifyawiderangeofvoicesandperspectives—andwhentheyapproachenvironmentalismasahumanitarianorsocialjusticeissue(asopposedtofocusingonthepreservationofnatureasapristineandstrictlynonhuman“overyonder”).



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ThemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementthatSilentSpringgalvanizedfailedonthiscount.TheUnitedChurchofChristCommissionforRacialJustice’sreportonracializedsacrificezonesandtoxicdumpingobservesthatthemovement’s“[e]fforts…havelargelyignoredthespecificconcernsofAfricanAmericans,HispanicAmericans,AsianAmericans,PacificIslandersandNativeAmericans”inpartbecauseit“hashistoricallybeenwhitemiddleandupper-classinitsorientation”(xi).Bullarddocumentsextensivelyhow“[w]hiteracismisafactorintheimpoverishmentofblackcommunitiesandhasmadeiteasierforblackresidentialareastobecomedumpinggroundsforalltypesofhealth-threateningtoxinsandindustrialpollution”(9).AfavoriteaxiomofthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement—notinmybackyard(NIMBY)—isacaseinpoint.The“not-in-my-backyardphenomenon”atbestignoresandatworsttacitlyacceptstheinevitabilitythat“hazardouswastes,garbagedumps,andpollutingindustrieswerelikelytoendupinsomebody’sbackyard”(Bullard4-5,emphasismine).AndasBullardtellsus:“Moreoftenthannot,”thesetoxicmaterialsusuallyendedupinthebackyardsof“poor,powerless,blackcommunitiesratherthaninaffluentsuburbs”(5).Here,wecanseehowenvironmentaljusticeissuesarenotapplicablestrictlytotheimperialnetworksandextractiveeconomiesthroughwhichwealthycountriesliketheUnitedStatesexploitandwieldpoweroverthosewholivebeyonditsborders.Environmentaljusticeisasmuchanissueathomeasitisabroad,“extend[ing]totheplightofpoor”andothermarginalizedcommunities“wholiveinrichcountries”(McNeillandEngelke193).Evenasitdoesnotexplicitlyaddressissuesofenvironmentaljusticeexceptinthebroadcontextofcitizens’rights,SilentSpringpositstheseissuesemphaticallyasbothglobalandlocal,externalandinternal,transnationalandAmerican.ItisnotonlythewhitenessbutalsotheparticularagendasofthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementthatexplainitsneglectoftheconcernsofpeopleofcolorintheUnitedStates.LauraPulidoarguesthatwhereasAmericanenvironmentalismemergedfromthetraditionsof“romanticism,transcendentalism,andconservation”—thinkWilliamWordsworth,HenryDavidThoreauandTheodoreRoosevelt,respectively—ithashistoricallyremainedunconcernedwiththeissuesof“subsistence”and“production”whicharecentraltothelivesandinterestsofindigenous,non-white,poorandmigrantpopulations(22).Pulidonotesinparticular“[a]surveyofenvironmentalorganizationsconductedinthe1970s”—onlyroughlyadecadeafterthepublicationofSilentSpring—inwhich“respondentsreportedoppositiontotheenvironmentalmovement‘concerningitselfwiththeconservationproblemsofsuchspecialgroupsastheurbanpoorandethnicminorities’”(23).Instead,themainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementprioritized“wildernessandwildlifepreservation,resourceconservation,pollutionabatement,andpopulationcontrol”(Bullard1).CentraltothisagendaiswhatBuellcalls“thepastoralimagination,”whichfetishizeslandscapesthatarepristineintheirwildnesstothepointofartificiality(62).“[I]magesofwildandseeminglyunsettledlandscapesbecameiconsforculturalnationalismoritscontestation”intheUnitedStates,aswellasfodderforimaginingnature“asthespaceofrebirth,freedom,oras…self-creation”(Clark26).Pastoralidealizationsofnature“clear[ed]thesceneofcomplicatingfeatures,especiallyhumancomplicationsthatmightinhibittheaestheticpleasureofprivilegedsolitarycommunionwithnature”(Buell62).TheAmericanenvironmentalmovement’shistoricalemphasesonwildernessandconservation,then,areboththeproductandtheinstrumentofcolonialviolence.Forexample,as“[t]hefrontierbecamethesiteofadestructiveone-sidedstrugglebetweenincompatibleconceptionsofsociety,land,religion,foodproductionandproperty,”colonistsdisplacedandexterminatedtheland’sindigenousoccupants(Clark26).Thishistoryofimperialviolenceand“aggressivesettlement”unfoldedalongside“the‘nationalization’ofsomelandscapesoftheWestasAmericanculturalicons,intheformofnationalparkssuchasYosemiteorYellowstone”(Clark26).In



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manyways,themainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementhasperpetuatedthisuglyhistoryofenvironmentalracismanditslegacies.Phraseslike“pastoralimagination”makevisiblehowthishistoryanditslegaciesunfoldonconceptualaswellasmaterialregisters.Centraltothishistory,inotherwords,areconflictsbetweenwhatNixondescribesas“vernacular”and“officiallandscape[s]”(17).Vernacularlandscapesareasmuchspeculativeorimaginativeastheyarematerial:theyare“shapedbytheaffective,historicallytexturedmapsthatcommunitieshavedevisedovergenerations,mapsrepletewithnamesandroutes,mapsalivetosignificantecologicalandsurfacegeologicalfeatures”(Nixon17).Theyare“integraltothesocioenvironmentaldynamicsofcommunity”asopposedtobeing“outthere,asaseparatenonrenewableresource”(Nixon17).Vernacularlandscapesdonotlocatevalueinwhatcanbeextractedfromtheland.Theydonotunderstandthelandininstrumentalistterms.Instead,theylocatevalueinitscollective,aesthetic,culturalsignificance—itscentralitytoindigenousidentityandintergenerationalhistory,tolocalizedecosystemsandsubsistencetraditions,towaysofknowingthatarespiritualorimaginativeandthusdonotaccommodateempirical,utilitarian,extractivistworldviews.Officiallandscapes,ontheotherhand,are“typicallyoblivious”tovernacularlandscapes(Nixon17).They“writ[e]thelandinabureaucratic,externalizing,andextraction-drivenmannerthatisoftenpitilesslyinstrumental”(Nixon17).Environmentalracisminthiswaydispossessesparticularcommunitiesnotonlyoftheirresources,butalsooftheirculturalimaginariesorheritages—itdispossessesthemofthoseecological,situated,long-historied“websofaccumulatedculturalmeaning”thatareintegraltoacommunity’sidentity,itssenseofplace,itshistory,itswaysoflife(Nixon17).Nixondescribesthiskindofdispossessionas“displacementwithoutmoving,”whereincommunitiesare“involuntarilymovedoutoftheirknowledge,”left“strandedinaplacestrippedoftheverycharacteristicsthatmadeitinhabitable,”relegatedto“existingoutofplaceinplace,”made“gonerswithnowheretogo”(19).TherecentconflictsoveraproposaltoconstructportionsoftheDakotaAccessPipelineincloseproximitytotheStandingRockreservation,whoselandsareunderthejurisdictionoftheHunkpapaSioux,makevisiblethethreatofficiallandscapesposetovernacularones.BronsonKoenig—amemberoftheHo-Chunktribe,formerstarbasketballplayerandactivistathleteattheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison,andrecentsigneeoftheMilwaukeeBucks—demonstratespreciselythispointinaneditorialreflectingonhisexperiencesattheStandingRockprotests.KoenigwritesabouthowtheHunkpapaareconcernednotonlyaboutthepipeline’spotentialto“endangerthelocalwatersupply,”butalsothefactthatit“willplowthroughancientburialgrounds”andchangeirrevocablyalandscapethatiscentraltothetribe’shistoryandculture.Thelandanditsresourcesare,asKoenigputsit,“ourheritage”—aninheritancethatextractivistlandscapes(likethelandscapeoftheDakotaAccessPipeline)activelydestroy.Koenig,likeCarson,remindshisreadersthattopollutewateranywhereistopollutewatereverywhere:“Nativepeoplearen’ttheonlyoneswhoareaffectedbythreatstotheenvironment.Cleanwaterisapreciousresource.Itbelongstoallofus,whateverourheritage.Wemustallprotectit.”Ontheonehand,SilentSpringpopularizedthescienceandthelanguagethatmakesappealslikeKoenig’ssopowerful.Onetheotherhand,itsparkedanenvironmentalmovementthatlargelyignoredandsometimesactivelyparticipatedinthecolonialdispossessionandenvironmentalracismtowhichKoenigobjects.TheenvironmentalistlegaciesofSilentSpringareinthiswaybothinspiringandflawed.CLOSEREADING:



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Studentsmightusethefollowingpassagetoconsiderhowthehistoriesofcolonizationandenvironmentaldegradationareintertwined,aswellashowparticulargroupsofhumanbeingsaremoreresponsibleforenvironmentalcrisesthanothers.

AnotherextraordinarilysuccessfulandeconomicalexampleofweedcontrolmaybefoundinAustralia.Withthecolonists’usualtasteforcarryingplantsoranimalsintoanewcountry,aCaptainArthurPhilliphadbroughtvariousspeciesofcactusintoAustraliaabout1787,intendingtousetheminculturingcochinealinsectsfordye.Someofthecactiorpricklypearsescapedfromhisgardensandby1925about20speciescouldbefoundgrowingwild.Havingnonaturalcontrolsinthisnewterritory,theyspreadprodigiously,eventuallyoccupyingabout60millionacres.Atleasthalfofthislandwassodenselycoveredastobeuseless.In1920AustralianentomologistsweresenttoNorthandSouthAmericatostudyinsectenemiesofthepricklypearsintheirnativehabitat.Aftertrialsofseveralspecies,3billioneggsofanArgentinemothwerereleasedinAustraliain1930.Sevenyearslaterthelastdensegrowthofpricklypearhadbeendestroyedandonceuninhabitableareasreopenedtosettlementandgrazing.Thewholeoperationhadcostlessthanapennyperacre.(82-3)

Askstudentstoclosereadthefollowingpassagestoexplorehowdifferentformsofknowing—differentwaysofviewingandvaluinglandscapes—collidewithoneanotherand,insodoing,givelastingshapetonature.


OneofthemosttragicexamplesofourunthinkingbludgeoningofthelandscapeistobeseeninthesagebrushlandsoftheWest,whereavastcampaignisontodestroythesageandtosubstitutegrasslands.Ifeveranenterpriseneededtobeilluminatedwithasenseofthehistoryandmeaningofthelandscape,itisthis.Forherethenaturallandscapeiseloquentoftheinterplayofforcesthathavecreatedit.Itisspreadbeforeuslikethepagesofanopenbookinwhichwecanreadwhythislandiswhatitis,andwhyweshouldpreserveitsintegrity.Butthepageslieunread.(64)


• What,accordingtoSilentSpring,istherelationshipbetweenenvironmentalhistoryandcolonialhistory,orthehistoryofempire?Inwhatwaysaretheyoneandthesame?Howhasnatureservedasaweaponhumanscanwieldagainstotherhumans?Inwhatwaysisnature,likeparticularhumancommunities,avictimofimperialwarfare?Whymightitbeimportanttothinkthesehistoriesandlegaciestogether?Whatdowehavetogainbydoingso,andwhatdropsoutofthepicturewhenwedonot?

• Whatisanofficiallandscape?Whatisavernacularlandscape?FindexamplesofeachinSilentSpring.Howdothesedifferentwaysofthinkingthelandscapeconflictwithoneanother?Wheredotheylocatevalueinthelandscapeandfromwhatperspective,orforwhatpurpose?Howdotheytogetherdemonstratethecentralityandpoweroftheimaginationinthinkingabouttheenvironment?



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• HowdoesSilentSpringdemonstratetheneedforanintersectional,ormoreinclusive,environmentalmovement?WhatconnectionsdoesCarsondrawbetweenquestionsofhumanrightsandofanimalrights—betweenhumanitarianorsocialjusticeissuesandenvironmentalconcerns?Howdowemakesenseofthefactthat,ontheonehand,SilentSpringbringstogetherhumanitarianandenvironmentalissuesand,ontheother,envisionsanaudienceandasetofenvironmentalconcernsthatarenotrepresentative—thatareexclusionary?AndhowdowemakesenseoftheAmericanenvironmentalmovement’shistoricalresistancetoinclusivity?Whatdoesanintersectionalenvironmentalmovementlooklike?Whowouldbeitsaudience?Whatwouldbeitsconcerns?

POVERTY,LABOR,ECONOMICSSilentSpringcharts“thesuddenriseandprodigiousgrowthofanindustryfortheproductionofman-madeorsyntheticchemicalswithinsecticidalproperties”(16).Thetextisdeeplyconcernedwithandabouttherelationshipbetweenpostwarcapitalistexpansion,increasingindustrialization,andenvironmentaltoxicity.Describingpesticidesasbeingproducedin“anendlessstream”thatgrowsexponentiallywitheachpassingyear(7),Carsondemonstratesthedifficultyandthenecessityofbringingtoheelthechemicalpollutionthatiscausedbyandatthesametimefuels“expanded”andexpansive“markets”forpesticidesandotheragriculturalmaterials:“grassseed,”forinstance,aswellas“machinesforcuttingandsowingandseeding”(66).SilentSpringillustrateshowitisnotonly“theboundariesbetweenconservation”and“colonialism”thatare“uncomfortablyblurredanduncertain,”butalsothosebetween“conservation”and“thedepredationsofinternationalcapitalism”(Clark121).NaomiOreskesandEricConwayreadSilentSpringasawarning“thatcontemporaryindustrialcivilizationisnotsustainable”(237).SilentSpringmarkedthedevelopmentofanewawarenessintheAmericanenvironmentalmovement:the“crucialrealizationthatunrestrictedcommercialactivitywasdoingdamage—real,lasting,pervasivedamage”totheplanet(OreskesandConway237).Trackingthecollusionsbetweenmilitary,industryandscience,Carsonshowedhow“[t]henaturalworldwasdying,poisonedbythehandsofpowertiedtocorporategreed”(T.Williams21).Thus,SilentSpringframedthepesticide“debate”intermsof“areverenceforlifeversusareverenceforindustry”(T.Williams21).ReverenceforindustrygrewintheUnitedStatesfollowingtheGreatWars,anditwasaparticularpointoffocusfortheAmericanenvironmentalmovement.AsmentionedearlierinthisunitandinUnit1,Americansseemeduniquelycapableofanenvironmentaldoublethinkthatsawnoconflictbetween“environmentalism”and“theconsumersociety”that“ranparallel”toit(GuhaandMartinez-Alier18).HavingemergedfromWorldWarII“withanintacteconomicbaseandundamagedcities,”theUnitedStatespossessed“unmatched”industrialcapabilitiesandconsolidateditspower“asacreditorratherthanadebtornation”(McNeillandEngelke130).Whereasmanyothercountriesoccupied“apoorstructuralpositionintheglobaleconomy”(McNeillandEngelke149),theUnitedStates“embarkedonalongperiodofunprecedentedgrowth”(McNeillandEngelke129).ThesedevelopmentsimprovedthelivesofmanyAmericansbuttheyalsocausednewproblemsbecause“economicgrowthrequire[s]expandingenergyoutputs”—“morewealthrequire[s]moreenergy”tomaintain“comfortablelevelsofconsumption”andincreasinglyluxuriouslifestyles(McNeillandEngelke132and133).Whatresultedwasanincreasinglyunequalrelationshipbetweenpowerful,wealthy,“creditor”nationsliketheUnitedStatesandthemarginalized,impoverished,“debtor”nationswhoseexploitationwasnecessaryformaintainingeconomicprosperity.



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Thus,“thegulfbetweenenclavedrichandoutcastpoor”grew“morepronounced”(Nixon8).UnderindustrialcapitalismtheUnitedStatesextractedand“decimat[ed]”theresourcesandlandscapesof“poorernations”foritsowngain“byremovingthebiologicalfoundationoftheircollectivefuture”(Dawson89).Thisextractiveeconomycatapultedtheglobalpoorintoanuglycyclewheretheywereforcedto“engageindeforestationandotherformsofover-exploitation”asthey“becomeincreasinglyindebted”tocreditornations(Dawson62).Inafutileattempttoresolvethatdebtandgainfirmerfootingintheglobaleconomy,localcommunitiesindebtornations“harvest[ed]moretrees,mine[d]morematerials,drill[ed]formoreoil,andgenerallydeplete[d]theirnaturalresourcesatexponentiallyhigherrates”(Dawson62).Thisuglycyclecontinuestoday.Ecosystemsaredestroyedintheprocessand,alongsidethem,thefuturesofhumancommunities.AsGuhaandMartinez-Alierputit:“Economictime”inpostcolonialandeconomicallydisadvantagednations“isquickerthanbiologicaltime”(40).Whatthismeansis“therateofresourceextraction”outstripsthatofnaturalreplenishment.Naturecannotkeepupwithindustrialcapitalismand,asresult,poorcommunitiesanddebtornationsfindthemselvesinanincreasinglydisadvantagedandvulnerablepositionintheglobaleconomy.Theyfacegloomyfuturesinwhichtheirlandscapesaredecimatedandtherearenotenoughrawmaterialsuponwhichtosubsist,letaloneprofit.TheseeconomicinequalitiesdonotremainexternaltooratadistancefromthoselivingintheUnitedStates.AsSilentSpringillustrates,industrialcapitalismisaliveandwellathome.PerhapsnophenomenondemonstratesthispointmorestronglythantheUnitedFarmWorkers’(UFW)fightforunionrepresentation,betterworkplaceconditionsandpesticideregulation.ThisfighttranspiredalongsideandlongafterthepublicationandreceptionofSilentSpring.ItwasnotpartofthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement’sconcerns.TheUFW’sstrugglethusprovidesessentialcontextforunderstandingCarson’stextandthecomplicatedrelationshipbetweentheAmericanenvironmentalmovementandissuesofenvironmentaljustice.AroundthetimethatSilentSpringwaspublished,theMexican-AmericanlaborrightsactivistCesarChavezgatheredfarmworkerstogethertodiscussthepossibilityofstrikingagainstagribusiness.“Agribusiness,”accordingtoPulido,“isasetofinstitutions,businesses,andpracticesdevotedtoproducingagriculturalcommoditiesinahighlyindustrializedandscientificfashion”(73).Agribusiness—alsocalledbigagriculture—dependedandcontinuestodependheavilyonchemicalcontrols,suchasinsecticides,andacheap,“highlyexploited”laborforce(Pulido64).WorkerslikeChavez“sufferedfromlowwages,harshworkingconditions,unsteadyemployment,andlowstatus,whichinturntranslatedintominimalpower”(Pulido64).Theharshworkingconditionstowhichfarmworkersweresubjectincludedclose,prolongedexposuretoinsecticidesandotherpoisonouschemicals.Butthe“federalgovernmentdidlittletoprotectworkers”andthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementlargelyignoredtheirconcerns,focusinginsteadonwildernessconservation(Pulido74).Inresponse,migrantfarmworkersorganizedtheUnitedFarmWorkerslaborunion.Theylobbiedagainst“thecapitalistagribusinessstructure,”whichtreatedworkersas“faceless”anddisposable,andwhichtookadvantageofworkers’“disempowered”positionality—thefactthatworkerswere“poor”and“primarilypeopleofcolor”(O’Loughlin155and156).AsChavezputit:“I’msureIdon’thavetotellyouthatfarmworkersarethepoorestworkersinAmerica”(qtd.inO’Loughlin156).Itisimportanttoemphasize,here,thatweshouldnotandcannotcreditSilentSpringwithinspiringChavezandothermigrantfarmworkerstoorganizeagainstagribusinessand,byextension,thewidespreaduseofpesticides.Farmworkers’concernspredatedthepublicationofSilentSpring,



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remainedunaccountedforinmainstreamAmericanenvironmentalreform,andmadeaudibleanon-mainstreamenvironmentalmovementthatwasfocusedexplicitlyonquestionsofenvironmentaljustice—onhowenvironmentaldegradationproducesandexacerbatesinequalityonthebasisofrace,classandgender.WhatwecansayabouttherelationshipbetweenSilentSpringandtheUFWisthatCarsonhelpedtheUFW’scauseinsofarasshefomentedanewenvironmentalawarenessuponwhichtheUFWcouldcapitalize.Carsonpopularizedanecologicalworldviewinwhichspaceslikethehomeor“theworkplace”werereconfiguredas“partof”ratherthanseparateordistinctfromnature(O’Loughlin150-1).Thisworldviewalsomadevisiblehow“[h]ealth,inthefaceofpesticideuse,isanissuethattranscendssocialboundariesandprovidesauniquespaceforcommunicationandcoalition”(O’Loughlin149).Iftopoisonwateranywhereistopoisonwatereverywhere—iftoexposeworkerstopesticide-treatedcropsistoexposeconsumerstopesticide-treatedproduce—thentheUFW’sconcernswereoneandthesameastheAmericansuburbanite’s.WhentheUFWorganizedaseriesofboycottsagainstpesticide-treatedproduce,suchasgrapes,thiswastheirmessage.TheboycottwasaparticularlyeffectiveformofpoliticalactionbecauseitallowedtheUFW“toconnecttheoppressionoffarmworkerstothehealthconcernsofgrapeconsumers”(O’Loughlin147),“tounifyconsumerandlaborer’(O’Loughlin151),toconnecttheenvironmentalandhealthconsequencesofproductiontotheactsofbuyingandconsuming.Thus,UFWmaterialspromotingtheboycottaskedquestionslike:“WhatDoYouandaFarmWorkerhaveinCommon?”(qtd.inO’Loughlin151).Theanswer:“ExposuretoPoisonousChemicals!”(qtd.inO’Loughlin151).SilentSpringisoftencreditedwiththeeventualbanningofDDTintheUnitedStates,butthisisonlyhalfthestory.ItwastheUFWwho“gotthefirstbansonDDT,DDE,andDieldrininstitutedinUFW-contractedfields”(O’Loughlin162).IfSilentSpringdemandedsciencebecomeaccountabletocitizensandnotindustry(atopicexploredatlengthinUnit5),theUFW’seffortstoregulatepesticideusedemonstratehowtheplightofmigrantfarmworkerswascompoundedbygapsinscientificknowledge.Scholarshaveshownthatthehealthandenvironmentalconcernsofmarginalizedcommunitiesare“leastlikelytoattractsustainedscientificinquiryintocauses,effects,andpotentialredress”(Nixon16).Thiswasthecaseformigrantfarmworkersinpartbecauseofwhatsciencedidnotyetunderstandaboutpesticideexposure.PatriciaHynesnotesthat“pesticidepoisoningwasrarelyrecognizedbyphysicianswhentheysawit”andthus“oftenwentuntreated”(122).Makingmattersworsewasthat“therewasnorequirementthatitbereported”(Hynes122-3).Ittookpractitionersofsciencesometimetofullyunderstandhow,“aslaboringbodiestransformedtheorchardthroughpruning,picking,planting,andspraying,theorchardtransformedthosesamebodies,ofteninlessvisible,butnolessmaterialways”(Nash207).Therelativelynewfieldofoccupationalhealth,forexample,putan“emphasisondiscreteboundaries”betweenbodiesandenvironment,assumingthey“wereseparateentitiesandthatbothcouldbebounded,monitored,andregulated”(Nash219).Incontrast,theecologicalinterconnectionsatissueinSilentSpringmadevisiblehow“thebodiesofmiddle-classconsumersandfarmlaborers”alikewere“open,porous,andincreasinglyatrisk”(Nash218).Yet,whilebothsuburbaniteandlaborerwereporous,theirvulnerabilitytoriskwasunequal.Thefarmworker’spotentialforexposurewasmuchhigherthanthesuburbanite’sasaresultofthepotentialforoccupationalpoisoning.Thisriskwassometimesintensifiedbythekindsofquestionsscienceasked(orfailedtoask).“From1901untilthe1970s,”accordingtoLindaNash,concernsabouttheagriculturalconsequencesofpesticideuse“layprimarilywiththeefficacyofpesticidesratherthantheireffectsonhumanhealth”(206).Whentheseconcernsdidfocusonhumanhealth,theywereoftenconcentrated



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onthequestionof“ingestion”ortheassumptionthatchemicalswould“enterthebodythroughawell-definedandsingularpathway,themouth”(Nash215).Butfarmworkers’“exposureswereobviouslynotconfinedtoasinglepathway”(Nash215).Forinstance,pesticidesmightenterthebodyasreadilythroughtheskinasthemouth.Furthercontributingtotheinvisibilityoffarmworkers’vulnerabilitieswas“aracializeddiscourseofhygiene”thatassumedthe“bodiesofworkers”were“impureorsubstandard”andwhichassertedthatfarmworkers’lackofeducationmadethemsusceptibletoallkindsofdisease”(Nash216).Here,wecanseehowtheslowviolenceofDDT—itscapacitytoremainhiddenawayinthebodyandthusinvisible,aswellashowsuchslowpoisoningobscurestherelationshipbetweencauseandeffect—wasmoreconsequentialforsomecommunitiesthanforothers.UntiltheUFWorganizedwidespreadboycottsthatunifiedworkerandconsumer,theconcernsofmarginalizedcommunitiesremainedlargely“outofsightoutofmind”(Nixon20).AndevenafterthepublicationofSilentSpring,peopleofcolorandthepoorhadtofightforrepresentationinthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementandpolitics.AsSilentSpringshows,inequality,economicsandenvironmentareinthiswaydeeplyintertwined.Thiscontinuestobethecase:incontemporarypoliticaldiscourseenvironmentalconcernsareoftenjuxtaposedwitheconomicones.Thosewhostandagainstenvironmentalregulation,forinstance,arguethatitburdensthefreemarket,impedingeconomicgrowthandlimitingconsumerchoice.Atthesametime,somebelievethatthefreemarketmightbeachampionofenvironment.Ifthe“solution[s]”toglobalenvironmentalcriseslikespesticidetoxicityand“globalwarming”require“changeinour”industrialand“energytechnologies,”perhapsthefreemarketisthatwhich“willproducethosetechnologiesfreely,oftheirownaccord”(OreskesandConway256).MichaelBloomberg,formerMayorofNewYorkCityandcurrentbusinessexecutive,recentlyarguedthispoint.Hebelievesthatenvironmentally-mindedtechnologicalchangeisasgoodforbusinessasitisfortheenvironment.Inaddition,herecentlyannouncedanewinitiativethatbringstogetherelectedofficials,businessesandcitizenstoensuretheUnitedStatesmeetstheemissionsreductionstowhichithadformerlyagreedaspartoftheParisclimateaccords.Others,however,disagreewithBloomberg.Theyarguethepreciseopposite:thatmarket-drivenreformreinforcestheproblematicdoublethinkofmainstreamAmericanenvironmentalism—theideathatenvironmentalreformandconsumerismcancoexistwithoutconflict.Theseskepticsalsoquestionwhetherthefreemarket’straditionalmodesofassessment—suchas“cost-benefitanalysis”—arecapableoffullyaccountingforandrespondingeffectivelytoenvironmentalcrisiswhen,forinstance,there“isnoobjectivewayofpricing”thelossof“biodiversity,climatestability,andwetlands”(Purdy45).Howdowe“price”orprovideaneconomicreckoningofan“aestheticallyimpoverished”world?(OreskesandConway259).Ifweassessenvironmentaldegradationinstrictlyeconomicterms—inmonetary,numericalform—howdoweavoidmaking“theerrorofthinkingthatthingsthatcan’tbecounteddon’tcount”(OreskesConway259)?Bywhatmeanswouldwebeabletorecognizethevalueof“[a]rareflowermaybebeautiful”ifitsutility—“itscontributiontoatmosphericoxygen”—isinsignificant(OreskesandConway259)?SilentSpringarguesforcefullythatthelandscapeprovidesessentialanddefinitivelyaestheticsourcesofnourishment,aswellascriticalformsofculturalheritagewhoselossisincrediblyconsequentialbutnotnecessarilycountable.Whetherfreemarket-environmentalismcanaccountforsuchheritageisanopenquestion.Andthenthereistheproblemofwhateconomistscallexternalities.Externalitiesarelossesthatoccuroutsidethefreemarketandthusare“notmeasuredbymarketprices”(GuhaandMartinez-Alier41).Inotherwords,theyremainwhollyunaccountedforincost-benefitanalysis.Aperfectexampleof



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externalityisonewithwhichreadersofthisguidearealreadyfamiliar:toxicdumping.Inthisscenario,dangerouschemicalwastethatisthebyproductofindustrialenterpriseis“offload[ed]ontoothers”whodonotbenefitfromsuchenterprise—inthiscase,peopleofcolor,andtheurbanandruralpoor.Offloading,inotherwords“impose[s]”industrialwaste“onpeoplewhodidnotchoose”orbenefitfrom“thegoodorservice”ofwhichitisabyproduct(OreskesandConway237).Offloadingtherebypermitsthosewhodoenjoythebenefitsofsuchgoodsandservicestodosowithoutexperiencingortakingresponsibilityfortheirenvironmentalhazards(Purdy17).Butwhathappenswhenthereisnoexternalityor,rather,nocapacitytoexternalizeenvironmentalloss?TheecologicalworldviewofSilentSpringillustrateshowthatwhich“economicanalysistreatsasanexternality”—thatwhich“isinvisibleinmarkettransactions”—isinfacttheentire“globethathousesalleconomicactivity”(Purdy18).Toputitanotherway:SilentSpringarguesthatthereisnoescapingtheglobeanditsecologicalinterconnectivity.Understoodinenvironmentalterms,theactofoffloading,then,isimpossible—andtheveryconceptofexternalitycannotexist—foriftopoisonwatersomewhereistopoisonwatereverywherethenwhatthefreemarketfoistsontosomeoneelsewilleventuallycomefullcircle.Someenvironmentaliststhusarguethatnotonlycanthefreemarketnotsaveusfromenvironmentalcrisis,butalsothatenvironmentalreformbeginswitheconomicregulation.Ifthefreemarket“mustexpandatanever-increasingrateorgointocrisis,”andiftheglobethatcontainsandfuelsthefreemarketisafiniteresource,thenenvironmentalcrisisiseconomiccrisis(Dawson13).Thefreemarket,inotherwords,risksrunningoutofspaceforexpansionandoffloading—processesthatarecriticaltoitscontinuedoperation.ThisiswhyImmanuelWallersteinwarnsthatsoontherewillbe“nozonesintowhichfactoriescanrunaway”(81).Wearecurrentlycomingtogripswiththeveryreal“potentialexhaustion”notonlyofresourcesbutalso“dumpinggrounds”(Wallerstein81).If“purchaser[s]ofrawmaterials”continuetoberelatively“uninterested”intheproblemof“long-runavailability”and“sellers”remain“notoriouslyreadytosubordinatelong-runviabilitytoshort-rungains,”theglobaleconomyrisksproliferatingenvironmentaldegradationand,intheprocess,producingitsowncollapse(Wallerstein81).InsofarasSilentSpringrevealedhowpollutionwasasmuchaglobalasalocalproblem—insofarasitmadevisibleecologicalnetworksofinterrelationthatrenderedtheconceptofoffloadinganoxymoronandthenotionofexternalityanimpossibility—it“acknowledge[d]thesoftunderbellyoffreemarketcapitalism,”orthelimitsofassessingenvironmentalcrisisineconomicterms(OreskesandConway237).Thetextinthiswayanticipatestheunsettledrelationshipbetweenfreemarketenterpriseandenvironmentalprotectioninourcontemporarymoment.CLOSEREADINGThisandmanyotherpassagesinSilentSpringhighlighthowglobalecologycomplicatesorevennegatestheconceptofexternalityorthepossibilityofoffloading.Studentsmightusethispassagetoconsiderhowecologicalmodelsofgloballifeunsettleorcompelustorethinkotherglobalsystemsandnetworks(suchasthefreemarketeconomy).

Themostalarmingofallman’sassaultsupontheenvironmentisthecontaminationofair,earth,rivers,andseawithdangerousandevenlethalmaterials.Thispollutionisforthemostpartirrecoverable;thechainofevilitinitiatesnotonlyintheworldthatmustsupportlifebutinlivingtissuesisforthemostpartirreversible.Inthisnowuniversalcontaminationoftheenvironment,chemicalsarethesinisterandlittle-recognizedpartnersofradiationinchangingtheverynatureoftheworld—theverynatureofitslife.Strontium90,releasedthroughnuclearexplosionsintotheair,comestoearthinrainordriftsdownas



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fallout,lodgesinsoil,entersintothegrassorcornorwheatgrownthere,andinnotimetakesupitsabodeinthebonesofahumanbeing,theretoremainuntilhisdeath.Similarly,chemicalssprayedoncroplandsorforestsorgardenslielonginsoil,enteringintolivingorganisms,passingfromonetoanotherinachainofpoisoninganddeath…AsAlbertSchweitzerhassaid,‘Mancanhardlyevenrecognizethedevilsofhisowncreation.’(6)

Occasionally,Carsontakesuptheeconomiclanguageandlogicofbigindustrytofurtherherownargumentsforprioritizingenvironmentalprotectionandcurtailingindustrialization.Studentsmightconsiderthisrhetoricaltacticanditsefficacyusingthefollowingpassages.

Thechemicalweedkillersareabrightnewtoy.Theyworkinaspectacularway;theygiveagiddysenseofpowerovernaturetothosewhowieldthem…The“agriculturalengineers”speakblithelyof“chemicalplowing”inaworldthatisurgedtobeatitsplowsharesintosprayguns.Thetownfathersofathousandcommunitieslendwillingearstothechemicalsalesmanandtheeagercontractorswhowillridtheroadsidesof“brush”—foraprice.Itischeaperthanmowing,theycry.So,perhaps,itappearsintheneatrowsoffiguresintheofficialbooks;butwerethetruecostsentered,thecostsnotonlyindollarsbutinthemanyequallyvaliddebitsweshallpresentlyconsider,thewholesalebroadcastingofchemicalswouldbeseentobemorecostlyindollarsaswellasinfinitelydamagingtothelong-rangehealthofthelandscapeandtoallthevariedintereststhatdependonit.(68-9)

Reportsoffishkills…havebecomesocommonthattheUnitedStatesPublicHealthServicehassetupanofficetocollectsuchreportsfromthestatesasanindexofwaterpollution.Thisisaproblemthatconcernsagreatmanypeople.Some25millionAmericanslooktofishingasamajorsourceofrecreationandanother15millionareatleastcasualanglers.Thesepeoplespendthreebilliondollarsannuallyforlicenses,tackle,boats,campingequipment,gasoline,andlodgings.Anythingthatdeprivesthemoftheirsportwillalsoreachoutandaffectalargenumberofeconomicinterests.Thecommercialfisheriesrepresentsuchaninterest,andevenmoreimportantly,anessentialsourceoffood…theinvasionofstreams,ponds,rivers,andbaysbypesticidesisnowathreattobothrecreationalandcommercialfishing.(139-140)

DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS

• Whataresomeexamplesofdoublethinkinyoureverydaylife?Whataresomethingsthatyourteachersorfamiliestellyouthatarecontradictory?Whatarethingsthatyoutellyourselfthatareexamplesofdoublethink?Intermsofenvironmentaldoublethink,howdoyouthinkAmericannostalgiaplaysintoourabilitytoaltertheenvironmentwhileatthesametimevenerateit?Whatotheremotionsplayintoourabilitytoperformdoublethink?

• ArethereecologicalexemptionzonesintheU.S.?Ifso,where?Doesyourcityortownseemlikesuchazoneandwhy?Howhastheideaofthesezoneschangedwiththeincreasingoccurrenceofnaturaldisasters,suchashurricanes?


• Havestudentsmaptheofficiallandscapeversusthevernacularlandscapeofyourcityortown.Somegroupsmayfocusonfoodsystems,whileothersonnaturalareas.Aretherefooddeserts?Aretherepublicparksorareasofconservation?Usedigitaltools,drawing,photos,etc.



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• Havestudentsresearchtheeconomicandlaborpathwayofafoodoftheirchoosing.Forexample,asoybean.Wherewasthisproductfirstcreatedand/orgeneticallymodified?Whereisitgrownandwhatchemicalsareusedtotreatit?Whoworksonthefarmsthatgrowthisproduct?Whatisthisproductalsousedfor?Whatdoessocietyneedtoinvestintermsoflaborandlandinordertosustainthegrowthofthisfood?Whogetsaccesstothisfoodandwhodoesnot?

• HavestudentsresearchtheDelanograpestrikeinCaliforniain1965.Whoweretheparticipatingunionsrepresentedinthestrike?Whatweretheyprotestingandwhatdidthisrevealabouttheownershipoffoodandlandintheagriculturalsystem?Whatweretherightsoftheworkersversustherightsofthecompaniesthathiredthemandcontrolledtheland?



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OBJECTIVE:ToexplorehowSilentSpringinvokesgenderedconceptionsofnatureforrhetoricalpurposes;thewayssexismshapedCarson’scareerandthereceptionofSilentSpring,andhowCarsondrewon1960swomen’snetworkstofurtherhercause;andtheconnectionsbetweenCarson’spersonalbattlewithbreastcancerandtheecologicalworldviewshehelpedpopularize.PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADINGBirkeland,Janis.“Ecofeminism:LinkingTheoryandPractice.”Ecofeminism:Women,Animals,Nature.Ed.

GretaGaard.TempleUniversityPress,1993.13-59.Bonneuil,ChristopheandJean-BaptisteFressoz.TheShockoftheAnthropocene:TheEarth,Historyand


AmericanCulture.HarvardUniversityPress,1996.Dawson,Ashley.Extinction:ARadicalHistory.ORBooks,2016.Gaard,Greta.“LivingInterconnectionswithAnimalsandNature.”Ecofeminism:Women,Animals,

Nature.Ed.GretaGaard.TempleUniversityPress,1993.1-12.Herron,JohnP.ScienceandtheSocialGood:Nature,Culture,andCommunity,1865-1965.Oxford

UniversityPress,2009.Hynes,Patricia.TheRecurringSilentSpring.Pergamon,1989.Lahar,Stephanie.“Roots:RejoiningNaturalandSocialHistory.”Ecofeminism:Women,Animals,Nature.

Ed.GretaGaard.TempleUniversityPress,1993.91-117Lear,Linda.“Introduction.”SilentSpring.HoughtonMifflin,2002.x-xix.——.RachelCarson:WitnessforNature.MarinerBooks,1997.Merchant,Carolyn.TheDeathofNature:Women,Ecology,andtheScientificRevolution.HarperOne,

1990.Mies,MariaandVandanaShiva.Ecofeminism.ZedBooks,2014.Nixon,Rob.SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor.HarvardUniversityPress,2013.Norwood,Vera.MadeFromThisEarth:AmericanWomenandNature.UniversityofNorthCarolina

Press,1993.Patterson,JamesT.GrandExpectations:TheUnitedStates,1945-1974.OxfordUniversityPress,1997.Purdy,Jedediah.AfterNature:APoliticsfortheAnthropocene.HarvardUniversityPress,2015.Sideris,LisaH.andKathleenDeanMoore.“Introduction.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.Lisa

H.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.1-15.Sideris,LisaH.“TheEcologicalBody:RachelCarson,SilentSpring,andBreastCancer.”RachelCarson:

LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.136-48.

Smith,Michael.“‘Silence,MissCarson!’:Science,Gender,andtheReceptionofSilentSpring.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.168-87.

Williams,Raymond.Keywords:AVocabularyofCultureandSociety.OxfordUniversityPress,1976.Williams,TerryTempest.“OnePatriot.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.Siderisand

KathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.16-28.

UNIT4•NATURE,SEXISM,FEMINISM



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UNITORGANIZATIONThisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“FemaleNature&theEcologyofDomesticity”;“Sexism,Science,Activism”;and“ThePersonalisPolitical.”Eachofthesesub-sectionsdevelopspointsforuseinlecture,followedbysuggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.FEMALENATURE&THEECOLOGYOFDOMESTICITYThroughoutSilentSpring,Carsonusesthewords“man”and“mankind”toidentifytheagentresponsiblefortheenvironmentaldestructiontowhichsheobjects.Thesemightseemlikeneutralorstraighforwardwords,buttheyarenot.ReadersofUnits2&3willalreadyrecognizetheanthropocentrismandfalsepromiseofanundifferentiatedhumanitytheyimply.Suchwordsareusedtocordonoffparticularhumancommunitiesfromthecategoryofthehumannotonlyonthebasisofrace,ethnicity,nationalityandsocioeconomicstatus,butalsoonthebasisofsexandgender.ThatCarsonunderstands“man”ormentobeprimarilyresponsibleforwidespreadenvironmentaltoxicityisespeciallyapparentwhenshereferstonatureasfemale:“Natureherselfhasmetmanyoftheproblemsthatnowbestus,andshehasusuallysolvedtheminherownsuccessfulway.WheremanhasbeenintelligentenoughtoobserveandtoemulateNaturehe,too,isoftenrewardedwithsuccess”(81).SilentSpringisatextthatdemonstratesthepowerofthepronounandoftheclosestofclosereadings.Here,wordsasseeminglycommonplaceas“mankind”andastrivialas“he”or“her”containwithinthementirehistoriesofthinkingaboutenvironmentandpossessseriousimplications.TheyinvoketraditionsofimaginingnatureasthefemaleOtherofmanand,insodoing,theyshowhownature’s“manypoliticalmeaningsandalliances”provokenotonlyquestionsofraceorcapitalbutalsoofsex(Purdy21).Toseehowthemale/femaledividemapsontothatofculture/nature,let’sfirsttakeacloserlookattheword“man.”AsdiscussedinUnits2&3,“man”designates“thewholehumanrace,thehumanspeciesormankind”(Williams158).It“assume[s]”a“commoncondition”thatmight“beexpressedinthesamesingularform”regardlessofhistoricalorculturalspecificity(Williams159).Itdoesnottakenotice,inotherwords,ofthedifferencesbetweenhumanindividualsorcommunities,orbetweendifferentplacesandmomentsintime,butinsteadlumpsthemallintooneundifferentiatedcategory.When“man”doestakenoticeofsuchdifference,itisusuallytoexcludethosewhodonotconformtothewhite,male,heterosexualnormsitconnotes.Thus,RaymondWilliamsnotesthat“[t]heidentityofman(human)withman(male)haspersistedinEnglishlongerthaninmostEuropeanlanguages”(158)andcontainswithinitarangeof“assumptions”that“arenowembeddedinthelanguage”(159).Italsoexpressesaparticularrelationshipbetweenhumankindandthenaturalworld,emphasizing“human-self-development”orthenotionthat“ManMakesHimself”(Williams159).ChristopheBonneuilandJean-BaptisteFressozstressthissamepoint,describing“man”asan“autonomousagentactingconsciouslyonhishistoryandsettlingsocialconflictsbydominatingnature”(19).Thislimitednotionofthehumanisonethatfeministsoftentracebacktotheriseofmodernscienceasanempirical,objective,distantmodeofunderstanding.MariaMiesandVandanaShiva,forinstance,arguethat“thefathersofmodernscienceandtechnology”helpedtoestablishatypeof“rationality”thatwasdistinctly“Western”inthatitpositedthenaturalworldasapassiveobjectthatwould,undersystematicscrutiny,giveitssecretsuptothewhite,male,Europeansubject(18).AccordingtoMiesandShiva,“theWest’sparadigmofscience”andevenitsvery“conceptoffreedom”garnerspowerfrom“thesubordinationofnaturetothe(male)will”(18).Thus,JanisBirkelandandmanyothershave“explore[d]thelinks



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betweenandrocentrism”—theideathattheworldcirculatesaroundandexiststosatisfymen—“andenvironmentaldestruction”(18).Theconnectionbetween“man(human)withman(male)”(Williams158)goeshandinhandwiththatbetweenwomenandnature,anditisforthisreasonthatmanyfeministsareconcernedwiththeverysamekindsofenvironmentaldestructionasCarsonisinSilentSpring.Inherfoundationalstudyoftheearlymodernscientificrevolution(thinkCopernicus,GalileoandSirIsaacNewton)andgenderedtheoriesofnature,CarolynMerchantexploreshow“[w]omenandnaturehaveanage-oldassociation”(xv).Thisassociation“linkswomen’shistorywiththehistoryoftheenvironment”(xvi).Wecannotfullyunderstandtheonewithouttakingtheotherintoaccountandviceversa.Centraltothishistoryisthetraditionofpersonifyingnatureasfemale.Perhapstheoldestandmost“persistentpersonification”isthatof“Naturethegoddess”andthecorollaryconceptionof“MotherNature”(Williams166).These“mythicalabstraction[s]”wereoftenjuxtaposed“withanothersingularall-powerfulforce,namelyamonotheisticGod”orthesexedandincreasinglypowerful“force”ofMan(Williams167).Inthisformulation,Godand,later,Manwasenvisionedas“primaryandNatureashisministerordeputy”(Williams167).Yet,theresoonaroseasecond,terrifyingpersonificationofNature“asanabsolutemonarch”whose“powerofnaturalforces”exceededhumanunderstandingandcontrol:heractionswere“apparentlyarbitraryorcapricious…withinevitable,oftendestructiveeffectsonmen”(Williams167).Merchantoutlineshowthisnewsenseofnatureas“adisorderlyandchaoticrealmtobesubduedandcontrolled”tookholdalongsidethebeginningsofscienceaswenowknowittoday(127).FrancisBacon—afatherofmodernscienceandpioneerofthescientificmethod—“advocat[ed]thecontrolofnatureforhumanbenefit”andemployed“femaleimagery”todoso(Merchant165).AtthetimeofBacon’swriting,womenwerebeingtriedandpunishedinswathesforwitchcraft,acrimethatsymbolized“theviolenceofnature”insofarasitwasbelievedtohave“raisedstorms,causedillness,destroyedcrops,obstructedgeneration,andkilledinfants”(Merchant127).Woman,likenature,wasdisorderlyandinneedofmanagement.Bacon’suseoffemaleimagerywasrhetoricallyeffectivebecauseitdrewtogethertheproblemsofnatureandofwoman:“Thenewimageofnatureasafemaletobecontrolledanddissectedthroughexperimentlegitimatedtheexploitationofnaturalresources”(Merchant189).ThesanctityofMotherEarthgavewaytoarationaleforthenecessary“denudation”andexploitationofnatureasadisorderlywoman(Merchant189).Thenature/culturedivide(whichisdiscussedindepthinUnit2)wasinthiswayprofoundlyconsequential.Itestablishedandnaturalizedalinkbetweenwomenandnaturethatwasthenemployednotonlytojustifytheexploitationofnaturalresourcesandnonhumanlife,butalsotoestablishedsystemsofsocialinequality.Thus,MichaelSmithnotesthat“[t]hequesttodominatethefemalenatureparalleledandreinforcedtheculturaltrendtowardtheincreasedsubordinationofwomeninsociety”(170).Women,likenature,wereimaginedasthelesserOthersofmankind.Asobjectsinneedofmanagementandcontrol,theywereandoftencontinuetobe“depriv[ed]”ofautonomyover“theirbodies”(Dawson52).SilentSpringshows,forinstance,howmanypeoplewereunknowinglyand/orunwillinglyexposedtochemicalpoisons—aproblemthataffectedreproductiveorgansandprocesses,andthusimpactedthelivesofwomen,inuniqueways.Forthisreason,manyfeminists“believethatwecannotendtheexploitationofnaturewithoutendinghumanoppression,andviceversa”(Birkeland19).Thesefeminists—oftencalledecofeminists—believe“thattheideologywhichauthorizesoppressionssuchasthosebasedonrace,class,gender,sexuality,physicalabilities,andspeciesisthesameideologywhichsanctionstheoppressionofnature”(Gaard1).Theyargue,too,thatthemale/femaleandnature



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/culturedivideshave“dividedandfragmentedknowledge”suchthatthevoicesofwomen,peopleofcolor,thepoor,non-specialistsandothersarediscountedoraltogethersilenced(MiesandShiva23).Thesedividesarethusmarshaledbythoseinpowerto“exclud[e]otherknowersandotherwaysofknowing,”whowouldtellverydifferentstoriesabouttherelationshipbetweenhumankind,nature,andsocialinequality(MiesandShiva23).Forthisreason,ecofeministswarnagainst“thehabitsofdualisticthoughtthatseparatehumansocietyfromnature”andmalefromfemale(Lahar96).AsStephanieLaharobserves:“Dualisticthinkingguidesusintopolaritiesinthinking”(109)thatarenowingrainedinthewayweunderstand“theworldaroundus”andourrelationshiptoit(96).Ecofeministsarguethatwemustrememberandbevigilantinmakingvisiblehowthedualismsofnature/cultureandmale/femaleareconstructed—howtheyarecreatedordersthatnaturalizethedominanceofsomeandtheoppressionofothers.“[I]tistheresultingimbalancethatecofeminismseekstoredress”anditisbythinkingacrossseeminglydistincthistoriesofoppression—suchasthoseofnatureandofwomen—thatwedevelopanuancedunderstandingofthat“imbalance”andits“redress”(Birkeland24).ThisispreciselywhatCarsondoes,howeversubtly,whenshedescribestheoriginsofenvironmentaltoxicityinmasculineterms—aswroughtbymanormankind—andthevictimofthistoxicity—nature—asawomanwhopossessesotherandperhapsmoreusefulwaysofknowingandacting.Carsonwrites:“Natureherselfhasmetmanyoftheproblemsthatnowbesetus,andshehasusuallysolvedtheminherownsuccessfulway”(81).Thus,LawrenceBuellarguesthat“[a]subtlebutfirmcritiqueofhomocentrism,moreparticularlyacritiqueof‘man,’runsthroughoutall[Carson’s]work”(292).Hecontinues:“Womanisrarely,ifever,nature’sadversaryinCarson’swork,but‘man’oftenis”(292).ButevenasCarsoncritiquesthenature/culturedivideanditssexedimplications,sheinvokesitforotherrhetoricalpurposes.Asalreadymentionedbriefly,thenature/culturedividehelpedtonaturalizeahierarchicalrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenand,byextension,anessentialistsystemofsocialnorms.Here,“essentialist”referstotheideathatparticulargroupsofpeople—suchasmenandwomen—possessintrinsicallydifferentdispositionsand,byextension,socialroles.Anexample:“Becausewomen’sphysiologicalfunctionsofreproduction,nurture,andchildrearingareviewedasclosertonature,theirsocialroleislowerontheculturalscalethanthatofthemale”(Merchant144).ThiswasespeciallytrueatthetimeofCarson’swriting,whenwomenweretaskedwiththeresponsibilitiesofhomemakingandchildcaresothatmencouldpursuecareersoutsideofthehome.AsVeraNorwoodnotes:“ThemiddledecadesofthetwentiethcenturyhavebeendescribedassomeofthemostrabidlyrestrictiveinAmericanwomen’shistory”(144).Whilewetendtoimaginewomen’srightsasmakingslowbutsteadyprogressoverthecourseofthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,itturnsoutthat“theideologicalseparationofroles”inthe1960s“wasperhapsmorerigidthanthatofthemid-nineteenthcentury”(Norwood144).While“[m]endominatedthepublicsphere,”womenwereconfinedtothehome,“aplaceofretreatfromactivity,astaticzoneinalandscapeofendlesschange”(Norwood144).Womendid,ofcourse,workmorethaneverbeforeinthedecadesfollowingtheGreatWars,but“theirjobswereperceivedtobesecondarytotheirroleashomemaker”(Norwood144).Moreover,theprofessionalworkthatwasavailabletothemwasdecidedlylimited:“Most[women]werepigeonholedintosuchtraditionalfemalevocationsasteaching,librarianship,andhomeeconomics”(Norwood144).Evenaswomanscientistworkingingovernment,Carsonwasasmuchtheruleastheexceptiontoit.Shewassubjectedtopreciselythiskindofsex-segregation.FollowingWorldWarII,“Carsonwantedto‘getintosomeworkthathadmoreimmediatevalueinrelationtothewar,’”



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butwasinsteadassignedto“wr[i]teaseriesofpamphletsonproperdietandnutritioninatimeofrestrictedfoodavailability”(Herron163).Tohersuperiors,thistaskseemedespeciallyappropriateforawomannaturalscientist—itannounceditselfmorereadilyaswomen’swork.Ifthiswaswomen’swork,Carsondidthejobinawaythattranscendedthesearbitrarylimitations.Whilethetopicsoffoodandnutritionwere“anextensionofdomesticsphereresponsibilities”—andassuchmeantthat“Carson’sprimaryprojectinvolvedteachingAmericans,especiallyhousewives,howtousefishasasubstituteforrationedmeatandpoultry”(Herron163)—shetookanecologicalapproachtohertask.Insodoing,sherefigured“householdobligations”asbiologicalandpoliticalones(Herron164).By“linkingfoodconservationtothewar,”Carsondrewconnectionsbetweenthedomesticsphereandthebiologicalandecological,aswellasto“publicserviceandpatriotism”(Herron164).Asshedeconstructedthefalsedividesbetweennatureandculture,shetookthespaceofthehomeandtheroleofthehousewifepublic.ThiswasworkshecontinuedinSilentSpring,whoseattentiontopesticidesandtheirall-pervasivereachillustratestheimpossibilityofseparatingouttheotherwiseseeminglydistinctspacesofnature,city,suburb,andhome.Thus,Norwoodarguesthatthe“brilliance”ofSilentSpringisthatit“reach[es]intothesupposedsanctuaryofsuburbanhomes”and,insodoing,reimaginestheplanetas“ashelterwherehumansliveinintimacywithothercreaturesasmembersofahousehold”(151).Ifnatureistobefoundindomesticity,thendomesticityistobefoundinnature.Using“imagerycenteredonhowanimalsmadetheirhomes,”Carsoncapitalizedon“modernwomen’sideasabouthome,”especiallyhowtheseideas“fedintotheirsenseofpersonalresponsibilityasteachersofaproperreverencefornature”(Norwood151).Shealsocapitalizedonherwomenreaders’senseofresponsibilitytothechildrenmanyofthemwereraisingandtoacollectivefuture.Highlightingthe“questionsofhazardstohumanreproduction”andtracingaccumulativepoisoningsthatmovefrommothertochild,“Carsonwarnedherreadersthatthisnewunderstandingofoursharedheritagewithalllifecarriesnewresponsibilitiestofuturegenerations”—responsibilitiesthatmightresonatewithandbearticulatedmostforcefullybywomen(Norwood156).SilentSpringdemonstrateshow“theimpactonwomenofecologicaldisastersanddeterioration”issooften“harderthanonmen”(MiesandShiva).Thetextinthiswaysubjectsthenature/cultureandfemale/maledividestointensecritiquewhileatthesametimeinvokingitrhetoricallytocompelAmericanhousewivestodecisiveaction.CLOSEREADING:Usingthefollowingpassages,closereadCarson’suseofpronouns.Studentsmightjuxtaposethequotationstoexplorethegenderedvalencesofthenature/culturedivide,aswellaswhetherCarsondolesoutresponsibilityforenvironmentalcrisisonthebasisofgender.


Natureherselfhasmetmanyoftheproblemsthatnowbesetus,andshehasusuallysolvedtheminherownsuccessfulway.WheremanhasbeenintelligentenoughtoobserveandtoemulateNaturehe,too,isoftenrewardedwithsuccess.(81)



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ThepassagesbelowshowcaseCarson’sattentiontotheconcernsofwomenandhousewives.Discusshowthesequotationsreimaginemattersofthehome—suchasfoodproductionandconsumption—inecologicalterms,andtakeupthequestionofhowfuturegenerationswillbeaffectedbyenvironmentaltoxicity.

Tothequestion‘Butdoesn’tthegovernmentprotectusfromsuchthings?’theansweris,‘Onlytoalimitedextent.’TheactivitiesoftheFoodandDrugAdministrationinthefieldofconsumerprotectionagainstpesticidesareseverelylimitedbytwofacts.Thefirstisthatithasjurisdictiononlyoverfoodsshippedininterstatecommerce…Thesecondandcriticallylimitingfactisthesmallnumberofinspectorsonitsstaff…ThesystembywhichtheFoodandDrugAdministrationestablishesmaximumpermissiblelimitsofcontamination,called‘tolerances,’hasobviousdefects.(181)[T]oestablishtolerancesistoauthorizecontaminationofpublicfoodsupplieswithpoisonouschemicalsinorderthatthefarmerandprocessormayenjoythebenefitofcheaperproduction—thentopenalizetheconsumerbytaxinghimtomaintainapolicingagencytomakecertainheshallnotgetalethaldoes.Buttodothepolicingjobproperlywouldcostmoneybeyondanylegislator’scouragetoappropriate,giventhepresentvolumeandtoxicityofagriculturalchemicals.Sointheendthelucklessconsumerpayshistaxesbutgetshispoisonsregardless.(183)Inthekaleidoscopeofshiftingconditions,whatdoseofacarcinogencanbe‘safe’exceptazerodose?(239)

Itishardtoexplaintothechildrenthatthebirdshavebeenkilledoff,whentheyhavelearnedinschoolthata

Federallawprotectsthebirdsfromkillingorcapture‘Willtheyevercomeback?’theyask,andIdonothavetheanswer.Theelmsarestilldying,andsoarethebirds.Isanythingbeingdone?Cananythingbedone?CanIdoanything?(103)


• Whatinnaturefeelsconnectedtothefeminine,andwhatseemsmasculine?Dothoseconnectionsaffecthowwetalkaboutnature?Howmightthoseconnectionsaffectthewaysocietymakesdecisionsaboutourenvironment?

• Howisfoodpolitical?Haveyoueverseensomeonejudgeanotherpersonforthewaythattheyeat?Howisfoodtalkedaboutathomeversusinthemediaversusatschool?Inwhatwayshasthewayfoodhasbecomepoliticizedtoday?

• Howdoyoudefinetheword‘man’?Isitascientificterm,asocialterm?Inyourschool,dostudentsstatetheirpronounpreferences?Whatdoyouthinkaboutbeingabletostateandclaimyourgenderidentityversusthegenderyouareperceivedtobe?

SEXISM,SCIENCE,ACTIVISMSilentSpringwasnothingshortofasmashhitwhenitdebutedinJuneof1962.FirstserializedintheNewYorkerandpublishedlaterthatyearasabook,itwaswildlypopular.Readers“floodedtheofficesoftheNewYorkerandHoughtonMifflin”withletters,Carsonwasbombardedbyrequestsfor“interviews,andinvitationsforspeakingengagements,”ittoppedtheNewYorkTimesbest-sellerlist,“[t]heBook-of-the-MonthClubchoseSilentSpringasitsOctoberselection,”andit“drewscientific”aswellaspopular“acclaim”(Herron194).ThemomentinwhichSilentSpringemergedwasamajoroneforliteraryandculturalproduction.JosephHeller’sCatch-22waspublishedin1961,andJamesBaldwin’sTheFireNextTimeandBettyFriedan’sTheFeminineMystiquein1963(Patterson443-4).



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Carsonwasingood,equallyanti-establishmentcompany.ButnoteveryonewasthrilledaboutthecontentofSilentSpring.Thetext“wassubjecttocriticismonmanyfronts”:chemicalcorporationssuedherpublisher,HoughtonMifflin,forlibel,“theMonsantoCorporationpublishedaparodyofSilentSpringtitledthe‘DesolateYear’,”andorganizationsincludingtheAmericanMedicalAssociationandtheDepartmentofAgriculture“attackedSilentSpringasunbalanced,incorrect,andmisinformed”(Herron194-5).Suchcritiquesweremountedtoprotecttheinterestsofscienceandindustry.Acloserlookrevealstheywerealsounmistakablygendered.Thefirstsub-sectionofthisunitbrieflyoutlinedhowthe1960swerea“rabidlyrestrictive”period“inAmericanwomen’shistory”(Norwood144).Thiswasmostcertainlythecasefor“[w]omenwhotriedtocombinehomemakingandcareer”(Patterson362).While“[t]hepercentageofworking-agewomenwhowereinthelaborforcegraduallyincreasedinthe1950s”andthe1960s,theynevertheless“remainedhighlysegregatedinoccupationsdeemedsuitablefortheir‘lesser’talents:assecretaries,waitresses,elementaryschoolteachers,nurses,andothermostlylow-paidmembersofthelaborforce”(Patterson368).Moreover,evenasthenumberofwomenintheprofessionalworkforcewasontherise,“[t]hemedianincomeofwhitefemalefull-timeworkersdecreasedfrom63percentofthemedianformalesin1945to57percentin1973”(Patterson368).Here,wecanseetheculture/natureandmale/femaledividesinaction.Falselyessentializedasnatural-borncaretakers,womenwereexpectedtoprioritizetheirresponsibilitiesasnurturersinandoutsideofthehome—toworkwithinahierarchyofprofessionallaborinwhichtheircontributionswereconsideredlesserthanmen’sandmonetizedassuch.Thesameinequitiesaffectedwomenpursuingdegreesinhighereducation.“Ofthosewomenwhograduated”fromcollege,only“relativelysmallnumberswentonforhigherdegrees”(Patterson367).Thiswas“inpartbecausegraduateandprofessionalschoolshadquotaslimitingthepercentagesofwomentheywouldadmit.Atotalof643womenreceiveddoctoratesin1950,comparedto5,990men.Tenyearslaterthenumberswere1,028forwomenand8,800formen”(Patterson367).Womenfacedprofoundlimitationsinpursuingaformaleducationand,later,professionalcareersthatdidnotconformtotheacceptedsocialrolesofmother,caretaker,nurturer.Perhapsnowhereweretheselimitationsmorevisiblethaninscience,wherethe“divide”betweennatureandculture,aswellasfemaleandmale,“fixedtheutilityofnaturalscience,determinedmembershipintheranksofprofessionalscience,andcoloredourperceptionsofnaturalresourceuse”(Herron10).If“[i]npostwarAmerica”naturewasfemale,then“sciencewasmale”(Lear,“Introduction”xi).Thisisnottosaythatwomendidnotmakesizablegainsinthisarena.“Wartimeservicegavewomenscientistsmany‘firsts’,”butthesesuccesseswerequalifiedby“postwarbarriersthatwereerectedtolimitfemaleparticipationinscience”(Herron177).Overall,“femalescientistswereoftennobetteroffin1930oreven1940thantheywereinthefirstdecadeofthecentury”(Herron162).ItisperhapsunsurprisinginthiscontextthatsomeofCarson’sfacultyadvisorsdiscouragedherfrommajoringinascientificfieldofstudy.AtthePennsylvaniaCollegeforWomen,whereshestudiedasanundergraduate,Carsonencounteredresistancefromfaculty,bothmaleandfemale,who“didnotbelievethatwomenhadtheintellectorthephysicalstaminaforcareersinscience”(Lear,RachelCarson43).Thisnotionwasa“widelysharedculturalnor[m]”anddemonstrateswhy“comparativelyfewwomensucceededinmovingtothefrontranksofscienceinthe1920sand1930s”—thehistoricalmomentduringwhichCarsonwasinvolvedinherstudiesandlaunchedhercareer(Lear,RachelCarson43).HadCarsonnotfoundacommitted,enthusiastic,unwaveringmentorinMaryScottSkinker—anaccomplishednaturalistandteacherofbiologyatthePennsylvaniaCollegeforWomen—shemighthavebypassedamajorin



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scienceandneverwrittenSilentSpring.Skinker’smentorshipofCarson“fittedawell-regardedstrategyamongfemalescientiststhathadbeengoingonsincethelatenineteenthcentury,”wherein[p]ioneeringfemalescientistsonthefacultiesofwomen’scollegesguidedthecareersoftheirbrighteststudents,ensuringtheirsuccessandgroomingtheirprotégéestosucceedthem”(Lear,RachelCarson45).Womenwhohadbrokenthroughtherankslookedoutforandshepherdedthroughtheirfemalesuccessors,attemptingtochangethegenderedcultureofsciencefromtheinsideout.Thiswasslowandarduouswork.Itprovokedmuchresistance.ThefieldofbiologygaveCarsonmorewiggleroomthanotherscientificareasofstudyallowed.Whereas“hard”sciencessuchasphysicsweredeeplyinvolvedinmilitaryandindustrialenterprise,well-fundedandextremelysex-segregated,“soft”sciencessuchasbiologyweremoreaccessibletowomen.Herronobservesthat“[b]iologywasmoreacceptingoffemalepresencethanmostsciences,andduringthe1930sthenumberofwomeninthenaturalsciencesincreased”(162).While“professionalopportunitiesremainedlimited,”womenwereforthefirsttimepermittedtotake“civilserviceexamsforentry-levelscientificpositions”(Herron162).Carsonwasoneofthesewomen.AftergraduatingfromthePennsylvaniaCollegeforWomen,shetookasummercourseattheMarineBiologicalLaboratory(MBL)atWoodsHoleinNewBedford,Massachusetts.WoodsHolewassomewhatunusualinthat“itsorganizersdecidedthatwomenwouldparticipateinthescientificcommunitybothasstudentsandteachers”(Lear,RachelCarson58).Participantsincluded“leadingwomenscientists”and“[w]omenweremembersoftheoriginalboardoftrustees”(Lear,RachelCarson59).AttheMBL,“[f]ormalhierarchywaskeptataminimum”(Lear,RachelCarson59).There,Carson’sinterestsinbiologyandzoologyflourished.Shewentontocompletehermaster’sinzoologyatJohnsHopkinsUniversityandthensatthecivilserviceexams.Basedonherscores,shewashiredasajunioraquaticbiologistwiththeU.S.BureauofFisheries(though,asLearnotes,“shewasqualifiedforahigher-levelappointment”),makingher“oneofonlytwowomenthenemployedinthebureauataprofessionallevel”(RachelCarson82).ThoughCarsonultimatelysecuredagovernmentposition,hercareerfitsapatterninwhich“femalescientistswhodidexcelwerestillblocked”notonlyfromappointmentsbutalsofromtasksthatwereconsidered“men’swork”(Herron162).Itwasbecauseofthispatternof“sex-segregation”thatCarsonendedup“writingshortscriptsforapubliceducationradioprogramonfishbiology”priortoherfull-timeemploymentwiththeBureauofFisheries.Evenaftershesecuredfull-timeemployment,Carson’sdutieswerelargelylimitedtoproducinginformationforanon-specialistaudienceandto“editing,”asopposedtoconducting“fieldworkorlaboratoryresearch”likehermalepeers(Herron163).Thisheldtruefortheremainderofherprofessionalscientificcareer:“evenasshemovedthroughthebureaucraticranks,includingpromotionstoassistantandthenassociateaquaticbiologist,herworkassignmentsremainedinformational”(Herron163).ItseemsnosurpriseinthiscontextthatwhenCarsonfirstbeganwritingherown“freelancearticles”onsomeoftheverysametopicsatissueinSilentSpringshedidsounderapenname:R.L.Carson.Her“hop[e]”was“thatreaderswouldassumethatthewriterwasmaleandthustakeherscienceseriously”(Lear“Introduction”xiii).Frustratedby“thechallengeshefacedasafemalebiologist,”Carsonsaidherselfthatshebelievedherarticles“wouldbemoreeffective...iftheywerepresumablywrittenbyaman”(qtd.inHerron177).Thiswasaproblemshewouldencounteragainandagaininhercareernotonlyasascientistbutalsoasapublicsciencewriter,formagazinewriting—likescience—wasa“male-dominatedfield”(Herron177).Itseemsunsurprising,then,thatmanyreaderswhodislikedSilentSpringattemptedtotarnishthetextbyattackingitsauthor’sgender.Scholarshavewrittenextensivelyabout“[t]hegenderedlanguageused



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todiscreditCarson,”arguingthatitbelieshowshewas“threateningbecauseshewasawoman,anindependentscholarwhosesexandlackofinstitutionaltiesplacedheroutsidethenexusoftheproductionandapplicationofconventionalscientificknowledge”(Smith170and169).Thechemicalindustrywasoneofthefirsttotakeuparmsinthisway.RepresentativesoftheindustryarguedthatCarson’s“argumentswereexaggerationsbornofhysteriaatworstandanoverlysensitivenatureatbest”—ofanunsettled,capricious,irrationaldispositionthatissupposedlycharacteristicallyfemale(LearRachelCarson430).AsLearputsit:“Reasonhadbeensacrificedtosentiment.MissCarsonhadoversteppedherplace”(RachelCarson430).ThreeofthecommonaccusationsleveledagainstCarsonwerethathersciencewasbad,herfamilialanddomesticcommitments(orlackthereof)questionable,andheremotionalappealstheproductofafreneticmind.Sexismpervadesallthreeoftheseclaims.Forinstance,manymenofsciencefoundit“unthinkable”that“awomannotonlyenteredtheirprofessionbutalsocriticizedit”and“respondedbyappealingtothestereotypeofwomenasincapableoftruescientificunderstanding”(Norwood169).Othersquestionedwhyawomanconcernedwiththeimpactofenvironmentaltoxicityonwomen’sbodiesandreproductiveprocesseswasunmarriedandhadnochildrenofherown.Manyofhercriticslabeledhera“spinster”whohadnobusinessconcerningherselfwith“intergenerationalgeneticissues”(Nixon145).“Why,”onecriticcried,“isaspinsterwithnochildrensoconcernedaboutgenetics?SheisprobablyaCommunist”(Nixon145).WhenLifeprofiledCarsonfollowingthepublicationofSilentSpring,themagazineemphasizedthatshewas“unmarriedbutnotafeminist”(qtd.inSmith176).Claimingtoprovide“abalancedassessmentofthewomanandherwork,”theLifeprofilewentonto“impl[y]thatCarson’sunmarriedstatusisitselfanexpressionofsomedeficiency,thatwereshemarriednoneofthiscontroversywouldhavedeveloped,”thathadshe“insteadbeenpracticinghomeeconomicsandrecognizingtheoverwhelmingbenefitsofpesticide-enhancedagriculturalbountyforthekitchen”HurricaneRachel—asthemagazinecalledher—wouldneverhavewreakedhavoconAmericanbookshelvesandindustry(Smith176).EvenmalereviewersfromwhomCarsonreceivedpraiseframedtheirdiscussionofSilentSpringinsexistterms.Many“speculatedaboutwhatawomanwhocouldwritesuchabookmightlooklike”(Lear,RachelCarson206).ApositivereviewpublishedintheNewYorkTimesexpressedadesire“toknowwhatawomanlookslikewhocanwriteaboutanexactingsciencewithsuchbeautyandprecision”andoneofCarson’sown“editors,uponmeetingCarsonafterthebookwaspublished,remarked,‘Youaresuchasurprisetome.Ithoughtyouwouldbeaverylargeandforbiddingwoman’”(LearRachelCarson207).Carson’suseofpathos—heremotionalappealtoreaders—wasespeciallycontroversial,andinspiredvehementcriticism.Manyreviewers“call[ed]heran‘amateur’oramere‘scientificjournalist’,”citingher“emotionalismandhervisionofprogressrootedin‘sentimentalism’ratherthanreality”asevidence(Smith172).Theconsensuswasthat“shewasawomanandshewaschallengingacornerstoneofindustrialcapitalismwithapassionconsideredunbecomingtoascientist”(Smith175).JohnP.Herronsuggeststhat[b]yhighlightinghergenderandheremotionalconnectiontothenaturalworld,Carson’scriticstriedtolessentheimpactofherpoliticalmessageand,moresignificant,separateherfromtheprofessionalrealmofscience”(186-7).ButCarsonfeltnoneedtodefendordenyher“sentimentalism.”Forher,itconstitutedanimportant,valid,supremelyrationalresponsetothedestructionshehadobservedinnature.WritingabouttheaftermathoftheChernobyldisaster,Mieswritesthat“[w]omensawfearandangerasthemostrationalemotions,asthemostpowerfulenergiestobemobilized”(95-6).ThesamemightbesaidaboutCarsonandpollutionbypesticide.TerryTempestWilliamsdescribesCarson’s“spirit”aspossessing“ahealthysenseofindignation”that“shatter[s]thecomplacencythat



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hasseepedintooursociety”—a“sacredrage,aragegroundedintheunderstandingthatalllifeisintertwined”(25).It’sworthnotingthatSilentSpringnotonlyexpressessuchanger,indignationand“sacredrage,”butwasinspiredbyandexistsbecauseofotherwomen’semotionalresponsestoenvironmentaldegradation.AsPatriciaHynestellsit:“CarsonwasmovedtowriteSilentSpringbecauseofapassionatelywrittenletteraboutonesmallcorneroftheworlddestroyed”(55).Thisletter—writtenbyCarson’soldfriend,OlgaOwensHuckins—“expressedonewoman’sanguishatthedestructionofwildlifeinheryard”(Norwood159).InSilentSpring,Carsonroutinely“acknowledgedherdebttosuchwomen”and,intheprocess,“included”andelevated“achorusofwomenwhoexpressedthesamesenseofoutrage,loss,andcalltoactionasHuckins”(Norwood159).Thetextmakesemphaticallyvisiblehow“[w]omenwereoftentheoneswhowrotetonewspapersandappearedatpublichearingsaskingsensitivequestionsaboutwildlifekillsandstressingthevalueofintimatecontactwithnativeplantsandanimals”(Norwood159).Carson“grant[ed]statustotheworriesofordinarycitizens,manyofwhomwerewomen”(Norwood169).Shebyextension“empoweredpeopletoquestiontheauthorityofscientificfiguresingovernmentandindustry,”atopicdiscussedingreaterdetailinUnit5(Norwood169).FollowingthepublicationofSilentSpring,Carsonturnedtowomenagainforhelpassheattemptedtocatalyzeherreaders’outcryintoamovementforchange.Shecalledupon“thepowerfulwomen’snetworksofthe1950s”—upon“women’sclubsandorganizations,”includingtheAmericanAssociationofUniversityWomenandtheGardenClubofAmerica—topromotethemessageofSilentSpringandtotransformitinto“apoliticalagendaarisingfromthecongruenciesbetweenhumanhomesandnature’shousehold”(Norwood147).Carsonrecognizedthat“womenwerepotentiallyapowerfullobby”preciselybecauseof“theirrolesasprotectorsandeducatorsofthenextgeneration”(Norwood155and154).WomenwereCarson’sstrongestsupportersintheearlieststagesofhercareer.TheywouldrisetotheoccasionagainfollowingthepublicationofSilentSpring,whentheybecamesomeoftheenvironmentalmovement’sgreatestchampions.CLOSEREADING:Carsonwasarenegadewitnesswhosecriticsattemptedtodiscreditheronthebasisofgender.AsubstantialportionofSilentSpringisdedicatedtolegitimizingtheexperiencesofwitnesses—manyofwhomwerewomen—normallyexcludedfromdebatesaboutscience,environmentandindustry.StudentsmightusethefollowingpassagestoexploretheseaspectsofCarson’sinterventionandreception.

Thecredibilityofthewitnessisoffirstimportance.Theprofessionalwildlifebiologistonthesceneiscertainlybestqualifiedtodiscoverandinterpretwildlifeloss.Theentomologist,whosespecialtyisinsects,isnotsodisqualifiedbytraining,andisnotpsychologicallydisposedtolookforundesirablesideeffectsofhiscontrolprogram.Yetitisthecontrolmeninstateandfederalgovernments—andofcoursethechemicalmanufacturers—whosteadfastlydenythefactsreportedbythebiologistsanddeclaretheyseelittleevidenceofharmtowildlife.(86)

InaletterwritteninJanuary1958,OlgaOwensHuckinstoldmeofherownbitterexperienceofasmallworldmadelifeless,andsobroughtmyattentionsharplybacktoaproblemwithwhichIhadlongbeenconcerned.IthenrealizedImustwritethisbook…Imustacknowledgeourvastindebtednesstoahostofpeople,manyofthemunknowntomepersonally,whohaveneverthelessmadethewritingofthisbookseemworthwhile.Thesearethepeoplewhofirstspokeoutagainsttherecklessandirresponsible



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poisoningoftheworldthatmanshareswithallothercreatures,andwhoareevennowfightingthethousandsofsmallbattlesthatintheendwillbringvictoryforsanityandcommonsenseinouraccommodationtotheworldthatsurroundsus.(viii-ix)

Askstudentstoclosereadthefollowingpassage—excerptedfroma1954speechdeliveredbyCarsontoThetaSigmaPhi—focusingonthecentralityofwomen’sorganizationstoSilentSpringanditspoliticalaftermath.Theymightconsider,forinstance,Carson’sappealtowomenonthebasisofgenderandtheircommonexperienceofsex-segregation.

Ibelieveitisimportantforwomentorealizethattheworldoftodaythreatenstodestroymuchofthatbeautythathasimmensepowertobringusahealingreleasefromtension.Womenhaveagreaterintuitiveunderstandingofsuchthings.Theywantfortheirchildrennotonlyphysicalhealthbutmentalandspiritualhealthaswell.IbringthesethingstoyourattentionbecauseIthinkyourawarenessofthemwillhelp,whetheryouarepracticingjournalists,orteachers,orlibrarians,orhousewivesandmothers.(qtd.inNorwood152-3)


• DoanyofthecriticismsaimedatCarsonduringSilentSpring’spublicationseemvalidtoyou?Isitasentimentaltext?Anamateurtext?Anangrytext?Whatinthetextmakesthesecriticismstrue?HowdoyouthinkCarsonwouldhaverespondedtothesecriticisms?Howdoyourespond?

• Considertheuseofpathosasarhetoricalstrategyinthetext.Pathosistheuseofemotionalappeal,whereaslogosistheuseofarationalappealtoreason.Issciencesomethingyou’dthinkofasrequiringanemotionalappeal?Doesusinganemotionalappealundercuttheargumentofthepersonpresentingtheargument?HowsuccessfulisCarsoninusingpathosasawayofconveyingherargument?

• Considertheuseofmasculinepennamesbywomenthroughoutliteraryandscientifichistory:Caron’suseofR.L.Carson,MaryAnneEvans’useofGeorgeEliot,JoanneRowling’suseofJ.K.RowlingandRobertGalbraith.Howareweapproachingatextdifferentlyifweassumetheauthorismale?Isthisstrategystillrelevanttoday?

• Whatstillhindersfemaleadvancementinthesciencestoday?Aretheresciencesthatseemmorefeminine?Whatdoesitmeantobeahardscienceversusasoftscience?Whatgenderconnotationscomewiththosewords?Whywouldbiologybeconsideredsoftandmoreappropriateforwomen?

THEPERSONALISECOLOGICALISPOLITICALSecond-wavefeminism—bornatthesametimeCarsonwasworkingonandpublishedSilentSpring—tookupthefollowingstatementasaslogan:“Thepersonalispolitical.”Thisshortdeclarationgaveexpressiontooneof1960sfeminism’sguidingprinciples:thatwomen’sindividualexperienceswereindicativeofandspoketolarge-scalesociopoliticalstructuresandsystemicpatternsofoppression.IfCarsonwasgiventheopportunitytowriteherownversionofthisslogan,itmightgosomethinglike:“Thepersonalisecologicalispolitical.”WhileCarsonwaswritingSilentSpringandthenstumpingforitinpublic,shewageda“privatebattlewithbreastcancer”thatsheultimatelylost,butwhichalso“madeheraniconofwomen’shealthmovementsandothersseekingtodrawattentiontothelinksbetween



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cancerandtheenvironment”(SiderisandMoore1).Deeplypersonalontheonehandandatthesametimehighlightingtheinterpenetrationofhumanbodiesandtheoutsideworld,Carson’sbreastcancersymbolizestheinterconnectionsbetweenindividualpersons,ecologicalwebsandsystems,andthepoliticsofindustryandtoxicity.ItalsomakesvisiblehowCarson’sattemptstoamplifyvoicesthatweretraditionallysilencedwouldcometopossessasadcorollaryinherpersonallife.AsLisaH.Siderisputsit:“Asascientistinvestigatingenvironmentalhazardsandasacancerpatientseekingthetruthaboutherdisease,shecontinuallystruggledwiththeproblemofwrestingfactsfrom‘specialists’”(140).ThisnotionofthespecialistasonewhocloakshisknowledgeinsecrecyisdiscussedingreaterdepthinUnit5.However,itisworthmentioningherebecauseitcametobearonthemostintimateaspectsofCarson’slifeinprofoundways.Fromthemid-1940sCarsonbattledtheloomingthreatofbreastcancer.In1946shehada“smallcyst”removedfromoneofherbreastsand,inSeptember1950,shefoundalargertumorinthesamebreast(LearRachelCarson184).Herresponsewasinitiallyunconcerned:“shegavetheimpressionofnonchalancewhenth[e]larger[tumor]wasdiscovered”and“[h]ersearchforasurgeonwasextraordinarilycasualforsomeonewithherknowledgeandresearchskills”(LearRachelCarson184).AfterhavingthetumorremovedlaterthatsameSeptember,Carson“specificallyaskedhersurgeonwhetherthetissuebiopsyshowedanyevidenceofmalignancy”(LearRachelCarson185).Thesurgeonclaimedthatitdidnotandadvisednothinginthewayoffurtheraction.Thecaseseemedclosed.Butthisverysamepatternwasrepeatedin1960,whenCarsondiscovered“whatshethoughtwereseveralcystsinherleftbreast”(LearRachelCarson365).Afterundergoingamastectomyofherleftbreast,shequestionedhersurgeon—Dr.FredSanderson—aboutwhether“thepathologyreportshowedanymalignancy”(LearRachelCarson367).Sandersonansweredonlythathercondition“border[ed]onmalignancy”and“impli[ed]”themastectomyhadbeenaprecautionarymeasure”thatpresumablyresolvedtheissue(LearRachelCarson367).WhatCarsondidnotknowatthetimewasthatherdoctorhadwillfullymisledheraboutherownhealth.Sandersonknewthat“thetumorhadalreadymetastasized”and,inexplicably,“failedtosuggestfurtherradiationtreatmentevenasaprecautionarymeasure”(LearRachelCarson368).TherearesomewhospeculateSanderson’sfailuretodisclosethisinformationtoCarsonwasaresultofgendereddoctor-patientprotocols.Inthe1950sand1960s,doctorsdidnotinformafemalepatientdirectlyofherconditionbutwouldinsteadcommunicatethisinformationtoherhusband.ForunmarriedwomenlikeCarson,therewasnosuchprotocolinplace.Itwasalsonotunusual,especiallyincasesofbreastcancer,fordoctorstomakedecisions—likeperformingabiopsyandmastectomy“asasingleprocedure”—“withnoinquiryintothepatient’swishesregardingherownbody”(Sideris140).Whateverthecase,someCarsonscholarsarenotconvincedthatSanderson’sfailuretodisclosethetruthtoCarsonisexplainedawaybythegendereddynamicsofhumanhealthinthe1960s.Giventhispatternofdishonesttreatmenthappenedyetagainlaterthatsameyear,whenCarsonreported“newsymptoms”onlytoreceivethesamefraudulentassessment,Learspeculatesthat“theonlyavailableconclusionisthat[physicians]consciouslyintendedtohidethetruthofherconditionaslongaspossible,”perhapsbecausethey“consideredhercancersofaradvancedthatnotreatmentwouldmakeanydifferenceinherlifeexpectancy”(LearRachelCarson368).Carsonwasinthiswaydeprivedonmultipleoccasionsofknowledgeaboutherownbody,butalsoofopportunitiestotakedecisiveactionwhiletherewasstillhope,howeverlittleitmayhavebeen.Carson’sexperiencehighlightstheincrediblylimitedautonomywomenpossessedovertheirbodiesandhealthinthe1950sand1960s.Likealways,however,Carsontookmattersintoherownhands.She



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soughtoutasecondopinionfromanotherdoctor,GeorgeCrile,whoshehad“firstmetduringherbooktourforTheSeaAroundUs”(LearRachelCarson379).Aftercorrespondingfromafar,CarsoneventuallytraveledtoconsultwithCrileinpersonattheClevelandClinic,whereitwas“confirmedtoCarsonthatshehadcancerandthatithadmetastasizedtootherlymphnodes”(LearRachelCarson379).Carsonwouldeventuallyundergoradiationtherapyandsterilization.Perhapssurprisingly,shefeltempowered:“ThetruthliberatedRacheltotapintoherstrength,fornowshecouldreactasascientistaswellasavictim”(LearRachelCarson379).InherconversationswithCrile,Carsoncriticizedthosedoctors“whodidnotshare[their]ecologicalunderstandingoflifeprocesses”andapproachedhealthproblemsinsteadwitha“narrowfocusthattreatsaprobleminisolationfromitscontext”(Sideris142).Crileagreed:“thespecialistoftenfailstograsptheimportanceofspecificity…onlywhenthewholesystemisunderstoodcananappropriate,specificresponsebegeneratedfromwithinthebody”(Sideris142).Here,wecanseehowCarson’spersonalexperienceresonatedwithherprofessionalandactivistinterestsinecologyandenvironmentaltoxicity.Anecologicalworldviewbecomeskeytounderstandingproblemspersonalandpolitical:“therewasnoseparation”ofhumancultureorbody,ofpublicorprivate,fromnature.AsHerronputsit:“thetoxinspenetrating[Americans’]environmentalsoaffectedtheirbodies”(Herron196).Inthisway,“Carsonapproachedherdiseasemuchassheapproachedtheenvironmentalcrisisherworkhadbroughttolight”(Sideris141).Perhapssurprisingly,sheobservedwithwonder(ratherthanhorror)“themysteriousfunctionof[her]diseaseandthecomplexinterconnectionsofthebody”itmadevisible(Sideris141).Cancer,likenature,possesseditsownstrangebeautyforCarson,becauseitrevealstheinnerworkingsofecologicalsystemsthatotherwiseremainlargelyinvisibletothehumaneye.InSilentSpringandinherbattlewithbreastcancer,then,Carson“laidthegroundworkforanature-centeredaswellashumanhealth-centeredsystemofenvironmentalprotection”(Hynes26).Thisnew,humanhealth-centeredvisionofecologicalawarenessmaderoomforthevoicesofwomenpatientsandnon-specialists—for“otherknowersandotherwaysofknowing”(Shiva23).Movingawayfromthepolaritiesofdualisticthought,Carson“emphasize[d]”instead“multiplefactorsinandrelationsamongdifferentphenomenaandevents”—avastecologicalweb—thatdisclosed“openandevolving,ratherthan‘finished’explanations”(Lahar107).Inherpersonalaswellaspubliclife,too,sheadvocatedforashiftawayfromtheconventionalmodelofscienceandhealthasstructuredbytheimbalancedrelationshipbetweenadominant,masterful,presumablymalesubjectandapassive,subjugated,inevitablyfemaleobject.Carsonarguedinsteadfor“theprincipleofsubject-subjectreciprocity”orthenotionthat“theresearchobject”—whetheritbeabreastcancerpatientoraninsect—shouldbe“regardedaslivingandendowedwithitsowndignity/soul/subjectivity”(Mies52).Itisforthisreason,perhaps,thatthoughCarsonneverembracedandevendisavowedthelabeloffeminist,manyfeminists—ecofeministsinparticular—haveretroactivelyclaimedherasasisterinarms.CLOSEREADINGToexploreCarson’sargumentthathumanactioncreatednewanddangerousformsofcancer,studentsshouldclosereadthefollowingquotations.Theymightconsiderhowcancer—likenature—hasahistorythattookasharpturninthenineteenthcentury,whenindustrialpowerexpandeddramatically.(Forunabridgedversionsofeachquotation,seetheoriginaltext.)

Thebattleoflivingthingsagainstcancerbegansolongagothatitsoriginislostintime…Theenvironmentcontainedthesehostileelements[ultravioletradiation,radiationsfromcertainrocks,arsenicwashedout



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ofsoilandrocks]evenbeforetherewaslife;yetlifearose,andoverthemillionsofyearsitcametoexistininfinitenumbersandendlessvariety.Overtheeonsofunhurriedtimethatisnature’s,lifereachedanadjustmentwithdestructiveforcesasselectionweededoutthelessadaptableandonlythemostresistantsurvived…Withtheadventofmanthesituationbegantochange,forman,aloneofallformsoflife,cancreatecancer-producingsubstances,whichinmedicalterminologyarecarcinogens.(219)Againstthesecarcinogenswhichhisownactivitieshadcreatedmanhadnoprotection,forevenashisbiologicalheritagehasevolvedslowly,soitadaptsslowlytonewconditions.Asaresultthesepowerfulsubstancescouldeasilypenetratetheinadequatedefenseofthebody.(220)

Thehistoryofcancerislong,butourrecognitionoftheagentsthatproduceithasbeenslowtomature.ThefirstawarenessthatexternalorenvironmentalagentscouldproducemalignantchangedawnedinthemindofaLondonphysiciannearlytwocenturiesago.In1775SirPercivallPottdeclaredthatthescrotalcancersocommonamongchimneysweepsmustbecausedbythesootthataccumulatedontheirbodies…ForacenturyormoreafterPott’sdiscoverythereseemstohavebeenlittlefurtherrealizationthatcertainofthechemicalsinthehumanenvironmentcouldcausecancer.True,ithadbeennoticedthatskincancerwasprevalentamongworkersexposedtoarsenicfumesincoppersmeltersandtinfoundries…thatworkersinthecobaltminesinSaxonyandintheuraniumminesatJoachimsthalinBohemiaweresubjecttoadiseaseofthelungs,lateridentifiedascancer.Butthesewerephenomenaofthepre-industrialera,beforethefloweringoftheindustrieswhoseproductsweretopervadetheenvironmentofalmosteverylivingthing.Thefirstrecognitionofmalignanciestraceabletotheageofindustrycameduringthelastquarterofthe19thcentury.AboutthetimethatPasteurwasdemonstratingthemicrobialoriginofmanyinfectiousdiseases,otherswerediscoveringthechemicaloriginofcancer.(220)Bytheendofthe19thcenturyahalf-dozensourcesofindustrialcarcinogenswereknown;the20thcenturywastocreatecountlessnewcancer-causingchemicalsandtobringthegeneralpopulationintointimatecontactwiththem(221)

Inherpersonalbattlewithbreastcancer,asinSilentSpring,Carsonarguedthatscientistscouldonlydevelopanunderstandingofecologicalproblemsandtheirsolutionsiftheydroppedtheirconventionallynarrowfocusonspecificitiesexaminedinisolationfromthebroaderwhole.Studentsmightconsiderthisargumentbyclosereadingthefollowingpassages,exploringCarson’ssuggestionthattofocusnarrowlyonandtreatisolatedsymptoms,ratherthanlarge-scalecauses,meansgivingupallhopeforasolution.

Thediscoverythatweare,asoneinvestigatorphrasedit,livingina‘seaofcarcinogens’isofcoursedismayingandmayeasilyleadtoreactionsofdespairanddefeatism.‘Isn’titahopelesssituation?’isthecommonreaction.‘Isn’titimpossibleeventoattempttoeliminatethesecancer-producingagentsfromourworld?Wouldn’titbebetternottowastetimetrying,butinsteadtoputalloureffortsintoresearchtofindacureforcancer?’(240)Partofthepublictrustinsuchaneventualoutcomeresultsfromthemisconceptionthatcancerisasingle,thoughmysteriousdisease,withasinglecauseand,hopefully,asinglecure.Thisofcourseisfarfromtheknowntruth.Justasenvironmentalcancersareinducedbyawidevarietyofchemicalandphysicalagents,sothemalignantconditionitselfismanifestedinmanydifferentandbiologicallydistinctways.(241)

[I]tisadisservicetohumanitytoholdoutthehopethatthesolutionwillcomesuddenly,inasinglemasterstroke.Itwillcomeslowly,onestepatatime…weareneglectingthegoldenopportunitytoprevent,evenwhileweseektocure…manhasputthevastmajorityofcarcinogensintotheenvironment,andhecan,ifhewishes,eliminatemanyofthem.(242)



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• Havestudentsinvestigateanotherfemalescientist.ShecanbeacontemporaryofCarson’s,orsomeonefromanothertimeperiodaltogether.Thestudentcanpresentastraight-forwardbiographyofthescientist’saccomplishmentsandcontributionstoherfield,orthestudentcanwriteafictionaldialoguebetweenCarsonandthescientist-of-choice,debatingacontemporaryenvironmentalorscientificconflict.

• Havestudentsfindanarticleinanewspaperormagazineandidentifydifferentformsofargument.Helpstudentsidentifypathosversuslogosinthetext.

• Havestudentsinterviewsomeonewhoisatypicallygenderedintheirworkrole.Forexample,amalenurse.Havethemaskiftheirgenderaffectsthewaythattheydotheirwork.

• Havestudentsconsiderthewaythemedicalcommunityimposesapaternalisticauthorityoverpatients.Whatisthepatient’srighttoknowledgeversustheneedtoprotectthepatient?ShareandreadapassagefromTheImmoralLifeofHenriettaLacks.



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OBJECTIVE:Toexploretherelationshipbetweenscienceandpolitics,orfactandvalue,followingWorldWarIIand,later,thepublicationofSilentSpring;theriseofjunkscienceandthedifficultiesitpresentsforlegitimatescientistsandtheAmericanpublic;andtheemergenceofthescientistaspublicintellectual.PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADINGBirkeland,Janis.“Ecofeminism:LinkingTheoryandPractice.”Ecofeminism:Women,Animals,Nature.Ed.

GretaGaard.TempleUniversityPress,1993.13-59.Egan,Michael.BarryCommonerandtheScienceofSurvival:TheRemakingofAmerican

Environmentalism.MITPress,2007.Herron,JohnP.ScienceandtheSocialGood:Nature,Culture,andCommunity,1865-1965.Oxford

UniversityPress,2009.Hohn,Donovan.“Flint’sWaterCrisisandthe‘Troublemaker’Scientist.”NewYorkTimes.16August

2016.[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/21/magazine/flints-water-crisis-and-the-troublemaker-scientist.html]

Lear,Linda.RachelCarson:WitnessforNature.MarinerBooks,1997.List,PeterC.“RachelCarsonandGeorgeJ.Wallace:WhyPublicEnvironmentalScientistsShouldBe

AdvocatesforNature.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.41-57.

Mies,MariaandVandanaShiva.Ecofeminism.ZedBooks,2014.Moore,Kelly.DisruptingScience:SocialMovements,AmericanScientists,andthePoliticsoftheMilitary,

1945-1975.PrincetonUniversityPress,2008.Nixon,Rob.SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor.HarvardUniversityPress,2013.Norwood,Vera.MadeFromThisEarth:AmericanWomenandNature.UniversityofNorthCarolina

Press,1993.Oreskes,NaomiandEricConway.MerchantsofDoubt:HowaHandfulofScientistsObscuredtheTruth

onIssuesfromTobaccotoGlobalWarming.Bloomsbury,2011.Purdy,Jedediah.AfterNature:APoliticsfortheAnthropocene.HarvardUniversityPress,2015.Said,Edward.“ThePublicRoleofWritersandIntellectuals.”TheNation.17September2001.27-36.Sideris,LisaH.andKathleenDeanMoore.“Introduction.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.Lisa

H.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.1-15.Wilson,EdwardO.“Afterword.”SilentSpring.HoughtonMifflin,2002.357-64.UNITORGANIZATIONThisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“SpecialistKnowledge&PublicAccountability”;“Fact&Value”;and“TheScientistasPublicIntellectual.”Eachofthesesub-sectionsdevelopspointsforuseinlecture,followedbysuggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.SPECIALISTKNOWLEDGE&PUBLICACCOUNTABILITYTheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcenturytookasignificanttollontheAmericanpublic.FollowingtheGreatDepressionandthentheGreatWars,Americanswere“desperateforarest—areturnto

UNIT5•GOODSCIENCE,BADSCIENCE,THEPUBLICINTELLECTUAL



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normalcy”(Egan15).Initially,scienceandindustrycametotherescue.Workingintandemwithandfuelinganexpandingeconomy,theyhelpedto“restor[e]individualandnationalaffluence”(Egan15).Therisingmiddleclasswasincreasinglyequippedtoaffordhomesandvehicles,and“chemicals…ensuredgreenerlawns,moreabundantproduce,andcleanerclothes”(Egan15).Itisonlybysituatingtheapparent“infallibilityofmaterialingenuity”—ofscience,technologyandindustry—inhistoricalcontextthatwecanfullyunderstandhowsuch“ingenuity,”howeverenvironmentallydestructive,cametobe“infallible”inthefirstplace(Wilson358).“[A]rgumentsforlimitandconstraint”inpostwarAmerica“seemedalmostunpatriotic”(Wilson358).ToargueforconstraintwastoargueagainstareprieveandsenseofprosperitythatmanyAmericanshadnotenjoyedsincethebeginningofWorldWarI.Itwasalsotoargueagainstthepromiseof“progress:theconceptthatsocietyevolvesinaforwardprogression”oraway“fromsocialandnaturalconstraints”(Birkeland32).Scienceandindustryhadmadepossibletheeradicationofmanydeadlydiseasesandthemassproductionofnewtechnologiesandconveniences.Nowonder“Americansseemedunwilling,”atleastinitially,“toupsetorquestiontheeconomicgrowththeyenjoyed,”andthetypesofknowledgeandresourceextractionthatgrowthrequired(Egan16).ButthethreatoftheatomicbombloomedandmanyAmericansbecameincreasinglyconcernedaboutwhatMichaelEgancallsthe“‘irontriangle’ofgovernment,industry,andscience”(9).Itwasthis“militaryscientistpartnership”thatwonWorldWarII(Moore24).Butsuchpartnershipsmadevisiblehowsciencedidnotexistinthebubbleofthelaboratory.Rather,sciencewasvisiblyinvolvedinpoliticalprojects,suchaswartime“weapons-relatedresearch”and“statebuilding”(Moore24).Thegrowingintimacybetweenthemilitary,scienceandindustryinWorldWarIIalsoproducedradicalchangesinthewaypostwarscientificresearchwasundertakenandfunded.As“[g]overnmentandmilitaryleaders—andsomescientists—realizedtheimportanceofscientifictalentandideasinmaintainingatomicandotherformsofmilitarysupremacy”intheColdWar,thefederalfundingofscienceunderwentaseismicshift(Moore4).Availablegovernmentfundsincreased“fromfiftymilliondollarsin1939tonearlyfifteenbilliondollarsin1970”(Moore4).Whilethisincreaseinfundingwasinmanywayspromisingforscientificresearch,italsosignaledtheextenttowhich“militaryneedswereattheheartofthenewfundingsystem”(Moore26).Thismatteredagreatdeal,forif“knowledgereflect[s]thematerialcircumstancesofitsconception,”thenscientificresearchinthepostwaryearswas“increasinglyshapedbyanomnipresentmilitaryinfluence”thatcoulddictatewhichquestionswereworthaskingandwhichoutcomesweremostdesired(Egan25).CarsonarguespreciselythispointinSilentSpringwhensheacknowledgesthedifficultyofsecuringenvironmentalreformswhenthosewithinterestsinstavingoffsuchreformsaretheverysameoneswhofundscientificresearch.“Thechemicalindustry,”shewrites,“isperhapsunderstandablyloathtofaceuptotheunpleasantfactofresistance”(272),andso“den[ies]thefactsreportedbybiologists”(86).MuchofwhatCarsonlamentsinSilentSpringistheincreasinglylopsidedrelationshipbetweenmilitaryandindustrialinterestsandscience.Assciencegrewmoreandmoredependentuponfederalfundinggearedtowarddevelopingwartimetechnologiesandthelike,thinkerslikeCarsonbecameconcernedaboutscience’scapacitytoproduceuncompromisedknowledge.How,Carsonasked,couldscientistsmaintaintheintegrityoftheirresearchifdoingsowouldinevitablyinvolve“bit[ing]thehandthatliterallyfeedsthem”(259)?ThesedevelopmentshadprofoundconsequencesfortheaccessibilityofscientificknowledgeandtheaccountabilityofsciencetotheAmericanpublic.WhereasintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingWorldWarII“Americansseemedunwillingtoupsetorquestion”thescience-military-industrialcomplexsuchthat



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thepublicbecame“uninformed,uncoordinated,complacent,andgenerallyunwillingtoconfrontimminentenvironmentalthreats”(Egan16),theloomingthreatoftheatomicbombandColdWartensionsprovokedsome“toraisequestionsaboutthewisdomandsafetyofatomictestingandcivildefense”(Moore22).Thisskepticismalsoemergedinresponsetoawideninggulfbetweenscientistsandmembersofthegeneralpublic,orbetweenspecialistknowledgeandwidespreadsocialconcerns.Thescience-military-industrialcomplex“limitedthepotentialforopen,democraticpoliticsandpublicinput”byinsistingAmericansshouldleavesignificantmatters—whetherindustrial,military,technologicalorenvironmental—totheexpertswhoweresolelycapableofunderstandingthem(Egan9).Citizenswereexpectedtotrustinthe“powerandauthority”oftheirontriangleandwereexplicitly“notencouragedtocriticallyexaminescience”—ortheusestowhichitwasput—“inanyway”(Moore22).Rather,theywere“merelyto‘appreciate’”it(Moore22).Thus,thereemerged“dangerousgapsincommunicationbetweenscientistsandlaypeople”(SiderisandMoore1),andagrowing“tensionbetweenexpertiseandthepublicinterest”inthelate1950s(Egan9).InSilentSpring,Carsonarticulatesthe“profoundsuspicionofthecertifiedexpertwhomshe”andmanyotherAmericans“sawasimplicatedintheeconomicsofprofessionalcapitulationinwaysthatjeopardizedsociety’scapacitytosustainuncompromisedresearch”(Nixonxi).Forthisreason,RobNixondescribesCarsonas“aninsurrectionarygeneralist”(asopposedtospecialist)who“expos[ed]thedubiousfundingofpartitioned”orexpert“knowledge”andamplifiedthecallforscientificresearchthatwouldbenewlyaccountabletoAmericansociety.CitizenswerebeginningtowakeuptooneofCarson’sgravestwarnings:“whatthepublicisaskedtoacceptas‘safe’todaymayturnouttomorrowtobeextremelydangerous”(224).Intensedebateandsometimesviolentprotestsfollowed.“Theindustrialeconomyhadgrownsolarge,anditseffectssopervasive,thatatransformedworldcalledouttoberecognized”intheyearsleadinguptothepublicationofSilentSpring(Purdy202).Unsettledby“thecloakofsecrecy”thatenshroudedscientificknowledgeandresearch,Americansbeganaskingcriticalquestionsaboutthesocialfunctionofscience:“Whatissciencefor?andhowshoulditbeused?”(Egan30and18).Thisgeneratedabroaderdebateabouttherelationshipbetweenscientificfactandsocialvaluesorpolitics:“Whatwastherelationshipbetweenscientificideasandmoralandpoliticalclaims?Whowasresponsibleforthenegativeconsequencesofscientificideasandtechnologies?Shouldscientistshaveaspecialroleindemocracy?Orwasexpertiseantitheticaltodemocracy?...Wasscientificobjectivityevenpossibleordesirable?Wasmilitary-sponsoredscientificresearchcorrupting”scienceand“universities,”theinstitutionsinwhichscientificresearchveryoftentookplace?(Moore23).Thatgovernment,industryandscienceweresointimatelyconnectedjoltedthepublicintoanewawareness:ifscienceisobjectiveormethodicalorsupremelyrational,itisalsoinevitablypolitical—itisinevitablyputtopoliticaluseandpossessesvaluethatissociallyconstructed.Recognizingthistobetrue,Americancitizenscalledforscience“torefocusitsenergiesonservingthepublic,notonrealizingfinancialormilitarygain”(Egan31).Likemembersofthepublic,manyscientistswerealsoconcernedabouttheproximityofscientificresearchandmilitaryinterests.They,too,questionedwhetherexpertshadfailed“toadequatelyconsiderthesocialramificationsoftheirwork”andsomeargued“thatscientistsshouldbemorepoliticallyinvolvedindetermininghowscienceshouldbeused”(Egan19and30).Theseweredebatesthattookplacebothinsecludedlaboratoriesandincongress,inspecialistcirclesandinpublic.Theyoftencoincidedwithantiwarprotestsandwerehighlycharged.“Between1965and1970,onatleasttenmajorcollegecampusesandondozensofsmallercampuses,military-supported



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researchbuildingsandlaboratorieswerethesitesofantiwarprotest”(Moore50).Duringtheseprotests,citizens“directedtheiractionsagainstthephysicalrepresentationsoftheallianceamonguniversities,scientists,andthemilitary,usuallythecampuslaboratories…andotherinstituteswheremilitary-sponsoredresearchtookplace”(Moore50).AsmanyWisconsiniteslikelyalreadyknow,oneofthesecollegecampuseswastheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison.In1970protestersbombedSterlingHall,which“housedthephysicsdepartmentandtheArmyMathematicsResearchCenter”(Moore52).Thebombingtriggeredaseriesofproteststhatoccurredovermanyyearsandweredirectednotonlyatexplicitlymilitaryorganizations,liketheUnitedStatesarmyandtheROTC,butalso“DowChemical,themanufacturerofnapalm”duringtheVietnamWar(Moore52).LiketheSterlingHallbombing,theseprotestswereoftenviolent,reflectingtheangerofcitizenswhobelieved“sciencenolongerservedthesocialgood,buthadbecomeanagentofdeath”(Moore52).CarsonarticulatedmanyofthesesameconcernsinSilentSpring.Thus,shearguesfor“amorehigh-mindedorientationandadeeperinsight”intonatureandintoscience’ssocialresponsibilities—qualitieswhich,shewrites,“Imissinmanyresearchers”(275).Carsonwasdeeplyconcernedaboutthepartitioningofspecialistknowledgefrompublicdebateanditsunmooringfrombroadsocialconcerns.Inresponse,SilentSpringcallsforanend“tothesugarcoatingofunpalatablefacts”inhopesof“tranquilizing”growingconcernand“publicprotests”(13).ThatCarsondrewconnectionsbetweenandcalledforthereconfigurationofscienceandpoliticsmightstrikesomereadersassurprising,givenscienceisoftenimaginedasapolitical—and,indeed,asnecessarilyso.Carsonbelievedstronglyinthesocialaccountabilityofscienceandsuggestedthatthosewhodrawanabsolutedistinctionbetweenscienceandpoliticsaremisinformed.Theseideasaretakenupinthenextsectionofthisunit.CLOSEREADING:Thefollowingpassageshighlightthetensionbetweenexpertknowledgeandpublicaccountabilityorconcern,especiallyasitrelatestoeconomicgrowthandmilitary-industrialinterests.Studentsmightusethesepassagestoexplorethecontextssurroundingscience,industryandgovernmentimmediatelyfollowingWorldWarII,thewaysmilitaryandindustrialinterestsshapedscientificinquiry,andtheshiftinpublicsentimenttowardscienceastheColdWarintensified.

Thereisstillverylimitedawarenessofthenatureofthethreat.Thisisaneraofspecialists,eachofwhomseehisownproblemandisunawareoforintolerantofthelargerframeintowhichitfits.Itisalsoaneradominatedbyindustry,inwhichtherighttomakeadollaratwhatevercostisseldomchallenged.Whenthepublicprotests…itisfedlittletranquilizingpillsofhalftruth.Weurgentlyneedanendtothesefalseassurances,tothesugarcoatingofunpalatablefacts.(13)

Overthepastdecadetheseproblemshavecastlongshadows,butwehavebeenslowtorecognizethem.Mostofthosebestfittedtodevelopnaturalcontrolsandassistinputtingthemintoeffecthavebeentoobusylaboringinthemoreexcitingvineyardsofchemicalcontrol.Itwasreportedin1960thatonly2percentofalltheeconomicentomologistsinthecountrywerethenworkinginthefieldofbiologicalcontrols.Asubstantialnumberoftheremaining98percentwereengagedinresearchonchemicalinsecticides…Themajorchemicalcompaniesarepouringmoneyintotheuniversitiestosupportresearchoninsecticides.(258)Biological-controlstudies,ontheotherhand,areneversoendowed—forthesimplereasonthattheydonotpromiseanyonethefortunesthataretobemadeinthechemicalindustry.Thesearelefttostateandfederalagencies,wherethesalariespaidarefarless…Canwethenexpectthem[entomologists]tobitethehandthatliterallyfeedsthem?Butknowingtheirbias,howmuchcredencecanwegivetotheirproteststhatinsecticidesareharmless?(259)



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SilentSpringcatalyzedtheAmericanpublicandtheenvironmentalmovementintoaction.Withthefollowingpassagesinmind,askstudentstodiscussthisawakeninganditsrelationshiptoCarson’squestionsabouttheconnectionsbetweenknowledgeandpower,scienceandgovernment,specialistandpublic.

Ineachofthesesituations,oneturnsawaytoponderthequestion:Whohasmadethedecisionthatsetsinmotionthesechainsofpoisonings,thisever-wideningwaveofdeaththatspreadsout,likerippleswhenapebbleisdroppedintoastillpond?...Whohasdecided—whohastherighttodecide—forthecountlesslegionsofpeoplewhowerenotconsultedthatthesupremevalueisaworldwithoutinsects,eventhoughitbealsoasterileworldungracedbythecurvingwingofabirdinflight?Thedecisionisthatoftheauthoritariantemporarilyentrustedwithpower;hehasmadeitduringamomentofinattentionbymillionstowhombeautyandtheorderedworldofnaturestillhaveameaningthatisdeepandimperative.(127)

[W]hatthepublicisaskedtoacceptas‘safe’todaymayturnouttomorrowtobeextremelydangerous.(224)


• Whataretheinstitutionsthatwetrustandwhatarethosethatwedistrusttoday?Whatarethechecksandbalancesthatkeeptheseinstitutionsfrommisbehaving?Whatcancitizensdotokeeptheseinstitutionshonestandaccountablefortheiractions?

• Whatisscienceforandhowshoulditbeused?• Consideringthemilitary-industrialcomplex,wheredoweseethiskindofcollusiontoday?For

exampleinthemedicalfield,thereisastrongconnectionbetweenscienceandindustry,mostpublicallyinthedevelopmentofpharmaceuticaldrugs.Whoistheblameforthecurrentopioidepidemic—industryorscience?Howdotheseforcescontinuetodependoneachother?

FACT&VALUESilentSpringraisesaseriesofquestionsthatunsettleourassumptionsaboutscience.Whenwethinkaboutscience,manyofusimagineamaninawhitelabcoatworkingawayinalaboratorythatishermeticallysealed—thatstandsapartfromthesocialworldofvalueandpolitics.Thisnotionofscienceisdescribedbyscholarsas“positivist.”Accordingtothisview,scienceissolelyconcernedwiththatwhichisobservableandempiricallyverifiable.AsVandanaShivaputsit,imaginedassuchscienceis“auniversal,value-freesystemofknowledgewhichbythelogicofitsmethodclaimstoarriveatobjectiveconclusions”(22).Positivistsinsistthatadivisionbetweenscienceandpoliticsexists,andthatthisdivisionisbothlogicalandnecessary.Thus,“[s]omecriticsbelievethatitisnotrightforpublicscientiststoexpresstheir‘opinions’inpublicaboutmanagementpracticesandpolicies,”becausesuchexpressions“crossthelinebetweenfactandvalues,orbetweenscientificfindingsandpolicyprescriptions”(List42).Undergirdingthisargumentisthe“beliefthatvaluesandvaluejudgmentsarenotalegitimateconstituentofthesciencesandscientificpractice”(List43).CarsonobservesthroughoutSilentSpringhowcomplexscientificdebateswithprofoundsocialramificationsareoftenpresented“[t]othepublic”in“starkblack-or-whitesimplicity”—intermsthatremovedthemfromordownplayedtheirpoliticalimplications(114).AccordingtoCarson,Americanswerefacedwithsolutionsthatwerefalsely



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reductiveandofteneither-or:“Toassumethatwemustresignourselvestoturningourwaterwaysintoriversofdeathistofollowthecounselofdespairanddefeatism”(138).Thiswascompoundedbythesupposeddividebetweenscienceandpolitics—betweenfactandvalue—whichwasexploitedtosuggestthatthetermsofecologicaldebateandthescientificsolutionspresentedbythoseinpowerwerestrictlyobjectiveandrepresentedcomprehensivelythescientificknowledgeavailable.Butsuchblack-and-whiterenderingsoftherelationshipbetweenscienceandpolitics“concea[l]theimpurerelationshipbetweenknowledge”and“thesphereofpolitics”(Mies46).Thisteachingguidehassurveyedanumberofseeminglynatural“divides”debunkedinSilentSpring:thatbetweencultureandnature,humanandnonhuman,maleandfemale,etc.Thesupposeddividesbetweenscienceandpolitics,orfactandvalue,arealsotakenupinSilentSpring.Carsonviewsthesedivides—liketheothers—withextremeskepticism.Itwaspreciselythisskepticismthatwasgrowinginthelate1950sandearly1960s,whenAmericanscientistsandcitizensalikedevelopedanewandacuteawarenessofhowscienceandpoliticshadalwaysbeenandwouldalwaysbeintertwined.TheemergenceoftheirontriangleduringWorldWarIIandthepostwaryears—theintertwinementofscience,industry,andgovernment—madetheinterrelationshipofscientificknowledgeandsocialvalueimpossibletoignore.PerhapsnohistoricaleventverifiedthisinterrelationshipmorehorrificallythantheHolocaust,whereineugenicsscientistsattemptedtosystematicallypurifytheGermannationwhileatthesametimeconductinginsidiousexperimentsonthosedetainedinconcentrationcampsthatthencontributedagreatdealtomodernmedicalknowledge.Exampleslikethisdemonstratehowthepopularimageofthemalescientistisolatedinhislaboratory—“theflat,one-dimensionalcaricature”ofscienceasconcernedwith“‘truth’aboveallelse”—isinmanywaysafantasy(Moore10).Theyare,asPeterC.Listputsit,“value-ladenactivities”(43).Moreover,tosubscribeto“acompletedivideoffactandvalue”orscienceandculture“isalsotoenshrineinknowledgeatotalanduncrossabledualismbetweenthenaturalworldandthehumanobserver”(Clark150).SilentSpringsaysasmuch,showinghowthe“dualism”betweencultureandnature—betweenhumansubjectsandtheirobjectsofinquiry—naturalizesahierarchyofvalueinwhichnatureisviewedasaninfinite,unfeeling,passiveresourceforhumanexploitation.SilentSpring’sdismantlingofthedividebetweenscienceandpoliticshasfraughtimplications,andraisesdifficultquestions.Ontheonehand,theexamplesofpolitically-chargedsciencecitedabove—themilitary-industrialcomplexandstate-sponsoredgenocide—demonstratewhathappenswhenthisinterrelationshipgoesbad.Ontheotherhand,SilentSpringstandstestamenttotheimportance—indeed,thenecessity—ofestablishingadirectlineofcommunicationbetweenspecialistsandgeneralists,orexpertknowledgeandpublicdebate.ThatSilentSpringemboldenedanentireenvironmentalmovementdemonstratesthecriticalrolescientistsplayintheseconversationsandinshapingpolicy.AsListobserves:“sometimes,ifpublicenvironmentalandresourcescientistsdonottakeethicalstandsonatleastsomeenvironmentalissuesandbecomeadvocates,publicenvironmentaldecisionscouldbemadethatwouldbeunfavorable”(48).Veryoftenscientists“areinthebestpositiontounderstandtherelevantscienceandtheconsequencesofdamagingenvironmentalpoliciesanddecisions”(List49).Thisisnotsaythatscientistsareinfallibleexpertsorthatpolicydebatesshouldtakeplacebehindcloseddoorsandinvolvedonlyspecialists.Whatitdoessuggest,however,ispreciselythatforwhichCarsonarguessoforcefullyinSilentSpring:a“‘shareddecision-makingmodel’”whereinscientists“workcooperatively”witharangeofplayers—“resourcemanagers,politicians,memberofinterestgroups,andthepublic”—toestablishcollective“valuesthatsupportparticularlandmanagementdecisions”(List47).Thisisprecisely“therolesopowerfullyexemplifiedbythelifeof



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RachelCarson,”whounderstood“publicenvironmentalissuesasasharedresponsibilityandtask”thatscientistsareobligatedtosharewiththepublictowhomtheyareaccountable(List47and54).ItisnocoincidencethatCarsonenvisionedtheroleofthescientistassuch.Herchosenfieldofstudy—biology—“struggledtofindaplacewithinthevastarrayofgovernment-sponsoredwarresearchinthephysicalsciences”(Herron144).Asaresult,biologists“reconfigure[d]theirscientificworktobetter‘addresssocialandpoliticalproblems’”(Herron144).ItwasbiologistslikeCarsonwhopracticedsciencewith“practicalapplications,includingmedicine,publichealth,agriculturalhybrids,foodproduction,andindustry”(Herron145).Biologistsalsocontributedto“contemporarypoliticaldebatessuchasimmigrationrestriction,eugenics,andbehavioralcontrol,”arguingforinstancethattheatrocitiescommittedbytheGermansinthenameofproducingapure,fit,biologicallysuperiornationweretheproductof“amisreadingofevolutionaryprogress”(Herron144-5).Carsonwasfromtheearlieststagesofhercareerinvolvedinafieldofsciencethatpossessed“outletsinmultiplesocial,political,andeconomicarenas,”andwhichunderstooditselfasresponsibletoabroaderpublic(Herron146).SilentSpringmakesvisiblewhyscientists’participationinpublicpolicydebatesissoimportant:withoutcontributionsfromscientists,scientificknowledgemightbeputtobaduse.Often“[s]cientificopinionisminedforitsrelevancytothe[proposed]decision,”ratherthanevaluatedcomprehensivelyandappliedrigorously(List48).Inotherwords,ifscientistsareexcludedfromsociopoliticaldebate,scientificresearchismorelikelytobeinterpretedwith“presetobjectives”orbiasesinmind,and“verypertinentresearch…thatwouldotherwisebeworthy”ofconsideration“bywell-acceptedcriteriawithinrelevantscientificdisciplines”risksbeingentirely“eliminate[d]”fromdiscussion(List49and48).Thus,Carsonarguesthatscientistsmustconsiderthe“socialramificationsoftheirwork”andtheusestowhichitmightbeput,whetherlegitimateorillegitimate—andthattheyrepresenttheirconcernsaboutthesepotentialitiesinpublicforums(Egan19).Thisiscrucialbecauseitisnotonlyinpolicydebatesamongelectedrepresentativesthatscienceismisrepresented,butalsointhespecialinterestlobbiesthatshapethosedebatesandhowtheyareperceivedbycitizens.Specialinterestgroupsfrequentlymisrepresentscienceorproducefakesciencealtogether.Todoso,theycapitalizeonaverycommonmisconceptionaboutscience:namely,thatifscientificfactscontaingapsorraisefurtherquestionstheyarenotfactsatall.ThisstrategyemergedjustpriortothepublicationofSilentSpringasdebatesragedonaboutthehazardsofinhalingcigarettesmoke.NaomiOreskesandEricConwaythuscallitthe“TobaccoStrategy”(6).Thetobaccoindustry—and,later,thechemicalindustry—“realizedthatyoucouldcreatetheimpressionofcontroversysimplybyaskingquestions,evenifyouactuallyknewtheanswersandtheydidn’thelpyourcase”(OreskesandConway18).Byexploiting“thegapsanduncertaintiesexistinginscience,”specialinterestgroups“manufacture”doubttowillfullymisleadthepublicintobelievingthatthejuryisstillout—thatthereisnoscientificconsensuswheninrealityconsensusexists(OreskesandConway13).Take,forinstance,thefollowingexample,withwhichyou’relikelyfamiliar:thosewhoargueagainsttheteachingofevolutionarytheoryinschoolspointattheword“theory”asevidencethattheideaisbasedinsuppositionratherthanfact,eventhoughinscienceatheory—unlikeahypothesis—hasundergonerigoroustestingandisonlydesignatedassuchonceitstruthisestablished.Suchargumentsworkby“creat[ing]theimpressionofcontroversy”wherethereisnone.Theythenexploitthatimpressiontoensurethestatusquoremainsintact.Suchargumentsalsoworkby“fight[ing]sciencewithscience”(OreskesandConway13).Theyareconvincing,inotherwords,becausetheyappearpossessscientificvalidity.Inthebeginningstagesofthefighttoregulatesmoking,thetobaccoindustrynotonly“cherry-pick[ed]dataandfocus[ed]on



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unexplainedoranomalousdetails”tobuildtheircase,butalsorecruited“alistofexpertswithscientificcredentials”whowouldbe“availabletocommentonanyissueaboutwhich”they“neededanegativesoundbite”(OreskesandConway18and6).ThisstrategywassummarizedinadocumentproducedbythetobaccoindustrycalledBadScience:AResourceBook—“ahow-tohandbookforfactfighters”(OreskesandConway6).WhenSilentSpringwaspublished,thechemicalindustryusedthesamestrategy.Industryrepresentativesandscientificexpertsexploitedtheuncertaintiesofscience—or,rather,thewidespreadmisconceptionthatscientificknowledgeisvalidonlyifcontainswithinitnouncertaintyandraisesnoquestionsthatremainunresolved.TheycapitalizedonwhatCarsondescribesas“theprominencethat‘magicbullets’and‘wonderdrugs’holdinthelayman’smind”—theideathatcomplexscientificproblems,suchasacureforcancer,possess“asinglecause”andequally“singlecure”(240and241)—soastoconvincetheAmericanpublicthatanypresenceofuncertaintyinscientificknowledgeinvalidatesitsclaimuponfactortruth.Thechemicalindustry,likethetobaccoindustry,realized“thatyoucouldusenormalscientificuncertaintytounderminethestatusofactualscientificknowledge”(OreskesandConway34).ThoughSilentSpringwasreceivedwithenthusiasmbymanyandproducedaseriesofsuccessfulenvironmentalreforms,itsreceptionalsodemonstratesthepowerof“manufacturingandsustainingacultureofdoubt”(Nixon39),aswellasthesometimesacutevulnerabilityofgoodsciencetomisrepresentation,andtheabilityofbadsciencetomasqueradeconvincinglyasfact.Perhapssurprisingly,thetext’sreceptionhistoryanditsentanglementwithfakefactscontinuestounfoldtoday.In2007,forinstance,“[t]heInternet[wa]sfloodedwiththeassertionthatCarsonwasamassmurderer,worsethanHitler”(OreskesandConway216).Heraccuserssuggestedshehad“killedmorepeoplethantheNazis”and“hadbloodonherhandsposthumously”becauseshewasinvolvedin“thebanningofDDT,withoutwhichmillionsofAfricansdiedofmalaria”(OreskesandConway216).TherecontinuestoexistacampaignagainstRachelCarsonandtheenvironmentalreformsSilentSpringhelpedputintoplace.Butwhy?AsOreskesandConwayexplainit:“Sometimesreopeninganolddebatecanservepresentpurposes”(217).Byattemptingto“convincepeoplethatanexampleofsuccessfulgovernmentregulationwasn’t,infact,successful,”proponentsofthefreemarketrealized“youcouldstrengthentheargumentagainstregulationingeneral”(Oreskes217).Thosewhoargueagainstenvironmentalregulation,inotherwords,arenowpointingtoSilentSpringandtheconsequencesofbanningDDTasevidencethatsuchregulationdoesmoreharmthangood.Unit3providesabroadoverviewoftheconflictsanddebatesbetweencapitalistfinanceandenvironmentalactivism.Quitestrangely,Carsonisnowinvokedbybothsidesofthatdebate.Whatiscrucial,here,isthatfreemarketeersareabletoclaimCarsonbecauseofbadscienceandthecultureofdoubtitproliferates.TheirargumentsoverlookthefactthatwhiletheuseofDDTwasbannedintheUnitedStates,itsproductionandexportationcontinued—meaningDDTcontinuedtobeavailableandlegalinregionswhereinsect-bornediseaseisespeciallydeadly.Theirargumentsalsoignoreanimportant“lesson”aboutDDT:thatit“alonedidnoteradicateinsect-bornediseases”—infact,theoversprayingandgeneralmisuseofDDTcreatedresistantinsects,exacerbatingthespreadofsuchdisease—“andthosediseaseshavebeencontrolledinplaceswithlittleornouseofDDT”(OreskesandConway226).This“disinformationcampaign,”likethoseofthetobaccoandchemicalindustries,distillsscientificcomplexityintofalselyblack-and-whiteterms.Thesedisinformationcampaignsgarnerpowerfromthemassmediaandtheformatofjournalisticdebate,whichexacerbatethemisrepresentationofscience.IntheyearspriortothepublicationofSilentSpring,televisionrosetothefore.Asmodernmassmediatechnologiesevolved,thegovernmenttook



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stepstoensurethatcoveragewouldremainfairandbalanced.The1949FairnessDoctrine,forinstance,mandatedthatjournalists“dedicateairtimetocontroversialissuesofpublicconcerninabalancedmanner”(OreskesandConway19).Inaccordancewiththedoctrine,broadcastcoverage“g[ave]equalweighttobothsides”ofadebate,“ratherthangivingaccurateweighttobothsides”(OreskesandConway19).Thiscreatednumerousproblemswhenscientifictopicswereupfordiscussion.“[S]cienceisnotaboutopinion”andyet,inthesescenarios,sciencewasveryoftenpositionedasonesideofadebatethatinvolveddifferingopinions.Thestructureofbroadcastdebates,inotherwords,positionedscientificproblemsnotasinvolvingquestionsofevidenceorexpertknowledge,butratherassubjectiveandopentointerpretation.AsOreskesandConwaysuggest:“thereareno‘sides’”inscience—“[t]hereissimplyacceptedscientificknowledge”(269).Thejournalisticformatalsonecessarilymeantthatverycomplexscientificquestionsandproblems—suchasecologicalnetworksorglobalenvironmentaltoxicity—werelumpedtogethertoformasingle,uniform,monolithic“side”ofagivenissue,meaningtheimmenserangeandnuanceofscientificknowledgethatmightinformviewers’thinkingwasseverelyflattenedout.“Hearing‘bothsides’ofanissue”inthiswaymight“mak[e]sensewhendebatingpoliticsinatwo-partysystem,”butdoesnottranslateintoscientificterms(OrekesandConway269).Inthisway,SilentSpring—itslongandvariedreceptionhistory,inparticular—pointsustowarddifferingconclusions.Ontheonehand,thetextadvocatesforandembodiesanewpactbetweenscienceandthepublic,whereinscientistsareaccountabletoAmericancitizensandlaypeopleareinvolvedinconversationsabouttheusesofscience.Atthesametime,SilentSpringalsoconveysthewaysinwhich,“[w]heneveryvoiceisgivenequaltime—andequalweight—theresultdoesnotnecessarilyserveuswell”(OreskesandConway240).Sohow,inaworldinwhichfactsareuncertain—orwhatsomehaverecentlycalledapost-factworld—dowetellgoodsciencefrombad?Howdowetellvalidfactsfromphonyones?Andhowdowestructuredebatesinvolvingscienceandpoliticssothatasmanyvoicesaspossiblearerepresentedwhileatthesametimeensuringthefactsarenotmisrepresentedorputtoirresponsibleuse?SilentSpringpointsustowardafewanswers.Thetask,howeverunfairly,beginswithreaders—withyou.Ifspecialinterestgroupsorthemassmediacannotbetrustedtosortthegoodsciencefromthebad—whetherbecauseofbias,inthecaseoftheformer,orthestructureofdebate,inthecaseofthelatter—citizensmustsetasidetheirassumptionsandeducatethemselvesabouttheactualconditionsandproductionofscientificknowledge.Packedtoburstingwithdifferentvoices—thoseofconcernedcitizensandscientists,ofjudgesandpoliticians,ofmenandwomen,ofhumansandnonhumans—SilentSpringdemonstrateshowscienceisacollective,publicendeavor.Insodoing,itasksreaderstosetasidethefantasyofthemaninthewhitecoatworkinginalaboratoryandtoreplaceitwithanimagethatmoreaccuratelyrepresentsthewaysinwhichscientificknowledgeisformulated.Carson’sextensivecitationsareareminderthatgoodscienceiswellresearchedandthoroughlyvettedbyacommunityofexpertpeers.Alllegitimatescientificresearchissubjecttoreview,and“[c]laimsthathavenotgonethroughthatprocess—orhavegonethroughitandfailed—arenotscientific”(OreskesandConway32).SilentSpringwasitselfsubjecttointensereview.Carsonsenteachchapterouttogroupsof“scientificexpertsforcomment”(Lear400).Allfoundthebooksoundinevidenceandimpressiveinargument,butone—anticipatingthat“[f]actsw[ould]notstandinthewayofsomeconfirmedpestcontrolworkersandthosewhoarereceivingsubstantialsubsidiesfrompesticidesandmanufactures”—scrutinizedthetextverycarefullyandCarsonreviseditinresponse(Lear401).



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It’sworthnotingthat,whilebadsciencemostcertainlydoesnotundergothesamekindofpeerreview,muchofitseemsatfirstglancetobelegitimate.Likegoodscience,junksciencecontainsfootnotesandwouldseemtohavebeenvettedbyacommunityofexperts.ButjustasthereismuchtolearnaboutCarson’scredentialsandtheintegrityofhersciencebyclosereadingherfootnotes,sotoodoesjunksciencerevealitselfassuchinitsuseofcitation.If,asCarsonwarnsus,thechemicalindustry,bigagricultureandmanyotherspecialinterestgroupsarecapableofmanipulatingscientificdatatomeetapre-determinedagenda,muchoftheevidenceliesincitation.Readerscanalsosortthebadsciencefromthegoodbyexploringthecredentialsandlegitimacyofastudy’spublisher,thefundingthatmadethestudypossible,etc.Manyofthesamestrategiescanbeappliedtojournalisticwriting.Itseemsnocoincidencethattheunsettlingofscientificfacthascoincidedinourcontemporarymomentwiththedelegitimationofindependentjournalismandthepublicpress.AsSilentSpringdebunksthedividebetweenscienceandpolitics,aswellasfactandvalue,italsotellsuswemustbemorevigilantthaneverbeforeinoureffortstoprotectgoodscienceandgoodjournalism—toprotectthevalidityofthefactandtheintegrityoftruth—fromthosewhoseektoestablishandcapitalizeontheunmooredpoliticsofapost-factworld.Carsonarguesthatscience’sgreateststrengthslieinitssenseofpossibility—intheuncertaintiesthatprovokeandinspirenewdiscoveryandknowledge—anditsresponsibilitytothepublic.ThereceptionhistoryofSilentSpringshowshowthesestrengthsarealso,perhapsironically,science’sgreatestvulnerabilities.CLOSEREADING:Inthepassagebelow,Carsonwritesabouthowscientificdiscoveryandknowledgeareperceivedbynon-scientistsascomparedtohowtheyactuallyunfold.Studentsmightclosereadittoexplorethisdisjunction,aswellasthewaysscienceisoftenrepresentedinfalselyblack-and-whiteterms.

Despitetheprominencethat‘magicbullets’and‘wonderdrugs’holdinthelayman’smind,mostofthereallydecisivebattlesinthewaragainstinfectiousdiseaseconsistedofmeasurestoeliminatediseaseorganismsfromtheenvironment.(240)Partofthepublictrustinsuchaneventualoutcomeresultsfromthemisconceptionthatcancerisasingle,thoughmysteriousdisease,withasinglecauseand,hopefully,asinglecure.Thisofcourseisfarfromtheknowntruth.Justasenvironmentalcancersareinducedbyawidevarietyofchemicalandphysicalagents,sothemalignantconditionitselfismanifestedinmanydifferentandbiologicallydistinctways.(241)[I]tisadisservicetohumanitytoholdoutthehopethatthesolutionwillcomesuddenly,inasinglemasterstroke.Itwillcomeslowly,onestepatatime…weareneglectingthegoldenopportunitytoprevent,evenwhileweseektocure…manhasputthevastmajorityofcarcinogensintotheenvironment,andhecan,ifhewishes,eliminatemanyofthem.(242)

UsethefollowingpassagetoexploreCarson’sargumentthatscientistsshouldbeinvolvedinpolicydebates,andthatscienceshouldbeaccountabletotheAmericanpublic.

Thecredibilityofthewitnessisoffirstimportance.Theprofessionalwildlifebiologistonthesceneiscertainlybestqualifiedtodiscoverandinterpretwildlifeloss.Theentomologist,whosespecialtyisinsects,isnotsodisqualifiedbytraining,andisnotpsychologicallydisposedtolookforundesirablesideeffectsofhiscontrolprogram.Yetitisthecontrolmeninstateandfederalgovernments—andofcoursethechemicalmanufacturers—whosteadfastlydenythefactsreportedbythebiologistsanddeclaretheyseelittleevidenceofharmtowildlife.(86)




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• Issciencepolitical?Whenshouldsciencebecomepolitical?Canscienceeverbetrulyimpartialandnon-political?Whocanorshouldbeinvolvedwithdecisionsthataffecttheenvironment?Whatdoeseachpoliticalpartyhavetooffer?

• What’sthedifferenceamongfact,truth,andtheory?Howaretheyusedgenerally?Inscience?Howdoyoudetermineaccurateversusequalweight?Whogetstodecidethat?

• Whenareyouabletotrustthesourceofwhatyouarereading?Forexample,whatarethestepsyoutaketotrustahistorytextbookversusanewsarticlereportingonascientificdiscovery?

THESCIENTISTASPUBLICINTELLECTUALSilentSpringdebutedatamomentinwhichtherewasfiercedebateabouttheroleandresponsibilitiesofscientists,therelationshipbetweenfactandvalue,andtheriseofjunkscience.Carsonbothbuiltonandfueledthesedebates.Sheisanexampleofhowitwasnotonlylaypeoplebutalsoscientistswhoparticipatedinthem.Thus,Egandescribesthepostwaryearsasmarking“[t]heriseofthepolitico-scientists,”who“help[ed]todevelopboththeintellectualandpoliticalwingsoftheAmericanenvironmentalmovement”(18).Manyscientists,likemembersoftheAmericanpublic,hadbecomeconcernedthatsciencecomprised“aneliteoutoftouchwithandunbeholdentothepublicandCongress”andthat,asaresult,scientificknowledgewasmorepronethaneverbeforetomisuse“becauseoffailuretobalancethecoldlogicofscientificthinkingwithexplicitattentiontohumanvalues”(Moore43).Inaneffortto“makegoodonthepromiseofscience,”politico-scientistslikeCarson“madepublicdebatesthathadpreviouslyoccurredamongscientistsinprivate”(Moore15).Sciencebecameacollectiveformofknowledgeandtheusestowhichitwasputwereincreasinglysubjecttowide-rangingdebateandoversight.Thoughmanyscientistsinsistedthatitwouldbeinappropriatetoinvolvethemselvesinpolicydiscussions—andthatwhatothersmadeofscientificknowledgewasnottheirmoralresponsibility—thereremainedagrowingsegmentofthescientificcommunitythatbelievedscientistswereethicallybeholdentotheAmericanpublic.Thesescientistsalsobelievedthatscientificknowledgewouldbebetterformakingitselfmoresociallyaccountable.Theysurmisedthatnew,lessfragmented,moreholisticformsofknowledgemightemergeifthedividesbetweennotonlyspecialistandgeneralistbutalsospecialistandspecialistweredismantled.SilentSpringcontendsthereisnoseparationbetweenmanythingsthatmightotherwiseseemseparate.Thesethingsinclude“naturalscience”and“socialresponsibility,”aswellasthedifferentfieldsofstudygroupedundertheheading“naturalscience”(Herron195).Carsoninthiswaymadeapowerfulargumentfortheculturalvalueofthepublicintellectual.Publishingbooksthatknowinglyunsettledtheboundariesbetween“partitionedknowledge”andencouragedotherstobecome“insurrectionarygeneralist[s]”likeherself,Carsonmadewidelyaccessibleforthefirsttimeanecologicalworldviewthatnecessitatedaradicalreimaginingofsomeofourmostbasicassumptionsaboutnatureandculture,humanandnonhuman,knowledgeandpolitics.ShedidsotoprovideabroadswatheoftheAmericanpublicwiththetoolsitneededtoidentifyandredressaballooningenvironmentalcrisisthatwouldinevitablyaffecteveryoneeverywhere.SilentSpringwasborneoftherecognitionthat“dissentandopendiscoursearevital”todemocracy,“butthesefreedomsarenotterriblyusefulifthepubliclacksthetoolsnecessarytomakeinformeddecisions”(Egan6).CarsonfitstoateethemoldofthepublicintellectualasdescribedbyEdwardSaid,oneofthemostinfluentialpublicintellectualsofthetwentiethcentury.SilentSpringbore“witnesstopersecutionandsuffering”—muchofwhichhadbeenlargelyinvisible—“andsuppli[ed]adissentingvoiceinconflicts



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withauthority”(Said27).Shealso“discern[ed]thepossibilitiesforactiveintervention”andworkedtoestablish“fieldsofcoexistence”—ofunobstructedintimacyandexchange—“ratherthanfieldsofbattle”(Said35).Whereasthechemicalindustryandothersinpositionsofpowertriedtheirhardesttomaintainthestatusquoby“crush[ing]dissent,”Carsonpopularizedanequallypowerful“counterdiscoursethatw[ould]notallowconsciencetolookawayorfallasleep”(Said31and35).KeytoCarson’sworkasapublicintellectualwasherworkasa“gobetwee[n]”or“highlymotivatedtranslato[r]”(Nixon27).ShepossessedwhatLisaH.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoorecall“anextraordinarygiftfortranslation”thatenabledhertotransportexpertknowledgeacrossboundariesandsynthesizeitforaninexpertaudience(2).Butcritically,thisexchangewentbothways.IfCarsonmadescientificknowledgeaccessibletogeneralists,shealsotookthediscerningobservationsanddeepeningconcernsofgeneralistsseriously.She“grant[ed]statustotheworriesofordinarycitizens,”demandingthatscientistsembracetheirsocialcontractwiththepublicandtake“ordinary”voicesseriously(Norwood169).Carson’sworkasapublicintellectualremindsusthatscienceisapowerfulforceofsocialchange.Howeversealedoffordryoropaqueitmightsometimesappear,“scienceisaboutstudyingtheworldasitactuallyis—ratherthanaswewishittobe”—andtherefore“willalwayshavethepotentialtounsettlethestatusquo”(OreskesandConway236).AndunsettlethestatusquoSilentSpringdid.NotonlydiditcatalyzethemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement,butitalsocontributedtoanincreasinglyheateddebateabouttheusesandaccountabilityofscience.WhereasimmediatelyfollowingWorldWarIIthefundingmechanismsanddebatesofsciencecomprised“aclosedloopintowhichthepubliccouldnotenter,”scientistsandmembersofthepublicalikebegantorealizethataslongassciencewas“highlydependentonthestateandespeciallythemilitary”itwouldremainina“high-risksituation”(Moore34).Bythemid-1960s,however,thingsbegantochange.“[T]herewasbroadconsensusamongthepublicandpoliticalleadersthatthenation’sscientificprogramhadtomove‘fromapoliticallyelitistprogramtoapoliticallyresponsiveenterprise’”(Moore34).WiththehelpofCongress,decisivestepsweretakentoreorienttherelationshipbetweenscienceandpublic.Theseincluded“theformationofProjectThemis,whichprovideddefense-relatedresearchgrantstouniversitiesthathadnotpreviouslyreceivedthem”;“the1968congressionalauthorizationoftheNSF[NationalScienceFoundation],whichrequiredittofundappliedaswellasbasicresearch,makethesocialscienceseligibleforfunding,andrequiredCongresstoapprovetheNSFbudget”;andthefundingof“oneofthemostexpensivescientificprojectseverundertakenintheUnitedStates:theApollomoonlandingprogram”(Moore35).Themoonlandingprojectwassignificantbecause,whileNASAwasoriginallyestablished“asaresponsetocoldwarconcerns,onlyoneofitsexplicitlystatedgoalswasmilitarybenefit”(Moore35).ProjectslikethemoonlandingprogramproducedanddisseminatedscientificknowledgeusingpublicchannelsofcommunicationandaffordedacollectiveexperiencefortheAmericanpublicgroundedinscience.Soon,“NASA’sfundingbecamelavish,outstrippingallotheragenciesexcepttheDOD[DepartmentofDefense]”(Moore35).Finally,“[t]he1969EnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)”wasanotherlandmark,for“[i]trequiredcitizenparticipationinthereviewofprojectsthatmightaffecttheenvironment,effectivelyinvitingthepublictobecomeinvolvedinchallengestothescientificargumentsputforthonbehalfofcompaniesandgovernmentagenciesengagedinworkthataffectednature”(Moore37).Sciencewasthusreroutedtobetteraccountforitssocialresponsibilities.Likewise,citizenswerenewlyempoweredtoparticipateintheprocessesanddebatesthroughwhichscientificknowledgewasproduced.



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Buttheriseofthescientistaspublicintellectualandthechangesthatfollowedhaveproventobesomethingofadouble-edgedsword.Historiansacknowledgethat,thoughthesechangesproducedmuchgoodbyelevatingtheroleofscientificknowledgeinpolicydebateandincreasingitspublicaccountability,thesedevelopmentssimultaneouslyundercuttheintegrityofthescientist—atleastasperceivedbythepublic.OreskesandConwayobservehoweasilyascientist“maybeaccusedof‘politicizing’science”ifshe“jumpsintothefrayonapoliticallycontestedissue”(264).Scientistsoftenfindthemselves“inadoublebind:thedemandsofobjectivitysuggestthattheyshouldkeepalooffromcontestedissues,butiftheydon’tgetinvolvednoonewillknowwhatanobjectiveviewofthematterlookslike”(OreskesandConway264).Eganarguesforthisreasonthat“socialactivismcameataconsiderablecost”because“thepolitico-scientists’reputationaspureresearcherssuffered”(Egan45).Theywereperceivedtohaveviolatedtheprinciplesensuringtheirresearchisuncompromisedbybiasoroutsideinfluence.Assuch,theriseofthescientistaspublicintellectual“helpedcontribute,ironically,toaweakeningof[scientists’]politicalauthority”(Moore15).MarcEdwards’fighttoexposethewatercrisisinFlint,Michigan—wheredrinkingwaterisdangerouslypolluted—isacaseinpoint.AstheNewYorkTimesnotes:“Edwards’sdecisiontochampionthecauseofactivistsisnotonescientiststypicallymake,”because“[s]cientistswhotransgressth[e]line[betweenneutralandpartisan]tendtohavetheircredibilityimpugned”(Hohn).ButEdwardsandmanyotherscientists“believethat,adheredtorigorously,thescientificmethodprovidessomeprotectionfrombias,politicalorotherwise”(Hohn).Thetakeawayisthatifascientist’stakesanactiviststance,thatstancedoesnotnecessarilyposeathreattoorcallintoquestiontheintegrityorvalidityofherresearch.Furthermore,Edwardshaspointedoutthatwhile“[h]ewouldprefertoremaindispassionate…hisexperiencesin…Flinttaughthimthatneutralitycarriesitsownrisks”(Hohn).Edwardsbelievesthat“theideaofscienceasapublicgoodisbeinglost”atpresent(qtd.inHohn).Itseemsthedouble-bindthatCarsonfacedisbackinfullforce(andperhapsneverwentaway):“Americansarelesswillingtodefertotheauthorityofscientificexperts”becausethoseexpertshavefailedthemand,yet,recoveringscienceasanethicalforce—aforcefor“thepublicgood”—requiresscientiststotakestandsthatwouldseem,howeverfalsely,tocompromisetheirneutrality(Hohn).WehaveinmanywayscircledbacktotheyearsleadinguptothepublicationofSilentSpring.Howwewillsurmounttheimpassesbetweenscienceandpolitics,factandvalue,scientistandactivisthasyettobedecided.CLOSEREADING:Thefollowingpassagearticulatesoneofthepublicintellectual’scriticalresponsibilities:elevatingthevoicesofthosewhoareexcludedfromorsilencedbythoseinpower—thosewhoprotectthestatusquo.SilentSpringdemonstrateshowthesevoicesarenotonlyhuman,butalsoanimal.Toexploretheseideas,studentsmightfocusonCarson’suseofthephrase“mutetestimony,”theconfluenceofthe“scientific”andthe“moral,”andwhatthesethingstellusaboutCarson’scommitmentsasascientistaccountabletoapublicaudience.

IncidentsliketheeasternIllinoissprayingraiseaquestionthatisnotonlyscientificbutmoral.Thequestioniswhetheranycivilizationcanwagerelentlesswaronlifewithoutdestroyingitself,andwithoutlosingtherighttobecalledcivilized.Theseinsecticidesarenotselectivepoisons;theydonotsingleouttheonespeciesofwhichwedesiretoberide…Thesecreaturesareinnocentofanyharmtoman.Indeed,bytheirveryexistencetheyandtheirfellowsmakehislifemorepleasant.Yetherewardsthemwithadeaththatisnotonlysuddenbuthorrible.ScientificobserversatSheldondescribedthesymptomsofameadowlarkfoundneardeath:‘Althoughitlackedmuscularcoordinationandcouldnotflyorstand,it



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continuedtobeatitswingsandclutchwithitstoeswhilelyingonitsside.Itsbeakwasheldopenandbreathingwaslabored.’Evenmorepitifulwasthemutetestimonyofthedeadgroundsquirrels,which‘exhibitedacharacteristicattitudeindeath.Thebackwasbowed,andtheforelegswiththetoesofthefeettightlyclenchedweredrawnclosetothethorax...Theheadandneckwereoutstretchedandthemouthoftencontaineddirt,suggestingthatthedyinganimalhadbeenbitingattheground.’Byacquiescinginanactthatcancausesuchsufferingtoalivingcreature,whoamongusisnotdiminishedahumanbeing?(99-100)


• Havestudentsdoaprofileonagovernmentalagency,corporation,ornon-profitthattheydeemtobepublicallyuntrustworthy.Whatarethegoalsofthisorganizationandhowdoesitachievethem?Wheredoesitfailinmeetingpublicexpectationsandwhataremeasuresthatithastakentomakerecompense?Ifalongerproject,studentscantakeoppositesidesinadebateoverorganizationsoftheirchoosing:forexample,onestudentrepresentingBPaftertheoilspillin2010,andtheotherrepresentingafederalprosecutororFEMA.

• Havestudentspickarecentscientificdiscoverytheyheardaboutinthenewsanddoapresentationontheunreportedaspectsofthestory.Forexample,theFlintwatercrisis,orfrackinginWisconsin.Studentsshouldevaluatethesourcestheyfind,includingtheidentityoftheauthor(s).

• Havestudentschooseandwatchafilmaboutawhistleblower(i.e.MichaelClayton,ErinBrockovich,Silkwood,TheConstantGardener,TheInsider)andwriteabouttherepresentationoftruthandhowthemediaandindustryinteractinthefilm.

• Havestudentsbuildavisualrepresentationoftherelationshipamongknowledge,objectivity,neutrality,andactivism.Thiscantaketheshapeofaflowchartofhowthesethingsinteract,oraPowerPointaboutoneparticularenvironmentalorhealthcrisisthattouchesonalloftheseconcepts.

Note:thefollowingclip,inwhichJonStewartdefendshisroleaspoliticalsatirist,mightbeofinspiration:



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OBJECTIVE:Toexploretherelationshipbetweenliteratureandscience;thecentralityofapocalypsenarrativestothemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovement’sactiviststrategy;andtheinfusionofpoetryandproseinSilentSpring.PREPARATORY&RECOMMENDEDREADINGBelknap,RobertE.TheList:TheUsesandPleasuresofCataloguing.YaleUniversityPress,2004.Bonneuil,ChristopheandJean-BaptisteFressoz.TheShockoftheAnthropocene:TheEarth,Historyand


AmericanCulture.HarvardUniversityPress,1996.Clark,Timothy.TheCambridgeIntroductiontoLiteratureandtheEnvironment.CambridgeUniversity

Press,2011.Dawson,Ashley.Extinction:ARadicalHistory.ORBooks,2016.Elder,John.ImaginingtheEarth:PoetryandtheVisionofNature.UniversityofIllinoisPress,1985.Felstiner,John.CanPoetrySavetheEarth?:AFieldGuidetoNaturePoems.YaleUniversityPress,2009.Heise,UrsulaK.SenseofPlaceandSenseofPlanet:TheEnvironmentalImaginationoftheGlobal.Oxford

UniversityPress,2008.Lear,Linda.RachelCarson:WitnessforNature.MarinerBooks,1997.Morton,Timothy.TheEcologicalThought.HarvardUniversityPress,2010.Nixon,Rob.SlowViolenceandtheEnvironmentalismofthePoor.HarvardUniversityPress,2013.Norwood,Vera.MadeFromThisEarth:AmericanWomenandNature.UniversityofNorthCarolina

Press,1993.Purdy,Jedediah.AfterNature:APoliticsfortheAnthropocene.HarvardUniversityPress,2015.Sideris,LisaH.andKathleenDeanMoore.“Introduction.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.Lisa

H.SiderisandKathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.1-15.Twidle,Hedley.“RachelCarsonandthePerilsofSimplicity:ReadingSilentSpringfromtheGlobalSouth.”

Ariel44.4(2014):49-88.Williams,Raymond.Keywords:AVocabularyofCultureandSociety.OxfordUniversityPress,1976.Williams,TerryTempest.“OnePatriot.”RachelCarson:LegacyandChallenge.Ed.LisaH.Siderisand

KathleenDeanMoore.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2008.16-28.UNITORGANIZATIONThisunitisdividedintothreesub-sections:“Literature&Science”;“NarratingApocalypse”;and“ThePoetryofProse.”Eachofthesesub-sectionsdevelopspointsforuseinlecture,followedbysuggestedpassagesforclassdiscussionandquestionsforfurtherinquiry.Theunitconcludeswithideasforin-classactivitiesandstudentprojects.LITERATURE&SCIENCESilentSpringisaworkofscience.Itisalsoaworkofliterature.Allworksofscienceareworksofliteratureandcanbereadassuch.Scientifictexts,likenovelsorpoetry,possessgenericandformalcharacteristics.They,too,areconstructed—theyaremade.Justasclosereadingliteraryworksrevealsmanylayersofmeaningandcomplexity,thesamecanbesaidforscientifictexts.Thismightcomeasasurprise,giventhatliteratureandscienceareimaginedashavinglittleifanythingincommon.Theywouldseemtorepresentverydifferentwaysofimaginingorviewingtheworld.Butscienceand

UNIT6•LITERATUREANDSCIENCE



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literaturehavenotalwaysstoodapartfromoneanother.Whereas“[s]ciencemaynowappeartobeaverysimple”orself-evident“word,”itwasonce“generallyused,ofteninterchangeablywithart,todescribeaparticularbodyofknowledgeorskill”—atrendthatcontinueduntiltheearlynineteenthcentury(R.Williams216).Alookattheentryfor“science”intheOxfordEnglishDictionarylistsanumberofsimilardefinitions:ageneral“stateorfactofknowing,”atheoreticalorconceptual—asopposedtomoralormethod-based—modeofunderstanding,a“craft”or“skilledprofession.”Eachofthesedefinitionsmightalsoapplytotheword“art,”whichdesignatesimaginativeandconceptualenterprise,aswellas“skillindoingsomething”(OED).Itseemsnocoincidencethatotherwordswethinkofasstrictlyscientificarenot.Take“technology,”forinstance,whoseGreekroot—techne—means“art”andwhoseearliestusedescribed“adiscourseortreatiseonanartorarts”(OED).Itwasonlyintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,asthemodernscientificmethodwasformalizedandthedisciplinesbegantobranchofffromoneanother,that“adistinctionbetweenartandscience”emerged(R.Williams216).Thisisalltosaythatthedividebetweenartandscienceisbynomeansnatural,preordained,orself-evident.Likethemanyotherdividesdiscussedacrossthisguide,itwasfashioned.Thus,whileartandsciencecananddodesignatewaysofknowingandbodiesofknowledgethataredistinct,theymightalsooverlapinunexpectedways.Theinterrelationshipofartandsciencesuggests,too,thatdistinctlyliterarymethodsofunderstanding(suchasclosereading)mightbeappliedtonon-literarytexts(suchasworksofscience)soastorevealthatwhichwouldotherwiseremaininvisible—tomakevisiblethosemeaningsthatescapenon-literarywaysofknowing.Readingscienceasliteratureinthiswayallowsustomovebeyond“thelimitsofcompetence”ordisciplinethatCarsonsodespised(Clark4).Italsodeconstructstheotherwise“completedivideoffactandvalue,”makinglegiblehowworksofsciencemightendorseor“disguiseissuesofmoralandpoliticalcontestation”evenastheycontributeempiricalknowledgetotheworld(Clark149).Asoutlinedintheprecedingunits,SilentSpringpossessesadeepsenseofvalue—ofwhatisworthpreservingorsavingandwhatisnot—evenasitisalsoscientificallysound.ReadingSilentSpringasaworkofscienceandliteraturehelpsustrackthewaysthesedifferentlinesofthinkingareinterwoveninthetext.Carsonwouldhaveendorsedthismodeofreading.Her“firstambitionwastobeacreativewriter,”notascientist(Buell290).Shemadealivingonintertwiningthesetwopartsofherself,whichsheunderstoodnotasdissonantbutcompatible.CarsonannouncestheinterrelationshipofscienceandliteraturefromtheoutsetofSilentSpringusinganepigraph:asetoflinestakenfromJohnKeats’spoem,“LaBelleDameSansMerci.”Thisinterrelationshipechoesacrossallofherwork.Inher1952acceptancespeechfortheNationalBookAwardforNonfiction,shesaid:“Theaimofscienceistodiscoverandilluminatetruth.Andthat,Itakeit,istheaimofliterature”(qtd.inFelstiner13).Likewise,inherintroductiontoUndertheSea-Wind(1941),sheadmitsto“hav[ing]deliberatelyusedcertainexpressionswhichwouldbeobjectedtoinformalscientificwriting”(Buell206).ForCarson,non-scientificmodesofexpressionconveyedmeaningastruthfulastheknowledgeproducedbyscience.Theypermittednewandcrucialwaysofimaginingtheworldanditsnonhumanbeingsassentientandaskin.Suchmodesofexpressionallowedhertomovebeyondthedividebetweensubjectandobject,humanandnonhuman—topositsomethingasamorphousandalienastheseaasa“centralcharacter”whoactsandfeels,andthusinspiresasenseofresponsibilityorconcerninCarson’sreaders.SilentSpring’sopening“FableforTomorrow”demonstratesthemanyconceptualpossibilitiesthatemergewhenscienceandliteraturearedeliberatelyintertwined.“Byclustering”together“scatteredmicrodisastersintoasingleimaginarycommunity,”Carsondrewtogetherseemingly



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localordistinctmodesofenvironmentaldegradationtocreateanovertlyfictionalandyetchillinglyrealizableapocalypticfuture(Nixon64).Thefableisaworkoffictioninsofarasitscompositevisionofapocalypsedidnotyetexist.Thefableisaworkofnonfictioninsofaraseachofitscomponent“microdisasters”wererealanditsresultingmacrodisasterwithintherealmofpossibility,shouldnoactionbetakentostopthespreadofenvironmentaltoxicity.SilentSpringthusdemonstratesthatartorliterature—howeverimaginaryorimmaterialtheyseem—possessreal,material,ethicalconsequencesforourorientationtowardotherhumans,aswellasnonhumansandtheplanet.AsCarsonpopularizedecologicalscience,sherevealedtheomnipresenceofimaginationinenvironmentaldiscourseandpolicy.Ecologyaffordsaparticularformof“environmentalimagination,”accordingtoCarson,thatcallsintoquestion“howweseeandhowwelearntosee,howwesupposetheworldworks,howwesupposethatitmatters,andwhatwefeelwehaveatstakeinit”(Purdy6-7).WhenCarsonwrites,forinstance,ofhumankind’s“depressingrecordofdestruction”andmentionsinparticular“theslaughterofbuffaloonthewesternplains”(85),shewritesofthewayscolonialvisionsoffuturitycoincidewithimaginativefantasy—ofhowEuropeanscametoAmericawithanimaginedplanofprogress,conquest,andprosperityinmind,andthenclearedthelandofhumansandnonhumanstorealizethatdream.AsdiscussedextensivelyinUnits2,3&4,contestsoverenvironmentare“contestsoverimagination”(Purdy10).SilentSpringlocatesinecologicalscienceanewandnecessaryaesthetics—adistinctlyecologicalformofenvironmentalimaginationthatpossessesaverydifferent,increasinglypressingsenseofethicsandmaterialconcern.Asitcritiqueshumankind’swaragainstnature,SilentSpringshowsushow“weliveourlivesbymetaphors”—suchas“progress”or“improvement”—“thathavecometoseemdeceptivelytransparentthroughlongusage”andwhich“callattentiontothepoweroflanguage”andofimaginationintheworld(Buell3).“Howweimageathing,trueorfalse,”Carsontellsus,“affectsourconducttowardit”inconsequentialways(Buell3).InSilentSpring,ecologicalscience—liketheterm“Anthropocene”(seeUnits1&2)—doesnotamounttoamere“statementoffact”(Purdy2).EcologyisforCarson“awayoforganizingfactstohighlightacertainimportancethattheycarry”(Purdy2).Itisasmuchaestheticasitisscientific,makingpossiblenewwaysofimaginingtheinterrelationshipbetweenhumanandnonhuman,aswellasourenvironmentalpresentandfuture.ThelegallegaciesofSilentSpringalsodemonstratethewaysinwhich“imagination,”likescience,“isintenselypractical”(7).IfSilentSpringmadeaccessiblecomplexecologicalsciencethatpossessedseriousimplicationsforindustryandenvironment,itwasonlythroughtheworkofimaginationthatdecisiveactionwastaken.“Law,”asJedediahPurdyargues,“isthecircuitbetweenimaginationandthematerialworld”(22).CarsonandotheractivistsinthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementenvisionedamoresymbioticrelationshipbetweenhumankindandplanet—theyimaginedaverydifferentenvironmentalfuturethatmightreplacethethreatofanapocalypticone.Theseimaginingstookmaterialeffectthroughlegislativereforms,which“choreograph[ed]”orrerouted“humanaction”andindustrialactivityto“provid[e]theimplicitblueprintofthelandscapearchitecture”forarenewed,healthy,vibrantplanet.Itwasimagination,inotherwords,thatvisualizedaworldinwhichthebaldeaglewasnotonthevergeofextinctionasaresultofDDTpoisoning.ItwaslegislativeactionliketheEndangeredSpeciesActsthatmadethisimaginedworldmaterial.SilentSpring—bothincontentandlegacy—confirmswhatPurdyargues:“Thehistoryoflaw,politics,andpowerisalsothehistoryofimagination”(30).



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Forthisreason,agrowingnumberofscholarsarguethatweneedimagination—andtheimaginative,speculative,conceptualdisciplinesofthehumanities—nowmorethaneverbefore.Theformsofenvironmentaldegradationwefaceatpresentare“vasterbyordersofmagnitudethantheworstenvironmentalprospectsofearliertimes”(Purdy200).Threatsof“systemicfailure”—suchasthoseoutlinedinSilentSpring—areextremelydifficulttounderstand,andrequirenewlyinterdisciplinaryandovertlyconceptualmodesofthoughtinordertodoso.Thecurrentcrisishighlightshow“familiarapproachesarefailingtomatchnew”andincreasinglyexpansive“problems”(Purdy20).Thus,scholarsinaburgeoningfieldcalledtheenvironmentalhumanitiescontendthatwemust“tak[e]seriouslyandlear[n]toworkwiththenaturalsciences”(BonneuilandFressozxiii).Weneedthehumanitiesandthesciences,andweneedthemtogether.Atthesametime,itisimportantthatthedistinctionsbetweenthesefields—themodesofquestioning,methodsofinquiry,andformsofproductionthatareuniquetothem—bepreserved.Scholarsworkinginthehumanitiescannotsimply“becom[e]merechroniclersofanaturalhistoryofhumaninteractionsbetweenthehumanspeciesandtheEarthsystem”(BonneuilandFressozxiii).If“itisnotenoughtomeasureinordertounderstand,”thenthehumanitiesmustprotectthatwhichisdistinctivetothemevenastheyalsoworkcloselywiththesciencestotranscendthe“fissures”betweendisciplinesanddevelopnewwaysof“[r]ethinkingthepasttoopenupthefuture”(BonneuilandFressozxiii).Thisiswhatinterdisciplinaryworklookslikeatitsbest:notaflatteningoutofthedifferencesbetweenfieldsofinquirytocreateashapeless,inflexible,monolithicwayofthinking,butanattentiontocommonpointsofinquiryorconcernatwhichdistinctfieldsconverge,howthesefieldsapproachsuchproblemsindifferentways,whatitmightmeantothinkacrossthesedifferentwaysofthinking,andwhatindividualfieldsofinquirymightgainbyseeingthingsfromanotherdisciplinaryperspective.Imaginationiscentraltothisproject.Ithasalreadyandwillcontinuetoprovecrucialtotheefficacyofourresponsetothepressingenvironmentalchallengeswefacetoday.Take,forinstance,thefactthat“[a]majorchallenge”standinginthewayofeffectiveresponse“isrepresentational:howtodevisearrestingstories,images,andsymbolsadequatetothepervasivebutelusiveviolenceofdelayedeffects,”ofenvironmentaldegradationthatremainsrelativelyinvisible,orofgargantuanconcepts—likeclimateorplanet—thatpushthelimitsofcomprehensionandthuschallengeourabilitytounderstandandrespond(Nixon3).Muchofthecurrentstruggleagainstenvironmentalcrisishinges,asRobNixonargues,onthe“struggle[e]togiveshapetoamorphousmenace”(10)—to“giv[e]theunapparentamaterialityuponwhichwecanact”(16),tomakevisiblethatwhichcanremainalltooeasily“outofsightoutofmind”(20),andtoofferthebeginningsofananswertothequestionof“[w]hogetstosee,andfromwhere”(15).TheopeningchapterofSilentSpring,“AFableforTomorrow,”servespreciselythispurpose,asdoestheoverarchingchapterstructureofthetextasawhole.Both“plot”orlenda“shapetoformlessthreats”(Nixon10),mappingthemacrossspaceandtimesothattheymightbeseenandunderstood.Literature—and,morebroadly,thehumanities—arethuscriticaltounderstandingandrespondingtoenvironmentalcrisis.Thiscrisispresentssignificant“representational,narrative,andstrategicchallenges”thatfieldsofspeculative,aesthetic,historicalinquiryarebestequippedtotakeon(Nixon2).Theproblemofscaleisacaseinpoint.Asmentionedbrieflyabove,amajorobstacletounderstandingourcurrentenvironmentalchallengesisscalar:howdowerespondtoacrisisthatunfoldsonscalesthateludeourperceptionandpushthelimitsofourcomprehension?ThisisaquestionSilentSpringexplores.Itisalsoacentralpointofdebateintheenvironmentalmovement.Ecology—withitsattention



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tokinshipsthatcutacrosseverythingfromthemicroscopictothecosmic—forcesustoconsider“atwhatscaleorscalesshouldonethinkorworkinenvironmentalpolitics”(Clark136).Manyofushaveheardthepopularslogan“Thinkglobally,actlocally,”whichwouldseemtosuggestamirroringbetweenthelocalandtheglobal.Itimplies,inotherwords,thatlarge-scaleenvironmentalproblemscanbeaddressedonsmall-scaleregisters—thatthelocalisamicrocosmicembodimentoftheglobal,andthatindividualactionwillproduceachangeinthewhole.UrsulaK.HeisetracesthiswayofthinkingbacktothehistoricalmomentinwhichSilentSpringemerged,wherein“anentireplanetbecomesgraspableasone’sownlocalbackyard”(4).SilentSpringoftenimaginesthelocalandglobalasmappingontooneanotherinthisway.Yet,Carson’secologicalworldviewalsodemonstrateshow“scalecanvaryenormously”(Heise45).Inanecologicalcontext,thereareno“naturalboundaries”(Heise45).If,inotherwords,“identitiesareattheircoremadeupofmixtures,fragments,anddispersedallegiancestodiversecommunities”—ifindividualsareporoustooneanotherandtheboundarylinesbetweenthemareunsettled—itbecomesdifficultifnotimpossibletoestablishascaleaccordingtowhichwecanmapenvironmentalproblems.What,inthecontextofplanetaryenvironmentalcrisis,islocal?Istheindividualstilltheappropriateunitformeasuringthelocal,andwhatconstitutesanindividualinanecologicalcontext?Orshouldwefocusinsteadonotherunitsthatare,liketheindividual,relativelysmallincomparisontotheglobal(suchasregionornation)?Andhowdowemakesenseofthewaystheglobal,ontheonehand,affordsanessentialscaleforimaginingwidespreadenvironmentalcrisiswhile,ontheotherhand,attendingtohowtheglobalflattensoutdifferenceorparticularityinpotentiallydangerousways?Howdowethinktheglobalwhilealsobeingcognizantofthewaysit“doesnotrepresentuniversalhumaninterest”(MiesandShiva9)andcaneraseimportantlocaldistinctions?Thescaleatwhichweimagineandrespondtoproblems—environmentalorotherwise—mightseemlikeaneutralquestion,butthisbriefdiscussiondemonstrates“howattachmentstoaparticularcategoryorscaleofplacecanshiftinvalueandfunction”(Clark59).Justasweneedawayofthinkingacrossdisciplinaryboundariesthatatthesametimepreservesdisciplinarydifference,wealsoneedawayofthinkingacrossscalessothatourresponsetoenvironmentalcrisisisasequitableaspossible—sothatourresponsedoesnotsubscribetoasinglescaleoflogicandthuscoincide,howeverinadvertently,withthedominant“interest”andvaluesofthosewhopossesspower.Thisisonereasonscholarsarguethatitisnotonlysciencebutalsothehumanitiesthatarepositionedtomakesignificantcontributionstocontemporarydebatesaboutenvironmentalcrisisandreform.Weliveinamomentwhensuchdebatesmust“thinkonseveralscalesatonce”(Clark136).AsSilentSpringattendstothelocalandtheglobal,theirprofoundinterconnectionandtheirdifference,itdemonstratesthepowerofliteraturetoholddifferentscalesinsimultaneityand,thus,toenvisionenvironmentalcrisisinholisticandyetcomplex,nuanced,dynamicways.“Relocat[ing]theconceptofecologyfrom‘outthere’(thewilderness,theforestreserve,theoceanicisland)to‘inhere,’”SilentSpringgathersargumentativestrengthfromits“ab[ility]tomovebetweendifferentworldsanddifferentscales”(Twidle79).Itisbywayofthisscalarmobilitythatthetextreveals“thesheerothernessofnonhuman”—andhuman—“life,”and“thepressurethatitexertsattheboundariesofhumanrepresentation”(Twidle75).Carsonsuggestedasignificantconsequenceforwidespreadenvironmentaltoxicityisthedepletionoftheimagination—ofthatwhichseemsmostindicativeofthehuman.Arguingthattheunthinkingexterminationofanimallife“diminishe[s]”usas“humanbeing[s],”sheillustrateshowtheextraordinarycapacityofhumankindtoactupontheplanethasdevelopedalongsideandperhapsthroughthe



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impoverishmentofimaginativecapacity(100).Thus,anenvironmentteemingwithnaturalbeauty—“driftsofwhiteclover,”“cloudsofpurplevetch,”“theflamingcupofawoodlily”—isreducedby“thosewhomakeabusinesssellingandapplyingchemicals”toanoxioustangleofweedsindesperateneedoferadication(71).Whenwepurchasethesesame“chemicals”foruseathome,ourimaginationsaresimilarlybankrupted—ourcapacitytoappreciateandlocatevalueinthebeautyofa“weed,”andtorecognizeourecologicalinterconnectionwithit,isweakened.Thisisapressingconcernforscholarsatpresent.AshleyDawsonlamentsthat“thewaveofextinctionthatisdecimatingplantsandanimalsaroundtheplanetstrikesatthemostintimateandpotentofhumanfaculties:ourabilitytoimagine”(102).Heobservesthat“[t]hepowerofhumandreamshashistoricallybeencloselytiedtothegenerativemultiformityoftheplantandanimallifethatsurroundsus”—itisthis“multiformity”thatgivesriseto“storieslikeTheTaleofPeterRabbit”thatgoontoshapeourlivesinlastingways(Dawson102).Andyet,asspeciesareeradicatedandlandscapesdecimated,“ourcapacitytodream,toimaginedifferent,moremanifoldworldsisradicallyimpoverished”(Dawson102-3).Carson’scontentionthatthehealthoftheenvironmentisintertwinedwiththatofthehumancapacitytoimagineisinthiswayprescient.SilentSpringinsiststhatliteratureandscienceareparallelmodesofinquiry,andsometimesgoessofarastosuggestthatimaginationiscentralto—orattheveryleastshouldcomplement—scientificenterprise.Thetextalsodemonstratesthecentralityofimaginationtoenvironmentaldiscourseandpolicy,suggestingthefateoftheplanetmighthanginthebalanceofwhichkindsofenvironmentalimaginationwechoosetoembrace,whichwesideline,andwhich—perhapsmostominously—weinadvertentlyeradicate.CLOSEREADING:Inthefollowingpassage,Carsonsuggeststhemajorityofhumansareunawareoftheprofoundbeautyandteemingactivitythatsurroundsthem.Studentsmightclosereadittoexplorehowimaginationmakesvisiblethatwhichisinvisible—howitprovidesaccesstothetrue“drama”ofnature,evenasitspowersareaestheticratherthanscientific.

70to80percentoftheearth’screaturesareinsects.Thevastmajorityoftheseinsectsareheldincheckbynaturalforces,withoutanyinterventionbyman…Thetroubleisthatweareseldomawareoftheprotectionaffordedbynaturalenemiesuntilitfails.Mostofuswalkunseeingthroughtheworld,unawarealikeofitsbeauties,itswonders,andthestrangeandsometimesterribleintensityofthelivesthatarebeinglivedaboutus.Soitisthattheactivitiesoftheinsectpredatorsandparasitesareknowntofew…weseewithunderstandingeyeonlyifwehavewalkedinthegardenatnightandhereandtherewithaflashlighthaveglimpsedthemantisstealthilycreepinguponherprey.Thenwesensesomethingofthedramaofthehunterandthehunted.Thenwebegintofeelsomethingofthatrelentlesslypressingforcebywhichnaturecontrolsherown.(249)

Askstudentstoclosereadthefollowingpassage,attendingtothewaysCarsonlocatesaestheticorimaginativevalueinnature.Focus,inparticular,onthequestionofthe“weed,”whichhighlightstheclashbetweendifferentformsofimaginingorknowinglandscape,andthematerialconsequencestheseconflictspossess.(Seepages71-2foranunabridgedversion.)

Iknowwellastretchofroadwherenature’sownlandscapinghasprovidedaborderofalder,viburnum,sweetfern,andjuniperwithseasonallychangingaccentsofbrightflowers,oroffruitshanginginjeweledclustersinthefall…thesprayerstookoverandthemilesalongthatroadbecamesomethingtobetraversedquickly,asighttobeenduredwithone’smindclosedtothoughtsofthesterileandhideous



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worldwearelettingourtechniciansmake.Buthereandthereauthorityhadsomehowfalteredandbyanunaccountableoversighttherewereoasesofbeautyinthemidstofaustereandregimentedcontrol—oasesthatmadethedesecrationofthegreaterpartoftheroadthemoreunbearable.Insuchplacesmyspiritliftedtothesightofthedriftsofwhitecloverorthecloudsofpurplevetchwithhereandtheretheflamingcupofawoodlily.Suchplantsare‘weeds’onlytothosewhomakeabusinesssellingandapplyingchemicals.(71)[M]anyofuswouldunquestionablybesuspect,convictedofsomedeepperversionofcharacterbecausewepreferthesightofthevetchandthecloverandthewoodlilyinalltheirdelicateandtransientbeautytothatofroadsidesscorchedasbyfire…Wewouldseemdeplorablyweakthatwecantoleratethesightofsuch‘weeds,’thatwedonotrejoiceintheireradication,thatwearenotfilledwithexultationthatmanhasoncemoretriumphedovermiscreantnature.‘Yetwasnotherrighttosearchoutabandedcuporatigerlilyasinalienableastherightofstockmentosearchoutgrassorofalumbermantoclaimatree?’asksthishumaneandperceptivejurist[JusticeDouglas,onprotestsbycitizensagainstplansforthesprayingofsagebrush].‘Theestheticvaluesofthewildernessareasmuchourinheritanceastheveinsofcopperandgoldinourhillsandtheforestsinourmountains.’(72)


• Whatdoyouthinkofwhenyouthinkofartversusscience?Howdoesanartist’screationdifferfromtheworkofascientist?Doyouknowofanywriters,artists,filmmakers,ormusicianswhoincorporatescientistsintheirwork?Doyouknowanyscientistswhouseartintheirwork?HowdoesSilentSpringcallintoquestionthedividebetweenartandscience?

• “Theaimofscienceistodiscoverandilluminatetruth.Andthat,Itakeit,istheaimofliterature”Doyouagreewiththis?Howdoesliteratureilluminatetruth?Howisthisbookaworkofliteratureandscience?Howdoesitsynthesizethosetwoformstobecomesomethingsingular?

NARRATINGAPOCALYPSESilentSpringgivesnarrativeshapetoanenvironmentalcrisisofsystemicandthusapocalypticproportions.Chronicling“thecontaminationofman’stotalenvironment”(8),Carsontracesan“intricateweboflifewhoseinterwovenstrandsleadfrommicrobestoman”(69).Shetellsastorythatmadevisiblewhatwasotherwiseinvisible—thatillustrateshow“[t]odayweareconcernedwithadifferentkindofhazard”which“weourselveshaveintroducedintoourworld”(187).Carsonwasacutelyawarethattheenvironmentalhazardswithwhichshewasconcerned“werevasterbyordersofmagnitudethantheworstenvironmentalprospectsofearliertimes”(Purdy200).Theecologicalimaginationmadethese“hazards”andtheirdestructivepotentialnewlylegible.If“interconnection”is“sodeepandwidespreadthatboundariesamongorganisms,places,andsystemsareneitherstablenorsecure,”then“[t]hesuburbswereunsafe”and“eventhebodywasnotsecure”(Purdy41).Carsonconjured“theapocalypticspecterofa‘poisonedworld’”inSilentSpringusingnarrativetechniques.Beginningwith“AFableforTomorrow”—whichchartsinminiaturethestorythatisabouttounfold—thetext’schaptersmoveprogressivelyfromthespacesofnaturetothehumanhomeandbody.SilentSpringculminateswiththeclimacticrevelationthat“NatureFightsBack”and,shouldwefailtochoose“TheOtherRoad,”an“Avalanche”ismostcertainlyheadedourway.TheformofCarson’snarrative—liketheecologicalwebshemaps—iscontinuousandinterpermeable.Thougheachchapterchartsaparticularecologicaldomain—soil,water,air,body—theyareatthesametimeinterwoven,hearkeningbacktoandforeshadowingoneanother.Thus,evenasSilentSpringtellsastoryaboutecologyandenvironmentaltoxicitythatpossessesabeginning,amiddleandanend(or,rather,twoendings),itsnarrativeform



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encouragesthereadertomovethroughbackandforththroughthetextinwaysthatarenotalwayslinear—tomakeconnectionsbetweenitspartsand,insodoing,totraceapatternsimilartotheweboflife.LawrenceBuellandmanyothershavedescribedSilentSpringasamarkingakeymomentinenvironmentaldiscoursewhereinvisionsofnatureandargumentsonbehalfofenvironmentalreformshiftedfromapastoraloridyllicsensibilitytoa“monstrous”one(291).Thecoreconceptsofecology,including“bioticcommunityandecosystem,”wererevealedbyCarsonas“readilyadaptabletoapocalypticends”(Buell302).ApocalypsewastobefoundnotonlyinCarson’simagery,whichwas“borrowedfrommilitaryholocaustreportage,”butalsofromabroader“apocalypticframeofreference”thatstructuresthetextasawhole(Buell86and293).SilentSpringisaworkofdystopianfictionevenasitisalsoaworkofscience.Itpopularizedthenarrativeof“doomsdaybyenvironmentalgenocide”thatisnowubiquitousinAmericanpopularculture,asillustratedbyrecentfilmslike“MadMax:FuryRoad”(Buell295).Readerswereandcontinuetobegrippedbyfictionsthat“portra[y]globalagriculturallandscapesgonesotoxictheycouldonlybeworkedbyrobots”—bystoriesthatfigure“collapseasglobalratherthanlocalornational”(Heise26).IfAmericanenvironmentalismdeveloped“powerfulvisionsoftheglobal”—suchas“theGaiahypothesis”—inresponsetoincreasinglylarge-scaleformsofenvironmentalcrisis,italsopioneeredandpopularizedapocalypticnarrativeformsthatwouldbringthiscrisischillinglyintoview(Heise20).WithCarson’shelp,apocalypsebecameacriticalrhetoricaldeviceforthemainstreamAmericanenvironmentalmovementinthe1960s.Itallowedenvironmentaliststo“projec[t]…thefutureofacivilizationthatrefusestotransformitselfaccordingtothedoctrineoftheweb”(Buell285).Thus,somearguethatapocalypsewasand“isthesinglemostpowerfulmastermetaphor”—themosteffectivemodeoftellingastoryaboutourenvironmentalpast,presentandpossiblefutures—“thatthecontemporaryenvironmentalimaginationhasatitsdisposal”(Buell285).Apocalypticnarrativeenabledenvironmentaliststo“conve[y]thedeadlyseriousnessofthecrisis”beforeitspotentialconsequencesbecameacertainty(Heise26).Itspower,inotherwords,derivednotonlyfromitsabilityto“addres[s]thefateoftheworldasawhole,”buttodosowhilealso“assum[ing]thattheEndoftheWorldcaninfactbeprevented”shouldappropriate,decisive,timelyactionbetaken(Heise141).Thus,invokingRobertFrost’spoem“TheRoadNotTaken,”Carsonwrites:“Westandnowwheretworoadsdiverge.ButliketheroadsinRobertFrost’sfamiliarpoem,theyarenotequallyfair.Theroadwehavelongbeentravelingisdeceptivelyeasy…butatitsendliesdisaster.Theotherforkoftheroad…offersourlast,ouronlychancetoreachadestinationthatassuresthepreservationofourearth”(277).Doweoptforapocalypseorfuturity?Adifferent“courseisopentous”(278),Carsoninsists,and“[t]hechoice…isourstomake”(277).SilentSpringharnessedapocalypseasanarrative“indicatoroftheurgencyofitscallforsocialchange”and,thus,“asaformofriskperception”thatjuxtaposed“desirableandundesirablefutures”whileaskingifthe“necessarytrade-offs”wouldbeworththeprice(Heise141).SomeargueCarson’snarrativestrategywasbothimperativeandeffective.Itaffordedawayofmakingthescopeandconsequencesofglobalenvironmentaltoxicitydigestiblewhileatthesametimeofferingthereassurancethattimehadnotrunout—thatchoosingadifferentfutureremainedpossible.ButdecadesafterthepublicationofSilentSpringothershavebeguntoquestionwhetherapocalypsenarrativesdomoreharmthangood.Whereasinthe1960sthesenarrativeshelpedcatalyzeamassenvironmentalmovementanda



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widespreadsenseofurgency,“[b]ythe1980s,thetoneoftheearlyecologicalerahadgivenwaytoanewmood—ofacrisisthatwasnotacutebutchronic”(Purdy226).Despiteenvironmentalists’warnings,“[e]nvironmentalapocalypsehadnotcome”(Purdy226).Crisistransformedfromapocalyptictonormalintone,and“[a]senseofurgency,ahintoftheendtimes,couldnotlastinthefaceofunrelentingnormality”(Purdy226).Furthermore,BonneuilandFressozunderstandtheword“crisis”aspossessing“adeceptiveoptimism”thatimplies“wearesimplyfacedwithaperilousturning-pointofmodernity,abrieftrialwithanimminentoutcome,orevenanopportunity”(21).Inthisway,apocalypsenarrativesare,despitetheirdystopiansubjectmatter,surprisinglynaïve:theymisunderstandandmisrepresentthecurrentenvironmentalcrisisas“atransitorystate”fromwhichtheplanetcanmakeafullcomebackshouldwechoosetoamendourways(BonneuilandFressoz21).Tobeabsolutelyclear:thisisnottosaythathumankindcannotorshouldnotdoanythingtothwarttheongoingandintensifyingenvironmentalproblemsofthepresent.Whatitistosayisthatrollingbacktheseproblemsandtheirconsequenceswillalmostcertainlynotreturnus—ornature—towherewewerepriortoindustrialization,theriseoffossilfuels,theGreatWars,andthegeologicalshiftintotheAnthropoceneepoch.Apocalypsenarrativesarepotentiallydangerousinsofarastheypromiseareturntonormalitywhena“returntothenormalityoftheHolocene”seemsincreasinglyimpossible(BonneuilandFressoz21).Theyalsounderestimate—or,attheveryleast,inadequatelygrapplewith—humankind’scapacity“tolivewith,andsometimestoaccommodateto,amultitudeofdailyecologicalriskscenarios”(Heise27).LawrenceBuellwonders:“Canourimaginationsofapocalypseactuallyforestallit,asourfearsofnuclearholocaustsofarhave?”(308).Heanswersthat“[e]ventheslimmestofpossibilitiesisenoughtojustifythenightmare”(Buell308).Isapocalypseanarrativestrategyworthpreservinginthetwenty-firstcenturyorisitoneofthose“familiarapproaches”whosevaluehasbeenexhausted?Doapocalypsenarrativesmotivateorexhaust—doestheirpotencyoutweightheirshortcomings?Orarethereother,moreaccurate,bettermotivatingtechniquesofrepresentationtowhichweshouldturninstead?Thesearequestionsstudentsmighttakeupinclassroomdebate.CLOSEREADING:Askstudentstocloseread“AFableforTomorrow”alongsidethefollowingpassages,whichoutlinetheglobalscopeofenvironmentaltoxicity,itshumancausation,andits“macabre”fruit.Studentsmightdebatethevalueofapocalypseimageryandnarrativeinenvironmentaldiscourseusingtheseexcerpts.

Somewould-bearchitectsofourfuturelooktowardatimewhenitwillbepossibletoalterthehumangermplasmbydesign.Butwemayeasilybedoingsonowbyinadvertence,formanychemicals,likeradiation,bringaboutgenemutations.Itisironictothinkthatmanmightdeterminehisownfuturebysomethingsoseeminglytrivialasthechoiceofaninsectspray.(8)

Itisnotpossibletoaddpesticidestowateranywherewithoutthreateningthepurityofwatereverywhere.SeldomifeverdoesNatureoperateinclosedandseparatecompartments,andshehasnotdonesoindistributingtheearth’swatersupply…[Groundwater]travelsbyunseenwaterwaysuntilhereandthereitcomestothesurface…Exceptforwhatentersstreamsdirectlyasrainorsurfacerunoff,alltherunningwateroftheearth’ssurfacewasatonetimegroundwater.Andsoinaveryrealandfrighteningsense,pollutionofthegroundwaterispollutionofwatereverywhere.(42)

InthegeneralholocaustthatfollowedthesprayingofsaltmarshesineasternFlorida,aquaticsnailsalonesurvived.Thesceneasdescribedwasamacabrepicture—somethingthatmighthavebeencreatedbya



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surrealistbrush.Thesnailsmovedamongthebodiesofthedeadfishesandthemoribundcrabs,devouringthevictimsofthedeathrainofpoison.(257-8)

InvokingRobertFrost’s“TheRoadNotTaken,”thefollowingpassageshowcasesthedystopianandutopianpossibilitiesofapocalypsenarrative.Framedassuch,environmentalcrisisisdangerousbutalsopreventable.Studentsmightusethispassagetoconsiderwhetherthissenseofapocalypse—asatoncedystopianandutopian—remainsaliveinthetwenty-firstcentury,andwhetherapocalypticnarrativesareadequaterepresentationaldevicesfortheenvironmentalchallengeswefaceatpresent.

Westandnowwheretworoadsdiverge.BunliketheroadsinRobertFrost’sfamiliarpoem,theyarenotequallyfair.Theroadwehavelongbeentravelingisdeceptivelyeasy,asmoothsuperhighwayonwhichweprogresswithgreatspeed,butatitsendliesdisaster.Theotherforkoftheroad—theone‘lesstraveledby’—offersourlast,ouronlychancetoreachadestinationthatassuresthepreservationofourearth.Thechoice,afterall,isourstomake.(277)[W]eshouldlookaboutandseewhatothercourseisopentous.(278)


• Whydoweenjoyimaginingtheapocalypse?What’stheliteraryuseoftheapocalypse?Theenvironmentaluse?Thepoliticaluse?Howistheapocalypseamodeofinquirysimilartoscientificmodesofinquiry?Orhastheapocalypse’susefulnessasaformbeenexhaustedbyitsiterations?

• DoesFrost’spoemholdupasawayofimaginingourcurrentworld?HowdoesCarsonimaginethetworoads?Whoelsehastraveledthesetworoads?Howwouldyoucharacterizethosetworoadsintermsofourenvironmentalhistory?

THEPOETRYOFPROSEAsscholarsroutinelyobserve:“Carson’sfirstambitionwastobeacreativewriter”(Buell291).Sheoncesaid:“Theaimofscienceistodiscoverandilluminatetruth.Andthat,Itakeit,istheaimofliterature”(qtd.inFelstiner13).SilentSpringservesasawindowintoCarson’sphilosophyofliteratureandscience,revealinghowsheintertwinedthemwithgreatskillandtogreateffect.Itseemsnocoincidencethat,thoughshevaluedimmenselythepraisethebookreceivedfromherscientificpeers,the“mostmeaningfulletterRachelreceived…wasonefromE.B.White”—belovedauthorofchildren’sclassicslikeCharlotte’sWeb—expressing“thegreatestrespectandadmiration”forCarson’s“courage”andpredictedSilentSpringwouldbecome“anUncleTom’sCabinofabook,—thesortthatwillhelpturnthetide”(qtd.inLear420-1).ButinSilentSpringCarsonisnotonlystoryteller—anarratorofapocalypse,aweaveroffictionsthatmightbecomereality.Sheisalsoapoet.Herchoiceofepigraph—takenfromJohnKeats’sballadicpoem,“LaBelleDameSansMerci”—isbothillustrativeofthetext’scontentandanhomagetoherbelovedBritishRomanticpoets.ScholarshavethusdescribedCarsonas“ascientistwhowrotelikeapoet”(SiderisandMoore3).Carson’sbooksontheseaareperhapsthemostovertlypoeticofherworks,butTerryTempestWilliamsarguesthatSilentSpringdemonstratesasmuchasanyotherworkbyCarson“herdualnatureasbothascientistandapoet”(25).Inthetext“weseehersignaturestrengthonthepage,andwitnesshowaconfluenceofpoetryandpoliticswithsoundsciencecancreateanethicalstancetowardlife”(T.Williams25-6).FlashesofpoetryglimmerandgleamintheproseofSilentSpring.TheycanbefoundinCarson’sgorgeousturnsofphrase—“driftingribbonsofwaterfowl



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acrossaneveningsky”(45)—andinitssenseof“lyricevocation”(Norwood258):thewaythetextinterweavesthevoicesofdifferentspeakersinmuchthesamewayasapoem,orhowitattendstothingsas“ephemeralandseeminglyinconsequentialasawildflower”anddrawsfromthemasenseofprofoundbeautyanddrama(Norwood259).LikeCarson’sseabooks,SilentSpringwaswrittenthroughthelensofapoet’seyeandframedusingapoet’sturnofphrase.Wetendtothinkofpoetryasobfuscatory—ashidingawayitsmeaning,astryingtooutsmartthereader,aswillfullyresistant.ButSilentSpringmobilizespoetryforverydifferentpurposesand,insodoing,suggeststhatmanyofthefoundationalassumptionswemakeaboutpoetryaremisguided.TimothyMortonarguesthat“allart…hardwirestheenvironmentintoitsform”(11)—thatthematerialsandstructuresofartandenvironmentareoneandthesame.Carsonarguedpreciselythispointinher1952acceptancespeechfortheNationalBookAwardforNonfiction:“Ifthereispoetryinmybookaboutthesea,itisnotbecauseIdeliberatelyputitthere,butbecausenoonecouldwritetruthfullyabouttheseaandleaveoutthepoetry”(qtd.inElder172-3).Towriteaboutnaturewas,forCarson,towritepoetry.Perhapsthisisbecausepoetry,likenature,isprofoundlyecological:itisaboutinterrelationships—aboutthewebsthatshapetheworldandourplaceinit.Mortondescribespoetryinpreciselytheseterms:“[t]heshapeofthestanzasandthelengthofthelinesdeterminethewayyouappreciatetheblankpaperaroundthem”(11).Poetry,likeecology,“organizesspace”asitgivesformtotheinterrelationalitiesbetweenthings(Morton11).SilentSpringisofcoursenotcomposedofstanzasandlinesthatpossessashiftingrelationshiptoblankspace.Sowhereisthepoetryintheprose,andhowdoesitmakevisiblethatwhichisotherwiseelusiveordifficulttounderstand?Ifpoetry,likeecology,isthatwhichsituatesthingsinrelationtooneanother—ifitisthatwhichtracesawebofcomplexinterrelationshipsandinterdependencies—thenoneanswertothisquestionliesinCarson’srepeateduse“ofquotationandallusion”(Twidle55).DrawinginterconnectionsbetweenSilentSpringandliteraryworksthatwereomnipresentinthemindsofAmericanreaders—Greekmyth,Romanticpoetry,LewisCarroll’sAliceinWonderland,theworksofRobertFrost—Carson’susedquotationandallusiontocreate“anintricate‘literaryecology’”withinthetextofSilentSpring.Shecreated,inotherwords,awebofdistinctandyetinterconnectedstoriesthattogetherwouldgiveillustrativeshapetothematerialecologicalrelationshipswithwhichshewasconcerned,thusmakingthescienceofthetextmoreaccessible.Carson’sliteraryecologyalsomadevisiblehowthe“fictions”and“mythswehavechosentoadopt”possessreal,materialconsequencesforhumankind’sorientationtowardnature—theyshowushow“ourobsessiontocontrolnature”isfueledasmuchbytheimaginationasitisbypracticaldesiresforresourcesandwealth(T.Williams18).Toreadandwritepoetry—tolivebystories,lines,turnsofphraseandevensinglewords(think,forinstance,of“progress”)thatcontainwithinthementirelogicsofrelationalitywhichthenshapeourethicsandactions—is,asCarsonargued,toreadandwritenature.ButthereisanotheraspectofSilentSpringthatteemswithpoetry:Carson’spredilectionforlists.Listsmightseemthecompleteoppositeofpoetry.Weusethemmostoftento“organiz[e]datarelevanttohumanfunctioningintheworld,fromfinancialtransactionstoknowledgeoftides,”“torecordcommercialexchangesorpropertyownership,”andtoimplement“[s]chemesofaccountancy”thatpossess“unambiguousexactness”(Belknap8).Listswouldseemdata-drivenandnumerical—theyprovideaframeworkfortrackingquantitativeinformation.“Butintheliterarysphere,”listsserveaverydifferentanddecidedlymorepoeticfunction(Belknap19).They“domorethanrecord”:theyalso



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“display,”“layout,”“arrange”—they“createreality,”sometimesasitisbutalsoasitmightbe(Belknap19).Thelistaffordsawayof“hold[ing]separateanddisparateitemstogether“andthinkingacrossthem—ofmapping“constellations”ofinterrelationality(Belknap2and9).Theyareemphaticallypoetic.Likepoetry,theypossessavarietyofforms,theyunfoldthrough“repetition”and“conjunction,”theyhaveakindofrhythm(Belknap28).ItisdifficulttoreadoneofCarson’smanylistsandnotslipintotheimpressionthatoneisreadingapoem.Take,forexample,thefollowingpassage:

BotanistsattheConnecticutArboretumdeclarethattheeliminationofbeautifulnativeshrubsandwildflowershasreachedtheproportionsofa‘roadsidecrisis.’Azaleas,mountainlaurel,blueberries,huckleberries,viburnums,dogwood,bayberry,sweetfern,lowshadbush,winterberry,chokecherry,andwildplumaredyingbeforethechemicalbarrage.Soarethedaisies,black-eyedSusans,QueenAnne’slace,goldenrods,andfallasterswhichlendgraceandbeautytothelandscape.(70)

The“graceandbeauty”ofthelandscapeunderattackisconveyedbyCarsonasshelistsspeciesofplantsonebyone.Readingthepassagealoudisbothillustrativeandpleasurable.DoingsomakeslegiblethepoetryofCarson’sprose—therhymes(“blueberries,huckleberries,”“winterberry,chokecherry”)thatcutacrossthatproseandmakeecologicalinterconnectionsaudible,thejoyCarsontakesinthevibrancyofnatureandtheaccumulationofdetail,thefeelingoffamiliarormundanewordsmadestrangeonthetongue,thedeliberatearrangementofeverydayplantnamessuchthattheytakeonanalienbeauty.Theselist-poemsthusprovokethereadertoseethelandscapeanewandtorevalueit.InthemanylistsofSilentSpring,wecanseethepoetryofCarson’sprose.Suchlist-poemsarebeggingtobecloseread.InCarson’slists,thesmallestofwordstransformtotakeonthegreatestsignificance.Forexample,sheusesconjunctions—perhapsthemostmundaneelementofgrammaticalstructures—tostringtogether“unit[s]”that“posses[s]anindividualsignificancebutalsoaspecificmeaningbyvirtueof[their]membershipwiththeotherunitsinthecompilation”(Belknap15).InSilentSpring,list-poemsconstellateecologicalcollectivitiesonthepage,theirgrammarmakinglegibletheinterrelationalitiesthatreachfrommicroscopiclifeformstohumankind.Take,forinstance,thefollowinglittlelist-poem:“Watermustalsobethoughtofintermsofthechainsoflifeitsupports—fromthesmall-as-dustgreencellsofthedriftingplantplankton,throughtheminutewaterfleastothefishesthatstrainplanktonfromthewaterandareinturneatenbyotherfishesorbybirds,mink,raccoons—inanendlesscyclictransferofmaterialsfromlifetolife”(46).Eachecologicalunitisendowedwithitsownsenseofpurposeandyet,atthesametime,Carson’suseofconjunctionperformsthe“endlesscyclictransferofmaterialsfromlifetolife”onthepage.Here,poetryisnotobfuscatory,butintenselypractical.Carsonusesittodrawtogetherindividuallifeformsandtomapthenodesbetweenthem—tochartaweboflife,andtopreservethevibrancyofthatweb’s“cyclic”rhythmandshiftingdynamismevenasshewritesinprose.TherearemomentsinSilentSpringthatpossessapoeticqualityakintosomethingyoumightfindinGertrudeStein’sTenderButtonsorWilliamCarlosWilliams’“TheRedWheelbarrow.”ItisthepoetryinCarson’sprosethatconveysmostforcefully“therichnessandbeautyoflifeonEarth”—itsalienandyetintimateforms,itsubiquitousandyetephemeralpresence.IfreaderspraisedSilentSpringforitsscience,theyalsoloveditforitssenseofpoetry.CLOSEREADING:ThefollowingpassageaffordsoneexampleofhowCarsoninterweavesaliteraryecologythatisinextricablefromnaturalecologyinSilentSpring.Studentscanexploretherelationshipbetweenthe



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storieshumankindtellsandhumankind’sorientationtowardnatureusingthispassage.TheymightdiscussCarson’sinvocationofmythandfairytaletoillustratetheapocalypticpotentialsofanecologicalworldwithoutborders,aswellasthenotionthattheexploitationofnatureisstrangerthanfiction.

InGreekmythologythesorceressMedea,enragedatbeingsupplantedbyarivalfortheaffectionsofherhusbandJason,presentedthenewbridewitharobepossessingmagicproperties.Theweareroftherobeimmediatelysufferedaviolentdeath.Thisdeath-by-indirectionnowfindsitscounterpartinwhatareknownas‘systemicinsecticides.’ThesearechemicalswithextraordinarypropertieswhichareusedtoconvertplantsoranimalsintoasortofMedea’srobebymakingthemactuallypoisonous.Thisisdonewiththepurposeofkillinginsectsthatmaycomeincontactwiththem,especiallybysuckingtheirjuicesorblood.Theworldofsystemicinsecticidesisaweirdworld,surpassingtheimaginingsofthebrothersGrimm—perhapsmostcloselyakintothecartoonworldofCharlesAddams.Itisa[33]worldwheretheenchantedforestofthefairytalehasbecomethepoisonousforestinwhichaninsectthatchewsaleaforsucksthesapofaplantisdoomed.Itisaworldwhereafleabitesadog,anddiesbecausethedog’sbloodhasbeenmadepoisonous,whereaninsectmaydiefromvaporsemanatingfromaplantithasnevertouched,whereabeemaycarrypoisonousnectarbacktoitshiveandpresentlyproducepoisonousbeauty.(32-33)

BelowisoneofCarson’slist-poems.Whilemanyofthemaresmall,thisparticularlist-poemspansentirepages.StudentsmightclosereadittoexploretheecologicalfunctionofthelistinSilentSpring,theeffectofCarson’spoeticturnsofphrase,andthenotionthatpoetrypossessesaspecialplaceinenvironmentaldiscoursebecauseithelpsseeanewthoseaspectsofnaturethatareotherwiseinvisible,mundane,ortakenforgranted.(Seepages249-51fortheunabridgedquotation.)

Thepredators—insectsthatkillandconsumeotherinsects—areofmanykinds.Somearequickandwiththespeedofswallowssnatchtheirpreyfromtheair.Othersplodmethodicallyalongastem,pluckingoffanddevouringsedentaryinsectsliketheaphids.Theyellowjackets…Muddauberwasps…Thehorse-guardwasp…Theloudlybuzzingsyrphidfly…Ladybugsorladybeetles…Literallyhundredsofaphidsareconsumedbyasingleladybugtostokethelittlefiresofenergywhichsherequirestoproduceevenasinglebatchofeggs.Evenmoreextraordinaryintheirhabitsaretheparasiticinsects.Thesedonotkilltheirhostsoutright.Instead,byavarietyofadaptationstheyutilizetheirvictimsforthenurtureoftheirownyoung…Everywhere,infieldandhedgerowandgardenandforest,theinsectpredatorsandparasitesareatwork.Hereaboveapond,thedragonfliesdartandthesunstrikesfirefromtheirwings.Sotheirancestorsspedthroughswampswherehugereptileslived.Now,asinthoseancienttimes,thesharp-eyeddragonfliescapturemosquitoesintheair,scoopingtheminwhichbasket-shapedlegs.Inthewatersbelow,theiryoung,thedragonflynymphs,ornaiads,preyontheaquaticstagesofmosquitoesandotherinsects.Orthere,almostinvisibleagainstaleaf,isthelacewing,withgreengauzewingsandgoldeneyes,shyandsecretive,descendantofanancientracethatlivedinPermiantimes.(249-50)Andtherearemanywasps,andfliesaswell…Allthesesmallcreaturesareworking—workinginthesunandrain,duringthehoursofdarkness,evenwhenwinter’sgriphasdampeddownthefiresoflifetomereembers.Thenthisvitalforceismerelysmoldering,awaitingthetimetoflareagainintoactivitywhenspringawakenstheinsectworld…Thus,throughthecircumstancesoftheirlives,andthenatureofourownwants,allthesehavebeenouralliesinkeepingthebalanceofnaturetitledinourfavor.Yetwehaveturnedourartilleryagainstourfriends.Theterribledangeristhatwehavegrosslyunderestimatedtheirvalueinkeepingatbayadarktideofenemiesthat,withouttheirhelp,canoverrunus.(251)




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• Whatispoetry?IsSilentSpringpoetic?Whereandhow?Whynot?Cansciencebepoetryandsciencepoetry?DoesCarson’spoetryilluminateherscienceormuddyit?


• Havethestudentswritehaikuandhaibunaboutaplaceinnaturethatisfamiliarwiththem,orevenbytakingawalkintheirneighborhoods.Typicallyhaibunarefirst-personprosedescriptionsofasceneormomenttoldinanobjectivestyle,interruptedbylyricallyinsightfulhaiku(moreinstructionshere).Whataretheirexperiencesinthisplace?Whogoestherewiththem?Whatfloraandfaunadotheyobserve?Whatislivingandwhatisdead?Whatthoughtspassthroughtheirmindastheyspendtimethere?Whatconflictshappeninthisspace?Whatthreatenstheintegrityofthisspace?

• Havestudentschooseandreadselectionsfromanenvironmentally-mindedliteraryjournal(Ecotone,Terrain,Poecology,Canary—allavailableonline).Whatisthevisionoftheenvironmentpresentedbytheseauthors?Iftheycouldwriteandincludeonemorepieceoffictionorpoetrytoincludeintheissue,whatwoulditbeandwhatwoulditcommunicateaboutnature?Ifstudentstakeinterest,considerhavingthemputtogethertheirownclasszineofnaturewriting.



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OBJECTIVE:TopreparestudentstomakethemostoftheAnnualStudentConferencethroughactiveengagement;andtoprovidestrategiesforbuildingstudentconfidence,addressingconcerns,andsettingexpectationsforconferenceparticipation.ABOUTTHECONFERENCEKEYNOTESPEAKER:SANDRASTEINGRABERThisyear,theGreatWorldTextsprogramwillwelcomeSandraSteingrabertotheAnnualStudentConference.Studentsfromacrossthestatewillhavetheopportunitytoengageherinaconversationaboutthoughtsontheenvironmentandheractivism.ThisinteractionisthecorecomponentoftheAnnualStudentConference.Biologist,author,andcancersurvivor,SandraSteingraber,Ph.D.writesaboutclimatechange,ecology,andthelinksbetweenhumanhealthandtheenvironment.Steingraber’shighlyacclaimedbook,LivingDownstream:AnEcologist’sPersonalInvestigationofCancerandtheEnvironmentwasthefirsttobringtogetherdataontoxicreleaseswithdatafromU.S.cancerregistriesandwasadaptedforthescreenin2010.ONMEETINGANAUTHORMeetinganauthorisathrillingexperience,butitmightitalsoproveanerve-wrackingoneforstudents.Topreparestudentsforthisevent,considerthefollowinginadvanceoftheconference:Whataretheexpectationsforstudents’behavior?Whatkindsofquestionsshouldtheyaskandhowwilltheypresenttheirworktothekeynotespeaker?Howcantheybestprepareforthismeeting?Whatshouldteachersdoifstudentsarenervous,disruptiveorunprepared?ThepreparatorymaterialslistedbelowwillhelpyouandyourstudentstodevelopadeepersenseofSteingraber’swork,aswellaswhattoexpectattheAnnualStudentConferenceandhowtoprepareforit.PREPARATORYMATERIALS&HANDOUTSAuthorWebsite http://steingraber.comSandraSteingraber,“LessonsForOurTimeFromRachelCarson”

http://billmoyers.com/story/lessons-for-our-time-from-rachel-carson/UPROXX,“WillPoliticiansEverStopTakingMoneyfromBigOil?”(video) https://youtu.be/-dgtKTi13mISandraSteingraber,“HugeVictory:NaturalGasStoragePlanHaltedatSenecaLake”(andotherEcowatcharticlesavailable)

https://www.ecowatch.com/seneca-lake-plan-halted-2402850134.html ADDITIONALREADINGS&RESOURCESCooperativeChildren’sBookCenter(UW-Madison),“TipsonHostinganAuthor/IllustratorVisit”

http://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/authors/tips.aspDaneGutman,“ThePerfectAuthorVisit”–tipsforpreparingstudentstomeetthekeynotespeaker

http://dangutman.com/school-visitsskypes/the-perfect-author-visit/SuzanneRoberts,“HowtoTalktoaWriter”

UNIT7•THEANNUALSTUDENTCONFERENCE



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http://the-how-to.tumblr.com/post/32877145596/how-to-talk-to-a-writerJoWalton,“HowtoTalktoWriters”

http://www.tor.com/2008/12/21/how-to-talk-to-writers/

POINTSFORLECTURE:• PrepareyourstudentsformeetingSandraSteingraber.Emphasizethat,likeallpeople,our

keynotespeakercouldbenervous,excited,happy,sad,shy,inagoodorbadmood,etc.Showclipsofherdoinginterviews,andshowtheclassherphotographsotheycanthinkofherasanindividualfromthestart.

• Emphasizebeingcourteousandrespectful.ThosestudentsdesignatedtoaskquestionsduringthekeynoteshouldalwaysgreetandthankSteingraber,introducehim-orherselfbynameandschoolaffiliation,andthenaskaquestion.Encouragestudentstomakeeyecontact,andtobepoliteandconfident!

• Helpstudentsavoidfeelingsofanxiety.Focusontheexperience,notthe“performance”oractoftalkingtoSteingraber.Emphasizethatsheiscomingtotheconferencepreciselybecausesheisinterestedinandexcitedabouttheideasstudentshavedevelopedasthey’vereadSilentSpring.ShecameallthewaytoWisconsinjusttotalktous—knowthatshethinksstudentshavesomethingtosaythatisworthhearing.Emphasizethatthisisadialogue,meaningthatstudentvoicesmatter.Steingraberwantstohearfromstudentsasmuchastheywanttohearfromher.

• Encouragethemtobespecific.Don’tjustsay:“Ilovethisbook!”Studentsshouldbepreparedtoarticulatewhattheylovedmostaboutit.Inpreparation,askstudentstoconsiderwhatwasmostinspiring,thought-provokingorchallengingaboutthetext.

o Tipsforaskingquestions.Avoidyesornoquestions.Instead,askquestionsthatallowroomforthoughtandinterpretation.Consider,too,the“leadin”tothequestion.Studentsshouldgivealittlecontexttolettheauthorknowwherethey’recomingfrom.Forexample:“WhydidCarsonchoose[X]?”wouldbeamuchmoreinterestingquestionifthestudentfirstexplainedwhatabout[X]isinterestingorconfusingtohimorher.

• Beprepared.AskstudentstothinkabouthowSteingrabermightreacttoagivenquestion.Onceyou’vechosenwhichquestionstoaskthekeynotespeaker,role-playpossibleanswersasaclass.Preparealistoffollow-upquestions,too.

• Ondecorum.Thisconferenceisaseriousacademicaffairandalotofplanninghasgoneintothiseventbyteachers,students,UWfacultyandstaff,etc.Thepeopleinattendancehavetraveledfarandspentmonthspreparingforthisevent.Disruptive,discourteousordisrespectfulbehaviorisunacceptable.Teacherswhosestudentsdonotfollowthedecorumguidelinesareexpectedtoremovestudentsimmediatelyfromtheroom.


• Howwouldyouliketobetreated(ornot)ifyouwerethekeynotespeaker?Ifyouwereastudentfromanotherschool?

• Whatquestionsdoyoumostwantanswered?WhatdoyouwanttoknowaboutSilentSpringanditseffectonpolitics,theenvironment,society,andliteraturetoday?



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ASSIGNMENTS,ACTIVITIES&PROJECTIDEAS:• Holdaconferencedressrehearsal.Ifyourgroupofparticipatingstudentsissmall,thismight

consistofeachstudentgivingabriefbutformalpresentationofherproject,followedbyaquestionandanswersession.Ifyourgroupofparticipatingstudentsislarge,splitthemintotwogroups.Haveonegrouppresenttheirprojectsfirstandtheothersecond.Studentswillalternatebetweenpresentingandviewing,justastheywillonthedayoftheofficialconference.

• ReadsomeofSteingraber’sarticlestogether.Studentscanalsogetexcitedabouthervisitbystudyingherbackgroundinactivism.

• Role-playmeetingSteingraber.Havestudentspreparedwithquestions,andpracticeaskingandansweringthem.Whatquestionsgotthebest(orworst)answers?Why?

• Brainstormproductivequestions.Insmallgroups,studentsshouldwritedownasmanyquestionsastheycanthinkoftoaskSteingraber.Thenswitchquestionswithothergroupsandselectthosewhichseembestandthosewhichseemleasteffective.Usethisasthebasisforadiscussionabouthowwedecideifaquestionis“good”or“bad”?(Hint:theleasteffectivequestionsarethosethataretooeasytoanswer,produceobviousanswers,orcouldeasilybeansweredbyanyonereadingthebook.)Youmighthavestudentsrevisewiththisdiscussioninmind,practicinghowtoconstructaclear,directandinterestingquestion.



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Closereadingisaspecificmethodofliteraryanalysisthatusestheinterpretationofasmallpieceoftextasawaytothinkaboutthewhole.Thiskindofanalysisinvitesreaderstopaycloseattentiontotheeffectsofthespecificwordsonthepage.Weaskourselveswhyeachwordwaschosen,how,itcontributestothebroaderthemesandideasofthetext,andhowitinteractswithotherwords/imagesinthetext.Whilethereisno“right’waytoanalyzeatext,therearemoreorlesscompellingwaysofinterpretingdifferentpassages.Thestepsbelowareintendedtohelpyoupersuasivelyclosereadapassageinaliterarytext(thoughtheskillsyoudevelopareapplicabletotheclosereadingandanalysisofanytextanywhere):

1. Summary.Readthepassageoncewithoutmakinganyannotations.Startbyaskingyourself:Whatisgoingonhere?Whoisspeaking?Whatisthespeaker/character/narratorsaying?Inwhatcontext?Ifyouareunabletowritea1-2sentencesummaryofthepassage,readthroughitagainuntilyouhaveacleareridea.Don’tpanicifyou’reunsure.Manytextsaredeliberatelyambiguousorconfusing–itisnotalwayspossibletoarticulateindefinitetermswhatishappening.

2. Mood&Tone.Thesecondtimeyoureadthroughthepassage,considertheoverallmood

createdbythewriting.Isitcomic,tragic,sinister,serious?Howwouldyoudescribeitstoneanditsattitude?Formal,playful,ironic?Doesthewriteruseunderstatementorexaggeration?

3. LiteraryDevices.Circle/underlinethespecificwords,imagesandliterarydeviceswhich

contributetothemoodandtoneyouhaveidentified.Thesemightincludeanyofthefollowing:a. Unusualvocabularyordiction(archaicwords,neologisms,foreignimports,slang,

colloquialisms).Useadictionaryifyouneedtolookupwordsyoudon’trecognize.b. Symbols:doesthewriteruseimageswhichwouldseemtorepresentsomethingelse?c. Metaphorsandsimilesd. Strikingcomparisonsorcontrastse. Personificationf. Alliterationand/oronomatopoeiag. Repetition

4. Biggerpicture.Havingconsideredthesedetails,youcanstarttodevelopanoverall

interpretationofthepassage.Considerthewaysthatyourpassagefitsintothetextasawhole.Whatdoyouthinkisthetext’smainmessage?Howdoesitcontributetothebroaderthemesofthework?Howdotheparticularliterarydevicesyouhaveidentifiedhelptoemphasize,intensifyortroublethequestionsandissueswithwhichthetextisconcerned?

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