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A+ Guide to Hardware, 4e

Chapter 4Processors and Chipsets

A+ Guide to Hardware, 4e 2

Objectives

Learn about the many different processors used for personal computers and notebook computers

Learn about chipsets and how they work Learn how to keep a processor cool using heat sinks

and coolers Learn how to install and upgrade a processor


Introduction

The processor and chipset Most important components on the motherboard Main topics of Chapter 4

The processor is a field replaceable unit The chipset is embedded in the motherboard Key skills to learn:

Making wise purchase decisions Installing and upgrading a processor


AMD


Processors

The processor installed on a motherboard and the chipset embedded on the board primarily determine the power and features of the system.

In this chapter, you'll learn about processors and chipsets

next chapter you'll learn about motherboards.


Processors

Processor and chipset are located on motherboard Components determine power and features of system

Major manufacturers: Intel, AMD, and Cyrix Factors used to rate processors:

System bus speeds supported; E.g. 1066 MHz, 800, 533, 400 MHz

Processor core frequency in gigahertz; e.g.3.2 GHz

Type of RAM, motherboard, and chipset supported


Processors

Word size, either 32 bits or 64 bits, The number of bits a processor can process at one

time. Data path for most computers today, which is 64 bits

or 128 bits The number of bits a processor can receive at one

time. Multiprocessing ability Processor specific memory Efficiency and functionality of programming code


How a Processor Works Three basic components:

Input/output (I/O) unit manages data and instructions entering and leaving the

processor Control unit

manages all activities inside the processor itself ALU: One or more arithmetic logic units (ALUs)

ALU does all comparisons and calculations Registers: high-speed memory used by ALU

Small holding areas on the chip. Works much like memory Hold- data, instructions waiting to be processed


How a Processor Works Internal cache: holds data to be processed by ALU Two types of buses:

FSB: External (front-side) bus: data portion is 64 bits wide

connects to the front side of the processor that faces the outside world.

BSB: Internal (back-side) bus: data portion is 32 bits wide

Inside the processor housing, data, instructions, addresses, and control signals travel on the internal bus

connects to each of the ALUs.


Figure 4-2 Since the Pentium processor was first released in 1993, the standard has been for a processor to have two arithmetic logic units so that it can process two instructions at once

notice in Figure 4-2 the existence of the external bus, where data, instructions, addresses, and control signals are sent into and out of the processor.


How a Processor Works

The portion of the internal bus that connects the processor to the internal memory cache is called the back-side bus (BSB). The processor's internal bus operates at a much

higher frequency than the external bus (system bus). Several characteristics of processors, including

system bus speed, processor speed, data path size, multiprocessing abilities, memory cache, and instruction sets.


How a Processor Works SYSTEM BUS FREQUENCY OR SPEED

Recall that bus frequency is the frequency or speed at which data is placed on a bus. Remember also that a motherboard has several buses.

Each bus runs at a certain frequency, some faster than others.

Although the motherboard has several buses, only the fastest bus connects directly to the processor.



This bus has many names. It's called the front-side bus, the external bus, the

motherboard bus, or the system bus. In the past, the more popular term was system bus, although

the current trend is to call it the front-side bus; you see it written in computer ads as the FSB. In this book, we'll call it the system bus or the front-side bus.

Common speeds for the system bus are 1066 MHz, 800 MHz, 533 MHz, 400 MHz, 200 MHz, 133 MHz, and 100 MHz, although the bus can operate at several other speeds, depending on the processor and how the motherboard is configured.



When you read that Intel supports a motherboard speed of 533 MHz or 800 MHz, the speed refers to the system bus speed.

Other slower buses connect to the system bus, which serves as the go-between for other buses and the processor.


How a Processor Works PROCESSOR FREQUENCY OR SPEED

Processor frequency is the speed at which the processor operates internally.

The first processor used in an IBM PC was the 8088, which worked at about 4.77 MHz, or 4,770,000 clock beats per second.

An average speed for a new processor today is about 3.2 GHz, or 3,200,000,000 beats per second. In less than one second, this processor "beats" more

times than a human heart beats in a lifetime!



If the processor operates at 3.2 GHz internally but 800 MHz externally, the processor frequency is 3.2 GHz, and the system bus frequency is 800 MHz. In this case, the processor operates at four times the

system bus frequency. This factor is called the multiplier.

If you multiply the system bus frequency by the multiplier, you get the processor frequency:

System bus frequency x multiplier = processor frequency



On some motherboards, you must know the value of the multiplier in order to configure the frequency of the processor and system bus.

On other motherboards, the frequencies are automatically set by CMOS setup without your intervention.

Older boards used jumpers on the motherboard or CMOS setup to set the system bus frequency and multiplier, which then determine the processor frequency. For these older boards: 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, and 4.

You must know the documented processor speed in order to set the correct system bus frequency and multiplier, so that the processor runs at the speed for which it is designed.



Processor frequencies or speeds are rated at the factory and included with the proces-sor documentation.

However, sometimes the actual speed of the processor might be slightly higher or lower than the advertised speed.

Newer boards automatically detect the processor speed and adjust the system bus speed accordingly. Your only responsibility is to make sure you install a

processor that runs at a speed the motherboard can support.



OVERCLOCKING For newer motherboards and processors, you can

override the default frequencies by changing a setting in CMOS setup. For example, one CMOS setup screen allows you to

set the processor frequency at 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or 30% higher than the default frequency.

Overclocking is not recommended because the speed is not guaranteed to be stable.

Also, know that running a processor at a higher-than-recommended speed can result in overheating, which can damage the processor.



THROTTLING Most motherboards and processors offer some protection

against overheating so that, if the system overheats, it will throttle down or shut down to prevent the processor from being damaged permanently.

Enable automatic throttling if you overclock a system check CMOS setup for the option to.

Turn it on so that the processor frequency will automatically decrease if overheating occurs. Some processors will throttle back when they begin to overheat

in order to protect themselves from damage.


How a Processor Works DATA PATH SIZE

Data path size and word size Data path: transports data into processor Word path: number of bits processed in one operation

The data path, sometimes called the external data path, is that portion of the system bus that transports data into the processor.

The data path in Figure 4-2 is 64 bits wide. The word size, sometimes called the internal data path size, is

the largest number of bits the processor can process in one operation.

Word size of today's processors is 32 bits (4 bytes) or 64 bits (8 bytes).

The word size need not be as large as the data path size; some processors can receive more bits than they can process at one time, as in the case of the Pentium in Figure 4-2.



But this is expected to soon change because Intel and AMD both have 64-bit processors that are currently used in the server market, and AMD has 64-bit processors for the desktop and notebook market.

Earlier processors always operated in real mode, using a 16-bit word size and data path on the system bus.



Later processors, protected mode was introduced,

uses a 32-bit word size. Most applications written today use 32-bit protected

mode, because the most popular processors today for desktop and notebook computers are the Pentiums, which use a 32-bit word size.



Problem! To take full advantage of a 64-bit processor, such

as the Intel Itanium or the AMD Athlon, software developers must recompile their applications to use 64-bit processing and write operating systems that use 64-bit data transfers.

Microsoft provides a 64-bit version of Windows XP that works with the 64-bit processors.

Microsoft Vista 64-bit is the newest OS to use 64-bit processors.


How a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSING

CPU designers have come up with several creative ways of doing more than one thing at a time to improve performance.

Three methods are popular: multiprocessing, dual processors, and dual-core processing.

Multiprocessing is accomplished when a processor contains more than one ALU. Simultaneous processing by two or more ALUs

Older processors had only a single ALU. Pentiums, and those processors coming after

them, have at least two ALUs.


How a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSING

With two ALUs, processors can process two instructions at once and, therefore, are true multiprocessing processors.

Because Pentiums have two ALUs, the front-side data bus is 64 bits wide, and the back-side data bus is only 32 bits wide.

Because each ALU processes only 32 bits at a time, the industry calls the Pentium a 32-bit processor even though it uses a 64-bit bus externally.


How a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSOR

A second method of improving performance is installing more than one processor on a motherboard, creating a multiprocessor platform.

A motherboard must be designed to support more than one processor by providing more than one processor socket.

For example, some motherboards designed for servers have two processor sockets on the board for a dual-processor configuration.

The processors installed on these boards must be rated to work in a multiprocessor platform.


How a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSOR

Some Xeon processors are designed to be used this way.

You can install a single Xeon processor in one of the processor sockets, but for improved performance, a second Xeon can be installed in the second socket.

In computer ads, a Xeon processor rated to run on a multiprocessor platform is listed as a Xeon MP processor (MP stands for multiprocessor).


How a Processor Works DUEL-CORE PROCESSING

The latest advancement in multiple processing is dual-core processing.

Using this technology, the processor housing contains two processors that operate at the same frequency, but independently of each other.

They share the front-side bus, but have independent internal caches.

Figure 4-3 shows how dual-core processing is implemented by AMD, which is similar to Intel's configuration used by the Pentium D and Celeron D processors (D stands for dual-core). For Pentium and Celeron dual-core processors, each of the two

processors in the processor housing still use two ALUs.


Figure 4-3 AMD dual-core processing using two Opteron processors in the single processor housing


How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE

Memory cache Static RAM (SRAM): holds data as long as power is on

Lets processor bypass slower dynamic RAM (DRAM) L1 cache is on the processor chip, L2 cache is external



A memory cache is a small amount of RAM referred to as static RAM [SRAM] much faster than the rest of RAM, which is called

dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM is faster than DRAM because SRAM does

not need refreshing and can hold its data as long as power is available.

DRAM loses data rapidly and must be refreshed often.



The processor can process instructions and data faster if they are temporarily stored in SRAM cache.

The cache size a processor can support is a measure of its performance, especially during memory-intensive calculations.



To take advantage of the little SRAM available, when the processor requests data or programming code, the memory controller anticipates what the processor will request next and copies that data or programming code to SRAM (see Figure 4-4).

Then, if the controller guessed correctly, it can satisfy the processor request from SRAM without accessing the slower DRAM.

Under normal conditions, the controller guesses right more than 90 percent of the time and caching is an effective way of speeding up memory access.


Figure 4-4 Cache memory (SRAM) is used to temporarily hold data in expectation of what the processor will request next


How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- SRAM

In the past, SRAM was contained on the motherboards, and upgrading SRAM could be accomplished by adding SRAM to slots on the board.

SRAM on a motherboard was contained in individual chips or on a memory module called a cache on a stick (COAST).

Figure 4-5 shows an older motherboard supporting the Classic Pentium with 256 K of SRAM installed on the board in two single chips.

A COAST slot holds an additional 256 K.



Historically, SRAM used these different technologies: burst SRAM, pipelined SRAM, pipelined burst SRAM, and synchronous and asynchronous SRAM.



Most present-day motherboards don't contain SRAM rather most SRAM is contained inside the processor

housing as an embedded function of the processor itself.

Processors have a memory cache inside the processor housing on a small circuit board beside the processor chip and also on the processor chip itself.

In documentation, the chip is sometimes called a die.


How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2

A memory cache on the processor chip is called an internal cache, a primary cache, or a Level 1(L1) cache.

A cache outside the processor microchip is called an external cache, a secondary cache, or a Level 2 (L2) cache.

Some processors use a type of Level 1 cache called Execution Trace Cache.



For example, the Pentium 4 has 8 K of Level 1 cache used for data and an additional 12 K of Execution Trace Cache containing a list of operations that have been decoded and are waiting to be executed.

Many times, a processor decides to follow one branch of operations in a program

Only branches of operations that the processor has determined will be executed are stored in the Execution Trace Cache, making the execution process faster.



L2 caches are usually 128 K, 256 K, 512 K, 1 MB, or 2MB in size

In the past, all Level 2 Cache was found on the motherboard, but beginning with the Pentium Pro, some L2 cache has been included inside the processor housing.

Figure 4-6 shows two methods in which Intel implements L2 cache inside the processor housing.


L2 CACHE



Using one method, a Pentium has L2 cache stored on a separate microchip within the processor housing, which is called discrete L2 cache or On-Package L2 cache.

The back-side bus servicing this cache runs at half the speed of the processor, which is why Intel advertises this cache as "half speed

On-Package L2 cache." Using another method, some Pentiums contain

L2 cache directly on the same die as the processor core, making it difficult to distinguish between LI and L2 cache;

this is called Advanced Transfer Cache (ATC).


How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2 / L3

ATC makes it possible for the Pentium to fit on a smaller and less expensive form factor.

The ATC bus is 256 bits wide and runs at the same speed as the processor.

If there is L2 cache in the processor housing and additional cache on the motherboard, the cache on the motherboard is called Level 3 (L3) cache.



In addition, some advanced processors manufactured by AMD have LI, L2, and L3 cache inside the processor housing.

In this case, the L3 cache is further removed from the processor than the L2 cache, even though both are inside the processor housing.

Table 4-1 summarizes the locations for memory caches.


How a Processor WorksInstruction Set Overview

Instruction set: microcode used for basic operations Three types of instruction sets:

Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) Complex instruction set computing (CISC) Explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC)

Some Intel instruction set extensions: MMX (Multimedia Extensions) SSE (Streaming SIMD Extension)

SIMD: single instruction, multiple data


How a Processor Works INSTRUCTION SETS

INSTRUCTION SET AND MICROCODE Groups of instructions that accomplish fundamental operations, such as comparing or adding two numbers, are permanently built into the processor chip.

Less efficient processors require more steps to perform these simple instructions than do more efficient processors.

These instructions are called microcode and the groups of instructions are collectively called the instruction set.

Earlier processors use an instruction set called reduced instruction set computing (RISC), and many later processors use a more complex instruction set called complex instruction set computing (CISC).

How a Processor Works INSTRUCTION SETS

Intel has made several improvements to its instruction sets with multimedia applications in mind. perform many repetitive operations,

MMX (Multimedia Extensions) is used by the Pentium MMX and Pentium II

SSE Streaming is used by the Pentium III SSE2, SSE3, and Hyper-Threading for the

Pentium 4.


INTEL vs. AMD

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In the Beginning, there was 8086...

CPUs have gone through many changes through the few years since Intel came out with the first one.

IBM chose Intel's 8088 processor for the brains of the first PC. (1975) This choice by IBM is what made Intel the perceived leader of

the CPU market. Intel continues to remain more than a viable source of new

technology in this market, with the ever-growing AMD nipping at their heels.

The first four generations of Intel processor took on the "8" as the series name, which is why the technical types refer to this family of chips as the 8088, 8086, and 80186.

This goes right on up to the 80486, or simply the 486.

8086 (1978)

It was a true 16-bit processor and talked with its cards via a 16 wire data connection.

The chip contained 29,000 transistors and 20 address lines that gave it the ability to talk with up to 1 MB of RAM.

What is interesting is that the designers of the time never suspected anyone would ever need more than 1 MB of RAM.

The chip was available in 5, 6,, 8, and 10 MHz versions.

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Intel 8088 (1979)

The 8088 is, for all practical purposes, identical to the 8086.

The only difference is that it handles its address lines differently than the 8086.

This chip was the one that was chosen for the first IBM PC, and like the 8086, it is able to work with the 8087 math coprocessor chip.

Intel 80286 (1982)

A 16-bit, 134,000 transistor processor capable of addressing up to 16 MB of RAM.

The 286 was the first "real" processor. It introduced the concept of protected mode.

This is the ability to multitask, having different programs run separately but at the same time.

It ran at 8, 10, and 12.5 MHz, but later editions of the chip ran as high as 20 MHz. While these chips are considered paperweights

today, they were rather revolutionary for the time period.

Intel 386 (1985 - 1990)16, 20, 25 & 33 MHz

The 386 signified a major increase in technology from Intel. The 386 was a 32-bit processor, meaning its data throughput

was immediately twice that of the 286. Containing 275,000 transistors, the 80386DX processor

came in 16, 20, 25, and 33 MHz versions. The 32-bit address bus allowed the chip to work with a full 4

GB of RAM and a staggering 64 TB of virtual memory. In addition, the 386 was the first chip to use instruction

pipelining, which allows the processor to start working on the next instruction before the previous one is complete.

http://www.pcmech.com/show/processors/35/1/##

486 (1989 - 1994) 33 MHz

The 80486DX was released in 1989. It was a 32-bit processor containing 1.2 million transistors. It had the same memory capacity as the 386 (both were 32-

bit) but offered twice the speed at 26.9 million instructions per second (MIPS) at 33 MHz.

The 486 was the first to have an integrated floating point unit (FPU) to replace the normally separate math coprocessor (not all flavors of the 486 had this, though).

8 KB on-die cache. This increases speed by using the instruction pipelining to

predict the next instructions and then storing them in the cache.

The Pentium (1993)60 to 200 MHz

It was not to be called the 80586. There were some legal issues surrounding the

ability for Intel to trademark the numbers 80586. So, instead, Intel changed the name of the

processor to the Pentium, a name they could easily trademark.

The Pentium (1993)

They released the Pentium in 1993. The original Pentium performed at 60 MHz and 100

MIPS. Also called the "P5" or "P54", the chip contained 3.21 million transistors and

worked on the 32-bit address bus (same as the 486).

It has a 64-bit external data bus which could operate at roughly twice the speed of the 486.

The Pentium (1993)

The Pentium family includes the 60/66/75/90/100/120/133/150/166/200 MHz clock speeds.

The original 60/66 MHz versions operated on the Socket 4 setup, while all of the remaining versions operated on the Socket 7 boards.

Pentium is compatible with all of the older operating systems including DOS, Windows 3.1, Unix, and OS/2.

Pro MMX


Pentium MMX (1997)133 to 300 MHz

Improve the original Pentium and make it better serve the needs in the multimedia and performance department.

One of the key enhancements, and where it gets its name from, is the MMX instruction set.

The 57 additional streamlined instructions helped the processor perform certain key tasks in a streamlined fashion, allowing it to do some tasks with one instruction that it would have taken more regular instructions to do. It paid off, too.

The Pentium MMX performed up to 10-20% faster with standard software, and higher with software optimized for the MMX instructions. Many multimedia applications and games that took advantage

of MMX performed better, had higher frame rates, etc.


Pentium II (1997)233 to 450 MHz

Pentium II is kind of like the child of a Pentium MMX mother and the Pentium Pro Father.

Pentium II has 32KB of L1 cache (16KB each for data and instructions) and has a 512KB of L2 cache on package.

The L2 cache runs at the speed of the processor, not at full speed.

Nonetheless, the fact that the L2 cache is not on the motherboard, but instead in the chip itself, boosts performance.


Pentium II (1997) One of the most noticeable changes in this processor is the

change in the package style. Almost all of the Pentium class processors use the Socket 7

interface to the motherboard. P II makes use of "Slot 1". The package-type of the P2 is called Single-Edge contact (SEC). The chip and L2 cache actually reside on a card which attaches to

the motherboard via a slot, much like an expansion card. The entire P2 package is surrounded by a plastic cartridge.

In addition to Intel's departure into Slot 1, they also patented the new Slot 1 interface, effectively barring the competition from making competitor chips to use the new Slot 1 motherboards.

This move, no doubt, demonstrates why Intel moved away from Socket 7 to begin with - they couldn't patent it.


Celeron (1998) 850 MHz to 2.9 GHz

Entry level market with a stripped down version of the Pentium II, the Celeron.

In order to decrease costs, Intel removed the L2 cache from the Pentium II.

Removing the L2 cache from a chip seriously hampers its performance.

On top of that, the chip was still limited to the 66MHz system bus.

As a result, competitor chips at the same clock speeds could still outperform the Celeron.

What was the point?

Celeron (1998) 850 MHz to 2.9 GHz

Intel had realized their mistake with the next edition of the Celeron, the Celeron 300A.

The 300A came with 128KB of L2 cache on board. The L2 cache was on-die with the 300A, meaning it ran at

full processor speed, not half speed like the Pentium II. This fact was great for Intel users, because the Celerons with

full speed cache operated much better than the Pentium II's with 512 KB of cache running at half speed.

300A became well-known in overclocking enthusiast circles. It quickly became known for the cheap chip you could buy

and crank up to compete with the more expensive stuff.

Pentium III (1999)600 MHz to 1 GHz

Intel released the Pentium III "Katmai" processor in February of 1999, running at 450 MHz on a 100MHz bus.

Katmai introduced the SSE instruction set, which was basically an extension of MMX that again improved the performance on 3D apps designed to use the new ability.

Also dubbed MMX2, SSE contained 70 new instructions, with four simultaneous instructions able to be performed simultaneously.

Katmai eventually saw 600 MHz, but Intel quickly moved on to the Coppermine.

In April of 2000, Intel released their Pentium III Coppermine. While Katmai had 512 KB of L2 cache, Coppermine had half that at

only 256 KB. But, the cache was located directly on the CPU core rather than on

the daughtercard as typified in previous Slot 1 processors. This made the smaller cache an actual non-issue, because

performance benefited.

Celeron II (2000)533 MHz to 1.1 GHz

Just as the Pentium III was a Pentium II with SSE and a few added features, the Celeron II is simply a Celeron with a SSE, SSE2, and a few added features.

The chip is available from 533 MHz to 1.1 GHz. This chip was basically an enhancement of the original

Celeron, and it was released in response to AMD's coming competition in the low-cost market with the Duron.

Celeron II would not be released with true 100 MHz bus support until the 800MHz edition, which was put out at the beginning of 2001.

Pentium IV (2000 - Current)1.4 GHz to 3.06 GHz

Pentium IV was exactly what Intel needed to again take the torch from AMD.

Pentium IV is a truly new CPU architecture and serves as the beginning to new technologies we will see for the next several years.

The new NetBurst architecture is designed with future speed increase in mind, meaning P4 is not going to fade away quickly like Pentium III near the 1 GHz mark.

According to Intel, NetBurst is made up of four new technologies: Hyper Pipelined Technology, Rapid Execution Engine, Execution Trace Cache and a 400MHz system bus.

Hyper Pipelined Technology

There are a couple of ways to increase the speed of a processor. One is to decrease the die size.

Plan B is to change the design of the CPU pipeline so that it is wider, can accommodate more instructions.

Hyper Pipelined Technology refers to Intel's expanding of the CPU pipeline from 10 stages (of the P6) to 20 stages.

This effectively makes the data pipe (bad term, but descriptive) wider, and allows each stage to do actually less per clock cycle than the P6 core. Expanding a street highway - you add more lanes and for

awhile each lane has less traffic, but eventually traffic increases and the road can handle much more traffic.

Rapid Execution Engine

The Pentium IV contains 2 arithmetic logic units and they operate at twice the speed of the processor.

While this might sound like absolute heaven, it is good to keep in mind that they had to do it this way due to the pipeline design in order to even keep integer performance up to that of the Pentium III. So, this is really a necessary design change due to

the increase pipeline size.

Execution Trace Cache

First, they increase the branch target buffer size to eight times that of the Pentium III.

This cache is the area from which the branch predictor gets its data.

Secondly, Intel reduced the size of the L1 data cache to only 8K in order to reduce the latency of the cache.

This, no doubt, increases the need for the 256 KB on-die L2 cache, and the latency of that has been improved on the P4 as well.

Lastly, Intel added a execution trace cache. This is a new cache that can hold instructions that are

already decoded and ready for execution.

Intel Core 2 Duo processors

http://www.intel.com/index.htm?iid=Corporate+Header_Intel_logo

Intel Core2 Quad processor

Up to 54% better performance for intense multimedia applications, streaming movies, music, and more with powerful Intel quad-core technology

Up to 53% better performance when enjoying immersive 3-D gaming

Up to 79% faster performance for highly-threaded applications when creating multimedia and 3-D content

Up to 8MB of L2 cache and 1066 MHz Front Side Bus for an unrivaled multitasking experience

AMDAdvanced Micro Devices

AM486DX Series (1994 - 1995)

Intel was not the only manufacturer playing in the sandbox at the time.

AMD put out its AM486 series in answer to Intel's counterpart.

AMD released the chip in AM486DX4/75, AM486DX4/100, and AM486DX4/120 versions.

It contained on-board cache, power management features, 3-volt operation and SMM mode.

This made the chip fitting for mobiles in addition to desktops.

The chip found its way into many 486-compatibles.

AMD AM5x86 (1995)

This is the chip that put AMD onto the map as official Intel competition. AMD's competitive response to Intel's Pentium-class

processor. Users of the Intel 486 processor, in order to get

Pentium-class performance, had to make use of an expensive OverDrive processor or ditch their motherboard in favor of a true Pentium board.

AMD saw an opening here, and the AM5x86 was designed to offer Pentium-class performance while operating on a standard 486 motherboard..

AMD AM5x86 (1995)

They did this by designing the 5x86 to run at 133MHz by clock-quadrupling a 33 MHz chip.

This 33 MHz bus allowed it to work on 486 boards. This speed also allowed it to support the 33 MHz

PCI bus. The chip also had 16 KB on-die cache. All of this together, and the 5x86 performed better

than a Pentium-75. The chip became the de facto upgrade for 486

users who did not want to ditch their 486-based PCs yet.

AMD K5 (1996)

Designed to go head to head with the Pentium processor.

It was designed to fit right into Socket 7 motherboards, allowing users to drop K5's into the motherboards they might have already had.

The chip was fully compatible with all x86 software. In order to rate the speed of the chips, AMD

devised the P-rating system (or PR rating). This number identified the speed as compared to

the true Intel Pentium equivalent.

AMD K5 (1996)

K5's ran from 75 MHz to 166 MHz (in P-ratings, that is).

They contained 24KB of L1 cache and 4.3 million transistors.

While the K5's were nice little chips for what they were, AMD quickly moved on with their release of K6.

AMD K6 (1997)

The K6 gave AMD a real leg up in performance, and it virtually closed the gap between Intel and AMD in terms of Intel being perceived as the real performance processor.

The K6 processor compared, performance-wise, to the new Intel Pentium II's, but the K6 was still Socket 7 meaning it was still a Pentium alternative.

The K6 took on the MMX instruction set developed by Intel, allowing it to go head to head with Pentium MMX.

Based on the RISC86 microarchitecture, the K6 contained seven parallel execution engines and two-level branch prediction.

AMD K6 (1997)

It contained 64KB of L1 cache (32KB for data and 32KB for instructions).

It made use of SMM power management, leading to mobile version of this chip hitting the market.

166MHz to 300 MHz versions. It gave the early Pentium II's a run for their money,

but AMD had to improve on it in order to keep up with Intel for long.

Cyrix 6x86MX (1997)

Well, Intel came up with MMX and AMD was already using it starting with the K6.

The 6x86MX, also dubbed "M2", was Cyrix's answer. This processor took on the MMX instruction set, as well as

took an increased 64KB cache and an increase in speed. The first M2's were 150 MHz chips, or a P-rating of PR166

(Yes, M2's also used the P-rating system). The fastest ones operated at 333 MHz, or PR-466. M2 was the last processor released by Cyrix as a stand-

alone company. In 1999, Via Technologies acquired the Cyrix line from it's

parent company, National Semiconductor.

AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)

AMD was a busy little company at the time Intel was playing around with their Pentium II's and Celerons.

In 1998, AMD released the K6-2. The "2" shows that there are some enhancements

made onto the proven K6 core, with higher speeds and higher bus speeds.

They probably were also taking a page out of the Pentium "2" book.

AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)3D NOW!

The most notable new feature of the K6-2 was the addition of 3DNow technology.

Just as Intel created the MMX instruction set to speed multimedia applications, AMD created 3DNow to act as an additional 21 instructions on top of the MMX instruction set. With software designed to use the 3DNow instructions,

multimedia applications get even more boost. Using 3DNow, larger L1 cache, on-die L2 cache and Socket

7 usability, the K6-2 gained ranks in the market without too much trouble. When used with Socket 7 boards that contained L2 cache on

board, the integrated L2 cache on the processor made the motherboard cache considered L3 cache.

AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)3D NOW!

The K6-3 processor was basically a K6-2 with 256 KB of on-die L2 cache.

The chip could compete well with the Pentium II and even Pentium III's of the early variety.

In order to eek out the full potential of the processor core, though, AMD fine tuned the limits of the processor, leading the K6-2 and K6-3 to be a bit picky.

AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)3D NOW!

The split voltage requirements were pretty rigid, and as a result AMD held a list of "approved" boards that could tolerate such fine control over the voltages.

Processor cooling was also an important issue with these chips due to the increased heat.

AMD Athlon K7(1999 - Present)

With the release of the Athlon processor in 1999, AMD's status in the high performance realm was placed in concrete.

The Athlon line continues to this day, with the highest clock speeds all operating off of various designs and improvements off of the Athlon series.

But, the whole line started with the original Athlon classic. The original Athlon came at 500MHz. Designed at a 0.25 micron level, the chip boasted a super-

pipelined, superscalar microarchitecture. It contained nine execution pipelines, a super-pipelined FPU

and an again-enhanced 3dNow technology.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD-AthlonXP-1700.jpg

AMD Athlon (1999 - Present)SLOT A

These issues all rolled into one gave Athlon a real performance reputation.

One notable feature of the Athlon is the new Slot interface.

While Intel could play games by patenting Slot 1, AMD decided to call the bet by developing a Slot of their own - Slot A.

AMD Athlon (1999 - Present)

Slot A looks just like Slot 1, although they are not electrically compatible.

But, the closeness of the two interfaces allowed motherboard manufacturers to more easily manufacturer mainboard PCBs that could be interchangeable.

They would not have to re-design an entire board to accommodate either Intel or AMD - they could do both without too much hassle.

AMD Athlon (1999 - Present)

Also notable with the release of Athlon was the entirely new system bus.

This bus operated at 200MHz, faster than anything Intel was using.

The bus had a bandwidth capability of 1.6 GB/s.

AMD Athlon (1999 - Present)Thunderbird

In June of 2000, AMD released the Athlon Thunderbird. This chip came with an improved 0.18 micron design, on-die

full speed L2 cache (new for Athlon), DDR RAM support, etc. It is a real workhorse of a chip and has a reputation for being

able to be pushed well beyond the speed rating as assigned by AMD.

Overclocker's paradise. Thunderbird was also released in Socket A (or Socket 462)

format, so AMD was now returning to its socketed roots just as Intel had already done by this time.

AMD Athlon XP (2001)Palomino

In May 2001, AMD released Athlon "Palomino", also dubbed the Athlon 4.

While the Athlon had now been out for about 2 years, it was now being beaten by Intel's Pentium IV.

The direct competition of the Pentium III was on its way to the museum already, and Athlon needed a boost to keep up with the new contender.

The answer was the new Palomino core. The original intention of Palomino was to expand off of the

Thunderbird chip, by reducing heat and power consumption.


Due to delays, it was delayed and it ended up being beneficial.

The chip was released first in notebook computers. AMD-based notebooks, until this time, were still using K6-2's and K6-3's and thus AMD's reputation for performance in the mobile market was lacking.

So, Athlon 4 brought AMD to the line again in the mobile market.

Athlon 4 was later released to the desktop market, workstations, and multiprocessor servers (with its true dual processor support).


Palomino made use of a data pre-fetch cache predictor and a translation look-aside buffer. It also made full use of Intel's SSE instruction set.

The chip made use of AMD's PowerNow! technology, which had actually been around since the K6-2 and 3 days.

It allows the chip to change its voltage requirements and clock speed depending on the usage requirement of the time.

This was excellent for making the chip appropriate for power-sensitive apps such as mobile systems.


When AMD released the Palomino to the desktop market in October of 2001, they renamed the chip to Athlon XP, and also took on a slightly different naming jargon.

Due to the way Palomino executes instructions, the chip can actually perform more work per clock cycle than the competition, namely Pentium IV.

Therefore, the chips actually operate at a slower clock speed than AMD makes apparent in the model numbers.

They chose to name the Athlon XP versions based on the speed rating of the processor as determined by AMD and their own benchmarking.


So, for example, the Athlon XP 1600+ performs at 1.4 GHz, but the average computer user will think 1.6 GHz, which is what AMD wants.

But, this is not to say that AMD is tricking anybody. In fact, these chips to perform like the Thunderbird

at the rated speed, and perform quite well when stacked against the Pentium IV.

In fact, the Athlon XP 1800+ can out-perform the Pentium IV at 2 GHz.


Besides the naming, the XP was basically the same as the mobile Palomino released a few months earlier.

It did boast a new packaging style that would help AMD's release of 0.13 micron design chips later on.

It also operated on the 133MHz front-side bus (266MHz when DDR taken into account).

AMD continued to use the Palomino core until the release of the Athlon XP 2100+, which was the last Palomino.

AMD Athlon XP (2001)Thoroughbred

In June of 2002, AMD announced the 0.13 micron Thoroughbred-based 2200+ processor.

The move was more of a financial one, since there are no real performance gains between Palomino and Thoroughbred.

Nonetheless, the smaller more means AMD can product more of them per silicon wafer, and that just makes sense.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD-AthlonXP-1700.jpg

AMD Athlon XP (2003)K8

32-bit processors have served us well since the 1980s, but their life is coming to an end.

Once the 4GB memory limit (usually 2GB per process) seemed far away, but nowadays even home users could run into it.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD_Athlon_64_X2_Processor_Logo.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD_Athlon_64_X2_Processor_Logo.svg

AMD Athlon XP (2003)K8 Clawhammer

The Athlon 64 (The Processor Formerly Known As ClawHammer) increases that address space to over 16 Exabytes (16 billion Gigabytes) of RAM.

Which should be enough for the moment. Trouble is, you need 64-bit software to take

advantage of it, and right now theres virtually none.

So its just as well that the CPU runs 32-bit software even better than the Athlon XP, thanks to new architectural features.

AMD Athlon XP (2003)Clawhammer

High on the list is a DDR SDRAM controller (single channel, sadly), integrated into the core.

This reduces the amount of data that needs to be sent over the processor bus, boosting performance and reducing latencies.

And its one less component for chipset manufacturers to be concerned about, simplifying their designs.

AMD Athlon XP (2003)Clawhammer

Connection to the motherboard chipset is handled by AMDs HyperTransport bus, which also connects CPUs together in a multi-processor system although this feature wont be available for the desktop model.

provides a bandwidth of 3.2GB/s in both directions The move to a full 1MB Level 2 cache is another

plus point.

AMD Athlon XP (2003)Sempron

AMD Sempron Processor Family AMD Athlon 64 X2 Dual-Core Processor AMD Athlon 64 FX Processor AMD Opteron Processor Family

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD_Athlon_64_X2_Processor_Logo.svg

K8 64bit

The K8 is a major revision of the K7 architecture 64-bit extension to the x86 instruction set (officially

called AMD64, an x86-64 implementation), on-chip memory controller HyperTransport, as part of a Direct Connect

Architecture. The Opteron, released on April 22, 2003, It was followed by the Athlon 64 on September 23,

2003.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opteronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD_Athlon_64_X2_Processor_Logo.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD-AthlonXP-1700.jpg

K8 64bitAMD Opteron

It is arguable that at the time of its release 64-bit was not yet needed by mainstream users.

However the fact that the architecture offered high performance 32-bit application compatibility made it feasible for home users.

It was so popular in fact, that the AMD64 standard was adopted by Microsoft and Sun Microsystems and quickly supported by the GNU/Linux and BSD communities.

This left Intel in a position where they were forced to license the x86-64 extensions for their own 64-bit

K8

The K8 is marketed under many names, depending on the targeted end-user: Athlon 64 (and FX), Opteron, Turion 64 some Semprons

The Opteron is the server version of the K8.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon_64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opteron

AMD Athlon 64 X2 Dual-CoreApril 21, 2005

AMD released the first dual core x86 server chip on April 21, 2005.

The first desktop-based dual core processor family the Athlon 64 X2 came a month later.

The X2 can be distinguished from Intel's early (Pentium D) dual-core design, as the X2 mated two cores into a single chip, rather than two chips on a single package.

The X2 improved upon the performance of the original Athlon 64, especially for multi-threaded software applications.

Intel released its Core 2 Duo processor a year later, which, like the Athlon 64 X2, incorporated two processing cores on a single chip.

Socket AM2

To compete with Intel's advantage in memory bandwidth, AMD released a new socket dubbed "Socket AM2".

Socket AM2 CPUs use DDR2 memory instead of the older DDR memory

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_AM2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AMD_Athlon_64_X2_Processor_Logo.svg

Quad CoreAMD K10: Date 2007

The quad-core architecture, also known as "AMD K10" is AMD's new microarchitecture.

The "AMD K10" microarchitecture is the immediate successor to the AMD K8 AMD64 microarchitecture, and is due mid-2007.

K10 will come in a single, dual, and quad core versions with all cores on one single die.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microarchitecture

AMD Opteron 64

4 CPU Cores 4 L2 Cache

512KB 2MB L3 Cache


AMD Fusion

Merger between AMD and ATImerges a CPU and GPU on one chip

20 lane PCI Express link to accomodate external PCI Express peripheralseliminating the Northbridge chip,

completely from the motherboard. It is expected to be released late-

2008 or early-2009.

AMD Launches Phenom II CPU, Its Fastest Yet

AMD Phenom II Explained AMD is positioning Phenom II in between Intel's

Core 2 Quad and Core i7 offerings. Phenom II chips are available in two versions, the X4 920 and the X4 940 Black Edition, which compete tit-for-tat against Intel's highest Core 2 Quad CPU frequencies at 2.8 and 3.0 GHz, respectively.


http://www.pcworld.com/article/156247/intel_core_i7_desktops_dominate_pc_charts.html

AMD bumped the shared L3 cache of the PhenomII processors up from 2MB to 6MB, giving each CPU a total cache of 8MB.

L3 cache serves as a shared memory space for the cores to draw from.

Increasing the amount improves the CPU's ability to pull data from this faster memory space instead of having to issue slower requests to the system's main memory.


The move puts Phenom II processors right in the middle of Intel's Core 2 Quad lineup for cache size, but the result is still short of the 12MB caches found on higher-end Core i7 chips.

Though limited overclocking of the 920-edition processors is available through AMD's OverDrivesoftware, the company is tipping its hat toward the extreme-performance crowd with its Black Edition processors.


These CPUs run multiplier-unlocked, which liquid-nitrogen-armed enthusiasts have been able to exploit to frequencies above 6 GHz, surpassing the world record for Intel Core i7 processors, which stands at 5.5 GHz.

Performance The Phenom II's integrated memory controller and

HyperTransport interface give it a technical edge over competing Core 2 Quad chips, which lack those features. Intel moved to an integrated memory controller and began incorporating its own version of HyperTransport--dubbed QuickPathInterconnect--only with its Core i7 platform The



The Intel ProcessorsReview

Early model numbers: 8088, 8086, 80286, 386, 486 New three-digit processor numbers:

Pentium processors: 5xx to 8xx Celeron processors: 3xx Pentium M processors: 7xx

Overview of the Pentium family of processors Two ALUs are used for multiprocessing 64-bit external path size and two 32-bit internal paths Eight types of Pentium processors; e.g., Pentium 4 Celeron and Xeon are offshoots from Pentium family


The Intel Processors (continued)

Older Pentiums no longer sold by Intel Classic Pentium, Pentium MMX, Pro, II, and III

Celeron Uses a 478-pin socket or a 775-land socket Uses Level 2 cache within processor housing

Pentium 4 Runs at up to 3.8 GHz Later versions use Hyper-Threading (HT) Technology


Figure 4-8 The Pentiums are sometimes sold boxed with a cooler assembly


The Intel Processors (continued)

Some mobile Pentium processors Pentium M, Mobile Pentium 4, and Celeron M

Xeon processors Use HT Technology and dual-core processing Designed for servers and high-end workstations

The Itaniums Utilize EPIC, a newer instruction set than CISC External data path is 128 bits L1 cache on processor die, L2 and L3 cache on board

INTEL CPUs

Intel Core 2 Extreme QX6700 2.66GHz / 8MB Cache / 1066MHz FSB / Quad-Core / Socket 775

Intel Core 2 Duo E6600 2.40GHz, 4MB Cache, 1066MHZ FSB Socket 775

Intel Pentium D 940 3.20GHz / 4MB Cache / 800MHz FSB / Dual-Core / Socket 775

Intel Pentium D 840 3.2GHz / 2MB Cache / 800 FSB / Socket 775 / Dual-Core

Intel Celeron D 360 3.46GHz / 512KB Cache / 533MHz FSB / OEM / Socket 775



Table 4-3 The Intel Itanium processors


AMD Processorshttp://www.amdcompare.com/us-en/desktop/Default.aspx

Manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices, Inc Geared to 64-bit desktop and mobile processors Older AMD processors

Use motherboards not compatible with Intel processors Earlier processors used a 321-pin socket

Current AMD processors For desktops: Athlon 64 X2 Dual-Core, Athlon 64 FX For servers: Athlon MP, Opteron For notebooks: Turion 64 Mobile, Mobile Athlon 64


Table 4-4 Older AMD processors


VIA and Cyrix Processors

Use same sockets as earlier Pentium processors Target: personal electronics and embedded devices Three processors:

VIA C3: comes in EBGA and nanoBGA packages VIA C7: for electronic devices, home theater, desktops VIA C7-M: designed for ultrasmall notebooks

AMD Phenom QUAD CORE



Scales memory bandwidth and performance to match compute needs.

HyperTransport Technology provides up to 14.4GB/s peak bandwidth per processor reducing I/O bottlenecks.

Up to 27.2GB/s total delivered processor-to-system bandwidth (HyperTransport bus + memory bus)


False


AMD Balanced Smart Cache In addition to the 512K L2 cache per core, up to 2MB of L3 cache shared by up to 4 cores. Shortened access times to highly accessed data

for better performance.


False

HyperTransport 3.0 Technology

Up to 8 .0 GB/s HyperTransport I/O bandwidth;

Up to 14.4GB/s in HyperTransport Generation 3.0 mode.

Up to 27.2GB/s total delivered processor-to-system bandwidth (HyperTransport bus + memory bus).

Quick access times to system resources for better performance.



Processor Packages

Processor package: provides processor housing Flat and thin processor packages

Lay flat in a socket or motherboard Connectors can be pins or lands (newer) Intel example: PPGA (Plastic Pin Grid Array) AMD example: CPGA (Ceramic Pin Grid Array)

Cartridge processor packages Can be installed on a slot or lay flat in a socket Intel example: SECC (Single Edge Contact Cartridge)

Stands in slot 1 on the motherboard


Figure 4-12 This Intel Celeron processor is housed in the PPGA form factor, which has pins on the underside that insert into Socket 370


Figure 4-13 Pentium II with heat sink and fan attached goes in slot 1 on this motherboard


Processor Sockets and Slots Used to connect the processor to the motherboard Motherboard type must match processor package Types of sockets

Sockets are built around pin grid or land grid arrays Variations: PGA, SPGA, LGA, DIP, LIF, and ZIF

Types of slots Packages fit into slots like expansion cards Designated slots: Slot 1, Slot A, and Slot 2 New processor packages use sockets, not slots Slocket: adapts Slot 1 to processor requiring a socket


Figure 4-16 Socket LGA775 is the latest Intel socket


Figure 4-17 A riser card can be used to install a Celeron processor into a motherboard with slot 1


The Chipset Set of chips on the motherboard Controls memory cache, external buses, peripherals Intel dominates the market for chipsets

Example: i800 series of chipsets Intel 800 series Accelerated Hub Architecture

All I/O buses connect to a hub interface The hub connects to the system bus North Bridge: contains graphics and memory controller South Bridge: contains I/O controller hub Each bridge is controlled by a separate chipset


Figure 4-18 Using Intel 800 series Accelerated Hub Architecture, a hub interface is used to connect slower I/O buses to the system bus


Heat Sinks and Cooling Fans

Cooling assembly should keep temperatures

Heat Sinks and Cooling Fans


Figure 4-19 A processor cooling fan mounts on the top or side of the processor housing and is powered by an electrical connection to the motherboard

FAN REPLACEMENT

HEAT DOPE

Critical Step. All modern CPUs require some sort of thermal material be

added to the die to improve the thermal interface with the heatsink.

The purpose of a thermal compound is to fill in the microscopic voids in both the CPU die and the metal bottom of the heatsink.

You don't want to drown the CPU in thermal compound, just use enough (many manufacturers define the amount as a large grain of rice or a small pea) so when the heatsink presses down on it it will spread it over the die.


Installing a Processor

Types of installation technicians are asked to perform: Assemble a PC from parts Exchange a processor that is faulty Add a second processor to a dual-processor system Upgrade an existing processor to improve performance

Motherboard documentation lists suitable processors Some processor features to consider:

The core frequency and supported bus speeds Multiprocessing capabilities An appropriate cooler


Voltage to the Processor

Earlier processors drew power from system bus lines Newer motherboards may have a power connector

Modern motherboards regulate voltage to socket Sockets were more universal for older processors

Processor may fit socket, but not get correct voltage Ensure that motherboard supports older processor

Dual-voltage processor Voltages for internal and external operations differ

Single-voltage processor: requires only one voltage


Figure 4-23 Auxiliary 4-pin power cord from the power supply connects to the ATX12V connector on the motherboard to provide power to the Pentium 4


CPU Voltage Regulator

Voltages could be set on some older motherboards Enabled motherboard to support various CPUs

Ways to configure voltage on older motherboards Set jumpers to configure voltage to processor Use a voltage regulator module (VRM)

A VRM can be embedded or installed with upgrade


Installing a Pentium II in Slot 1

Before beginning tasks, follow safety procedures Summary of seven installation steps:

1. Unfold the universal retention mechanism (URM) 2. Determine how the cooling assembly lines up 3. Fit the heat sink on the side of the SECC 4. Secure the cooling assembly to the SECC 5. Insert the cooler and SECC into supporting arms 6. Lock the SECC into position 7. Connect power cord from fan to power connection


Figure 4-27 Insert the heat sink, fan, and SECC into the supporting arms and slot 1


Installing a Pentium 4 in Socket 478

If necessary, install frame holding the cooler in place Summary of six installation steps:

1. Lift the ZIF socket lever 2. Install the processor in the socket, lower the lever 3. Place some thermal compound on processor 4. Attach cooling assembly to retention mechanism 5. Push down clip levers on top of the processor fan 6. Connect power cord from fan to power connection


Figure 4-30 Carefully push the cooler assembly clips into the retention mechanism on the motherboard until they snap into position


Installing a Pentium 4 in Socket 775

Socket 775 has a lever and socket cover Cooler is installed between Steps 4 and 5 below Summary of five installation steps

1. Release the lever from the socket 2. Lift the socket cover 3. Place the processor in the socket 4. Close the socket cover 5. Connect power cord from fan to power connection

After components are installed, verify system works


Figure 4-38 The cooler is installed on the motherboard using four holes in the motherboard


Figure 4-42 The CPU and motherboard temperature is monitored by CMOS setup

Intel / AMD: Video Edit Test


Summary

Basic CPU components: I/O unit, control unit, ALUs Registers: high speed memory used by ALU in

current processing Internal cache: holds frequently used instructions Types of buses in CPU: internal and external (system) Standard Intel Pentium features: two ALUs, 64-bit

external path size and two 32-bit internal paths


Summary (continued)

Processors are housed inside a processor package Processors fit into slots or sockets in the motherboard The chipset controls memory cache, external buses

and some peripherals A cooler comprises a cooling fan and a heat sink A voltage regulator module (VRM) controls the

amount of voltage to a processor

A+ Guide to Hardware, 4eObjectivesIntroductionSlide Number 4Slide Number 5AMDProcessorsProcessorsProcessorsSlide Number 10Slide Number 11How a Processor WorksHow a Processor WorksSlide Number 14How a Processor WorksHow a Processor Works SYSTEM BUS FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works SYSTEM BUS FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works SYSTEM BUS FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works PROCESSOR FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works PROCESSOR FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works PROCESSOR FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works PROCESSOR FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works PROCESSOR FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works PROCESSOR FREQUENCY OR SPEEDHow a Processor Works DATA PATH SIZEHow a Processor Works DATA PATH SIZEHow a Processor Works DATA PATH SIZEHow a Processor Works DATA PATH SIZEHow a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSINGHow a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSINGHow a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSORHow a Processor Works MULTIPROCESSORHow a Processor Works DUEL-CORE PROCESSINGSlide Number 34Slide Number 35How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHEHow a Processor Works MEMORY CACHEHow a Processor Works MEMORY CACHESlide Number 39How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHESlide Number 41How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- SRAMSlide Number 43How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- SRAMHow a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- SRAMHow a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2L2 CACHEHow a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2 / L3How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2 / L3How a Processor Works MEMORY CACHE- L1 / L2 / L3How a Processor WorksInstruction Set OverviewHow a Processor Works INSTRUCTION SETSHow a Processor Works INSTRUCTION SETSINTEL vs. AMDIn the Beginning, there was 8086...8086 (1978)Intel 8088 (1979)Intel 80286 (1982)Intel 386 (1985 - 1990)16, 20, 25 & 33 MHz486 (1989 - 1994) 33 MHzThe Pentium (1993)60 to 200 MHzThe Pentium (1993)The Pentium (1993)Pentium MMX (1997)133 to 300 MHzPentium II (1997)233 to 450 MHzPentium II (1997)Celeron (1998) 850 MHz to 2.9 GHzCeleron (1998) 850 MHz to 2.9 GHzPentium III (1999)600 MHz to 1 GHzCeleron II (2000)533 MHz to 1.1 GHzPentium IV (2000 - Current)1.4 GHz to 3.06 GHzHyper Pipelined TechnologyRapid Execution EngineExecution Trace CacheIntel Core 2 Duo processors Intel Core2 Quad processor AMDAdvanced Micro DevicesAM486DX Series (1994 - 1995)AMD AM5x86 (1995)AMD AM5x86 (1995)AMD K5 (1996)AMD K5 (1996)AMD K6 (1997)AMD K6 (1997)Cyrix 6x86MX (1997)AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)3D NOW!AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)3D NOW!AMD K6-2 & K6-3 (1998)3D NOW!AMD Athlon K7(1999 - Present)AMD Athlon (1999 - Present)SLOT AAMD Athlon (1999 - Present)AMD Athlon (1999 - Present)AMD Athlon (1999 - Present)ThunderbirdSlide Number 98AMD Athlon XP (2001)PalominoAMD Athlon XP (2001)PalominoAMD Athlon XP (2001)PalominoAMD Athlon XP (2001)PalominoAMD Athlon XP (2001)PalominoAMD Athlon XP (2001)PalominoAMD Athlon XP (2001)ThoroughbredAMD Athlon XP (2003)K8AMD Athlon XP (2003)K8 ClawhammerAMD Athlon XP (2003)ClawhammerAMD Athlon XP (2003)ClawhammerAMD Athlon XP (2003)SempronK8 64bitK8 64bitAMD OpteronK8AMD Athlon 64 X2 Dual-CoreApril 21, 2005Socket AM2Quad CoreAMD K10: Date 2007Slide Number 117AMD Opteron 64Slide Number 119AMD FusionAMD Launches Phenom II CPU, Its Fastest Yet Slide Number 123Slide Number 124Slide Number 125Slide Number 126Slide Number 127Slide Number 128Slide Number 129The Intel ProcessorsReviewSlide Number 131The Intel Processors (continued)Slide Number 133The Intel Processors (continued)INTEL CPUsSlide Number 136AMD Processorshttp://www.amdcompare.com/us-en/desktop/Default.aspxSlide Number 138VIA and Cyrix ProcessorsAMD Phenom QUAD COREAMD Phenom QUAD COREAMD Phenom QUAD COREHyperTransport 3.0 TechnologySlide Number 144Processor PackagesSlide Number 146Slide Number 147Processor Sockets and SlotsSlide Number 149Slide Number 150The ChipsetSlide Number 152Heat Sinks and Cooling FansHeat Sinks and Cooling FansSlide Number 155FAN REPLACEMENTHEAT DOPESlide Number 158Installing a ProcessorVoltage to the ProcessorSlide Number 161CPU Voltage RegulatorInstalling a Pentium II in Slot 1Slide Number 164Installing a Pentium 4 in Socket 478Slide Number 166Installing a Pentium 4 in Socket 775Slide Number 168Slide Number 169Intel / AMD: Video Edit TestSlide Number 171SummarySummary (continued)

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