A GUIDE TO WETLAND IDENTIFICATION, DELINEATION AND WETLAND FUNCTIONS
by
LAUREN TRUDY RICHARDS
MINI-DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER ARTUM
in
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF GEOGRAPHY
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR J.H.J. VAN VUREN
JANUARY 2001
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF TABLES v i
LIST OF APPENDICES vii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 2
1.2 Purpose of the Study 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study 4
1.4 Intended and Recommended Use of the Guide 4
1.5 Assumptions and Limitations of the Guide 5
2. DEFINITION OF INLAND WETLANDS 5
3. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR WETLANDS 7
4. WETLAND CHARACTERISTICS 9
4.1 Hydrology of Inland Wetlands 9
4.2 Hydrophytic Vegetation of Inland Wetlands 10
4.3 Hydic Soils of Inland Wetlands 13
4.3.1 Types of Hydric Soils 13
4.3.1.1 Organic Soils 13
4.3.1.2 Mineral Soils 14
4.3.2 Soil Colour 14
4.3.3 The Water Regime, Degree of Wetness and Soil Morphology 15
4.4 Morphology of Inland Wetlands 17
4.5 The Fauna of Inland Wetlands 20
4.5.1 Wetland Associated Amphipods (crustaceans) 23
4.5.2 Wetland Associated Mammals 24
4.5.3 Wetland Associated Reptiles 25
4.5.4 Wetland Associated Amphibia 25
4.5.5 Wetland Associated Birds 25
4.5.6 Wetland Associated Fish 26
4.5.7 Wetland Associated Crabs 27
4.5.8 Wetland Associated Dragonflies (odonata) 27
5. SOUTH AFRICAN WETLAND TYPES 28
5.1 Endorheic Pans 29
5.2 Riverine Wetlands 31
5.3 Lacustrine Wetlands 32
5.4 Palustrine Wetlands 33
5.5 Man-made Wetlands 35
6. WETLAND FUNCTIONS AND VALUES 36
6.1 Biology 36
6.2 Pedology 37
6.3 Hydrology 38
6.4 Cultural Values 39
7. WETLAND THREATS 40
8. A WETLAND DELINEATION TECHNIQUE 43
9. RAMSAR CONVENTION 49
10. THE CHECKLIST SYSTEM 52
11. CONCLUSIONS 57
12. GLOSSARY 58
13. LIST OF REFERENCES 64
14. APPENDICES 71
ABSTRACT
South Africa is a country with a variable climate which results in the formation of a variety of
wetland types. These wetlands occur in a number of locations and natural settings and display a
wide variety of unique characteristics. The main study objective was to produce an inland
wetland guide document that would offer assistance to developers, managers, farmers, local
governments and the public to identify and delineate wetlands. The scope of the study limited the
research to inland wetlands and therefore excluded the marine and estuarine wetland types.
The document provides the reader with a number of wetland definitions and illustrates the
Cowardin et al. (1979) wetland classification system and the proposed South African wetland
classification system, developed by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. The
three most significant characteristics of wetlands (hydrology, hydrophytic vegetation, hydric
soils) are discussed in detail followed by a description of the wetland morphology and fauna,
including mammals, reptiles, birds, and fish. South African wetland types (endorheic pans,
riverine, lacustrine, palustrine and man-made wetlands) are discussed and maps are provided to
illustrate the distribution of these wetlands in South Africa. The ecological, hydrological and
cultural wetland functions and values such as flood attenuation, the storage and purification of
water, the provision of faunal and floral habitats, the recreational and educational potential and
the typical threats to wetlands (industrial, agricultural, urban) are described briefly.
A wetland delineation technique that was developed by Kotze & Marneweck (1999) is provided
to assist the reader in identifying the presence of a wetland and delineating its boundary. The
technique includes a number of flow diagrams and explanations to guide the reader through the
process. The Ramsar Convention plays an important role in the conservation of wetlands around
the world. An explanation of the purpose and the functions of the Convention is provided to
illustrate the importance of the conservation of the wetland ecosystems for man and the
environment. The guide document concludes with a wetland checklist system. The checklist can
be utilised by the reader to determine if an area of land constitutes a wetland and to ascertain the
specific type of wetland. The list consists of a variety of questions that can be marked off as the
reader continues. The guide document provides the reader with various appendices tha t include
lists of the wetland flora and fauna. There is also a list with a few expert contacts that may assist
the reader during wetland identification and delineation.
OPSOMMING
Die verskillende klimaatstreke in Suid-Afrika veroorsaak dat ‘n verskeidenheid van vleiland
tipes voorkom. Vleilande is in verskeie lokaliteite en natuurlike omgewings teenwoordig en
beskik oor bepaalde unieke eienskappe. Die hoof doel met die studie was om ‘n riglyndokument
vir varswater-vleilande op te stel vir verspreid ing aan ontwikkelaars, waterkwaliteitsbestuurders,
boere, plaaslike regering en die publiek. Die riglyne kan vir hierdie persone van hulp wees in die
identifisering en klassifisering van vleilande. Die omvang van die studie het die navorsing
beperk tot varswater-vleilande and daarom is mariene en estuariene vleilande uitgesluit.
‘n Verskeidenheid van vleiland-definisies word weergegee. Beide die Cowardin et al. (1979) en
die voorgestelde Suid -Afrikaanse vleiland klassifikasie stelsel soos ontwikkel deur die
Departement van Omgewingsake en Toerisme, word bespreek. Die drie mees betekenisvolle
eienskappe van vleilande te wete: hidrologies, hidrofitiese plantegroei en hidriese grond, word in
besonderhede bespreek. Dit word gevolg deur ‘n beskrywing van die vle iland morfologie en
fauna, insluitend soogdiere, reptiele, voëls en visse. Suid-Afrikaanse vleiland tipes word
bespreek en die verspreiding daarvan word in kaarte weergegee. Die ekologiese, hidrologiese en
kulturele vleilandfunksies en waardes soos om vloede te verminder, die berging en suiwering
van water, die verskaffing van habitat, die ontspannings- en opvoedkundige waarde en die tipiese
bedreigings vir die vernietiging van vleilande (industrieel, landbou, stedelik), word kortliks
bespreek.
Die vleiland klassifikasie -tegniek wat deur Kotze & Marneweck (1997) ontwikkel is, word
verskaf om die leser te help met die klassifisering en voorkoms van vleilande. Vloeidiagramme
en verduidelikings word ingesluit om die leser deur die proses te lei. Die Ramsar konvensie speel
‘n belangrike rol in die bewaring van vleilande in die wêreld. Die doel en funksies van die
konvensie word bespreek. Die riglyn dokument sluit af met ‘n vleiland kontrolelys. Die
kontrolelys kan gebruik word om te bepaal of ‘n spesifieke gebie de ‘n vleiland is of nie en ook
om die spesifieke tipe vleiland te identifiseer. Die lys bestaan uit vrae wat afgemerk kan word en
bevat verskeie bylae wat inligting van die vleiland flora en fauna weergee. ‘n Lys van kundiges
wie gedurende die identifikas ie en klassifikasie van vleilande geraadpleeg kan word, is ook
aangeheg.
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: Proposed South African wetland classification system, to class level
excluding marine and estuarine wetlands 8
Figure 2: Principal Vegetation Surrounding a Wetland 12
Figure 3: A Cross Section of a Wetland illustrating Colour and Mottles 15
Figure 4: Classification of Landform Settings 18
Figure 5: The Typical Morphology of Wetlands 20
Figure 6: Illustrations of a Mayfly, Dragonfly and a Water Beetle 22
Figure 7: Illustration of the Common Platanna 22
Figure 8: A Framework for Wetland Delineation 45
Figure 9: Criteria for using Soil Morphology as an indicator of Hydric Conditions 46
Figure 10: Criteria for using Vegetation as an indicator of Hydric Conditions 47
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: A provisional three class system for determining the degree of
wetness of wetland soils based on soil morphology 16
Table 2: Principle Wetland Threats 41
Table 3: Other Indicators of Wetland Conditions 48
Table 4: Classification of plants according to occurrence in wetlands,
(Based on U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Indicator Categories) 48
Table 5: Soil Forms associated w ith Wetlands 49
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1: Classification System of Wetlands by Cowardin et al (1979) 71
Appendix 2: The Aquatic Plants of Southern Africa 72
Appendix 3: List of Amphipod Species found in Freshwater Habitats 87
Appendix 4: List of Mammals, the associated Wetland Habitats and
their Status 89
Appendix 5: List of Reptile Taxa, the associated Wetland Habitats and
their Status 91
Appendix 6: List of amphibian taxa, the associated wetland habitats
and their Status 93
Appendix 7: The Habitat Types and Conservation Status of Wetland Birds
in South Africa 96
Appendix 8: Wetland Associated Fish 104
Appendix 9: Inland Freshwater Crabs found in South Africa 107
Appendix 10: South African Dragonflies (Odonata) 108
Appendix 11: Endorheic Pans of South Africa 114
Appendix 12: Riverine Wetlands of South Africa 114
Appendix 13: Lacustrine Wetlands of South Africa 115
Appendix 14: Palustrine Wetlands of South Africa 115
Appendix 15: Man-made Wetlands of South Africa 116
Appendix 16: Grass, rush and sedge species occurring in the upland areas of
the eastern seaboard and in the Highveld which indicate wetland
conditions 117
Appendix 17: List of Wetland Experts 119
1. INTRODUCTION
Wetlands have for many years been considered wastelands. They attract mosquitoes and other
insects, spread diseases and inhibit development and agriculture in certa in areas. Although, in the
past, wetlands were seen as nuisances, these natural ecosystems are now valued as wonderlands.
“Africa has diverse wetland types which support large and diverse numbers of animal and plant
species. They are a source of livelihood to large human populations for supply of water, for
domestic and industrial uses, drinking sites for animals, and provision of material for firewood
and construction ” (Heydorn 1996).
The identification of wetlands and their functions will help build awareness about these
ecosystems within South Africa. This process of capacity building will allow for any possible
threats and any necessary rehabilitative measures to be identified. Wetlands are unique, natural
ecosystems that provide a variety of useful functions and require special attention in a fast and
developing country where the levels of urbanisation and agriculture expand daily to
accommodate the rapid population growth. Information is the basis for understanding these
systems and they should therefore be studied intently. South Africa must aim to identify,
delineate, understand and appreciate wetlands!
This study is aimed at providing a clear overview of what constitutes a wetland and what the
various types are that occur in and around South Africa. A brief look at two classification
systems will increase the understanding of the various wetland types. The study looks at the
unique characteristics of wetlands (hydrology, soils, flora, fauna, morphology) and elaborates on
the various beneficial functions of and detrimental threats to the wetland ecosystems. The
Ramsar Convention and the conservation of wetlands are discussed to provide insight into how
the international community protects wetlands. A process for delineating wetlands will assist the
user of the guide to identify and effectively demarcate a wetland by observing the soil and
vegetation characteristics. The guide concludes with a checklist that the reader can utilise to
determine the specific type of wetland concerned.
1.1 Background
South Africa has a number of natural and artificial wetlands situated within the mainland and
along the coastline (Heydorn 1996). Wetlands provide a number of important functions that
benefit not only the natural organisms and the environment, but also the human components of
the continent. Some of these functions include water purification, sediment and waste removal,
attenuation of flood peaks, breeding and habitat for many floral and faunal species, and aesthetic
functions such as bird watching, sailing and swimming.
Wetlands are under threat by industrial activities and expanding cities (Lindley 1998) due to the
rapid urbanisation and industrialisation that is common in developing countries like South
Africa. The industrial activities dump wastewater and other effluents into the wetland killing the
fauna and flora and polluting the water. In 1996, the Blesbokspruit was removed from the List of
Wetlands of International Importance and was placed on the Montreux Record after it was
contaminated by large quantities of polluted water discharged from the adjacent Grootvlei
Proprietary Mines Limited (SoER 1999). Urbanisation results in the removal and degradation of
the wetland area. The water is pumped from the system and the wetland is filled with solid and
other types of waste or covered over with concrete and other construction products (Stock 1995).
It is essential that the individual wetland types together with their associated values and
functions are clearly identified to ensure that proper conservation and protection methods are put
in place and adhered to. Wetlands that are already altered and degraded require immediate
attention to restore the values and functions that these ecosystems have for man (Lindley 1998).
1.2 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to create a guide document that can be used in the field by wetland
experts and non-experts to help in the identification and delineation of inland wetlands. The
scope of the study was limited due to time constraints and therefore excludes coastal and
estuarine wetlands.
For many years wetlands have been considered nuisances but today the importance of these
systems is slowly being appreciated through educational programmes by various organisations
and other wetland promotional schemes. These wetland presentations occur mainly in
educational environments and other informal settings. Many of the developers and other
businessmen are bypassed, yet it is generally these people that are degrading, filling and
dredging the wetlands for a variety of developmental projects (SoER 1999).
There are large volumes of information on inland wetlands but these are often dispersed, difficult
to find and occur in a variety of documents around South Africa. A person intending to identify a
wetland on his/her land could have to waste valuable time in searching for the necessary
information to make an informed decision. The person may lose interest and proceed with the
destruction of the wetland system. It is therefore necessary to promote the wetlands, and
encourage people to protect them through the dissemination of information in a comprehensive
form.
It is important to provide an easily comprehensible document that incorporates the necessary
wetland information to allow people to identify and delineate the wetlands (Lyon 1993). In a
semi arid country like South Africa, it is important to preserve the many natural functions that
wetlands provide for us, especially water provision and purification. Water is extremely limited
in South Africa and many of the sources are being polluted by the expanding industrial and
agricultural activities (Lindley 1998). Wetlands can assist in the purification of this water at no
cost to the society. This is just one of the many functions of wetlands that needs to be
maintained.
Before a wetland can be conserved or protected, one needs to be able to identify the presence of
a wetland and its specific type. The gathered information can be documented to assist the
identification of the wetland and be used to ensure the conservation of wetlands and its
associated attributes, or to encourage the rehabilitation of degraded wetlands. Research is still
required to either obtain or improve the necessary information base for effective wetland
management. The research must also identify the current and future threats to these systems. It is
also important to contribute to national wetland programs by developing national and regional
inventories and in developing data and information management systems to assist wetland
managers. This process must provide further information on specific topics of interest and must
provide advice and support to wetland users, developers and researchers (Breen & Begg 1987).
1.3 Objectives of the Study
• To provide a guide document with the relevant wetland information that can be utilised to
identify and delineate inland wetland types and their associated functions.
• To provide information that can be utilised by a variety of individuals (managers,
scientists, local governments and developers) who are interested in wetlands and their
associated functions and values. The information can be used to prevent or reduce
development within and around the wetlands, increase awareness regarding the benefits
of wetlands and to promote the conservation of these systems.
• To promote a greater awareness and understanding by all levels of society that may result
in stricter regulations and methods of law enforcement being developed and applied.
The guide document has been produced through an intensive literature survey of the information
relating to inland wetlands. Information has been gathered from a number of libraries in South
Africa (Rand Afrikaans University, University of the Witwatersrand, University of Stellenbosch
and the University of Natal); a variety of organisations (Department of Environmental Affairs
and Tourism, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, World Wildlife Fund, Water Research
Commission); and various individuals. The gathered information has been subsequently
synthesised into the final guide document.
1.4 Intended and Recommended Use of the Guide
The purpose of the manual is to act as a written guide to identify wetland types within a
landscape. It is recommended that the individual, developer, or manager should first peruse the
document before attempting wetland identification or delineation in order to obtain a broad
understanding of wetlands and their associated attributes. If the individual has a thorough
knowledge of the subject, he/she can proceed to the section titled ‘The Checklist System’, which
can be utilised to assess the type of wetland. Additional information associated with that specific
wetland type can then be clarified under the section relating to that specific type of wetland. For
the individuals lacking wetland knowledge, the guide document should provide sufficient
information with which to make an informed decision regarding the wetland system, type and
attributes.
1.5 Assumptions and Limitations of the Guide
It is assumed that the guide document will be a useful and accurate tool in identifying and
delineating wetlands around South Africa. It is intended to improve the level of conservation of
wetlands by providing information to and increasing the awareness of uninformed individuals.
The aim is to improve the protection status of these systems and to reduce destruction and
degradation of wetlands in the future. The guide must also increase the awareness of the need for
rehabilitation of these systems so that they continue to provide the vital functions to man and the
environment.
The scope of the report has limited the amount of information and level of detail included in this
guide document. Further research should be undertaken to ensure that, in the future, the guide
document includes the relevant information on both coastal and estuarine wetlands to provide a
more holistic approach to wetland identification and delineation. Information has been collected
from a variety of sources (books, individuals, internet, organisations) and unfortunately this has
not always been complete or consistent. This information may possibly require further
examination and verification through research in the future.
2. DEFINITION OF INLAND WETLANDS
Wetlands play an important role in the human and physical environments, providing food, shelte r
and breeding havens for fauna and flora, and water for people. Wetland functions extend beyond
their boundaries into surrounding communities. By identifying the various types of wetlands in
South Africa, a greater knowledge and understanding of these ecosystems can be gained and the
wetlands can be protected for their natural functions that include water purification, flood
attenuation, sediment removal and others. If suitably protected and conserved, wetlands can
provide areas for social enjoyment and recreation, as well as contributing towards an
aesthetically pleasing environment (Lindley 1998).
But how does one define a wetland? The generic ‘term’ wetland is used to describe any
ecosystem that has an aquatic base or hydrological driving force and possesses both upland and
aquatic characteristics. Many terms have been used to describe wetlands (marshes, swamps and
bogs) and the definitions vary according to the function of the wetland (Lyon 1993). The great
diversity in morphology, geographical location, and dominant faunal and floral characteristics
makes it difficult to define wetlands universally (Williams 1990a).
There are a variety of definitions, but perhaps the most universally accepted is that by the
Ramsar Convention, which defines wetlands as “ areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water,
whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh,
brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed
six meters” (National Research Council 1995). The definition developed by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1979 states that: “wetlands are lands transitional between
terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land
is covered by shallow water”. For purposes of this definition, wetlands must have one or more of
the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the lands must support predominantly
hydrophytes, (2) the substrate must consist of predominantly undrained soil, and (3) the substrate
must be nonsoil and must be saturated with water or covered by the shallow water at some time
of the growing season of each year (Cowardin et al. 1979).
The definition provided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has been operational
since 1977 and states that wetlands are “those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface
or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal
circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil
conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas.” (National
Research Council 1995).
Walmsley & Boomker (1988) define a wetland as “land where an excess of water is the
dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the type of plants and animal
communities living at the soil interface. It spans a continuum of environments where terrestrial
and aquatic systems intergrade(sic)” .
Wetlands therefore consist of water, have impeded drainage, waterlogged soils and characteristic
fauna and flora. They occupy the transitional zone between permanently wet and generally dry
environments. Wetlands are all relatively dissimilar to one another and vary in terms of their
individual features. Wetland areas may fit the definition but may differ in habitat or physical
features such as depth of water, perennial flow and vegetation type. It is therefore important and
useful to classify wetlands according to different characteristics.
3. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR WETLANDS
There are a large number of wetland classifications around the world given by Cowardin et al.
1979; Larson et al. 1989; Scott 1989 and Dugan 1990 (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). The most
widely used and accepted classification system is by Cowardin et al (1979). This system was
developed in 1979 for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The purpose of the
classification system is to define or describe the ecological units of a wetland that have certain
homogeneous natural attributes (Breen 1988). The system can be used to assist in decisions
about resource management, develop units for inventory and mapping, and provide uniformity in
wetland concepts and terminology (Breen 1988). Wilen in Breen (1988) state that decision
makers cannot make informed decisions about wetlands without knowing the number, their type
and location.
The classification system is based on ecological functions and defines deepwater habitats. The
USFWS classification system is hierarchical and includes several layers of detail for wetlands
including a subsystem of water flow; classes of substrate types; subclasses of vegetation types
and dominant species. Appendix 1 illustrates the system to the ‘class’ level (Cowardin 1979).
The classification system groups wetlands into five major systems: marine, estuarine, lacustrine,
riverine and palustrine, which combine a variety of hydrologic, geomorphic, chemical and
biological factors. The subsystems reflect hydrologic conditions within the systems, and the
classes describe the appearance of the wetland based on vegetal physiognomy or substratum
where vegetation is absent (Breen 1988). The sub-classes describe the within-class differences
based on vegetal physiognomy or substratum where vegetation is absent. Finally use is made of
modifiers to describe more precisely the water regime, the salinity, the pH and the soil (Breen
1988).
The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism are presently developing a wetland
classification system for South Africa based on the Cowardin et al. (1979) system. It was
proposed that the Cowardin system could be utilised for South Africa since it was a hierarchical
and open structure, simple and clear, consistent and comprehensive (Dini et al. 1998).
The classification system uses the wetland definition by Cowardin et al. (1979): “lands
transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near
the surface or the land is covered by shallow water” (Dini et al. 1998). Using the Cowardin
system as a basis, a new classification system for South Africa was developed that
accommodates the physical and ecological diversity of South African wetland systems.
The structure is also hierarchical and progresses from systems (marine, estuarine, lacustrine,
riverine, palustrine and endorheic) to subsystems and classes (Dini et al. 1998). The various
levels have the same descriptive purposes as those of the Cowardin system discussed above.
Figure 1 below illustrates the proposed South African classification structure to the class level.
Figure 1: Proposed South African wetland classification system, to class level excluding marine
and estuarine wetlands (Dini et al. 1998)
Water Surface
Tidal Aquatic Bed Non-vegetated
Emergent
Water Surface Lower perennial Aquatic Bed
Riverine Non-vegetated
Emergent
Upper perennial Water Surface Aquatic Bed
Non-vegetated
Emergent
Lower intermittent Non-vegetated
Upper intermittent Non-vegetated
Water Surface
Limnetic Aquatic Bed
Lacustrine
Water Surface
Littoral Aquatic Bed
Non-vegetated Emergent
Water Surface
Flat Non-vegetated
Palustrine Slope Aquatic Bed Valley Bottom Moss-lichen
Floodplain Emergent
Scrub-Shrub
Forested
Water Surface
Non-vegetated
Endorheic Aquatic Bed
Emergent
Scrub-Shrub
Wetlands are highly valuable and productive ecosystems in ecological, social and economic
terms. However, the wetlands in South Africa are rapidly being lost or degraded through human
activities. The proposed classification system for South Africa will help provide baseline
information on the wetland characteristics for a national inventory that will assist the
development, implementation and monitoring of wetland conservation strategies at all levels of
the community.
4. WETLAND CHARACTERISTICS
The three important characteristics that are associated with and used to indicate if an area
constitutes a wetland include hydrology, hydrophytic vegetation and hydric soils (Braack et al
2000). Each characteristic will be discussed in more detail in the following sections. Other
characteristics of wetlands that will also be discussed include wetland morphology and wetland
fauna.
4.1 Hydrology of Inland Wetlands
Hydrology is generally viewed as the driving force of creating and maintaining wetlands, but is
often considered the least useful for wetland delineation due to the dynamic nature that varies
daily, seasonally and annually (Ingram 1983; Tiner 1993a). The hydrology and associated
anaerobic conditions controls the abiotic (soil colour, soil texture, water quality) and biotic
(abundance of plants, vertebrates, invertebrates and microbes) characteristics of the wetland
(National Research Council 1995). Indicators of wetland hydrology include the soil colour and
mottling, flood “markings” on the soil surface and coatings of silt or clay particles on plants
(Lyon 1993).
Water is introduced to a wetland through direct precipitation, overland flow (or runoff), channel
flow and groundwater discharge (Ingram 1983; Williams 1993a). Storage of this water occurs in
the channel, the basin and groundwater table. The final hydrological processes include the
removal of the water through evaporation, plant transpiration, runoff and groundwater recharge
(Ingram 1983; Williams 1990a). This process of water introduction, storage and removal is
referred to as the water budget.
The groundwater table is the upper limit of the saturated zone in the soil and often lies many
metres below the soil surface (Braack et al. 2000). In wetlands the groundwater table lies close
to or above the soil surface. The level of the table changes with climatic and seasonal changes,
therefore wetlands can be permanently saturated for the entire year, seasonally saturated
(flooded for 5–11 months) or temporarily saturated (saturated for 1–4 months). The soils must be
saturated long enough for anaerobic conditions to develop, therefore the water regime is one of
the most important factors affecting the functioning of a wetland (Williams 1993b).
The surface water processes within a wetland are related to the local and regional precipitation
patterns (Williams 1993b). The precipitation influences the wetland water budget directly
through rain within the physical boundaries of the wetland and the associated runoff, or
indirectly through inflows from upstream watersheds (Williams 1993b). Surface water can be
lost through evaporation which is determined by air temperature, humidity and wind speed,
vegetative cover and soil moisture content. Water can also be lost through transpiration which
results from root uptake by emergent plants and the loss through the surface area of the plants
(Williams 1993b).
Hydrology may not be the most important factor for delineating wetlands, but a slight
disturbance in the hydrological characteristics caused by water abstraction, drainage or
construction works can result in enormous biological consequences (Etherington 1983).
Therefore, hydrology, that may not be as tangible as hydrophytic vegetation or hydric soils, must
still be protected for the benefit of the wetland and humans.
4.2 Hydrophytic Vegetation of Inland Wetlands
Wetlands have distinctive and characteristic vegetation that differs from terrestrial vegetation.
The vegetation (hydrophytic) is adapted to wet conditions, areas that are covered by water for at
least part of the growing season, and therefore deficient in oxygen (Riemer 1984; Tiner 1993b;
Cowan & Van Riet 1998). The wet or damp nature of these habitats exerts a major influence on
the species composition of wetland flora and increases the productivity of these systems.
Wetland vegetation may respond to the topography and hydrology of the land by forming zones
of dominant plant species or complex mosaics of plant communities (Tiner 1993b; Bacon 1997).
The vegetation dies and decomposes slowly and contributes to the process of wetland formation
or maintenance through the trapping of silt or the formation of peat.
Wetland plants perform a number of important functions (Riemer 1984; Bacon 1997).
Vegetation within and around the wetland assist in slowing down overland runoff and allows for
much of the rain to soak into the ground and replenish the groundwater table. The roots of the
various vegetation types (sedges, grasses, trees) help bind the soil together and reduce erosion on
the banks. The vegetation helps intercept and trap sediment and silt from land runoff thus
cleaning the water and regulating the flow.
Plants provide habitats for fish, insects, animals and birds and provide excellent refuge for the
young. The flow of water is slowed down by the mass of roots and leaves providing a safe
nesting site and nursery for many animals and birds. The wetland plants are also an important
source of food for a large variety of species. Wetland plants also benefit humans through the
production of compost, mulch and fertilisers, and by assisting in the purification of wastewater
(Bacon 1997).
These important wetland functions are being damaged by farming activities such as ploughing
and the release of fertilisers and other toxins into the water system. The toxins and chemicals
released during farming activities are affecting the growth and survival of the aquatic fauna and
flora. Construction of houses and roads destroys the natural vegetation and industrial factories
pump large quantities of chemicals into the wetland systems, poisoning the vegetation. Other
factors that directly affect wetland flora are fire and the introduction of exotic plants that directly
kill the other wetland species.
Apart from Water plants of Natal (Musil 1973) there is little published information on the
specific aquatic plants that occur in wetlands of southern Africa (Glen et al. 1999). There are a
number of terms given to aquatic plants, such as water plants, freshwater macrophytes, wetland
plants, hydrophytes and semi-aquatic plants. Cook (1990) divides the large number of
classifications of aquatic plants into two main categories:
• Hydrophytes: plants that are physiologically bound to water where at least part of the
generative cycle takes place in or on the water surface. This category can be further
subdivided into
- Submerged : all photosynthetic parts submerged, assumed to be bottom-rooted.
- Emergent: some photosynthetic parts are in contact with air and therefore they are
assumed to be bottom-rooted with assimilating parts in the air.
• Helophytes: essentially terrestrial plants of which the photosynthetically active parts
tolerate long periods of submergence or floating on the water (Glen et al 1999).
Aston (1973) states: “there is no firm boundary dividing aquatic from non -aquatic species, nor
has any universally acceptable definition of an aquatic plant been developed. Aquatic species
are considered to be those adapted to growing in or on permanent water, either completely
submerged or emergent, and having a definite life form (habit, structure) related to this aquatic
environment” (Glen et al 1999).
The definition of an aquatic plant used in South Africa is based on the definitions of Cook (1990)
and Aston (1973) together with fieldwork and information from herbarium specimens. An
aquatic plant is: “a plant belonging to either the Charophyta, Byrophyta, Pteridophyta or
Spermaphyta of which the photosynthetically active parts are permanently or at least for several
months of each year submerged or float on the surface of water. These plants are entirely
dependent on the presence of water, are adapted in various forms to live in this environment and
are unable to complete their reproductive life cycle unless they have this close association with
water for at least part of their life cycle” (Glen et al. 1999).
Hydrophytic vegetation is one of the most visible and easily recognisable indicators of wetlands.
If hydrophytic vegetation plants make up 50% of the dominant species then the area may be
classified as a wetland. Other visible indicators of hydrophytic communities are the
morphological adaptations of the plants such as multiple tree trunks, exposed roots and shallow
root systems (Tammi 1994b). Only the most dominant hydrophytic species need to be identified
to locate a wetland (Lyon 1993; Tiner 1993b).
The typical vegetation expected around a wetland includes grasses, sedges, bulrushes,
phragmites, and woody types (Gaigher 1990). The species situated within the water zone consist
of water grasses and reeds, water lilies and other floating reeds (Figure 2).
(a) Stenotaphrum - buffalo grass (f) Scirpus
(b) Juncus - sedge (g) Nitella
(c) Cyperus (h) Potamogeton
(d) Typha - bulrush (i) Nymphae - water lily
(e) Phragmites - swampreed (j) Lemna - duckweed
Figure 2: Principal Vegetation Surrounding a Wetland (Gaigher 1990)
Cowan (1999) has collated information on aquatic plants that are typical of South Africa. The
data provides an idea of the range of species found in South Africa, indicates their red data
status, and in which habitats they are likely to be found. The list of plants is by no means
complete and the tables (provided as appendices to this document) are by no means a complete
coverage of South Africa’s wetland flora and require continual research and update. The flora are
dependent on other plants living either in or on the water for part of their life cycle and are
adapted to the aquatic environment (Appendix 2). The tables should provide a guideline as to
which aquatic plants occur in South Africa and should become a useful tool in the conservation
of the wetlands and encourage further research on these plants.
As can be seen from the appendix, there are a vast number of aquatic plants associated with
wetlands. As it is not the intent in the document to describe each plant species, the reader is
therefore advised to contact C. Archer, R.P. Glen and J. van Rooy from the National Botanical
Institute in Pretoria for further information and assistance relating to aquatic vegetation.
4.3 Hydric Soils of Inland wetlands
Kotze et al (1996) have described hydric soil as “soil that in its undrained condition is saturated
or flooded long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions favouring
the growth and regeneration of hydrophytic vegetation”. The hydric soils are physically volatile
and are continually changing with the decomposition of the vegetation and the erosion of
sediment with river flow and flooding. The water level, sedimentation and decomposition result
in the transformation and trapping of nutrients and organic matter leading to a fertile soil. The
anaerobic conditions that are developed through the waterlogging of the soils are stressful to
terrestrial plants because the oxygen supply is limited and the metals are in their chemically
reduced and therefore more toxic forms (Kotze et al. 1996).
4.3.1. Types of Hydric Soils
4.3.1.1. Organic Soils
Hydric soils are deficient of oxygen and impede the decomposition of organic matter. Wetland
zones that are subject to the longest wet periods generally accumulate the highest level of
organic matter (Kotze et al. 1996). Low or cool temperatures also promote the accumulation of
organic matter.
According to the USA Soil Survey Staff (1975), the minimum proportion of organic carbon (OC)
required for soil material to be classed as organic ranges from >12% if it is sandy to >18% if it is
clay-rich (Kotze et al. 1996; Kotze & Marneweck 1999). There must be at least 400mm of
organic material within the upper 800mm of the soil, or organic material of any thickness
extending from the soil surface to rock or gravel. According to the Soil Classification Working
Group (1991) the requirements in South Africa are less restrictive. The minimum OC limit is
10% and the minimum thickness is 200mm (Kotze et al. 1996).
4.3.1.2. Mineral Soils
Soil material that has OC limits of less than 10-12% is classed as a mineral soil (Brinkman &
Van Diepen 1990; Kotze et al. 1996). The properties of texture, pH and mineralogy vary greatly
between mineral soils. Gleying is a process that occurs when prolonged saturation reduces the
level of mineral soils. The colours grey, and to a lesser extent blue and green, dominate in gleyed
soil material (Etherington 1983; Brinkman & Van Diepen 1990; Kotze et al. 1996). Periodic
saturation can result in alternating anaerobic (w et) and aerobic (dry) soil conditions. Reduced
levels of iron in localised areas in mineral soil material when the soil is aerobic, results in the
formation of yellow, orange, red or black mottles.
The typical horizons of a gley soil include an upper organic rich or peaty layer, overlying a paler
coloured gley-horizon with a background colour of grey or grey-green with mottles of brown or
ochreous patches (Etherington 1983). The mineral soils that are permanently saturated are more
uniformly gleyed throughout the saturated area and show less mottling development (Brinkman
& Van Diepen 1990; Kotze et al. 1996).
4.3.2. Soil Colour
The water regime within a wetland has a strong effect on the colour patterns of the soil. In
dryland (well drained) soils there is enough oxygen to oxidise the iron in the soil resulting in a
uniformly red/brown/yellow soil (Braack et al. 2000). The aerobic conditions and the lack of
water prevent the leaching of the iron from the soils thus retaining the red/brown colour. In
saturated and anaerobic conditions the irons are leached from the soils resulting in a grey soil
colour (Braack et al. 2000). The presence of water in the soil also reduces the rate of
decomposition of organic matter. Therefore the level of organic matter is higher in wetland soils
than in dryland soils, resulting in the soil being darker/blacker in the wetter areas. Wetland soils
are thus darker and greyer.
If anaerobic soils dry up or are drained, the iron oxides form orange or red spots called mottles
(Braack et al. 2000). These coloured mottles can be useful for indicating if a drained area was
originally a wetland and to determine the extent of wetland loss in the country. An illustration of
the soil colour and the related mottles is provided below (Figure 3).
Figure 3: A Cross Section of a Wetland illustrating Colour and Mottles (Braack et al. 2000)
4.3.3. The Water Regime, Degree of Wetness and Soil Morphology
The depth and duration of waterlogging depends on where the wet/dry continuum of the wetland
lies (Kotze et al. 1996). This “position” is often referred to as the degree of wetness. The reader
must remember that wetlands occur as transitional areas between terrestrial (dry) and aquatic
(wet) systems. The water regime describes when and to what extent the soil profile is saturated
or flooded and is the most important factor that affects both plant species composition and the
agricultural limitations of a wetland (Kotze et al. 1996).
Hydric soils have great ecological and agricultural importance to South Africa. There is
nevertheless a shortage of information relating to these soils in South Africa. Soil Taxonomy
(Soil Survey Staff 1975) was found to be superior to the South African system for classifying
and describing hydric soils because it accounted for the depth of waterlogging, but unfortunately
did not adequately account for the degree of wetness (Kotze et al. 1996).
Kotze et al. (1996) undertook a pilot study of the hydric soils in the wetlands of KwaZulu-Natal.
The researchers devised a three -class system for determining the degree of wetness that could be
used together with Soil Taxonomy or the South African Soil Classification system to enhance the
description of hydric soils in South Africa.
An illustration of the three class s ystem is available in Table 1. The system was based on the fact
that wetlands are not permanently flooded throughout the year and some may only contain water
above the surface for a few weeks of the year (Kotze & Marneweck 1999). Wetlands are
therefore not all the same and should be divided into three primary zones based on the degree of
wetness.
Table 1: A provisional three class system for determining the degree of wetness of
wetland soils based on soil morphology (Dely et al. 1999; Kotze & Marneweck
1999)
DEGREE OF WETNESS
SOIL Temporary Seasonal Permanent/Semi-permanent
Soil depth
0 – 10cm
Matrix brown to greyish
brown (chroma 0-3,
usually 1 or 2).
Few/no mottles.
Low/intermediate OM
Nonsulphidic
Matrix brownish grey to grey (chroma
0-2).
Many mottles
Intermediate OM
Sometimes sulphidic
Matrix grey (chroma 0-1)
Few/no mottles
High OM
Often sulphidic
Soil depth
30 – 40cm
Matrix greyish brown
(chroma 0-2, usually 1)
Few/many mottles
Matrix brownish grey to grey
(chroma 0-2)
Many mottles
Matrix grey (chroma 0-1)
No/few mottles
Matrix chroma 0-1
High Organic Matter (OM): soil organic carbon levels are greater than 5% often exceeding 10%
Low Organic Matter (OM): soil organic carbon levels are less than 2%
Sulphidic soil material has sulphides present which give it a characteristic ‘rotten egg’ smell
The seasonal zone tends to be greatly mottled and may make up a greater area than the matrix.
This may result in some confusion when determining the chroma of the matrix and the reader is
advised to refer to the Munsell colour chart (Kotze & Marneweck 1999). The zones are
influenced by the local climate and landform and under high rainfall conditions all three of the
zones are likely to occur. In arid and semi-arid conditions the permanent/semi permanent wet
zone is generally absent.
The pilot study and the three class system resulted in a number of broad generalisations
concerning the water regime and associated soil morphology changes that occur when moving
from the dry to the wet extreme of the continuum.
The generalisations include the following:
• Matrix chroma steadily decreases;
• Mottle hue and chroma initially increase but on reaching the wet extreme, they decrease;
• The most intensively mottled zone in the soil profile gets progressively shallower and the
mottle size increases; and
• Predominantly black nodules are replaced by red nodules, mottle abundance increases
and then steadily decreases nearer to the wet extreme (Kotze et al. 1996).
This system has not been adequately tested and the results from the pilot study are only broad
generalisations. The researchers therefore recommend that local studies be undertaken in other
settings incorporating a wider range of wetland types. Local soil morphology/water regime
studies will help improve the capacity for adequately describing hydric soils in South Africa.
For further information regarding hydric soils of South Africa, readers are advised to refer to Soil Taxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff 1975).
4.4 Morphology of Inland Wetlands
South Africa has a diverse climate and volatile underlying terrain that determines the various
wetland types and distributions. The geologically susceptible surfaces of the continent are eroded
by wind and precipitation that creates many topographical depressions and other settings that
intercept surface water and/or groundwater discharges (Cowan & van Riet 1998). The water
flowing through the catchment area is slowed down by the land or geology causing the surface
soil layers to be temporarily, seasonally or permanently waterlogged (Braack et al. 2000). The
morphology or shape of the wetlands and their geographical location determines the numerous
plant and animal species that inhabit the areas. The biota varies according to the nature of the
wetland, (seasonal or permanent), the soils and the hydrology (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
In the report by the United States Geological Survey 1996, Tiner (1996) lists typical areas for
wetland formation that determine their shape and size: (1) depressions, (2) flat depositional areas
that are subject to flooding, (3) broad, flat areas that lack drainage outlets, (4) sloping terrain
with springs and relatively flat or sloping areas adjacent to bogs, and (5) open water bodies. The
document, Wetland-Use, uses a system of landform classification (Dely et al. 1999). The
classification of landform settings used in Wetland-Use is illustrated below (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Classification of Landform Settings (Dely et al. 1999)
Depressions tend to occur on terraces or in valley bottoms and even more frequently on ridge
tops or narrow ridges (Dely et al 1999) . These topographical settings provide the location for
endorheic wetlands that lack inward drainage and outlets. The individual natural pans are
generally ovoid in shape. The vegetation types in the depressions vary according to the level of
water. Permanently wet areas tend to support submerged or floating aquatic plants or emergent
plants (Dely et al 1999). The slightly less wet depressions tend to support temporarily wet
grassland.
The various cha nnel settings result in natural or artificial riverine wetlands that tend to flow
along the base of mountains or through the centre of valleys. The depth and width of the
channels determine the wetland vegetation and the aquatic fauna. The riverine wetlands are often
accompanied by floodplain wetlands especially after heavy rainfall periods. Agricultural
trenches, which are a type of artificial wetland, also occur in the form of a channel. The trenches
accumulate water seepage from the agricultural fields to prevent flooding and then flow towards
nearby main river systems (Van Der Merwe 1999 pers. comm.).
Riverine wetlands are also associated with artificially created dams. These wetlands are
generally situated within the direction of flow of the rivers and drainage lines impounding and
capturing the water (Van Der Merwe 1999 pers. comm.). The morphology of the dams depends
on the space and appropriate location for water accumulation and storage. The smaller dams tend
towards an oval or round shape, whereas the larger dams are more elongated (Figure 5). The
artificial and natural channels tend to be straight to sinuous in nature with gentle gradients. The
velocity of stream currents is therefore lower and more conducive to the establishment of
emergent and aquatic plants (Orme 1990).
The morphology of wetlands will vary according to the location of a wetland within a valley or
on the surrounding slopes or ridges. The type of climate and associated rainfall patterns affect
the erosion of the land into the various shapes that are conducive to wetland formation. The
shape of the wetland will help the reader identify the type of wetland, but this must be
accompanied by a study of the soils and the fauna and flora for verification purposes.
4.5 The Fauna of Inland Wetlands
The variety of living organisms that have adapted to the different wetland habitats tends to be
high with many of the major animal groups present (Gopal 1990; Bacon 1997). The high
production levels of the wetland plants support the large number of faunal species. The
vegetation distribution and the water level fluctuations provide changing habitats for a number of
terrestrial and aquatic species throughout the year. Wetlands support grazing and browsing
animals such as the buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious)
and a number of invertebrates including snails (Gastropoda) and crustaceans (Crustacea), and
many fish (Bacon 1997). Frogs, toads and birds are also characteristic of wetlands.
Many different kinds of birds with a wide range of feeding and breeding habits are found in and
around wetlands. The wetlands also serve as resting and feeding stations along migratory routes
for ducks (family Anatidae) and other shorebirds (Charadriiformes) (Gopal 1990; Bacon 1997).
Wetlands are ideal feeding, breeding and nursery habitats for birds (Gaigher 1990).
The birds feed off the microscopic algae, fish, frogs, crabs, worms, insects and other creatures.
Wetland birds can be classified as shorebirds, waders, swimmers or divers, depending on the
water depths that they utilise. They may also be referred to as filter feeders, herbivores, small
invertebrate and large invertebrate feeders, piscivores and amphibian feeders (Gaigher 1990).
Figure 5: The Typical Morphology of
Wetlands (Semeniuk 1987)
The different feeding habits are indicated by the bird’s beak. Shore and mud feeders have short
beaks, ducks and geese have flat multi-purpose bills whereas diving birds have very sharp
pointed beaks (Gaigher 1990). Illustrations of the various beaks may be obtained from Wetlands
(Gaigher 1990). Other adaptations of water birds include their feet. For example the African
jacana’s (Actophilornis africanus) feet are elongated with long fine claws so that they can walk
along floating vegetation, whereas other birds have webbed feet for efficient propulsion through
or under water (Gaigher 1990).
The mammals that are associated with wetlands are dependent on the water for survival. Some of
the more typical species include the Greater canerat (Thyronomys swinderianus), vlei rat
(Otomys irroatus), serval (Felis serval), various otters, the large water mongoose (Atilax
paludinosus), the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) and reedbuck (Redunca arundinum)
(Gaigher 1990). The Greater canerat tends to inhabit the rivers, lakes and swamps where it feeds
off the roots, shoots and stems of grasses and reeds. The herbivorous vlei rat inhabits grasses,
sedges and herbaceous vegetarian. The serval is not restricted to wetlands but proximity to water
is very important. The serval tends to feed off the vlei rat (Gaigher 1990).
The otters inhabit rivers, streams, lakes, swamps, vleis and dams where they feed off frogs, fish
and crabs (Gaigher 1990). The water mongoose is associated with rivers, streams, marshes,
swamps, vleis and dams where it lives in the reedbeds. The hippopotamus and the reedbuck
utilise the wetland for water, shade and vegetation. Illustrations are available in Wetlands
(Gaigher 1990).
Wetlands also provide habitats for a wide range of invertebrates. The invertebrates obtain food
from feeding on organic deposits and living plant tissue, filtering organic particles out of the
water, capturing living organisms and scavenging (Gaigher 1990). Some of the more typical
freshwater invertebrates include mayflies (Ephemeroptera spp .), dragonflies (Anisoptera spp.),
damselflies (Zygoptera spp.), mosquitoes (Diptera spp.) and midges (Diptera spp .), various
small crustacea and molluscs (Gaigher 1990). Figure 6 illustrates three of the invertebrates. For
further illustrations of these species, refer to Wetlands (Gaigher 1990).
Wetlands provide habitats for a variety of amphibians and reptiles. Some of the more typical
species include the common (Xenopus laevis) and Cape platanna (Xenopus gilli), Giant bullfrog
(Pyxicephalus adspersus) and micro frog (Microbatrachella capensis), the caco family
(Ranidae) and terrapin family (Pelomedusidae), and a number of snakes (Gaigher 1990). The
common platanna occurs throughout South Africa and is found in a variety of water bodies. This
species is totally aquatic and is both a predator and scavenger. The Cape platanna is endemic to
the South-west Cape and can be found in the acidic natural water bodies in fynbos areas. This
species is one of the most threatened amphibians in South Africa (Gaigher 1990). The bullfrog is
the largest frog in South Africa and breeds in temporary rain-filled vleis in open veld. The micro
frog is endemic to the South-west Cape and occurs in vleis and shallow temporary wetlands.
Figure 7 below illustrates the common platanna. For further illustrations, refer to Wetlands
(Gaigher 1990).
Figure 7: Illustration of the Common Platanna
(Gaigher 1990)
Figure 6: Illustrations of a Mayfly, a Dragonfly and a Water Beetle
(Gaigher 1990)
The common (Cacosternum boettgeri) and the Cape caco (Cacosternum capense) occur in
marshy areas, vleis, inundated grasslands and pools. The terrapin is found in shallow, temporary
water bodies, marshes, rivers and vleis (Gaigher 1990). The common brown water snake
(Lycodonomorphus rufulus) occurs in the eastern half of South Africa in rivers, streams and
other permanent water bodies. The Cape many-spotted reed snake (Amplorhinus mulimaculatas)
occurs in the Western Cape and is usually found in damp or marshy areas (reedbeds) on
mountain slopes or open grassland. Lastly, the green water snake (Philothamnus hoplogaster)
frequents marshes, ponds, rivers and other water bodies along the east of Africa. Illustrations of
some of these species may be found in Wetlands (Gaigher 1990).
Cowan (1999) has also collated information relating to the fauna of wetlands, and includes:
amphipods, crabs, odonata (Dragonflies), fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals. As for the
wetland flora, the tables of wetland fauna (available as appendices) also provide information on
the range of species in South Africa, their red data status, and the habitats in whic h they are
likely to be found. These habitats are based on the wetland classification developed by Cowardin
et al (1979). The criteria that were used to identify a wetland species were based on whether it
was dependent on water, wetland flora or other wetland fauna for any major part of its life cycle
(Cowan 1999). These tables are not complete for the whole of South Africa and should be
supplemented with further research in the future.
4.5.1. Wetland Associated Amphipods (crustaceans)
A large majority (80%) of the known amphipod species belong to the Suborder Gammaridea
(Stewart 1999b), which include marine, freshwater and terrestrial species. The freshwater
amphipod fauna are made up of three taxonomically and geographically distinct elements. The
paramelitides and the sternophysingids, two of the elements, are members of the superfamily
Crangonyctoidea of the suborder Gammaridea. The third element is a group of five cave -
dwelling species that fall into the suborder Ingolfiellidea, which is the smallest of the four
suborders within the Amphipoda (Stewart 1999b).
The 26 species of the family Paramelitidae are known to occur in streams and caves in the
Western and Southern Cape. The Sternophysinx occurs in similar habitats and can be found in
KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, Northern and North West Provinces, the Northern Cape
and central Namibia, and is endemic to South Africa (Stewart 1999b).
Appendix 3 provides a list of the amphipod species that are typical to the freshwater habitats and
wetlands of South Africa. The estuarine and marine species have been excluded from this study
but information on them can be obtained from the original text, Biota of South African Wetlands
in relation to the Ramsar Convention (Cowan 1999). The reader is advised to seek expert
opinion and assistance (B. A. Stewart, Department of Zoology, University of Stellenbosch) in
identifying the various amphipod species associated with wetlands.
4.5.2. Wetland Associated Mammals
Wetlands such as floodplains and temporary pools offer refuge, water points, feeding and
breeding grounds for a wide range of mammals, and are therefore of great ecological and
conservation importance. The mammals may be dependent on the availability of water, the
associated vegetation, or a complex combination of biotic and/or abiotic interactions.
There is a presence of 44 wetland associated mammals in South Africa (Appendix 4) which
represents 15,1% of the total southern African and 5,8% of African mammalian fauna
(Chimimba & Cowan 1999). These spec ies include representatives of seven (Insectivora,
Chiroptera, Carnivora, Cetacea, Artiodactyla, Rodentia and Lagomorpha) of the 15 mammalian
orders recognised in South Africa (Chimimba & Cowan 1999). Fourteen of the species are red
data species (endangered, vulnerable, restricted, peripheral, rare, very rare, indeterminate,
threatened) and include the endemic Riverine rabbit (Bunolgus monticularis).
The list is not representative of all possible mammals associated with wetlands. Some of the
mammals may not be included due to their small size and secretive habits. Some of the smaller
species such as the Water rat (Dasmys incomtus) and the Vlei rat (genus Otomys) may include
more than one cryptic species that are not easily detected (Chimimba & Cowan 1999).
The reader is referred to Wetlands of South Africa (Cowan 1995) and Wetlands (Gaigher 1990)
for a few illustrations of wetland-associated mammals. The reader should also refer to the
reference list in Wetlands of South Africa (Cowan 1995) for references relating more specifically
to some of the species. If there are still uncertainties regarding a certain species, G.I. Cowan
should be contacted at the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism.
4.5.3 Wetland Associated Reptiles
South Africa has a large reptile diversity consisting of 411 species and subspecies (Jacobsen
1999b). Less than eight percent, or about 32 reptile taxa are to a greater or lesser extent
dependent on wetlands for their continued existence. The study allows for those reptiles that are
also of border line to be included (Appendix 5). Of the 32 taxa associated with wetlands, only ten
are endemic to South Africa with twelve occurring in the Cape (Jacobsen 1999b).
The reader is referred to Wetlands (Gaigher 1990) for illustrations of some of the wetland-
associated reptile species and should also contact the Chief Directorate of Nature and
Environmental Conservation. N.H.G. Jacobsen, a writer on wetland reptiles, can be contacted at
PO Box 49193, Hercules 0030.
4.5.4. Wetland A ssociated Amphibia
South African frogs tend to be terrestrial, using the wetlands for breeding purposes. South Africa
has 92 frog species (Appendix 6), of which 20 are permanent residents of wetlands (the genera
Xenopus, Rana, Ptychadena and Strongylopus). Seventy species use wetlands for breeding and
feeding; and fourteen do not or marginally use wetlands (Jacobsen 1999a). Forty-nine percent of
these frog species are endemic to South Africa.
For further information relating to amphibian species, the reader is referred to Wetlands of South
Africa (Cowan 1995). The reader may also contact N.H.G. Jacobsen at PO Box 49193, Hercules
0030.
4.5.5. Wetland Associated Birds
There are large numbers of birds that are dependent on wetlands for their survival, breeding and
habitats. These birds do not necessarily qualify as waterfowl species (Cowan & Randall 1999).
Cowan & Randall (1999) identified 58 bird species associated with wetlands who were either
totally dependent on wetlands for food, shelter and breeding habitat, or required wetlands for at
least a phase of their annual cycle, and those that frequently use wetlands.
There are about 234 species of wetland birds found in South Africa of which 70% can be
classified as waterfowl according to the definitio n of the Ramsar Convention (Cowan & Randall
1999). The groups of birds included as waterfowl in the guidelines to the Convention include:
grebes (Podicipedidae); cormorants (Phalacrocoracidae); pelicans (Pelecanidae); herons,
bitterns, storks, ibises and spoonbills (Ciconiiformes); geese and ducks (Anatidae); wetland
related raptors (Falconiformes); cranes (Gruidae); shorebirds or waders (Charadriidae); and
terns (Sternidae) (Cowan 1999). Cowan & Randall (1999) have identified 139 species of
waterfowl wetla nd species in South Africa. Twenty-four of the 234 wetland species have been
accorded red data status. Ten of the 234 species are endemic to southern Africa and 37 species
are alien to South Africa (Cowan & Randall 1999). The waterfowl species and wetland
associated birds are listed in Appendix 7. This list may not be totally conclusive and future
studies should be undertaken to ensure the list remains as comprehensive as possible.
The identification of wetland birds can be facilitated by referring to relevant books, obtaining
expert opinion or undertaking courses in bird identification. The reader is referred to Wetlands of
South Africa (Cowan 1995) for references relating to the wetland birds of South Africa.
Illustrations of wetland-associated birds can be obtained from Robert’s birds of Southern Africa
(Maclean 1993). For further information, the reader should contact G.I. Cowan from the
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, and R.M. Randall from the National Parks
Board.
4.5.6. Wetland Ass ociated Fish
Skelton & Cowan (1999) have produced lists of typical wetland fish species (Appendix 8). The
list includes all fish occurring in South African rivers. There are 97 indigenous freshwater fish
and 147 estuarine fish in South Africa (Skelton & Cowan 1999). The estuarine fish will be
excluded from this study but can be located in the original text Biota of South African Wetlands
in relation to the Ramsar Convention (Cowan 1999). Man has also introduced roughly 18 alien
species of fish. For illustrations of the various fish, the reader is referred to Freshwater Fish of
Southern Africa (Skelton 1993). It is recommended that the reader obtains expert opinion when
identifying the various wetland associated fish species (P.H. Skelton at JLB Smith Institute of
Ichthyology Grahamstown; G.I. Cowan at Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism).
4.5.7. Wetland Associated Crabs
There have been a total of 44 crab species recorded from the inland and estuarine waters of
South Africa, of which 12 live only in freshwater habitats (Stewart 1999a). These river crabs
form an important part of the food chain for carnivores such as fish, otters and birds, and are also
important as detritivores. Crabs are also viewed as transmitters of disease, ‘pests’ to farmers and
fulfil a medicinal function (Stewart 1999a).
The brachyuran families occur on both land and in freshwater, yet only two of the terrestrial
species are found in South Africa. These include the gecarcinid Cardisoma carnifex and the
grapsid Geograpsus stormi, which were recorded north of Durban. All freshwater crabs of
southern Africa belong to the African genus Potamonautes and more than half of the ten species
from this genus that occur in South Africa are endemic (Stewart 1999a). A list of the cra b
species (Brachyura) that are found in inland waters of South Africa is available in Appendix 9.
For further information and assistance relating to wetland-associated crab species, the reader
should contact B.A. Stewart from the Department of Zoology (U niversity of Stellenbosch).
4.5.8. Wetland Associated Dragonflies (Odonata)
South Africa has 155 species of dragonfly and of these, 56 are fairly widespread. Another 67
species are highly localised or generally rare (Samways 1999). South Africa has 29 endemic
species of Odonata and this figure includes Metacnemis angusta Selys and Paragomphus
dicksoni Pinhey (Samways 1999). The odonata species are being threatened by increased silt
loads, decreased oxygen levels, lowering of the water table, major or minor impoundments,
fluctuating water levels and over extraction of water (Samways 1999). Other threats include the
introduction of exotic fish (rainbow trout) and trees (black wattle), damage to riverbanks and
plantation trees. There are currently eight species that are red data listed. A list of the South
African dragonfly species is available in Appendix 10.
The reader is advised to contact M.J. Samways for further information and assistance relating to
wetland dragonflies (Invertebrate Conservation Research Centre, Department of Zoology and
Entomology, University of Natal).
There is a vast number of wetland-related fauna in South Africa. The fauna is being destroyed by
the increasing levels of effluent that are entering the wetland system from industrial and
manufacturing activities (factories and mines). The effluent is toxic to these species poisoning
them and the food on which they survive. The urban sprawl of cities and the development of
roads and other traffic systems are removing large areas of the wetland, destroying the natural
habitat in which the faunal species reside. It is important to identify the different types of fauna
in order to protect and conserve them through the maintenance of the wetland ecosystems. Some
of the species are commonly known to the general public but, the identification of some of the
more rare species requires expert opinion or verification by people well read in that specific
field.
5. SOUTH AFRICAN WETLAND TYPES
The diversity of natural conditions in South Africa has resulted in a number of different wetland
types. South Africa is an arid country with an average rainfall of about 497mm per annum,
which is much lower than the world average of 860mm (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). Sixty-five
percent of the country has a mean annual precipitation of less than 500mm while 21% receives
less than 200mm. The annual evaporation ranges from 1100mm in the east to over 3000mmm in
the west, which is well over the annual rainfall (Cowan & Van Riet 1998).
The various climatic conditions occurring around South Africa have resulted in different types of
wetland areas. Cowan & Van Riet (1998) have divided South Africa into various wetland regions
according to climate, and these have been further sub-divided into four broad groups based on
the geomorphology of the country: plateau, mountains, coastal slopes and rimland, and coastal
plain. The geology will determine minor wetland groups within these regions. It must be
remembered that wetlands typical of a region are not necessarily exclusive to that region.
Detailed descriptions of the individual wetland regions are available in Wetlands of South Africa
(Cowan 1995).
5.1 Endorheic Pans
Endorheic pans are common in many of the world’s arid zones and consist of brackish, saline or
alkaline lakes, flats, pans and marshes (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). They may also be referred to
as playas in geomorphological literature. A pan can be described as a closed basin that
accumulates rainwater only after sufficient rainwater has fallen (Anon 1987). Some pans can be
completely without vegetation except after good rains. The process of pan formation begins with
periodic flooding followed by desiccation that results in an area of exposed soil in a depressional
setting. Winds then scour out and enlarge the circular-shaped basin (Allan 1987).
Endorheic pans may be identified by their circular to oval shape. They are shallow (less than
three metres deep) even when inundated and have a closed drainage system (no drainage outlet).
The majority of the water lost from the pans is through evaporation, which tends to increase the
levels of salinity of the water. Inundation is typically ephemeral (of a short period) and some
pans in the dry western regions may be dry for years between flooding (Cowan & Van Riet
1998; Dini et al. 1998).
The pans in South Africa are the most common in the Western, Southern and Eastern Plateau
wetland regions. The distribution of the pans is illustrated in Appendix 11. Their highest
concentration occurs in areas with a mean annual rainfall of less than 500mm and an average net
evaporation loss of 1000mm per annum (Cowan & Van Riet 1998; Dini et al. 1998).
The ‘Directory of South African Wetlands’ compiled by Cowan & Van Riet (1998) has recorded
a total of 289 endorheic pans, which is by no means the total number in South Africa. The
Department of Surveys and Mapping have recorded 1772 pans at a scale of 1:500 000. Allan et
al. (1995) identified 7600 pans from the 1:50 000 map series for the plateaux region north of the
Vaal River. At this scale roughly 16% of the smaller, well-vegetated pans may still not have
been identified (Cowan & Van Riet 1998).
Endorheic pans have a large variety of characteristics and have therefore been differentiated into
a number of groups. Cowan & Van Riet (1998) have described the groups as follows:
• Salt pans: Dry for most of the year but may contain perennial pools filled by springs.
These pans have extremely saline substrata and are virtually restricted to the dry western
areas of South Africa. These pans are bright white when dry and may be surrounded with
the sedge Schoenoplectus triqueter on the shoreline (Allan 1987).
• Temporary pans: Dry for long periods, although flooded during the rainy season, and is
usually moderately saline.
• Grass or Diplachne pans: Seasonal and covered by a thick growth of hygrophilous
grasses and other low terrestrial vegetation. The waters are fresh to slightly saline and are
crucial breeding grounds for the near-threatened bullfrog (Pyxicephalus adspersus and P.
edulis).
• Reed pans and Sedge pans : Temporary or semi-permanent with dense stands of reeds
(Phragmites) and sedges (Cyperaceae). The submergents may include Lagarosiphon and
Potamogeton (Allan 1987). The sedge pan is generally smaller than the reedpan. The two
dominant sedges are Matjiesgoed (Schoenoplectus corymbosus) and Eleocharis palustris
(Allan 1987).
• Open pans : These pans are usually devoid of vegetation except around their shorelines.
The vegetation consists predominantly of the grass, Cynodon dactylon, sedges (Scirpus
dioecus and Cyperus species), various Juncus species and the small flower, Limosella.
Their substrate is shallow soil or exposed rock.
Endorheic pans are an important habitat for waterfowl especially the migratory birds (Cowan &
Van Riet 1998). Pans do not generally provide habitats for endemic fish, reptiles and
amphibians, but are home to the threatened bullfrog (Pyxicephalus adspersus and P. edulis)
(Allan 1987). Otters (Mustelidae) have been identified around several of the larger pans, but
mammals do not generally rely on these wetlands for their survival. Flamingoes
(Phoenicopterformis), Cape teal (Anas capensis) and Cape Shoveller (Anas smithii) ducks are a
common feature of many of the Gauteng pans. Other species that utilise pans include snipes
(Scolopacidae), avocets and stilts (Recurvirostridae), ibises and spoonbills (Threskiornithidae),
coots (Fulica) and plovers (Charadriidae) (Allan 1987).
In the process of urbanisation, the pans of South Africa and especially those situated around
Gauteng, are being drained, filled, covered over or used as dumpsites. Afforestation affects the
landscape characteristics of the wetland and the water supply that sustains the pans (Cowan &
Van Riet 1998). Pans are divided by power-lines, roads and railways, and the basins are
excavated for road construction material (Allan 1987).
Pans situated on farmlands accumulate pesticides and fertilisers resulting in water contamination
and eutrophication, which is exacerbated by the endorheic (no drainage) nature of these wetlands
(Allan 1987). Overstocking of cattle frequently results in the excessive trampling of shoreline
vegetation. Overgrazing can increase the level of siltation within the pan (Allan 1987).
5.2 Riverine Wetlands
South African rivers are regarded as young in the geological history of the country. They tend to
be fast flowing, but can be highly variable in their flow regime. Cowardin et al. (1979) limits
these riverine systems to positions within a channel, and which contain continuously or
periodically moving water. Cowardin et al. (1979) and Dini et al. (1998) exclude those wetlands
that are (1) dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergents, emergent mosses, or lichens, and
(2) which have habitats with ocean derived salinities in excess of 0.5 parts per thousand. The
perennial systems include rivers, streams, waterfalls and inland deltas, whilst seasonal riverine
wetlands include seasonal rivers and streams, and riverine floodplains. A map of some of the
rivers and streams in South Africa is available in Appendix 12.
Two of South Africa’s Ramsar sites are part of riverine floodplains (Seekoeivlei and Ndumo).
The wetlands play a vital role in regulating flow and maintaining high water quality standards of
major rivers, such as the Vaal River. In comparison to the pans discussed in the previous section,
the riverine wetlands can be valuable as fish breeding sites and play a key role in the
hydrological cycle (Cowan & Van Riet 1998; Dini et al. 1998).
Riverine wetlands are subjected to the dumping of chemical loads from factories and industrial
activities. Fortunately, riverine wetlands have been known to metabolise these nitrogen and
phosphorous loads (Allanson 1995). The fast flowing water assists in the dilution and dispersion
of the pollutants – a form of water purification. This valuable function requires the restoration of
damaged wetlands or the construction of artificial wetlands in stream channels where high loads
of nitrogen and phosphorous could be harmful to downstream water users. In addition, the
hydrophytes also remove the nutrients from the soil, transfer them to shoots and leaves where
they are immobilised until the plants die naturally and the process of decay returns the nutrients
back into the system (Allanson 1995).
The rapidly expanding population and the associated increase in the demand for water in South
Africa are threatening the continent’s rivers (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). A large majority of the
rivers in the country are manipulated by storage dams or by water transfer schemes in order to
provide water for the people. These water provision schemes drastically affect river conservation
projects because they alter the flow regime of the river which in turn affects the fauna, flora and
quality of the river channel. The schemes also transfer biota to other systems in which they do
not usually occur, thus impacting on various biotic populations.
Davies et al. (1993) states that “: there are few rivers in Southern Africa that have not been over-
exploited, degraded, polluted or regulated by impoundments, and we know of many that were
once perennial, but which now flow only seasonally or intermittently” (Cowan & Van Riet
1998). Other major threats to rivers include catchment degradation and associated sediment
produc tion, organic and mineral pollution, over abstraction of water, salinisation, and the
introduction of alien invasive species (Cowan & Van Riet 1998).
Many of South Africa’s riverine wetlands have been altered or drained by farmers who utilise the
hydric soils, which structure these wetlands, for agricultural purposes (Allanson 1995). Sheet and
gulley erosion on the exposed wetland soils are just some of the consequences of wetland
alteration and wetland removal. In some cases the structure and function of the wetland can be
restored or rehabilitated, but significant areas of riverine wetlands are being lost permanently.
5.3 Lacustrine Wetlands
Lacustrine wetlands have been defined as areas of permanent water with little flow (Cowan &
Van Riet 1998). Cowardin et al. (1979) defines lacustrine wetlands as those:
(1) situated in a topographic depression or a dammed river channel; (2) lacking trees, shrubs,
persistent emergents, emergent mosses or lichens with greater than 30% areal coverage; and (3)
whose total area exceeds eight hectares; or an area less than eight hectares if the boundary is
active wave-formed or bedrock or if water depth in the deepest part of the basin exceeds two
metres at low water (Dini et al. 1998).
These wetlands include seasonal freshwater lakes (= 8ha), ponds and pans (= 8ha). There are
disputes as to what constitutes a lake. Hart (1995) excludes pans from lakes because lakes are
extensive and relatively deep open waters. Cowardin et al. (1979) and Shaw (1988) do consider a
pan to be a lake type (Cowan & Van Riet 1998; Dini et al. 1998).
In essence, a wetland should be considered a pan when its water depth is less than three metres,
the morphological shape is oval or circular and the water is slightly saline or brackish. Many of
the pans are dry during the year and fill up only temporarily during the rainy season. Although
many authors refer to a pan as a type of lake, lakes are more permanent in nature, larger in size,
have a greater water depth and support a wider variety of fauna and flora.
A large number of freshwater permanent and temporary pans, which form part of floodplain
systems, are listed as lacustrine wetlands (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). The water of these lakes
may become slightly saline as they dry out but are still inc luded as lake systems. Most of the
major lake systems have been included as Ramsar sites and been afforded legal protection (de
Hoop, de Mond, Kosi System, Lake Sibaya, Ndumo, St Lucia System, Verlorenvlei and
Wilderness Lakes). A map of the lacustrine wetlands is available in Appendix 13.
The major threats to the lacustrine wetlands include agricultural and silvicultural developments
in their catchments (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). These developments reduce water flows into the
lakes, cause nutrient loading and herbicide, and biocide pollution. Industrial developments also
increase the amount of toxic and non-toxic pollutants entering the wetland system. Recreational
demands and over-exploitation of water resources due to the expanding population, as well as
land reclamation are leading to sediment loading and changes in the hydrological regimes of the
lakes (Cowan & Van Riet 1998).
5.4 Palustrine Wetlands
Palustrine wetlands can best be defined as ecosystems occurring between terrestrial and aquatic
systems with an excess of water as the dominant factor (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). Cowardin et
al. (1979) and Dini et al. (1998) include all non-tidal wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs,
persistent emergents, emergent mosses or lichens. Palustrine wetlands consist of a wide range of
physical situations, water regimes, chemistries and vegetation types. These wetlands include
permanent marshes and swamps, permanent peat-forming swamps, seasonal marshes, peatlands
and fens, alpine and polar wetlands, springs and oases, volcanic fumaroles, shrub swamps,
swamp forest and forested peatland.
Palustrine wetlands are found in the areas with a mean annual rainfall greater than 500mm with
the main exceptions being those found along the main watercourses and those developed around
dolomitic eyes. The largest wetland of this type may be found on the physiographically flat areas
of the coastal plains. The distribution of the wetlands is listed in Appendix 14.
Volcanic fumaroles have not been identified by Cowan & Van Riet (1998) , but a number of hot
springs have been developed into health and recreation resorts (Warmbad, Badplaas).
A majority of the springs are related to dolomitic eyes in the north east of the western plateau
wetland region. Many endemic fish are located in these areas, which are presently facing threats
from the introduction of alien invasive fish species and agricultural pollution (fertilisers and
pesticides). These ecosystems are also being drained for urban, industrial and agricultural use.
Dewatering of the dolomitic compartments for the mining processes are destroying these
palustrine wetlands.
Cowan & Van Riet (1998) have identified four different types of freshwater marshes. These are
as follows:
• Sedge marshes: dominated by sedges, hygrophilous grasses and similar plants up to one
metre high (Scirpus littoralis, S. ficniodes, Festuca caprina, Juncus maritimus, J. kraussi,
J. oxyxapus, Leersia hexandra, Sporobolous virginicus, S. consimilis and paspalum
vaginatum);
• Restio marshes: typical of South-western Cape and dominated by Restionaceae
(characteristic of the Cape Floral kingdom) and sedges. Three communities have been
identified: the Restio compressus community of seepage steps, the Eligia cuspidate –
Prismatocarpus sessilis community of recently burnt , seasonally moist sites, and the E.
cuspidate-Bobartia india community of unburnt, marshy flats;
• Reedbed marshes: dominated by Phragmites species. Stands of Typha spp, Scirpus spp
and Cyperus spp can be found in the areas where water levels remain close to the soil
surface during the dry season. These marshes intergrade with sedge marshes at higher
altitudes; and
• Cape seasonal wetlands : these wetlands include a number of floral communities: a
temporary sand plain community, a limestone community, a coastal Renosterveld
community and a strand community.
Cowan & Van Riet (1998) have also identified two types of freshwater swamps:
• Reed swamps: perennial standing water on floodplains that fringe many costal and
estuarine lakes. They are dominated by Phragmites australis or
P. mauritianus while Typha capensis often occurs in patches in these swamps; and
• Papyrus swamps: require a stable hydrological regime and are dominated by Cyperus
papyrus and occur in the sub-tropical coastal plain wetland region.
Peatlands are also a part of the palustrine category of wetlands (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). The
main peat forming flora include Cyperus papyrus and Phragmites australis in papyrus or reed
swamps; Ficus trichopoda and Syzigium cordatum in swamp forests, and Fimbristylus
longiculmis and Leersia hexandra in sedge dominated peatlands.
Peatlands are used in subsistence farming as sources of fresh water, fodder and biomass for local
communities. These wetlands are being threatened by afforestation, which lowers the water
table, and commercial horticulture (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). The increasing populations that
use slash-and-burn agriculture for a short-term cash crop are destroying the peatlands almost
entirely. Other main causes of palustrine wetland loss are agricultural development, erosion and
the building of dams. These interferences have a direct effect on the ecological functioning of the
systems. The hydrological regime is disrupted by water resource development and alteration of
grassland catchment areas. Excess sedimentation and the introduction of invasive alien plants
and animals also have a profound effect on these systems.
5.5 Man-made Wetlands
Artificial wetlands are of major significance in South Africa and can have a profound effect on
the natural wetland landscape (Cowan & Van Riet 1998). Due to the lack of significant lakes, a
large number of dams have been developed in South African rivers to supply water for industry,
irrigation, mining, municipal and domestic use, power generation, and stock watering (Appendix
15).
These artificial impoundments drown the natural wetland systems and change the hydrological
character of the rivers. Impoundments alter the natural flow regime of rivers and exert a number
of other influences:
• Retention of water may result in the increased growth of algae and other aquatic plants
resulting in eutrophication;
• The discharge patterns from the impoundments may impact on the downstream natural
wetlands, floodplains, flora and fauna;
• Water releases from impoundments may result in floating aquatic plants such as the water
hyacinths (Eichhorma crassipes) in the Vaal River (Allanson 1995).
There are however a number of benefits to be had from these artificial impoundments. Some of
the large dams have provided a refuge for large numbers of waterfowl during the dry seasons.
Commercial fisheries and aquaculture works can also be constructed on the larger dams which
provide food and employment in the country (Cowan & Van Riet 1998).
6 WETLAND FUNCTIONS AND VALUES
The physical, chemical and biological interactions within wetlands are often referred to as
wetland functions (Reimold 1994). The characteristics of these systems that are beneficial to
society are considered as wetland values (Finlayson & Moser 1991). There is a lack of thorough
understanding of these ecosystems, and therefore there is no strategy to ensure the survival of at
least some of the remaining ones (Breen & Begg 1987). The real prospect for wetland
conservation lies in the formation of a policy that is acceptable to all interested organisations
(business, managers, developers, local government, farmers).
Wetland functions and values provide the basis for establishing regulations regarding alterations
that may be applied to wetlands. Changes in land use (natural or human induced), whether
planned or existent, result in changes in functions and values of wetlands. These changes in
wetlands functions and values must also be considered in the monitoring and managing of
wetlands. With the increasing efforts to reduce wetland losses as well as to monitor wetland
restoration efforts, it is essential to clearly understand the functions and values of wetlands
(Reimold 1994).
Early approaches to assessing wetlands functions and values focused primarily on waterfowl and
wildlife uses in different types of wetlands (Reimold 1994). Many of these contemporary
approaches are based on three ecosystem components: (1) biology (the study of flora and fauna),
(2) pedology (the study of soils) and (3) hydrology (study of water on the surface of the land, in
the soil and underlying rock and in the atmosphere) (Reimold 1994). This three-component
approach is still valid today.
6.1 Biology
Wetlands have a great value to wildlife and waterfowl and provide the functions of habitat,
feeding and resting, and migrations (Reimold 1994). Wetlands are also used for nesting and
brood rearing areas. A number of wading birds, songbirds, reptiles, turtles, and snakes depend on
wetlands for survival.
Wetlands also serve as habitat for fish communitie s where they can breed, find food and take
cover from predators. Wetlands also, however, provide habitat for the public nuisance – the
mosquito.
Wetlands play an important role in the survival of fauna and flora living within and adjacent to
wetlands. The wetland functions are often based on vegetation (species, coverage, survival),
fauna (species, density, diversity and habitat quality), sanctuary refuge value for fish, wildlife
and waterfowl, and food chain production and production export to adjacent ecosystems
(Reimold 1994).
The areal extent of the wetland can be directly quantified in terms of the sanctuary or refuge
value it can provide for aquatic species. Primary productivity refers to the amount of organic
matter converted from solar energy and mineral nutrients by plants. The concentrated form of
energy is either directly consumed by grazers (for example insects) or transported from the
wetlands by flowing water as detritus.
6.2 Pedology
Pedology is the study of soils and this science includes the analysis of substrate depth, colour,
texture, source, organic content and sediment flux (Reimold 1994). The colour and mottling of
the soil indicates the depth and duration of soil saturation. Mineral soils are considered hydric
when they are predominantly grey in colour with occasional greenish or bluish grey mottles
(Reimold 1994). These are referred to as gleyed soils in other words, hydric soils that are an
integral part of a wetland ecosystem.
Organic hydric soils are dark brown or nearly black and have a direct influence on the growth of
plants, the movement of nutrients and microbial activity in the soil (Reimold 1994). The main
function of the soil is to bind chemicals for retention within the wetlands soil matrix and to
reduce erosion. The wetland clays determine the availability of the chemicals to aquatic
organisms.
6.3 Hydrology
Water is a highly important aspect of wetlands and the hydrological components of wetland
functions and values include water depth; flow rates; flow patter ns; flood attenuation for storm
or floodwaters; natural water quality improvement; groundwater recharge and discharge;
shielding other areas from wave action, erosion or storm damage; and storage of storm or
floodwaters (Reimold 1994). Changes in water quality from human activities (recreation,
agricultural, industry, residential) are also seen as an important function of wetlands.
The hydrological functions are associated with flood storage capacity and the resultant delay in
runoff from major precipitation events (Reimold 1994). Wetlands slow water that is moving
through the catchment because of the gentle wetland slopes, the resistance offered by the dense
wetland vegetation, the water being spread out over a wide area of a wetland, and finally becaus e
the wetlands do not have well defined channels (Braack et al. 2000). This attenuation of flood
peaks reduces potential damage to society. Many organisations are now constructing artificial
wetlands for the purpose of flood control.
Wetlands function as a source, sink or transformer of nutrients and metals which, unfortunately,
is a result of industrial and agricultural activities. This has led to greater interest in using
wetlands as small-scale sewage treatment plants as well as storm-water retention or treatment
basins (Reimold 1994). Wetlands provide a free service in purifying water acting as nitrogen and
phosphorous “traps”.
They can remove 15% to 32% of heavy metals as well as dissolved compounds of sodium,
chloride, calcium, magnesium and potassium depending on flow rates (Hammer & Bastian 1989;
Lindley 1998). Wetlands are also valued for their ability to remove sediments. The dense
wetland vegetation slows floodwater velocity, which results in the deposition of the sediments
containing the various pollutants or chemicals that are then used by the plants and recycled
through the system (Braack et al. 2000).
6.4 Cultural values
Individual, societal and global functions are collectively referred to as cultural values, and
include both consumptive and non-consumptive uses of wetlands (Reimold 1994). Consumptive
uses are actual or potential uses of wetlands where consumable products are removed from the
wetland and other direct benefits are derived. Recreational uses of wetlands include sightseeing,
swimming, canoeing, sailing, and powerboats.
Aesthetic uses include photography, painting, musical compositions and poetry. Educational uses
include nature study, bird watching and research. Consumptive values are also associated with
aquaculture, timber harvest, local peat usage, commercial fishing, hunting and others (Reimold
1994). Non-consumptive societal values include landscape or heritage values, ecological
balance, known presence of archaeological resources and habitat for threatened or endangered
fauna and/or flora (Reimold 1994).
From the above text, it should be clear to the reader that there are a large number of functions
that a wetland provides to the social and natural environment. The following is a summary of the
functions of wetlands that extend beyond the physical wetland boundary.
1. Short-term surface water storage that reduces downstream flood peaks and societal
damage (protection of human life and property). Riverine wetlands have the ability to
attenuate the floods by as much as 60%. If the destruction of wetlands continues, the
severity of flooding downstream will increase significantly.
2. Long-term water storage which maintains base flows, seasonal flow distribution and
biotic habitats (Day & King 1987);
3. Maintenance of high water table, biodiversity and hydrophytic community (Breen &
Begg 1987; Braack et al. 2000). Wetlands provide habitats, food and breeding areas for a
variety of plants and animals.
4. Transformation and recycling of elements, maintenance of nutrient stocks and wood
production.
5. Retention and removal of dissolved substances (pollutants), waterborne bacterial
pathogens and other types of contamination.
6. Recreational opportunities (hunting, fishing, bird watching, photography, boating);
7. Educational and research opportunities.
8. Contribution to the national economy through commercial shellfish industries and
employment opportunities.
9. Accumulation of peat and inorganic sediments.
10. Maintenance of characteristic plant communities and energy flow (National Research
Council 1995) .
11. Wetlands can assist in the prevention or reduction of global warming through the
retention of carbon preventing it entering the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (Lindley
1998; Braack et al. 2000).
It is not easy to place a value or price on a wetland asset, but if one could, one would find that
wetlands have a surprisingly high value. One should look critically at the cost versus the benefit
analysis of each development proposed in or near a wetland. Another major problem with
development in wetlands and their catchments is that we cannot isolate the consequence (Breen
& Begg 1987).
The consequences of a development on a wetland are felt downstream where no benefit is
derived. This can be in the form of wastewater that is not purified through the wetland
ecosystem. Various types of pollutants may wash downstream causing health and other
problems. Increased levels of sediment may choke the river channel downstream reducing the
availability and quality of the water for other users. The maintenance of fish communities and
various types of plants and animals may be removed from the area due to the destruction of a
wetland through development. The degradation of a wetland does not only affect the immediate
surroundings, but will inevitably cause problems for neighbouring areas.
7 WETLAND THREATS
The previous section describes the various wetland functions that provide direct and indirect
benefits to man and nature. Excessive use of these functions and benefits can result in threats to
the wetland and the resultant deterioration of the wetland system. The wetlands and the
catchment areas that surround a wetland, are under threat by afforestation; urban development;
mining; water resource/hydroelectric development (dams, water abstraction); degradation of the
catchment, soil erosion and sedimentation; and alien plant growth along water courses
(Finlayson & Moser 1991; Cowan & Van Riet 1998).
Hydrological alterations to wetlands include drainage, dredging, stream canalisation, levees,
deposition of fill material, stream diversion, groundwater abstraction and the negative effects of
impoundments (Finlayson & Moser 1991; Lindley 1998; Braack et al. 2000). Water diversion
structures increase the levels of sediment entering the wetlands that cover aquatic vegetation.
Impoundments/dams have the ability to decrease water circulation which increases water
temperature, lowers dissolved oxygen levels, changes salinity and pH, prevent nutrients outflow
and increases sedimentation (Finlayson & Moser 1991; Lindley 1998; Braack et al. 2000).
The main threats to the actual wetland system are summarised in the table below (Table 2).
Table 2: Principle Wetland Threats (Cowan & Van Riet 1998)
Drainage
Dredging
Groundwater abstraction
Abstraction/diversion of water supply for
irrigation/urban/industrial use
Flood control
Flooding
Construction of roads, airports, waterways etc
Urban/industrial development
Human settlement/encroachment
Mining and associated development
Waste disposal
Urban/industrial pollution
Agricultural fertilisers
Eutrophication
Introduced alien plants
Introduced alien animals
Infestation with aquatic weeds
Agricultural development
Conversion to aquaculture ponds
Conversion to salt pans
Overgrazing
Commercial logging
Tourism/recreation and associated
development
Fishing and associated disturbances
Hunting and associated disturbances
Harvesting of aquatic plants
Agricultural biocides
Urbanisation increases the number of impervious surfaces from commercial and residential
development that prevent the percolation of rain into the soils and reduces the water flow into the
wetlands (Maltby 1986; Lindley 1998). The water that does reach the wetlands contains
sediments, organic matter, pet wastes, hydrocarbons, debris, pesticides and fertilisers from lawns
and gardens. Roads inhibit the natural movement of certain faunal species and increases the
levels of mortality. Chemicals from the roads wipe out vegetation and aquatic life, and they can
disrupt habitats and destroy sensitive species. Sanitary landfills can leach toxins (ammonium,
iron, manganese) and other household wastes into the water. Non-native vegetation can sharply
reduce the species diversity of the wetland and threaten the water quality. This continued input
of wastes and other hazardous substances into the wetlands will cause a reduced effectiveness of
the system and degradation of the wetland.
Industrial activities cause the reduction in wetland acreage, hydrocarbon contamination and
radionuclide accumulations from oil and gas production (Maltby 1986; Braac k et al. 2000).
Chemicals can alter reproduction, growth and behaviour of organisms, plants and animals
suffocate; and toxic or acidic compounds and high concentrations of metals are an ecological
risk to fauna and flora. Commercial fisheries can also affect wetlands through the pollutants of
fishing boats and possible oil spills (Finlayson & Moser 1991; Lindley 1998).
Agriculture and its associated activities such as drainage, irrigation dams, application of
pesticides and fertilisers, and groundwater wit hdrawal alter wetland hydrology, water quality and
species composition (Maltby 1986; Braack et al. 2000). Fertilisers and animal wastes cause
severe eutrophication. Cattle trample the natural vegetation surrounding wetlands, which
eliminates food and shelter for fish and wildlife. The banks are exposed to runoff water and
erosion increases the levels of sediment in the water.
Afforestation results in the drying up of wetlands, especially the planting of gum (Eucalyptus
globulus) and poplar (Populus) trees (Allanson 1995). The destruction of wetlands places many
plant and animal species on to the endangered list, such as the wattled crane (Grus
carcunculata ) (Allanson 1995). Many more are threatened with complete extinction, therefore
there is an urgent need to preserve and restore wetlands to protect these species.
“A nation unable to support the diversity of its wildlife is unable to maintain the standard of
living of its people ” (Tom Lovejoy : Allanson 1995 : not seen by author).
Wetlands are scenic areas and therefore attract many people and recreational activities. Resort
towns, camping grounds and hotels linked by major highways and roads disturb the natural
ecosystem functioning (Williams 1990b). Power boating, hunting and off-road vehicles can
caus e a great loss of biodiversity. Resorts also impact the environment through dredging and
filling; land drainage; habitat loss; water pollution; sewage, solid waste and wastewater disposal.
Discarded fishing lines and angling weights pollute the area and are dangerous to the animals
(Lindley 1998).
Wetlands are being threatened from all levels of society. It is important that these threats are
eliminated and that the preservation and conservation of wetlands becomes a high priority in
society. It is hoped that the reader of this guide will have an increased appreciation and
understanding for these systems and will make contact with relevant authorities if disturbances
within and near wetlands are noticed.
8. A WETLAND DELINEATION TECHNIQUE
The identification and delineation of wetlands has become an important topic over the last
couple of years. The increased level of interest in wetlands has resulted in a need to identify and
understand these systems and in the process map them in order to protect and conserve them.
The reasons people delineate wetlands varies between interest groups (Lyon 1993). Financial
institutions require wetland assessments so that loans for development can be granted. Civil
engineers need delineations of wetlands prior to site planning and development. Specific groups
interested in conservation, recreation and other environmental orientations may wish to identify
wetlands for reserves or parks. All levels of government need delineations for the management
and planning of existing and future properties, the planning of roads and utilities. These are just
some of the many examples to show the importance and necessity of delineating wetlands. The
delineation process results in an increased level of understanding and knowledge about wetland
resources and should lead to greater appreciation and conservation of these ecosystems.
It is not easy to clearly identify the boundary of a wetland because the hydrology, soils and
vegetation (the three main characteristics of a wetland) change gradually along a continuum of
increasing wetness, from the outside to the interior of the wetland. There is a mixture of plant
species including those adapted to drier terrestrial conditions and those adapted to the saturated
aquatic conditions.
The guidelines that are utilised in South Africa to delineate wetlands are based on a number of
protocols applied around the world. They have been altered to include the unique biophysical,
economic and legal constraints in South Africa (Kotze & Marneweck 1999). These delineation
guidelines are intended to be practical, user-friendly, cost-effective and legally defendable. The
guidelines are based on an understanding of the many indicators, which are used to distinguish
non wetlands from wetlands (Kotze & Marneweck 1999). The description of these guidelines
must be seen as the first attempt towards the development of a national applicable protocol for
wetland delineation in South Africa.
The reader is advised to only undertake delineation with relevant training and/or professional
help. This section provides an overview of what a delineation technique involves.
It is important that the general principles regarding a wetland are fully understood before a
delineation procedure takes place. The delineator must first come to terms with the definition of
a wetland. A wetland is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems and where the water
table is usually at or near the surface. The land is periodically covered with shallow water and
under normal circumstances supports or would support vegetation adapted to saturated
(undrained, anaerobic) soils (Kotze & Marneweck 1999). The delineator must have sufficient
knowledge about hydrophytic vegetation and hydric soils. These have been discussed in sections
(4.2) and (4.3) respectively.
South Africa has a variable climate resulting in wetlands containing more water in some years
than in others. This can often be identified at the outer boundary areas of wetlands (Kotze &
Marneweck 1999). It is therefore important to obtain long-term data, as water can be an
unreliable indicator of wetland conditions. This is especially true for wetlands in arid and semi-
arid areas (Kotze & Marneweck 1999). Data about the hydrology of the wetlands can be
obtained indirectly using soil morphology (matrix chroma and mottling) or by identifying
hydrophytic vegetation.
Kotze & Marneweck (1999) have developed a framework (Figure 8) and highlighted the criteria
necessary for delineating a wetland boundary. There are other delineation techniques being
developed (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism and South African Timber
Growers Association) and should be applied in the future using a combination of local and
international methods. This method makes use of existing information and does not rely heavily
on work done by specialists. Therefore non-specialists with some basic biological/agricultural
training and some knowledge of wetland field description can delineate wetlands.
The process follows a basic step-by-step sequence as illustrated in Figure 8. If there is no
existing soil information for an area or the soil form is sometimes associated with wetlands, the
reader is directed to Figure 9 for checking for compliance with hydric soil conditions. This
technical step requires some basic training in pedology and some practical delineation
experience.
1.
2. 4.
5.
3.
Figure 8: Framework for Wetland Delineation (Kotze & Marneweck 1999)
If the delineator is still not certain that the feature is indeed a wetland or that there are still only
possible signs of hydric conditions, he/she is referred to step five of the main framework where
the vegetation will be examined and the soil is classified according to the South African system
(Soil Classification Working Group 1991) (Figure 10). At this stage the wetland does not have
clear indications of hydric conditions and it is advisable to seek specialist input and look for
other wetland indicators (Table 3). If there are clear indicators of hydric conditions then the
feature is a wetland.
Is there an accurate soil type map (with grid <50m) for the area?
Yes No
Does the soil comprise any of the soil forms which are associated with wetlands (See Table 6)
Examine the soil for signs of hydric conditions (See Figure 9)
No Yes
Clear signs of hydric conditions in the soil
Possible signs of wetness in the soil
No signs of hydric conditions
Examine further indicators in terms of the vegetation (Figure 10), other indicators (Table 4) and describe the soil as for classification according to the SA system
Soil form sometimes associated with wetlands
Using Table 6 check whether the soil form is or is not always associated with wetlands Clear indicators
of hydric conditions
No further signs if hydric conditions
Soil form always associated with wetlands
WETLAND
NON-WETLAND
Figure 9: Criteria for using Soil Morphology as an indicator of Hydric conditions
(Kotze & Marneweck 1999)
Sample the soil depth to a depth of 50cm below the litter layer and also examine the soil at a depth of 30-40cm or immediately below the A horizon, whichever is shallower
Is the soil organic? No / Unsure Yes
Is the colour value of the soil < 3? Yes
No
Low values may mask signs of hydric conditions, therefore treat the soil as having possible signs of wetness. Describe the soil as for classification according to the SA system and proceed to Figure 10
Can the organic layer be classified as peat?
Yes No
Describe the soil chroma, mottling and odour Clear indicators of hydric conditions
Matrix chroma >2 No mottles No rotten egg odour
Matrix chroma 2 or less No mottles No rotten egg odour
Matrix chroma 2 or less High chroma mottling Rotten egg odour present OR Distinctive grey matrix High chroma mottling OR Matrix chroma 3 Value > 3 >10% low chroma mottles May also be high chroma mottling
All 3 of the above may occur TOGETHER WITH other indicators of saturation such as: hard nodules or oxidised rhizospheres No signs of hydric
conditions Possible hydric conditions
Describe the soil as for classification according to the SA system and proceed to Figure 10
Figure 10: Criteria for using Vegetation as an indicator of Hydric conditions
(Kotze & Marneweck 1999)
Note : The Table listing the grass, rush and sedge species that are used to indicate wetland
conditions (Appendix 16).
When vegetation zonation is clearly visible in and towards the edge of the wetland OR
When vegetation zonation is not clearly visible in and towards the edge of the wetland and/or when it appears that most of the wetland vegetation is marginally hydrophytic (mostly Facultative – see Table 4 and Appendix 16
For each sampling unit: 1.Allocate each species to an indicator Category according to Table 4 and Appendix 16; 2.Calculate the relative abundance of each species 3. Calculate the relative % dominance of each indicator category
For each sampling unit: 1.Allocate each species to an indicator category according to Table 4 & Appendix 16 2.Assign all species in an indicator category the same index value. NOTE: The index values for the indicator categories still need to be assigned and this is an area of further work in terms if these guidelines 3.Calculate the Prevalence Index
< 50% dominance of FW plants
No signs of hydric conditions
> 50% dominance of OW and FW plants
< 50% dominance of OW and FW plants
Clear indicators of hydric conditions
Possible hydric conditions
Results are not convincing
Prevalence Index value >4.5
No signs of hydric conditions
Prevalence index value 3-4.5
Prevalence index value <3
Clear indicators of hydric conditions Possible
hydric conditions
Table 3: Other Indicators of Wetland Conditions (Kotze & Marneweck 1999)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Other indicators that may suggest the presence of a wetland besides vegetation and soil include the following:
1. Water stained leaves (dull grey or black and flattened) and water marks on trees, boulders and other
objects. Water marks may be stained or silt covered areas ending at a constant elevation. Water marks and
water stained leaves do not provide an indication of the frequency and duration of inundation;
2. Direct observation of inundation over a period of weeks will provide an indication that the area is a
wetland;
3. If free water is observed at a depth shallower than 50cm below the soil surface over a period of weeks, then
this will provide an indication that the area is a wetland;
4. The presence of surface encrustations of algae (blue-green algae) or re mains of aquatic invertebrates within
the upper 40cm of the soil surface;
5. Recorded data on water level fluctuations;
6. Visual observation of saturation:
a) Sediment deposits;
b) Plant morphological features;
c) Photographic records including aerial photographs; and
d) Sulphidic material (“rotten egg smell”).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 4: Classification of plants according to occurrence in wetlands (Based on U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Indicator Categories) (Reed 1988 in Kotze & Marneweck 1999)
Obligate wetland (ow) species Almost always grow in wetlands (>99% of occurrences)
Facultative wetland (fw) species Usually grow in wetlands (67-99% of occurrences) but
occasionally are found in non-wetland areas
Facultative (f) species Are equally likely to grow in wetlands and non-wetland
areas (34-66% of occurrences)
Facultative dryland (fd) species Usually grow in non-wetland areas but sometimes grow
in wetlands (1-34% of occurrences)
(Note: only the ow and fw species are considered as wetland indicator species)
Returning to the top of the main framework, if there is existing soil information, then the
delineator must determine if the soil comprises any of the soil forms associated with wetlands
(Table 5). If the soil form is always associated with wetlands then the feature can be labelled a
wetland, but if the soil form is sometimes associated with wetlands, then the soil must be
examined for signs of hydric conditions (return to step four of the main framework).
Table 5: Soil Forms associated with Wetlands (Kotze & Marneweck 1999)
Soil forms always associated with wetlands
Champagne Katspruit Willowbrook Rensburg
Soil forms sometimes associated with wetlands
Inhoek
Klapmuts
Dresden
Bloemdal
Dundee
Longlands
Tukulu
Avalon
Witfontein
Wasbank
Cartref
Pinedene
Sterkspruit
Lamotte
Fernwood
Glencoe
Sepane
Estcourt
Westleigh
Bainsvlei
Valsrivier
The purpose of the framework is to save time and costs by halting the investigation as soon as
hydric conditions are encountered at the highest level. The presence of hydric vegetation
together with hydric soils will strengthen the delineation of the wetland boundary. Figures 9 and
10 can generally be carried out together, but require some training and specialist input for
completion. The figures have been included in the text to serve as a guideline to delineators. It is
recommended that specialists with the necessary knowledge be called in to assist those
attempting a delineation procedure.
9. RAMSAR CONVENTION
The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty adopted on 2 February 1971 in the
Iranian city of Ramsar (Ramsar Information Paper No. 2). It has become popularly known as the
“Ramsar Convention”. The Convention is a global treaty on conservation and wise use of natural
resources and is relatively straightforward and general. The official name of the treaty – The
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat – indicates
that its original emphasis was on the conservation and wise use of wetlands primarily to provide
habitat for waterfowl. The Convention now covers all aspects of wetland conservation and wise
use, recognising that wetlands, as ecosystems, are important for biodiversity conservation and for
the well being of human communities.
The Convention has 118 Contracting Parties and more than 1000 wetlands have been designated
to the List of Wetlands of International Importance covering some 73 million hectares (Ramsar
Information Paper No. 2). South Africa was the fifth contracting party to the Convention and
presently has 15 designated Ramsar sites.
There are a number of reasons why countries join the Ramsar Convention. Membership in the
Convention:
• Develops policies, actions and legislation that helps nations to make the best possible and
sustainable use of their wetland resources;
• Presents an opportunity to voice opinions regarding the conservation and wise use of
wetlands;
• Brings increased publicity for the wetlands and improves the possibility for conservation
and wise use measures;
• Brings access to the latest information and advice;
• Brings access to expert advice on national and site-related problems of wetland
conservation and management; and
• Encourages international co-operation on wetland issues and brings support for wetland
projects (Ramsar Information Paper No. 2).
The Ramsar Convention identifies four criteria upon which wetlands are selected for inclusion in
the List of Wetlands of International Importance. The four groups of criteria are:
1. Criteria for representative or unique wetlands;
2. General criteria based on plants or animals;
3. Specific criteria for using waterfowl;
4. Specific criteria for using fish (Cowan 1999).
Regarding the second criterion (General criteria based on plants or animals), a wetland should be
considered internationally important if:
a) There is appreciable combination of rare, vulnerable or endangered species or
subspecies of plant or animal, or an appreciable number of individuals of any one or
more of these species; or
b) It is of special value for maintaining the genetic and ecological diversity of a
region because of the quality and peculiarities of its fauna and flora; or
c) It is of special value as the habitat of plants or animals at a critical stage of their
biological cycles; or
d) It is of special value for its endemic plant or animal species or communities
(Cowan 1999).
The Ramsar Convention is concerned with conservation and wise use of wetland resources.
Under the Convention (Article 3.1), the Contracting Parties agree to “formulate and implement
their planning so as to promote the conservation of wetlands included in the List, and as far as
possible the wise use of wetlands in their territory”. The wise use of wetlands is defined as the
“sustainable utilisation for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of
the natural properties of the ecosystem” (Ramsar Information Paper No. 7). ‘Sustainable
utilisation’ of a wetland is defined as: “human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest
continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of future generations”.
In South Africa 1998, conservation and improved wetland management would have saved the
economy R26.85 billion in disease prevention and tourism improvement, and a further R21
billion in drought and flood damage, use of artificial fertilisers and topsoil loss, and earned by
our fisheries (Lindley 1998). With such large figures the need for wetland conser vation and an
improvement in management is obvious. There is a need for bans on wetland draining and
filling, or permits for the alteration of wetland systems. Three major conservation agencies that
can assist in the conservation of wetlands include the Wildlife Society, World Wide Fund for
Nature, and the Natal Parks Board. Workshops should be developed to create action plans to
conserve and rehabilitate wetlands (Lindley 1998).
Conservation is aimed at minimising the adverse impacts to wetlands by preventing the
unnecessary loss of wetlands and other sensitive aquatic areas. Conservation is inhibited by the
topography of the land and those inaccessible wetlands in rural areas. The costs and time are the
main inhibiting factors to successful conservation and management. The use of wetlands
functions and values must therefore play a pivotal role in decision-making regarding the future
wetlands use (Lindley 1998).
Wetlands are highly sensitive and respond quickly and often negatively to human activity in their
catchments (Dahlberg 1999). Water is a scarce resource in South Africa and it is therefore
important to determine the water requirements needed for sustainable management of natural
wetlands and whether wetlands can act as a substantial source of water for people.
Wetlands provide people with water and are an important base for animal husbandry. Other
resources that people derive from these systems include fish, wood, craftwork materials, food,
medicinal plant and animals and construction materials (Dahlberg 1999). The floodplains
surrounding a wetland can also be utilised for commercial and subsistence agriculture. Wetlands
are also an important part of ecotourism in the country. These wetland benefits are some of the
reasons why more attention should be placed on conserving wetlands.
10. THE CHECKLIST SYSTEM
The checklist system has been derived from the proposed wetland classification system of the
National Wetland Inventory for South Africa by Dini et al ((1998). The purpose of the checklist
is to allow readers and users of the guide to identify the type of wetland situated on a certain
piece of land. The first set of questions helps the user determine if there is possibly a wetland. If
the user feels confident that there is indeed a wetland, the next set of questions will assist them in
determining the specific type of wetland. The user should then return to the specific section in
the guide covering that wetland type to identify the typical characteristics of that wetland.
Are there wetlands on your land?
A YES answer to any of the following questions may indicate that the site is a wetland. Tick if
answer is YES.
• Does the National Wetlands Inventory map show a wetland
on the land? ?
• Do the local authorities have a soil map indicatin g hydric
soils within the site? ?
• Are there natural drainage channels? ?
• Is the ground soggy underfoot for several consecutive
days during the rainfall season? ?
• Are there depressions where water accumulates for several
consecutive days in the rainfall season? ?
• Are seeps or springs present? ?
• Would the land have to be drained to dry it out? ?
• Are there sediment deposits on fallen leaves and surrounding trees? ?
• Is the soil grey rather than brown or reddish brown? ?
• Are there rusty red mottles against a grey soil background? ?
• If you remove a live root from a clump of soil, does it leave
a rusty line in the root channel? ?
• Is there evidence of surface scouring ?
• Do you see many clumps of rushes, sedges, willows or
other typical wetland vegetation? (refer to Appendix 2) ?
• Is there an abundance of hydrophytes and/or hydric soils? ?
Note : Typical locations for wetlands include: abandoned stream channels; low areas with a very
high water table; flat valleys or depressions; near creeks, rivers and lakes; low on slopes where
groundwater breaks out as springs or seeps.
If the reader is confident that the site constitutes a wetland, the following questions should be
answered to determine the specific type of wetland. If the reader is still uncertain, it is
recommended that he/she contact an expert in the field (See Appendix 17)
Is the wetland:
Situated in a channel (natural or artificial), which periodically or
continuously contains flowing water? ?
Riverine wetlands are bounded on the landward side by: (1) non-wetlands; or (2) channel banks
including natural and artificial levees; or (3) wetlands dominated by mosses or lichens, persistent
emergents, shrubs or trees.
Riverine wetlands are bounded at the downstream end where: (1) sea-derived salinity exceeds
0.5 g/l during the period of annual average low flow; or (2) the channel enters a lake.
Riverine wetlands are bounded at the upstream end where: (1) tributary streams originate; or (2)
the channel leaves a lake.
If you have answered YES to the above question and the additional factors are true, the wetland
would be classified as a Riverine Wetland.
Note 1 : (1) Wetlands dominated by mosses or lichens, persistent emergents, shrubs or trees, and
(2) habitats with sea-derived salinities in excess of 0.5g/l, are NOT considered riverine wetlands
themselves but are associated with the surrounding banks of a riverine wetland.
Note 2 : The riverine channel may include non-wetland or palustrine islands
Is the wetland:
1. Situated in a topographic depression or a dammed river
channel? ?
2. Total area greater than 8ha? ?
3. Surface area coverage by mosses, lichens, trees, shrubs
or persistent emergents of less than 30%? ?
If you answered YES to ALL of the above questions, the wetland would be classified as a
Lacustrine Wetland.
Lacustrine wetlands are bounded by: (1) non-wetland; or (2) wetland dominated by mosses,
lichens, trees, shrubs or persistent emergents; or (3) a Riverine wetland entering or leaving the
wetland.
Note 1: Lacustrine wetlands include permanently flooded lakes and dams. The waters may be
tidal or non-tidal, but the ocean-derived salinities are always less than 0.5 g/l.
Note 2: Oxbow lakes are included in the Lacustrine system unless they are connected to a
Riverine system by an open channel at both ends, either permanently or intermittently.
Note 3 : Wetlands of a similar type that are less than 8 ha can also be included in the Lacustrine
System if they possess AT LEAST ONE of the following characteristics:
1. Water depth in the deepest part of the basin exceeds two metres at low water; or
2. A wave-formed or bedrock feature makes up all or part of the shoreline boundary.
Note 4: If a wetland qualifies as a Lacustrine wetland but additionally possesses ALL of the
following characteristics, it would then be classified as an Endorheic wetland.
1. Roughly circular to oval in shape, sometimes kidney-shaped or lobed;
2. Flat basin floor;
3. Less than three metres deep when fully inundated; and
4. Closed drainage (lacking an outlet).
Is the wetland
1. A non-tidal wetland dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent
emergents, mosses or lichens (greater than 30% surface
area coverage)? ?
2. A tidal wetland where salinity due to ocean-derived salts is
less than 0.5 g/l? and ?
3. A wetland habitat lacking the vegetation listed in (1)
but with all of the following characteristics:
a) Area less than 8 ha?
b) Water depth in the deepest part of the basin less than
two metres at low water?
c) Lacking active wave-formed or bedrock shoreline features?
and
d) Salinity due to ocean-derived salts less than 0.5 g/l? ?
If you answered YES to the above questions, the wetland would be classified as a Palustrine
Wetland.
Palustrine wetlands are bounded by: (1) non-wetlands; or (2) marine, estuarine, lacustrine or
riverine systems.
Note 1: Palustrine wetlands include marshes, swamps, bogs, fens and vleis. They may be
situated shoreward of river channels, lakes or estuaries; on river floodplains; in isolated
catchments; on slopes; or as islands in lakes or rivers.
Note 2: Oxbow lakes are also placed in the Palustrine system unless they are connected to a
Riverine system by an open channel at both ends, either permanently or intermittently.
Note 3: If a wetland qualifies as a Palustrine wetland but additionally possesses ALL of the
following characteristics, it would then be classified as an Endorheic wetland:
1. Roughly circular to oval in shape, sometimes kidney-shape or lobed;
2. Flat basin floor;
3. Less than three metres when fully inundated; and
4. Closed drainage (lacking an outlet).
Is the wetland:
1. Circular to oval in shape, sometimes kidney-shaped or lobed? ?
2. Flat basin floor? ?
3. Less than three metres deep when fully inundated? ?
4. Closed drainage (lacking any outlet)? ?
If you answered YES to ALL of the above questions, the wetland would be classified as an
Endorheic wetland.
Note 1: The Endor heic system comprises wetlands that otherwise would be classified as
Palustrine or Lacustrine, but which possess ALL of the above characteristics.
Note 2 : The Endorheic wetlands are bounded by non-wetland.
Once the checklist has been completed, the reader will have identified the type of wetland
situated on the piece of land. If there are any uncertainties regarding the type of wetland or if the
feature is in fact a wetland, the reader is advise to contact an expert in the field. A list of experts
has been provided in Appendix 17.
11. CONCLUSIONS
South Africa is a semi-arid country with variable climate and rainfall patterns resulting in a
number of wetland types each with their own unique characteristics. The purpose of the report
was to provide a guide document that would assist developers, farmers, managers and the public
to identify and delineate wetland areas, to determine the types of wetlands and their respective
characteristics and functions.
Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is
at or near the surface, or the land is covered with shallow water. The Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism is presently developing a wetland classification system
based on the hierarchical system by Cowardin et al (1979). The main inland wetland systems
include endorheic pans, riverine, lacustrine, palustrine and man-made wetlands that display a
wide variety of individual characteristics regarding fauna and flora, morphology and functions.
The principle characteristics of these systems include hydrology (the study of the occurrence and
movement of water), hydrophytic vegetation (plants that grow in water or on a substratum that is
at least periodically deficient in oxygen as a result of soil saturation) and hydric soils (soils that
in their undrained condition are saturated long enough to develop anaerobic conditions that
favour the growth of hydrophytic vegetation). These three characteristics are used to identify and
delineate the boundary of a wetland although the soils and vegetation tend to be more reliable
indicators than hydrology.
Wetlands provide a number of beneficial functions to the social and natural environment – flood
attenuation; water storage and purification; recreation and education; habitat provision for faunal
species; and breeding and nesting sites for migratory birds. The wetlands are under threat by
industrial activities (manufacturing and mining destroy wetland fauna and flora), urbanisation
(destruction of wetland acreage) and agricultural activities (ploughing, the release of toxins and
other chemicals poison fauna and flora). These activities need to be prevented and/or controlled
to ensure the survival of the wetlands and the functions that they provide man. Water provision
and purification are just some of the functions that are vital to a country like South Africa where
water is limited and the level of pollution is increasing. The Ramsar Convention, which aims at
the protection of wetland systems, together with the general public of South Africa, can help
protect wetlands and promote a greater awareness and understanding through the identification
and delineation of the wetlands and their functions.
12. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Aerobic : Having molecular oxygen (O2) present (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Anaerobic : Lacking in, or devoid of oxygen (O2) (Anon 1987).
Aquifer: A large body of groundwater (Anon 1987).
Benthic: Pertaining to the bottom of a lake, river or sea (Anon 1987).
Biota: Plants, animals and micro-organisms occupying a place together (Anon 1987).
Bog (Mire): A type of wetland characterised by peat deposits, acidic water and mosses.
Peat formation occurs when plant decomposition is slow owing to anaerobic conditions.
It does not receive water from a surrounding catchment but only from rainfall or snow.
The term is often used to refer to high altitude wetlands that have organic-rich soils in
South Africa (Anon 1987; Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Brine : Very salty water (Anon 1987).
Byrophyta: Any liverwort or moss plant (Wilson et al. 1962).
Charophyta: Freshwater plants that generally grow anchored to the substratum by rhizoids with
a shoot extending upward (Wilson et al. 1962).
Chroma: The relative purity of the spectral colour, which decreases with increasing greyness
(Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Delineation: To determine the boundary of a wetland based on soil, vegetation, and/or
hydrological indicators (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Drainage basin: A basin-shaped area from which rainfall is collected and concentrated into
stream flow. A catchment (Anon 1987).
Ecosystem: The combination of all factors, both biotic (living) and abiotic (environmental
features like temperature, rainfall, solar radiation) that make up a particular environment (Anon
1987).
Emergent vegetation: Plants rooted in water but with aerial leaves and/or stems (Anon 1987).
Endorheic wetlands : Also referred to as endorehic pans. Closed basins that accumulate
rainwater only after sufficient rainwater has fallen (Anon 1987) .
Erosion: The weathering, transportation and deposition of the earth’s surface by wind, water and
other natural forces (Anon 1987).
Estuary: A river mouth; the lowest part of a river where river water and seawater usually mix
(estuarine wetlands) (Anon 1987).
Fen: European vernacular term for a type of wetland characterised by peat deposits and the
presence of calcium in the groundwater which neutralises acidity. A mire that receives some
drainage from mineral soils in the surrounding catchment (Anon 1987).
Gley: Soil material that has developed under anaerobic conditions as a result of prolonged
saturation with water. Grey and sometimes blue or green colours predominate but mottles
(yellow, red, brown and black) may be present and indicate localised areas of better aeration
(Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Groundwater: Subsurface water in the zone in which permeable rocks are saturated under
pressure equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure (Soil Classification Working Group 1991).
Hydric soils: Soil that in its undrained condition is saturated or flooded long enough during the
growing season to develop anaerobic conditions favouring the growth and regeneration of
hydrophytic vegetation (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Hydrology: The study of the occurrence and movement of water and therefore the science that
underlies the development and control of water resources (Anon 1987).
Hydromorphic soils : Soils in which waterlogging becomes the dominant factor determining
the physical and chemical characteristics (Anon 1987).
Hydrophytic (hydrophyte) plants: Plants adapted to grow in water or very wet environments
(Anon 1987). Any plant that grows in water or on a substratum that is at least periodically
deficient in oxygen as a result of soil saturation or flooding (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Hygrophilous plants : Moisture-loving plants which can live where there is an abundant supply
of water (Anon 1987).
Hue (of colour) : The dominant spectral colour (eg: red) (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Infilling: Dumping of soil or solid waste onto the wetland surface (Kotze & Marneweck
1999).
Invaders Introduced plants that cause a problem by destroying the natural aquatic plant life
(Glen et al. 1999).
Lagoon: Coastal body of shallow water characterised by a restricted connection with the sea
(Anon 1987).
Lake: A body of water with areas of the bottom too deep to allow rooted plants to grow (Anon
1987).
Mangrove swamps: Swamp forest developed on tropical and subtropical mud-flats, particularly
in creeks and estuaries (Anon 1987).
Marsh: A fairly general term, but usually referring to permanent wetlands which are dominated
by herbaceous (non-woody) plants (reeds, rushes, sedges) which often develop in shallow
depressions or along river margins (Anon 1987; Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Montreux Record : The principal tool of the Ramsar Convention for highlighting those sites
where an adverse change in ecological character has occurred, or is likely to occur and which are
therefore in need of priority conservation attention.
Mottles: Soils with variegated colour patterns are described as being mottled, with the
“background colour” referred to as the matrix and the spots or blotches of colour referred to as
mottles (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Opportunistic plant: Occurs naturally but in biologically disturbed aquatic environments and
tends to become the dominant plant to the detriment of other aquatic taxa (Glen et al. 1999).
Organic matter: Carbon-containing matter (Anon 1987).
Oxidised rhizospheres: Roots growing in saturated soil conditions may produce brightly
coloured areas in the soil immediately surrounding them call rhizospheres
Organic soil Material: Soil material with a high abundance of undecomposed plant material and
humus (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Munsell Colour Chart : A standardised colour chart which can be used to describe hue
(ie: its relation to red, yellow, green, blue and purple), value (ie: its lightness) and chroma (ie: its
purity) (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Palustrine: All non-tidal wetlands dominated by persistent emergent plants (eg: reeds),
emergent mosses or lichens, or shrubs or trees (Cowardin et al. 1979).
Pans: South African vernacular term for closed basins that accumulate rainwater only after
sufficient rain has fallen (Anon 1987).
Peat : A brownish-black organic soil that is formed in acidic, anaerobic wetland conditions. The
South African soil classification uses a >10% carbon content as a guideline. Peat consists of
stems and roots of grasses, sedges and swamp forest species, leaves, dead trees, fruit, pollen and
animal remains (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Pteridophyta: An older term for the group, ferns, clubmosses and horsetails (Wilson et al.
1962).
Reedbeds: Wetlands dominated by reeds that require soggy ground or shallow water (Anon
1987).
Riparian : Occurring on the banks of rivers and streams and is influenced by stream-induced or
related processes (Anon 1987; Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Sedges: Grass-like plants belonging to the family Cyperaceae (Kotze & Marneweck
1999).
Soil Drainage Classes: Describe the soil moisture conditions as determined by the capacity of
the soil and the site for removing excess water (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Soil Horizons : Layers of soil that have fairly uniform characteristics and have developed
through pedogenic processes (Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Soil Profile : The vertically sectioned sample through the soil mantle (Kotze & Marneweck
1999).
Spermatophyte : A seed plant (Wilson et al. 1962).
Swamp: Wooded wetland with standing or gently flowing water (Anon 1987).
Transpiration: The transfer of water from plants into the atmosphere as water vapour
(Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Value (soil colour) : The relative lightness or intensity of colour (Kotze & Marneweck
1999).
Vlei: South African vernacular term for wetlands of a slightly drier form than marshes but also
occurring in depressions dominated by non-woody plants (sedges and terrestrial grasses) (Anon
1987).
Water Regime : When and for how long the soil is flooded or saturated (Kotze & Marneweck
1999).
Waterlogged: Soil or land saturated with water long enough for anaerobic conditions to develop
(Kotze & Marneweck 1999).
Watershed: The divided separating one drainage basin from another (Anon 1987).
Wetland 1: Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is at
or near the surface, or the land is covered with shallow water. They are natural areas of
waterlogged soils, either fresh or saline, with their own specialised plant and animal
communities uniquely adapted to the fluctuating and often seasonal water levels (Anon 1987).
Wetland 2: Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is
usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin et al. 1979)
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14. APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Classification System Of Wetlands by Cowardin et al (1979)
(Dini et al 1998)
Appendix 2: The Aquatic Plants of Southern Africa
The original list contains the aquatic plants associated with marine wetlands (sea, estuaries,
brackish lagoons, salt marshes, coastal seepage areas, mangroves, and coastal swamps). The
species may be found in Biota of South African Wetlands in relation to the Ramsar Convention
(Cowan 1999).
Habitat: 1 – Rivers/streams: rapids/waterfalls, wet vertical rock faces;
2 – Rivers/streams: slow flowing, pools; 3 – Open waters: lakes, pans,
dams, permanent pools; 4 – Seepage areas;
5 – Swamps, marshes, vleis (standing water); 6 – Seasonal pans and
streams (arid areas); 7 – High altitude bogs, mountain rock pools.
Growth form: A – Floating unattached plants; B – Floating attached plants;
C – Submerged plants; D – Emergent plants; S – Sudd plants;
H – Haptophyte.
Status: E – Endangered; V – Vulnerable; R – Rare; nt – Not threatened or natural;
Ve – The habitat where the plant grows is threatened;
? – Insufficient information available; I – Invader;
O – Opportunistic plant.
Origin: Al – Introduced alien; Cos – Cosmopolitan; In – Indigenous;
En – Endemic.
Table 2a: Byrophyta: Ricciaceae and Sphagnaceae
Taxon Common Name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
RICCIACEAE
Riccia stricta Forked crystalwort 1, 2, 3 C, D, nt In
Ricciocarpos natans Water crystalwort 3, 5 A nt Cos
SPHAGNACEAE
Sphagnum capense Peat-moss 2, 4 D nt In
Sphagnum fimbriatum Peat-moss 2 D nt Al?
Sphagnum perichaetiale Peat-moss 2 D nt In
Sphagnum pycnocladulum Peat-moss 2, 4 D nt In
Sphagnum strictum subsp.
Pappeanum
Peat-moss 2, 4, 5 D nt In
Sphagnum truncatum Peat-moss 2, 4, 5 D nt In
Sphagnum violascens Peat-moss 2 D ni In
Table 2b: Byrophyta: Fissidentaceae, Pottiaceae. Bryaceae, Fontinalaceae,
Wardiaceae, Leskeaceae, Amblystegiaceae, Plagiotheciaeae and Hypnaceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
FISSIDENTACEAE
Fissidens fasciculatus Fork -moss 1, 2, 4 D Nt En
Fissidens palmifolius Fork -moss 1, 2 C Nt In
Fissidens glaucescens Fork -moss 1, 2, 4 D Nt In
Fissidens porrectus Fork -moss 2 D Nt In
POTTIACEAE
Barbula ehrenbergii Little beard-moss 2, 4 D Nt In
Timmiella pelindaba Timmiella 1, 4 D Nt En
BRYACEAE
Bryum apiculatum Pointed thread -
Moss
1, 2, 4 D Nt In
Bryum cellulare Thread-moss 2, 4 D Nt In
FONTALACEAE
Fontinalis antipyretica var.
gracilis
Greater water-
Moss
2 C Nt Al
Fontinalis squamosa Alpine water-moss 2 C Nt Al
WARDIACEAE
Wardia hygrometrica Ward’s moss 1, 2 C, D Nt En
LESKEACEAE
Pseudoleskea chilensis Pseudoleskea 4 D Nt In
AMBLYSTEGIACEAE
Campyliadelphus polygamus Curved moss 5 D Nt In
Cratoneuron filicinum Strongly nerved
Moss
4 D Nt Cos
Drepanocladus aduncus Sickle-moss 3, 4, 5 C, D Nt Cos
Leptodictyum riparium Short-beaked
Water-moss
2, 4 C, D Nt Cos
Platyhypnidium aquaticum Platyhypnidium 1 C Nt In
Vittia pachyloma Vitt’s moss 1 C, D Nt In
PLAGIOTHECIACEAE
Plagiothecium
rhyn chostegioides
Oblique-capsuled
Moss
1, 4 D Nt In
HYPNACEAE
Isopterygium strangulatum Equal-winged
Moss
1, 2 D R En
Table 2c: Pteridophyta: Isoetaceae, Pteridaceae, Thelypteriaceae, Marsileaceae, Salviniaceae and Azollaceae
Taxon Common
name
Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
ISOETACEAE
Isoetes aequinoctialis Quillwort 3, 4 D R ? In
Isoetes capensis var. capensis Quillwort 3, 4, 5 D R ? En
Isoetes capensis var. stephansensii Quillwort 3, 4, 5 D R ? En
Isoetes giessii Quillwort 3, 4, 5 D R ? En
Isoetes schweinfurthii Quillwort 5 D R ? In
Isoetes stellenbossiensis Quillwort 5 D R ? En
Isoetes transvaalensis Quillwort 3, 5 D V In
Isoetes welwitschii Quillwort 3, 4, 5 D R ? In
Isoetes wormaldii Quillwort 1 B E En
PTERIDACEAE
Ceratopteris cornut a 2, 3 A, D nt In
THELYPTERIACEAE
Thelypteris confluens 2, 3, 5 D nt In
Thelypteris interrupta 2, 3, 5 D Nt In
MARSILEACEAE
Marsilea aegyptiaca Water clover 6 D nt In
Marsileaapposita Water clover 6 D ? In
Marsilea burchellii Water clover 6 D nt In
Marsilea capensis Water clover 2, 5, 6 D nt In
Marsilea coromandelina Water clover 6 D R? In
Marsilea distorta Water clover 5, 6 D R? In
Marsilea ephippiocarpa Water clover 6 D nt In
Marsilea farinose subsp. Arrecta Water clover 6 D nt In
Marsileafarinosa subsp. Farinose Water clover 5 D nt In
Marsilea fenestrata Water clover 5 D E? In
Marsilea macrocarpa Water clover 3, 5 D nt In
Marsilea minuta Water clover 2, 3, 5 D R? In
Marsilea nubica var. gymnocarpa Water clover 6 D nt In
Marsilea nubica var. nubica Water clover 6 D V? In
Marsilea schelpeana Water clover 5 D V En
Marsilea unicornis Water clover 6 D nt In
Marsilea vera Water clover 6 D nt In
Table 2c Continued
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
SALVINIACEA E
Salvinia molesta Kariba weed 2, 3 A I Al
AZOLLACEAE
Azolla filiculoides Red water fern;
Mosquitp fern
2, 3, 5 A I Al
Azolla pinnata subsp. Africana Mosquito fern 5 A O? In?
Table 2d: Angiospermae monocotyledonae: Typhaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Zannichelliaceae and
Najadaceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
TYPHACEAE
Typha capensis Bullrush; Cat’s tail 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, D O Cos
Typha domingensis 5 D Nt In
POTAMOGETONACEAE
Potamogeton crispus Curly pondweed 2, 3, 5 C O Cos
Potamogeton octandrus 2, 3, 5 C Nt Cos
Potamogeton pectinatus Fonteingras;
Fennel-leaved
Pondweed
2, 3, 5 C O Cos
Potamogeton pusillus Pondweed 2, 3, 5 C O Cos
Potamogeton schweinfurthii Broad leaved
Pondweed
2, 3, 5 C O In
Potamogeton thunbergii Pondweed 2, 3, 5 C O In
Potamogeton trichoides Pondweed 2, 3, 5 C O Cos
ZANNICHELLIACEAE
Horned pondweed family
Zannichellia palustris 6 C Nt Cos
NAJADACEAE
Water-nymph family
Najas graminea 3 C ? In
Najas horrida Saw-weed 2, 3, 5 C O Cos
Table 2e: Angiopsermae monoctyledonae: Aponogetonaceae, Juncaginaceae,
Alismataceae, Limnocharitaceae, Hydrocharitaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae and
Lemnaceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
APONOGETONACEAE
Aponogeton angustifolius Wateruintjie 3, 5 B nt En
Aponogeton azureus 5 B ? En
Aponogeton desertorum Dog with two tails 2 B nt In
Aponogeton distachyos Waterblommetjie 2, 3, 5 B nt En
Aponogeton junceus subsp. Junceus 2, 3, 5 B, D nt In
Aponogeton junceus subsp.
Natalense
2, 3, 5 B nt In
Aponogeton juceous subsp.
Rehmannii
2, 3, 5 B nt In
Aponogeton ranunculiflorus 7 C R En
Aponogeton stuhlmannii 7 B, C nt In
JUNCAGINACEAE
Arrow-weed family
Triglochin bulbosa 2, 4, 5 D nt Cos
ALISMATACEAE
Water Plantain family
Alisma plantago-aquatica Water plantain 2, 3, 5 D nt Al
Limnophyton angolense 3, 4 C, D nt In
Limnophyton obtusifolium 2, 5 D ? In
Caldesia reniformis 2, 5 D ? In
Burnatia enneandra 2, 5 C, D nt In
Wiesneria schweinfurthii 5 C, D ? In
LIMNOCHARITACEA
Butomopsis latifolia 5 C, D nt In
HYDROCHARITACEAE
Frog’s –bit family
Egeria densa Ditch moss; Water
thyme
3 C I? Al
Lagarosiphon cordofanus 2, 3, 5 C nt In
Lagarosiphon ilicifolius 5 C nt In
Lagarosiphon major Coarse oxygen weed;
Growwe babergr as
2, 3, 5 C O In
Table 2e Continued
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
Lagarosiphon muscoides Fine oxygen weed;
Fyn babergras
2, 3, 5 C O In
Lagarosiphon verticillifolius 2, 3, 5 C nt In
Vallisneria aethiopica 2, 3, 5 C In
Ottelia exserta 2, 3, 5 B, C nt In
Ottelia kunenensis 3, 5 C nt In
Ottelia muricata 2, 3, 5 B nt In
Ottelia ulvifolia 2, 3, 5 B nt In
CYPERACEAE
Sedge family
Lipocarpha abietina 5 D Ve In
Lipocarpha chinensis 2, 5 D Ve Cos
Websteria confervoides 3 C Ve Cos
Cyperus articulatus 5 D Ve Cos
Cyperus denudatus 5 D Ve In
Cyperus papyrus Papyrus 5 D, S Ve In
Cyperus pectinatus 2 D, S Ve In
Cyperus profiler Miniature papyrus 5 D Ve In
Cyperus sensilis 5 D R In
Pycreus mundii 2, 5 B Ve In
Oxycaryum cubense 2, 5 D, S Ve Cos
Schoenoplectus articulatus 5 D Ve Cos
Schoenoplectus brachyceras Matjiesgoed 2, 5 D Ve In
Schoenoplectus corymbosus Matjiesgoed 5 D Ve Cos
Schoenoplectus erectus 5 D Ve In
Schoenoplectus muricinux 2, 5 D Ve In
Schoenoplectus muriculatus 2, 5 D Ve In
Schoenoplectus paludicola 2, 5 D Ve In
Schoenoplectus praelongatus 5 D Ve Cos
Schoenoplectus pulchellus 5 D R En
Schoenoplectus roylei 5 D Ve Cos
Schoenoplectus scirpoideus 2, 5 D Ve En
Schoenoplectus senegalensis 5 D Ve In
Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani 5 D Ve Al
Schoenoplectus triqueter 5 D Ve Al
Isolepsis digitata 1 D Ve En
Isolepsis fluitans 5 C, D Ve Cos
Table 2e Continued
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
Bolboschoenus glaucus 5 D Ve Al
Bolboschoenus maritimus 5 D Ve Cos
Bolboschoenus nobilis 2,5 D Ve In
Eleocharis acutangula 3, 5 D Ve Cos
Eleocharis dulcis 3, 5 D Ve Cos
Eleocharis limnosa 2, 5 D Ve En
Eleocharis naumanniana 2, 8 D Ve In
Eleocharis retroflexa subsp.
subtilissima
3, 5 S Ve In
Carpha glomerata 5 D Ve In/En?
Cladium mariscus subsp.
jamaicense
Saw-grass 2, 5 D Ve Cos
Scleria angusta 2, 5 D Ve In
Scleria greigiifolia 5 D Ve In
Scleria lacustris 3, 5 D Ve Cos
Scleria poiformis 2, 5 D Ve Cos
Carex acutiformis Lesser pond sedge 5 D Ve Al
Carex austro-africana 5 D Ve In
Carex clavata 5 D Ve En
ARACEAE
Pistia stratiotes Water lettuce 2, 3, 5 A I Al
LEMNACEAE
Duckweed family
Spirodela polyrrhiza Duckweed 2, 3, 5 A O Cos
Spirode la punctata Duckweed 2, 3, 5 A O Cos
Lemna aequinoctialis Duckweed 2, 3, 5 A O Cos
Lemna gibba Duckweed 2, 3, 5 A O Cos
Lemna minor Duckweed 2, 3, 5 A O Cos
Wolffia arrhiza Duckweed 2, 3, 5 A O Cos
Wolffia globosa Duckweed 2, 3, 5 A O Cos
Wolffia denticulate 2, 3, 5 A R En
Wolffia hyalina 2, 3, 5 A V? En
Wolffia welwitschii 2, 3, 5 A V? In
Table 2f: Angiospermae monocotyledonae: Xyridaceae, Eriocaulaceae, and
Pontederiacea
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth Form Status Origin
XYRIDACEAE
Yellow-eyed grass family)
Xyris anceps 2, 3, 4 D Ve In
Xyris capensis 2, 3, 4 D Ve In
Xyris gerrardii 2, 3, 4 D Ve In
Xyris natalensis 2, 3, 4 D Ve In
Xyris nivea 2, 3, 4 D Ve In
Xyris rehmannii 2, 3, 4 D Ve In
ERIOCAULACEAE
Pipewort family
Eriocaulon abyssinicum 2, 3, 4 D Nt In
Eriocaulon africanum 2, 3, 4 D R In
Eriocaulon angustisepalum 2, 3, 4 D R In
Eriocaulon cinereum 2, 3, 4 D Nt In
Eriocaulon dregei var. dregei 2, 3, 4 D Nt In
Eriocaulon dregei var.
sonderianum
2, 3, 4 D Nt In
Eriocaulon hydrophilum 2, 3, 4 D Nt In
Eriocaulon maculatum 2, 3, 4 D V? In
Eriocaulon ruhlandii 2, 3, 4 D Nt In
Eriocaulon setaceum 2, 3, 4 D V? In
Eriocaulon welwitschii 2, 3, 4 D Nt In
Syngonanthus wahlbergii 2, 3, 4 D Nt In
PONTEDERIAC EAE
Pickerel-weed family
Monochoria africana 2, 3 D R? In
Eichhornia crassipes Water hyacinth 2, 3, 5 A I Al
Eichhornia natans 2, 3, 5 C Nt In
Pontederia cordata var. ovalis 2, 3, 5 D I Al
Heteranthera callifolia 2, 5 B ? In
Table 2g: Angiopsermae monocotyledonae: Juncaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Hypoxidaceae and
Iridaceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
JUNCACEAE
Prionium serratum Palmiet 2 D Nt ? En
Juncus acutus subsp. leopoldii Biesie;
Steekbiesie;
Rushes
2, 3, 4, 5 D Nt In
Juncus effusus Bieise 2, 3, 4, 5 D Nt In
Juncus exsertus subsp. exsertus Biesie 2, 3, 4, 5 D Nt In
Juncusexsertus subsp. lesuticus Bieise 2, 3, 4, 5 D Nt In
Juncus inflexus Biesie 2, 3, 4, 5 D Nt In
Juncus kraussii subsp. kraussii Bieise 2 D Nt In
Juncus lomatophyllus Biesie 2, 3, 4, 5 D nt In
Juncus mollifolius Bieise 2, 3, 4, 5 D nt In
Juncus oxycarpus Biesie 2, 3, 4, 5 D nt In
Juncus punctorius Bieise 2, 3, 4, 5 D nt In
Juncus rigidus Biesie 2, 3, 4, 5 D nt In
Juncus scabriusculus Biesie 2, 3, 4, 5 D nt In
AMARYLLIDACEAE
Crinum campanulatum 5 D R En
Crinum paludosum 3, 5, 6 D V En
Crinum variabile 6 D V En
HIPOXIDACEAE
Spiloxene aquatica Sterretjie 2, 3, 5 C nt En
IRIDACEAE
Romulea aquatica 6 D V En
Romulea multisulcata 6 D R En
Galaxia stagnalis 6 C,D V En
Table 2h: Dicotyledonae: Polygonaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cabombaceae, Nymphaeceae
and Ceratophyllaceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth
Form
Status Origin
POLYGONACEAE
Polygonum meinerianum 2, 3, 5 D nt Al
Persicaria amphibia 2, 3, 5 B, D nt Al
Persicaria attenudata subsp.
Africana
2, 3, 5 D nt Al
Persicaria hydropiper 2, 3, 5 D nt Al
Persicaria lapathifolia 2, 3, 5 D nt Al
Persicaria limbata 2, 3, 5 D nt Al
Persicaria senegalensis forma
albotomentosa
Duisendknoop;
Slangwortel; Snake
root
2, 3, 5 D O In
Persicaria senegalensis forma
senegalensis
Duisendknoop;
Slangwortel; Snake
root
2, 3, 5 D nt In
Persicaria serrulata Duisendknoop;
Slangwortel; Snake
root
2, 3, 5 D nt Cos
CABOMBACEAE
Braseniaa schreberi 2, 3, 5 B Nt, R In
NYMPHAEACEAE
Water lily family
Nymphaea lotus. Lotus lily 2, 3, 5 B nt In
Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea Blouwater lelie ;
Paddapreekstoel ;
Blue water lily
2, 3, 5 B O In
Nymphaea nouchali var. ovalifolia 2, 3, 5 B nt In
Nymphaea nouchali var. petersiana 2, 3, 5 B nt In
Nymphaea nouchali var.
zanzibariensis
2, 3, 5 B nt In
Nymphaea mexicana (Cultivar) 2, 3 B I Al
C ERATOPHYLLACEAE
Ceratophyllum demersum var.
demersum
Hornwort 2, 3, 5 C nt Cos
Ceratophyllum muricatum var.
muricatum
Table 2i: Dicotyledonae: Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae, Droseraceae,
Podostemaceae, Hydrostachyaceae, Crassulaceae, Oxalidaceae and
Callitrichaceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth Form Status Origin
RANUNCULACEAE
Ranunculus capensis 5 D ? En?
Ranunculus meyeri 2, 3, 5 D nt ?
Ranunculus multifidus Buttercup ;
Botterblom
2, 3, 5 C nt Cos?
Ranunculus trichophyllus subsp.
Drouetii
Waterblommetjie 2, 3, 5 C nt Cos?
BRASSICACEAE
Rorippa fluviatilis var. caledon ica 2, 3, 5 D nt ?
Rorippa fluviatilis var. fluviatilis 2, 3, 5 D nt ?
Rorippa madagascariensis 2, 3, 5 D nt In
Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum Watercress 2, 3, 5 D nt Al
DROSERACEAE
Aldrovanda vesiculosa 5 A nt In
PODOSTEMACEAE
Tristicha trifaria subsp. Trifaria 1 F V ? In
Ledermanniella warmingiana 1 F V? In
Letestuella tisserantii 1 F V ? In
Sphaerothylax algiformis 1 F V ? In
HYDROSTACHYACEAE
Hydrostachys polymorpha Waterkoring 1 F V ? In
CRASSULACEAE (
Crassula aphylla 2, 3 D nt In
Crassula ianis 2 D nt In
Crassula natans var. natans Watergras 2, 3 D nt In
Crassula vaillantii 5 D nt In
Crassula gemmifera 3, 5 D nt In
Crassula tuberella 5 D nt In
OXALIDACEAE
Oxalis dregei 2, 5 D nt In
Oxalis disticha 5, 6 B, D V In
Oxalis natans Waterklawer 3, 5 B E In
Oxalis simplex 5 D E ? In
Oxalis uliginosa 2, 5 D nt In
CALLITRICHACEAE
Callitriche bolusii 2, 4, 5 D ? In
Callitriche compressa 2, 4, 5 D ? In
Table 2j: Dicotyledonae: Elatinaceae, Lythraceae, Onagraceae and Trapaceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth Form Status Origin
ELATINACEAE
Bergia capensis 3, 5 C, D nt In
Elatine triandra 2, 3, 4, 5 C, D nt In
Elatine ambigua 6 D nt In
LYTHRACEAE
Rotala capensis 2, 6 C, D nt In
Rotala dinteri 2, 5 D nt In
Rotala filiformis 5 D nt In
Rotala fluitans 3, 5 B, D nt In
Rotala mexicana 2, 5 B, D ? Cos?
Rotala myriophylloides 2, 5 B, D nt In
Rotala tenella 2, 3, 5 B, C, D nt In
Ammannia auriculata 8 D nt Cos?
Nesaea cordata 2, 3, 4, 5 D nt In
Nesaea crassicaulis 2, 3, 5 D nt In
ONAGRACEAE
Ludwigia abyssinica 5, 6 D nt En
Ludwigia erecta 5 D nt Al
Ludwigia leptocarpa 3, 5 D nt Cos
Ludwigia octovalvis subsp.
Brevisepala
2, 3, 5 D nt In
Ludwigia octovalvis subsp.
Octovalvis
2, 3, 5 D nt In
Ludwigia octovalvis subsp.
Sessiliflora
2, 3, 5 D nt In
Ludwigia palustris False loosestrife;
Water purslane;
Senam-thabeng
2, 3, 5 D nt In
Ludwigia perennis 3, 5 D nt In
Ludwigia stenorraphe subsp.
Macrosepala
5 D nt In
Ludwigia stolonifera Willow-herb;
Wilgekruid
2, 3, 5 C, D O Cos
TRAPACEAE
Trapa natans var. bispinosa Water chestnut ;
Waterkastaiing
2, 3 B, C nt In
Trapa natans var. pumila As above 2, 3 B, C nt In
Table 2k: Dicotyledonae: Haloragaceae, Apiaceae, Primulaceae, Menyanthaceae,
Convolvulaceae and Lamiacea
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth Form Status Origin
HALORAGACEAE
Laurembergia repens subsp.
Brachypoda
5 D nt Al
Myriophyllum aquaticum Water milfoil;
Parrot’s feather
2, 3, 5 B I Al
Myriophyllum spicatum Spiked water
milfoil
2, 3, 5 C nt In?
Gunnera perpensa 2, 3, 5 D nt In
APIACEAE
Hydrocotyle americana Water pennywort;
perdekloutjies
3, 5 D O Al
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides 2, 3, 5 D O Al
Hydrocotyle verticiallata 3, 5 B, D nt In
Apium inundatum Lesser marshwort 3, 5 D nt Al
Sium repandum 2 D nt In
Berula erecta subsp. thunbergii 3, 5 D O ?
PRIMULACEAE
Samolus valerandi 2, 3, 5 D nt Cos
MENYANTHACEAE
Nymphoides brevipedicellata 3, 5 B nt In
Nymphoides forbesiana 3 B ? In
Nymphoides indica subsp .
Occidentalis
Floating heart ;
Geelwateruintjie
2, 3, 5 B O In
Nymphoides rautanenii 3, 6 B nt In
Nymphoides thunderbergiana Marombodane
(Venda)
3, 5 B, D nt In
Villarsia capensis 2, 5 B, D nt
CONVOLVULACEAE
Ipomoea aquatica 3, 5 B, D nt In
LAMIACEAE
Mentha aquatica Water miont 3, 4, 5 D nt Cos
Table 2l: Dicotyledonae: Scrophulariaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Lobeliaceae
and Asteraceae
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth Form Status Origin
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Limnophila ceratophylloides 2, 3, 5 D nt In
Limnophila indica 3, 5 C, D nt In
Bacopa floribunda 5, 6 D ? ?
Limosella africana 3, 5, 6 D V In
Limosella australis 5 D nt In
Limosella grandiflora 2, 3, 5, 6 D nt In
Limosela longiflora 2, 3, 5 D nt In
Limosella maior 2, 3, 5 D nt In
Limosella vesiculosa 10 D V En
Torenia thouarsii 5 D nt In
Lindernia conferta 10 B V In
Lindernia parviflora 5, 6, 7 D nt In
Chamaegigas intrepidus 10 B, D V En
Veronica anagallis -aquatica Water speedwell 2, 3, 5 D nt In
LENTIBULARIACEAE
Bladderwort family
Genlisea hispidula 2, 4, 5 D Ve In
Ultricularia arenaria 4, 5 D Ve In
Ulticularia australis 2, 3 A Ve In
Ultricularia benjaminiana 3, 5 A, D Ve In
Ulticularia bisquamata 2, 5 D Ve In
Ultricularia cymbantha 3 A Ve In
Ulticularia firmula 5 D Ve In
Ultricularia foliosa 2, 3, 5 A Ve In
Ulticularia gibba 2, 3, 5 A, B Ve In
Ultricularia inflexa 2, 3 B Ve In
Ulticularia livida 5 D Ve In
Ultricularia prehensilis 5 D Ve In
Ulticularia relfexa 2, 3, 5 A Ve In
Ultricularia sandersonii 7 H Ve En
Ulticularia scandens 5 D Ve In
Ultricularia stellaris Star bladderwort 2, 3, 5 A nt In
Ulticularia subulata 2, 5 D Ve In
Ultricularia tortilis 5 D Ve In
Ulticularia welwitschii 5 D Ve In
Table 2l Continued
Taxon Common name Habitat Growth Form Status Origin
LOBELIACEAE
Lobelia quadrisepala 3, 5 D ? ?
ASTERACEAE
Adenostemma caffrum 2, 5 D nt In
Enydra fluctuans 5 D ? ?
Cadiscus aquaticus 5 B, C, D E En?
Cotula coronopifolia Eendjieskweek ;
Gansgras
3, 5 D O Cos
Cotula myriophylloides Watergras 5 D V Cos
Cotula nigellifolia 4 D nt In
Cotula vulgaris 5 D ? In
Emilia protracta 5 D nt In
(Glen et al. 1999)
Appendix 3: List of Amphipod Species found in Freshwater Habitats
Habitats: A - Lakes; B – Caves; C - Mountain streams; D – Springs
Limnological regions: A – Subtropical coastal peneplane; B – Summer rainfall and south-eastern
coastal plain; C – Elevated mountain massif of Lesotho (australo-montane
region); D – Temperate acid waters of western Cape; E – Arid west.
Table 3a: Bolttsiidae, Corophiidae, Ingolfiellidae, Paramelitidae, and
Sternophysingdae
Taxon Habitat Limnological
Region
Distribution
BOLTTSIIDAE
Bolttsia minuta A A Lake Sibaya
COROPH IIDAE
Corophium triaenonyx A A Lake Sibaya
Grandidierella lignorum A A Lake Sibaya
INGOLFIELLIDAE
Stygobarnardia caprellinoides B E Northern Namibia
Trogloleleupia dracospiritus B E Northern Namibia
Trogloleleupia eggerti B E Northern Namibia
Trogloleleupia gobabis B E Central Namibia
Trgololeleupia nudicarpus B E Northern Namibia
PARAMELITIDAE
Aquadulcaris andronyx C D Kasteelberg
C D Table Mtn & Constantiaberg, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris auricularia C D Table Mtn, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris crassicornis C D Kalk Bay Mtns, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris dentat C D Table Mtn, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris marunuguis C D Constantiaberg, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris pheronyx C D Outeniqua Mtns, Knysna region
Parameilta aurantia C D Hottentots Holland & Franchhoek Mtns
Paramelita barnadi B D Kalk Bay Mtns
Paramelita capensis C D Southwestern Cape
Table 3a Continued
Paramelita flexa C D Palmiet, Hottentots Holland and Groenland
Mtns
Aquadulcaris dentate C D Kalk Bay Mtns, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris marunguis C D Table Mtn, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris pheronyx C D Constantiaberg, Cape Peninsula
Mathamelita aequicaudata C D Outeniqua Mtns, Knysna region
Paramelita aurantia C D Hottentots Holland & Franchhoek Mtns
Paramelita granulicornis C D Hottentots Holland Mtns amd Kogelberg State
Forest
Paramelita kogelensis C D Hottentots Holland, Grownland and Kogelberg
Mtns
Paramelita magma C D Southern Cape Peninsula
Paramelita magnicornis C D Cape Peninsula and Swellendam Mtns
Paramelita nigroculus C D Southwestern Cape
Paramelita odontophora C D Palmiet River system
Paramelita parva C D Storms River system
Paremlita pillicornis C D Gydo Pass, north of Ceres
Paramelita pinnicornis C D Northeast Cape Peninsula ad Kogelberg State
Forest
Paramelita platypus C D Kleinriviersberge, near Hermanus
Paramelita seticornis C D Hottentots Holland Mtns, Kogelberg State
Forest
Paramelita spinicornis C D Hottentots Holland to Swellendam Mts
Paramelita triangula C D Mitchell’s Pass, near Ceres
Paramelita tulbaghensis C D Winterhoek Mtns, to Dutoitsberge
Paramelita validicornis C D Kleinriverisberge
STERNOPHYSINGDAE
Sternophysinx alca B B Makapansgat, Peppercorn & Fiscus caves
Sternophysinx basilobata B E Boesmansgat cave, Kuruman area
Sternophysinx calceola B B Matlapitse cave, Trichardtsdal
Sternophysinx filaris B, D B Sterkfontein cave
Sternophysinx hibernica B E Naos cave, central Namibia
Sternophysinx megacheles B E Boesmansgat, Kuruman area
Aquadulcaris dentata C D Kalk Bay Mtns, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris marunguis C D Table Mtn, Cape Peninsula
Aquadulcaris pheronyx C D Constantiaberg, Cape Peninsula
Mathamelita aequicaudata C D Outeniqua Mtns, Knysna region
Paramelita aurantia C D Hottentots Holland & Franchhoek Mtns
Sternophysinx robertsi B B Makapansgat, Peppercorn & Fiscus cave
Sternophysinx transvaalensis D B, C Drakensberg Mtns
(Stewart 1999)
Appendix 4: List of Mammals, the associated Wetland Habitats and their Status
This list does not include the marine and estuarine wetland associated mammals, but may be
found in the original text, Biota of South African Wetlands in relation to the Ramsar Convention
(Cowan 1999).
Habitat: 1 – Riverine; 2 – Lacustrine; 3 – Palustrine; 4 – Endorheic
Status: E – Endangered; V – Vulnerable; Re – Restricted; P – Peripheral; R – Rare; I –
Intermediate; T – Threatened.
Table 4a: Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Carnivora
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
INSECTIVORA
Crocidura mariquensis Swamp musk shrew 3
CHIROPTERA
Epomophorus wahlbergi Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat 1
Rousettus aegyptiacus Egyptian fruit bat 1
Rhinolophus swinnyi Swinny’s horseshoe bat I
Hipposideros commersoni Commerson’s leaf -nosed bat I
Myotis bocagei Rufous hairy bat I
Pipistrellus rueppellii Ruppell’s bat 3 I
Chahlinolobus variegatus Butterfly bat
Eptesticus hottentotus Long-tailed serotine bat 1
Kerovoula argentata Damara woolly bat 1 I
Kerivoula lanosa Lesser wholly bat 1 I
Tadarida fulminans Madagascar large free-tailed bat I
Chaerephon ansorgei Ansorge’s free-tailed bat 1 I
Mops condylurus Angola free-tailed bat 1
CARNIVORA
Felis serval Serval 1, 3
Aonyx capensis Cape clawless otter 1, 2, 3 R
Lutra maculicollos Spotted-necked otter 1, 2, 3 R
Atilax paludinosus Water mongoose 1, 2, 3, 4
Table 4b: Artiodactyla, Rodentia and Lagomorpha
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
ARTIODACTLYA
Phacochoerus aethiopicus Warthog 3
Potamochoerus porcus Bushpig 1
Hippopotamus amphibius Hippopotamus 1, 2 R
Cephalophus natalensis Red duiker 1 R
Ourebia ourebi Oribi 3
Hippotragus equinus Roan antelope 3 E
Hippotragus niger Sable 3 V
Tragelaphus angasii Nyala 1
Tragelaphus scriptus Bushbuck 1
Redunca arundinum Reedbuck 1, 3
Kobus ellipsiprymnus Waterbuck 3
RODENTIA
Thryonomys swinderianus Greater canerat 1, 2
Otomys angoniensis Angoni vlei rat 3
Otomys saundersiae Saunder’s vlei rat 3
Otomys irroratus Vlei rat 3
Dasymus incomtus Water rat 3 I
LAGOMORPHA
Bungolagus monticularis Riverine rabbit 1 E x
(Chimimba & Cowan 1999)
Appendix 5: List of Reptile Taxa, the associated Wetland Habitats and their Status
The list does not include the marine and estuarine species but can be obtained from the original
list Biota of South African Wetlands in relation to the Ramsar Convention (Cowan (1999).
Habitat: 1 – Riverine; 2 – Lacustrine; 3 – Palustrine; 4 – Endorheic
Status: E – Endangered; V – Vulnerable; Re – Restricted; P – Peripheral; R – Rare; I –
Intermediate; T – Threatened.
Table 5a: Pelomedusidae, Serpentes Boidae and Colubridae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
PELOMEDUSIDAE
Pelomedusa subrufa Marsh or Helmeted Terrapin 1, 2, 3, 4
Pelusios sinuatus Serrated Hinged T errapin 2, 3
Pelusios rhodesianus Mashona Hinged Terrapin 3, 4 P
Pelusios subniger Pan Hinged Terrapin 3, 4
Pelusios c. castanoides Eastern Hinged Terrapin 2, 3 P
S ERPENTES BOIDAE
Python sebae natalensis African Rock Python 1, 2 V
COLUBRIDAE
Lycodonomorphus laevissimus Dusky -bellied Water Snake 1 X
Lycodonomorphus rufulus Common Brown Water Snake 1, 2, 3, 4
Lycodonomorphus obscuriventris Floodplain Water Snake 1, 3, 4 P
Lamprophis aurora Aurora House Snake 3 X
Amplorhinus mulimaculatus Many -spotted/Reed Snake 3 X
Montaspis gilvomaculata Cream-spotted Mountain Snake 3 X
Natriciteres variegata sylvatica Forest Marsh Snake 3 P
Psammophylax r. rhombeatus Spotted or Rhombic
Skaapsteker
3
Psammophis phillipsii Olive Grass Snake 1, 2, 3, 4
Macrelaps microlepidotus Natal Black Snake 3 X
Meizodon semiornatus Semiornate Snake 1, 4 P
Philothamnus hoplogaster Green Water Snake 1, 2, 3, 4
Philothamnus n. natalensis Natal Green Snake 1, 2, 3 X
Philothamnus n. occidentalis Western Natal Green Snake 1, 2, 3
Philothamnus angolensis Western Green Snake 1, 3 P
Dipsadoboa aulica Cross -barred or Marbled Tree
Snake
1, 3
Table 5b: Elapidae, Viperidae, Sauria Chamaeleonidae, Gekkonidae, Scinidae,
Varanidae, and Crocodylia Crocodylidae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
ELAPIDAE
Hemachatus haemachatus Rinkhals 3 X
VIPERIDAE
Causus rhombeatus Common/Rhombic Night Adder 1, 2, 3
SAURIA CHAMAELEONIDAE
Bradypodion pumilum Cape Dwarf Chameleon 3 X
Bradypodion melanocephalum Blackheaded Dwarf Chameleon 1, 2, 3 X
Bradypodion sp. nov 3
GEKKONIDAE
Cryptactites peringueyi Peringuey’s Leaf-toed Gecko 3 I
SCINCIDAE
Acontias gracilicauda Thin-tailed Legless Skink 3 X
VARANIDAE
Varanus niloticus Nile or Water Monit or 1, 2, 3
CROCODYLIA
CROCODYLIDAE
Crocodylus niloticus Nile Crocodile 1, 2, 3, 4 V
(Jacobsen 1999)
Appendix 6: List of amphibian taxa, the associated wetland habitats and their Status
Habitat: 1 – Rivers (1a – fast flowing; 1b – slow flowing); 2 – Lakes;
3 - Marshes/swamps; 4 – Wet grasslands; 5 – Seepage areas;
6 – Temporary pools; 7 – Forest floor/leaf litter; 8 – Small ponds;
9 – Marginal vegetation.
Status: E – Endangered; V – Vulnerable; Re – Restric ted; P – Peripheral; R – Rare; I –
Intermediate; T – Threatened.
Table 6a: Pipidae, Heleophrynidae, and Bufonidae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
PIPIDAE
Xenopus gilli Cape platanna 2 E X
Xenopus laevis Common platanna 1b, 2
Xenopus muelleri Tropical platanna 1b, 2
HELEOPHRYNIDAE
Heleophryne hewitti Hewitt’s ghost frog 1a E X
Heleophryne purcelli Cape ghost frog 1a X
Heleophryne rosei Table mountain ghost frog 1a E X
Heleophryne natalensis Natal ghost frog 1a X
Heleophryne regis Southern ghost frog 1a, 1b X
BUFONIDAE
Bufo sp. Paradise toad 2, 6, 8 X
Bufo amatolicus Amatola toad 5, 6 Re X
Bufo angusticeps Sand toad 6 X
Bufo fenoulheti Northern pigmy toad 6
Bufo gariepensis Karoo toad 3, 4, 6 X
Bufo garmani Olive toad 2, 6, 8
Bufo gutturalis Guttural toad 1, 2, 8
Bufo maculatus Flat-back toad 1, 2, 3, 4
Bufo pardalis Eastern leopard toad 2, 6 X
Bufo poweri Power’s toad 2, 6, 8
Bufo rangeri Raucous toad 1, 2, 8 X
Bufo vertebralis Southern pigmy toad 6 X
Capensibufo rosei Rose’s toadlet 6 Re X
Capensibufo tradouwi Tradouw toadlet 5, 6 X
Schismaderma carens Red toad 2
Table 6b: Microphylidae and Ranidae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
MICROHYLIDAE
Phrynomantis annectens Marbled rubber frog 6 P
Phrynomantis bifasciatus Banded rubber frog 6, 8
RANIDAE
Anhydrophryne rattrayi Hogsback frog 3, 7 Re X
Cacosternum boettgeri Common caco 3, 4, 6, 8
Cacosternum capense Cape caco 4, 6 Re X
Cacosternum namaquense Namaqua caco 1, 6
Cacosternum nanum Bronze caco 3 X
Cacosternum poyntoni I X
Hildebrandtia ornata Ornate frog 6, 8
Microbatrachella capensis Micro frog 2, 4, 6, 8 E X
Natalobatrachus bomebergi Kloof frog 1a, 1b X
Phrynobatrachus acridoides East african puddle frog 3, 6, 8
Phrynobatrachus mababiensis Dwarf puddle frog 3, 6, 8
Phrynobatrachus natalensis Snoring puddle frog 3, 5, 6, 8
Poyntonia paludicola Marsh frog 1b, 3, 6 X
Ptychadena anchietae Plain grass frog 1b, 3, 4, 8
Ptychadena mascareniensis Mascarene grass frog 3, 4, 8
Ptychadena mossambica Broad-banded grass frog 1b, 3, 4, 6, 8
Ptychadena oxyrhynchus Sharp-nosed grass frog 3, 4, 6, 8
Ptychadena porosissima Striped grass frog 3, 6, 8
Ptychadena pumilio Dwarf grass frog 3, 4, 5
Ptychadena uzungwensis Uzungwe grass frog 5, 8
Pyxicephalus adspersus Giant bullfrog 2, 6, 9
Pyxicephalus edulis African bullfrog 6
Rana angolensis Common river frog 1b, 2, 9
Rana dracomonatana Drakensberg river frog 1b Re X
Rana fuscigula Cape river frog 1b, 2 X
Rana vertebralis Aquatic river frog 1b Re X
Strongylopus bonaspei Banded stream frog 3, 5 X
Strongylopus fasciatus Striped stream frog 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9
Strongylopus grayii Clicking stream frog 1, 3, 8, 9
Strongylopus hymenopus Berg stream frog 1, 3, 8, 9 X
Strongylopus springbokensis Namaqua stream frog 1a X
Table 6b Continued Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
Strongylopus wageri Plain stream frog 1b, 8 X
Tomopterna cryptotis Termolo sand frog 1b, 6, 8
Tomopterna delalandii Cape sand frog 2, 8 X
Tomopterna krugerensis Knocking sand frog 3, 6, 8
Tomopterna marmorata Russet -backed sand frog 1b, 3, 6, 8
Tomopterna natalensis Natal sand frog 1, 3, 6, 8 x
Table 6c: Rhacophoridae, Arthroleptidae, Hemisdae a nd Hyperoliidae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
RHACOPHORIDAE
Chiromantis xerampelina Foam nest frog 1, 6, 8
ARTHROLEPTIDAE
Arthroleptella hewitti Natal chirping frog 1a, 5, 9 X
Arthroleptella lightfooti Cape chirping frog 1b, 5, 9 X
Arthroleptella ngongoniensis Mist belt chirping frog 4, 5 X
Arthroleptis stenodactylus Shovel-footed squeaker 7
Arthroleptis wahlbergi Bush squeaker 7 X
HEMSIDAE
Hemisus guineensis 6, 8
Hemisus guttatus Spotted shovel-nosed frog 6, 9 X
Hemisus m armoratus Mottled shovel-nosed frog 1b, 6, 8
HYPEROLIIDAE
Afrixalus aureus Golden leaf-folding frog 2, 3, 4, 6, 8,9 R
Afrixalus delicates Delicate leaf-folding frog 2, 3, 8, 9
Afrixalus fornasinii Greater leaf-folding frog 2, 6, 8, 9
Afrixalus knysnae Knysna leaf-folding frog 8, 9 X
Afrixalus spinifrons Natal leaf-folding frog 3, 6 X
Hyperolius argus Argus reed frog 1b, 2, 3, 8, 9
Hyperolius horstockii Arum lily frog 3, 8 X
Hyperolius nasutus Long reed frog 1b, 3, 4, 8
Hyperolius pickersgilli Pickersgill’s reed frog 2, 3, 9 R X
Hyperolius semidiscus Yellow-striped reed frog 1b, 8, 9 X
Hyperolius tuberrilinguis Tinker reed frog 1b, 2, 3, 8, 9
Kassina maculata Red-legged kassina 2, 8, 9
Kassina senegalensis Bubbling kassina 2, 6, 8
Leptopelis mossambicus Brown-backed tree frog 2, 8, 9
Leptopelis natalensis Forest tree frog 3, 7, 9 X
Leptopelis xenodactylus Long-toed tree frog 6, 8, 9 Re X
Semnodactylus wealii Rattling frog 6, 8, 9 X
(Jacobsen 1999)
Appendix 7: The Habitat Types and Conservation Status of Wetland Birds in South Africa
The list excludes both marine and estuarine species but may be obtained from the original text,
Biota of South African Wetlands in relation to Ramsar Convention (Cowan 1999).
Habitat: 1 – Riverine; 2 – Lacustrine; 3 – Palustrine; 4 – Endorheic; 0 - vagrant
Status : E – Endangered; V – Vulnerable; R – Rare; Ne – Endemic (southern
Africa); 0 – vagrant; and
Table 7a: Podicipediformes, Pelecaniformes and Ciconiformes
Taxon Common name Habitat Status
PODICIPEDIFORMES
Podiceps cristatus Great Crested Grebe 2, 4
P. nigricollis Blacknecked Grebe 2, 4
Tachybaptus ruficollis Dabchick 1, 2, 3, 4
PELECANIFORMES
Phaethon rubricauda Redtailed Tropicbird 0 0
Pelecanus onocrotalus White Pelican 2, 4 R
P. rufescens Pinkbacked Pelican 2, 4 R
M. serrator Australian Gannet 0 0
Phalacrocorax carbo Whitebreasted Cormorant 1, 2, 3, 4
P. africanus Reed Cormorant 1, 2, 3, 4
Anhinga melanogaster Darter 1, 2, 3, 4
Fregata minor Greater Frigatebird 0 0
CICONIFORMES
Ardea cinerea Grey Heron 1, 2, 3, 4
Ardea melanocephala Blackheaded Heron 1, 2, 3, 4
Ardea goliath Goliath Heron 1, 2, 3, 4
Ardea purpurea Purple Heron 1, 2, 3, 4
Egretta alba Great White Egret 1, 2, 3, 4
Egretta garzetta Little Egret 1, 2, 3, 4
Egretta intermedia Yellowbilled Egret 1, 2, 3, 4
Egretta ardesiaca Black Egret 1, 2, 3, 4
Egretta vinaceigula Slaty Egret 0 0
Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret 1, 2, 3, 4
Table 7a Continued
Taxon Common name Habita t Status
Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron 2, 3, 4
Butorides striatus Breenbacked Heron 1, 2, 3
Butorides rufiventris Rufousbellied Heron 2, 3, 4 R
Nycticorax nycticorax Blackcrowned Night
Heron
1, 2, 3, 4
Gorsachius leuconotus Whitebacked Night Heron 1
Ixobrychus minitus Little Bittern 1, 2, 3, 4 R
Ixobrychus sturmii Dwarf Bittern 1, 2, 3
Botaurus stellaris Bittern 3 V
Scopus umbretta Hamerkop 1, 2, 3, 4
Ciconia nigra Black Stork 1, 3
Ciconia episcopus Woollynecked Stork 1, 2, 3 R
Anastomus lamelligerus Openbill Stork 1, 2, 3 R
Ephippiorhynchus
senegalensis
Saddlebilled Stork 1, 2, 3 R
Leptoptilos crumeniferus Marabou Stork 1, 2 R
Mycteria ibis Yellowbilled Stork 1, 2, 3, 4 R
Threskiornis aethiopicus Sacred Ibis 1, 2, 3, 4
Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis 1, 2, 3, 4
Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda Ibis 1, 2, 3, 4
Platalea alba African Spoonbill 2, 3, 4
Table 7b: Phoenicopteriformes and Anseriformes
Taxon Common name Habitat Status
PHOENICOPTERIFORMES
Phoenicopterus ruber Greater Flamingo 2, 4
Phoenicopterus minor Lesser Flamingo 2, 4
ANSERIFROMES
Dendrrocygna viduata Whitefaced Duck 2, 4
Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous Duck 2, 4
Thalassornis leuconotus Whitebacked Duck 3, 4
Alopochen aegyptiacus Egyptian G oose 1, 2, 3, 4
Tadorna cana South African Shelduck 1, 2, 3, 4 Ne
Anas undulata Yellowbilled Duck 1, 2, 3, 4
Anas sparsa African Black Duck 1
Anas capensis Cape Teal 1, 2, 3, 4
Anas hottentota Hottentot Teal 2, 3, 4
Anas erythrorhyncha Redbilled Teal 2, 3, 4
Anas acuta Pintail 0 0
Anas queruedula Garganey 0 0
Anas clypeata European Shoveller 0 0
Anas smithii Cape Shoveller 2, 3, 4 Ne
Netta erythrophthalma Southern Pochard 2, 3, 4
Nettapus auritus Pygmy Goose 2, 3 R
Sarkidiornis melanotos Knobbilled Duck 2, 3
Plectropterus gambensis Spurwinged Goose 2, 3, 4
Oxyura maccoa Maccoa Duck 2, 3, 4
Table 7c: Falconiformes and Gruiformes
Taxon Common name Habitat Status
FALCONIFORMES
Gypohierax angolensis Palmnut Vulture 3 R
Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish Eagle 1, 2, 3, 4
Circus aeruginosus European Marsh Harrier 2, 3, 4
Circus ranivorus African Marsh Harrier 2, 3, 4
Pandion haliaetus Osprey 1, 2, 3, 4
Falco amurensis Eastern Redfooted Kestrel 3, 4
GRUIFORMES
Grus carunculata Wattled Crane 4 E
Balearica regulorum Crowned Crane 3, 5
Rallus caerulescens African Rail 2, 3, 4
Crex egregia African Crake 3
Amaurornis flavirostris Black Crake 2, 3, 4
Porzana porzana Spotted Crake 2, 3
Porzana pusilla Bailoon’s Crake 2, 3, 4
Aeignatolimnas marginalis Striped Crake 2, 3
Sarothrura rufa Redchested Flufftail 2, 3
Sarothrura elegans Buffspotted Flufftail 3
Sarothrura boehmi Streakybreasted Flufftail 2, 4
Sarothrura ayresi Whitewinged Flufftail 2, 3 R
Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Gallinule 2, 3, 4
Porphyrio alleni Lesser Gallinule 2, 3
Porphyrio martinica American Purple Gallinule 0 0
Gallinula chloropus Moorhen 1, 2, 3, 4
Gallinula angulata Lesser Moorhen 1, 2, 3
Fulica cristata Redknobbed Coot 1, 2, 3, 4
Podica senegalensis African Finfoot 1 I
Table 7d: Charadriiformes
Taxon Common name Habitat Status
CHARADRIIFORMES
Actophilornis africanus African Jacana 2, 3, 4
Microparra capensis Lesser Jacana 2, 3, 4 R
Rostraluta benghalens is Painted Snipe 2, 3, 4
Charadrius hiaticula Ringed Plover 2, 3, 4
Charadrius marginatus Whitefronted Plover 1, 2
Charadrius pallidus Chestnutbanded Plover 2, 4 R
Charadrius pecuarius Kittliz’s Plover 2, 3, 4
Charadrius tricollaris Threebanded Plover 1, 4
Charadrius mongolus Mongolian Plover 0 0
Charadrius asiaticus Caspian Plover 3
Pluvialis dominica American Golden Plover 0 0
Vanellus armatus Blacksmith Plover 1, 2, 3, 4
Vanellus albiceps Whitecrowned Plover 1 R
Vanellus senegallus Wattled Plover 2, 3, 4
Vanellus crassirostris Longtoed Plover 2
Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper 1, 2, 3, 4
Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper 3
Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper 2, 3, 4
Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank 0 0
Tringa tetanus Redshank 0 0
Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper 2, 3, 4
Tringa nebularia Greenshank 2, 3, 4
Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper 2, 3, 4
Calidris minuta Little Stint 2, 3, 4
Calidris ruficollis Rednecked Stint 0 0
Calidris fuscicollis Whiterumped Sandpiper 0 0
Calidris bairdii Baird’s Sandpiper 0 0
Calidris melanotos Pectoral Sandpiper 0 0
Calidris temminckii Temmick’s Sandpiper 0 0
Tryngites subruficollis Buffbreasted Sandpiper 0 0
Limicola falcinellus Broadbilled Sandpiper 0 0
Philomachus pugnax Ruff 2, 3, 4
Gallinago nigripennis Ethiopian Snipe 2, 3, 4
Limosa limosa Blacktailed Godwit 2, 3, 4
Numenius arquata Curlew 2, 3, 4
Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel 2
Phalaropus fulicarius Grey Phalarope 0 0
Phlaropus lobatus Rednecked Phalarope 0 0
Table 7d: Continued
Taxon Common Name Habitat Status
Phlaropus tricolor Wilson’s Phalarope 0 0
Recurvirostra avosetta Avocet 2, 4
Himantopus himantopus Blackwinged Stilt 2, 4
Dromas ardeola Crab Plover 0 0
Burhinus vermiculatus Water Dikkop 1, 2
Glaeola practincola Redwinged Pratincole 1, 2 R
Larus fuscus Lesser Blackbacked Gull 0 0
Larus argentatus Herring Gull 0 0
Larus cirrocephalus Greyheaded Gull 2, 4
Larus pipixcan Franklin’s Gull 0 0
Larus ridibundus Blackheaded Gull 0 0
Gelochelidon milorica Gullbilled Tern 0 0
Hydroprogne caspia Caspian Tern 1, 2, 3, 4 R
Sterna hirundo Common Tern 2
Sterna sumatrana Blacknaped Tern 0
Sterna fuscata Sooty Tern 0
Sterna anaethetus Bridled Tern 0
Sterna repressa Whitecheeked Tern 0 0
Chlidonias hybridus Whiskered Tern 2, 3, 4
Chlidonias leucopterus Whitewinged Tern 2, 3, 4
Anous stolidus Common Noddy 0 0
Rynchops flavirostris African Skimmer 1, 2
Table 7e: Cuculiformes, Strigiformes, Caprimulgiformes, Apodiformes,
Alcediniformes and Passeriformes
Taxon Common Name Habitat Status
CUCLIFORMES
Centropus bengalenisz Black Coucal 3
Centropus superciliosus Burchell’s Coucal 2, 3
STRIGIFORMES
Tyto capensis Grass Owl 2, 3
Asio capensis Marsh Owl 2, 3, 4
Scotopelia peli Pel’s Fishing Owl 1, 2, 3 R
CAPRIMULGIFORMES
Caprimulgus natalensis Natal Nightjar 1, 2, 3 V
APODIFORMES
Cypsiurus parvus Palm Swift 3
ALCEDININFORMES
Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher 1, 2, 3, 4
Ceryle maxima Giant Kingfisher 1, 2
Alcedo semitorquata Halfcollared Kingfisher 1
Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher 1, 2, 3, 4
Halcyon senegaloides Mangrove Kingfisher 1, 2, 3, 4
Merops persicus Bluecheeked Bee-eater 1, 2, 3
Merops nubicoides Carmine Bee-eater 1, 3
Merops bullockoides Whitefromnted Bee-eater 1, 2
Merops pusillus Little Bee-eater 1, 2
Eurystomus glaururus Broadbilled Roller 1
PASSERIFORMES
Hirundo rustica European Swallow 2, 3, 4
Hirundo albigularis Whitethroated Swallow 1, 2, 3, 4
Hirundo smithii Wiretailed Swallow 1, 2, 3
Riparia riparia Sand Martin 1, 2, 3
Riparia paludicola Brownthroated Swallow 1, 2, 3, 4
Psalidoprocne holomelas Black Sawing Swallow 1, 2
Locustella fluviatilis River Warbler 0 0
Acrocephalus
arundinaceus
Great Reed Warbler 2, 3, 4
Table 7 e : Continued
Taxon Common name Habitat Status
Acrocephalus scirpaceus European Reed Warbler 0 0
Acrocephalus baeticatus African Marsh Warbler 1, 2, 3, 4
Acrocephalus palustris European Marsh Warbler 0 0
Acrocephalus
schoenobeanus
European Sedge Warbler 1, 2, 3
Acrocephalus gracilirostris Cape Reed Warbler 1, 2, 3, 4
Acrocephalus rufescens Greater Swamp Warbler 0 0
Chloropeta natalensis Yellow Warbler 1
Bradypterus baboecala African Sedge Warbler 1, 2, 3, 4
Schoenicola brevirostris Broadtailed Warbler 1, 3
Cisticola juncidis Fantailed Cisticola 2, 3, 4
Cisticola brunnescens Palecrowned Cisticola 2, 3, 4
Cisticola erythrops Redfaced Cisticola 1, 2, 3
Cisticola galactotes Blackbacked Cisticola 1, 2, 3
Cisticola pipiens Chirping Cisticola 1, 2, 3
Cisticola tinniens Levaillant’s Cisticola 1, 2, 3, 4
Cisticola natalensis Croaking Cisticola 3
Motacilla aguimp African Pied Wagtail 1, 2, 3
Motacilla clara Longtailed Wagtail 1
Motacilla capensis Cape Wagtail 1, 2, 3, 4
Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail 2, 4
Macronyx capensis Orangethroated Longclaw 2, 3
Macronyx ameliae Pinkthroated Longclaw 2, 3 V
Laniarius aethiopicus Tropical Boubou 1
Amblyyospiza albifrons Thickbilled Weaver 1, 2, 3
Ploceus cucllatus Spottedbacked Weaver 1
Ploceus capensis Cape Weaver 1, 2, 3, 4
Ploceus velatus Masked Weaver 1, 2, 3, 4
Ploceus intermedius Lesser Masked Weaver 1, 2, 3
Ploceus xanthops Golden Weaver 1
Ploceus subaureus Yellow Weaver 1
Ploceus xanthopterus Brownthroated Weaver 1, 2, 3
Euplectes orix Red Bishop 1, 2, 3, 4
Euplectes afer Golden Bishop 1, 2, 3
Euplectes axillaris Redshouldered Widow 1, 2, 3
Euplectes ardens Redcollared Widow 1, 2, 3
Euplectes progne Longtailed Widow
(Cowan & Randall 1999)
Appendix 8: Wetland Associated Fish
The estuarine and marine fish species will be excluded for the table but can be found in the
original literature, Biota of South Africa Wetlands in relation to the Ramsar Convention (Cowan
1999).
Habitat: 1 – Rivers (a – headwaters; b – middle reaches, c – mature reaches); 2 – Lakes;
3 – Temporary waters
Status: CR – Critically Endangered; EN – Endangered; VU – Vulnerable;
LR – Lower Risk; DD – Data Deficient
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
Protopterus annectens Lungfish 3
Marcusenius macrolepidotus Bulldog 1b,c
Anguilla mossambica Longfin Eel 1
A. labiata African Mottled Eel 1
A. marmorata Giant Mottled Eel 1
A. bicolour Shortfin Eel 1
Kneria auriculata Southern Kneria 1a
Mesobola brevianalis River Sardine 1
Opsaridium peringueyi Southern Barred Minnow 1b VU
Pseudobarbus burchelli Burchell’s Redfin 1b EN X
P. burgi Berg River Redfin 1a, b, c CR X
P. afer Eastern Cape Redfin 1a LR X
P. asper Small scale Redfin 1b, 2 VU X
P. phlegethon Fiery redfin 1a EN X
P. tenius Slender Redfin 1a EN X
P. quathlambae Drakensberg Minnow 1a CR X
Barbus anoplus Chubbyhead Barb 1a, b X
B. gurneyi Redtail Barb 1b X
B. motebensis Marico Barb 1a VU X
B. amatolicus Amatola Barb 1a, b X
B. treurensis Treur River Barb 1a LR X
B. annectens Broadstriped Barb 1c
B. lineomaculatus Line-spotted Barb 1, 3
B. brevipinnis Shortfin Barb 1a VU X
B. neefi Sidespot Barb 1a X
B. pallidus Goldie Barb 1a, b X
B. unitaeniatus Longbeard Barb 1b, c, 2
B. bifrenatus Hyphen Barb 1b, c, 2
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
B. viviparous Bowstripe Barb 1c, 2
B. toppini East Coast Barb 1c, 2, 3
B. radiatus Beira Barb 1b, c, 2
B. trimaculatus Threespot Barb 1b, c, 2
B. calidus Clanwilliam Redfin 1a EN X
B. erubescens Twee River Redfin 1a CR X
B. eutaenia Orangefin Barb 1a
B. hospes Namaqua Barb 1b, c LR X
B. trevelyani Border Barb 1a CR X
B. argenteus Rosefin Barb 1a X
B. paludinosus Straightfin Barb 1b, c, 2
B. mattozi Papermouth 1b, 2
B. afrohamiltoni Plump Barb 1c
B. serra Sawfin 1b, 2 EN X
B. andrewi Whitefish 1b, 2 VU X
B. kimberleyensis Largemouth Yellowfish 1b, c, 2 VU X
B. aneus Smallmouth Yellowfish 1b, c, 2 X
B. natalensis Scaly 1b, c, 2 X
B. polypepis Smallscale Yellowfish 1a, b, 2 X
B. capensis Clanwilliam Yellowfish 1a, b, c, 2 VU X
B. marequensis Largescale Yellowfish 1b, c
Varicorhinus nelspruitensis Incomati Chiselmouth 1a X
Labeo umbratus Moggel 1b, c, 2 X
L. capensis Organe River Mudfish 1b, c, 2 X
L. rubromaculatus Tugela labeo 1b, c X
L. seeberi Clanwilliam Sandfish 1b, c CR X
L. rosae Rednose labeo 1b, c
L. ruddi Silver Labeo 1b, c
L. congoro Purple Labeo 1b, c
L. cylindricus Redeyed Labeo 1b, c, 2
L. molybdinus Leaden Labeo 1b, c, 2
Brycinus imberi Imberi 1b, c, 3
B. lateralis Striped Robber 1b, c, 2
Micralestes acutidens Silver Robber 1b, c
Hydrocynus vittatus Tigerfish 1b, c, 2
Austroglanis barnardi Spotted Rock Catfish 1a CR X
A. gilli Clanwilliam Rock Catfish 1a VU X
A. sclateri Rock Catfish 1b, c DD X
Amphilius natalensis Natal Mountain Catfish 1a
A. uranoscopus Stargazer Mountain Catfish 1a
Schilbe intermedius Silver Catfish 1b, c, 2
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
Clarias gariepinus Sharptooth Catfish 1b, c, 2, 3
C. ngamensis Blunttooth Catfish 1c, 3
C. theodorae Snake Catfish 1b, c, 3
Chiloglanis anoterus Pennant-tailed Suckermouth 1a X
C. bifurcus Incomati Suckermouth 1a CR X
C. emarginatus Phongola Suckermouth 1a
C. paratus Sawfin Suckermouth 1a, b
C. pretoriae Shortspine Suckermouth 1a, b
C. swierstrai Lowveld Suckermouth 1c LR X
Syndodontis zambezensis Brown Squeaker 1b, c
Galaxias zebratus Cape Galaxias 1a, b LR X
Nothobranchius orthonotus Spotted Killifish 3
N. rachovii Rainbow Killifish 3
Apolcheilichthys johnstoni Slender Topminnow 1c, 2
A. myaposae Natal Topminnow 1c, 2
A. katangae Striped Topminnow 1b, c
Pseudocrenilabrus philander Southern Mouthbrooder 1a, b, c, 2
Chetia brevis Orange-fringed largemouth 1b, 2 VU X
C. flaviventris Canary Kurper 1a, b, 2 X
Serranochromis meridianus Lowveld Largemouth 1c, 2 LR X
Tilapia sparrmanni Banded Tilapia 1b, c, 2
T. rendalli Redbreast Tilapia 1b, c, 2
Oreochromis mossambicus Mozambique Tilapia 1b, c, 2, 3
O. placidus Black Tilapia 1c, 2
Microctenopoma intermedium Blackspot Climbing Perch 1b, c, 2 R
Ctenopoma multispine Manyspined Climbing Perch 1b, c, 2
Sandelia bainsii Eastern Cape Rocky 1b EN X
S. capensis Cape Kurper 1c LR X
(Skelton & Cowan 1999)
Appendix 9: Inland Freshwater Crabs found in South Africa
The crab species located in estuaries, lagoons, mangrove swamps and terrestrial species can be
found in the original text, Bio ta of South African Wetlands in relation to the Ramsar Convention
(Cowan 1999).
Habitat: A – Rivers, middle & lower reaches; B – Rivers & streams, upper
reaches; C- Freshwater swamp forest;
Biogeograhpical
provinces: A – Cool Temperate North-West Coast; B – Cool Temperate South-West
Coast; C – Warm Temperate South Coast; D – Subtropical East Coast;
E – Inland freshwaters
Taxon Common name Habitat Biogeographical
province
Endemic
GRAPSIDAE
Varuna litterata Estuarine Swimming
Crab
A C, D
POTAMONAUTIDAE
Potamonautes brincki Brinck’s Crab B E X
Potamonautes denatus Toothed Crab A E X
Potamonautes depressus
depressus
Flattened River Crab A, B E X
Potamonautes granularis Granular River Crab A E X
Potamonautes parvispina Small-spined Crab B E X
Potamonautes perlatus Cape River Crab A, B E
Potamonautes sidneyi Natal River Crab A E
Potamonautes obsesus
calcaratus
- A E
Potamonautes unispinus Single-toothed River
Crab
A E
Potamonautes warreni Warren’s River Crab A E X
Potamonautes sp. A Bright River Crab B E X
Potamonautes sp. B Swamp Forest Crab C E X
(Stewart 1999)
Appendix 10: South African Dragonflies (Odonata)
Habitat: 1 – Small, clear streams with quiet pools 2 – Swift rivers; 3 – Sluggish
rivers with still reaches; 4 – Wallows; 5 – Artificial ponds and small farm dams; 6
Semi-permanent freshwater pools or pans; 7 – Permanent freshwater pools,
pans, lakes, vleis or marshes.
Status: EW – Extinct in the wild; CR – Critically endangered; EN – Endangered;
VU – Vulnerable ; nt – Near threatened; lc – Least concern; DD – Data deficient;
NE – Not evaluated
Table 10a: Zygoptera, Synlestidae, Lestidae and Protoneuridae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
ZYGOPTERA Damselflies
SYNLESTIDAE Sylphs
Chlorolestes apricans Basking Sylph 1-3 EN X
Chlorolestes conspicuous Conspicuous Sylph 1-2 Not threatened X
Chlorolestes draconica Drakensburg Sylph 1 Lc X
Chlorolestes elegans Elegant Sylph 1 Becoming
threatened
X
Chlorolestes fasciata Mountain Sylph 1 Not threatened X
Chlorolestes tessellata Forest Sylph 1 Not threatened X
Chlorolestes umbrata Shade Sylph 1-3 Not threatened X
Ecchlorolestes nylephtha Queen Sylph 1 Nt
Ecchlorolestes peringueyi Marbled Rock Sylph 1 VU X
LESTIDAE Emerald Damsels
Lestes dissimulans Cryptic Emerald Damsel 3-7 Not seen in SA
for 20yrs
Lestes icterica Icteric Emerald Damsel 3-7 Not threatened
Lestes pallida Pallid Emerald Damsel 5-6 Not threatened
Lestes plagiata Highland Emerald Damsel 3-7 Not threatened
Lestes tridens Spotted Emerald Damsel 4-7 Not threatened
Lestes uncifer Lesser Emerald Damsel 3 Not threatened
Lestes virgata Smoky Emerald Damsel 5-6 Not threatened
PROTONEURIDAE Pinflies
Elattoneura frenulata Cape Black Pinfly 2-3 Not threatened X
Elattoneura glauca Common Pinfly 3-7 Not threatened
Table 10b: Platycnemididae, Coenagrionidae, Caloptergidae and Chlorocyphidae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
PLATYCNEMIDIDAE
Allocnemis leucosticta Goldtail 1-2 Not threatened
Metacnemis angusta Ceres Brook Damsel 3,5,8,2,6 DD X
Metacnemis valida Kubusi Brook Damsel 1-2 Becoming
threatened
X
Mesocnemis singularis Savanna Brook Damsel 2 Not threatened
COENAGRIONIDAE Marsh damsels, sprites, blues and whisps
Ceriagrion glabrum Orange Marsh Damsel 3-7 Not threatened
Ceriagrion suave Pink Marsh Damsel 3-7 Not threatened
Pseudagrion acaciae Red Sprite 2-5 Not threatened
Pseudagrioon assegaii Spear Sprite 1 Not threatened
Pseudagrion caffrum Springwater Sprite 1 Not threatened X
Pseudagrion citricola Yellow-faced Sprite 3 Not threatened X
Pseuda grion coelestis Catshead Sprite 2 Not threatened
Pseudagrion commoniae Black Sprite 3-6 Not threatened
Pseudagrion draconis Cape Mountain Sprite 1 Not threatened X
Pseudagrion furcigerum Cape Striped Sprite 1 Not threatened X
Pseudagrion gamblesi Giant Sprite 1-2 Not threatened
Pseudagrion hageni Painted Sprite 3 Not threatened
Pseudagrion harmoni Hamon’s Sprite 3-5 Not threatened
Pseudagrion inconspicuum Inconspicuous Sprite 2 Not threatened
Pseudagrion inopinatum Scarce Sprite 2-3 Uncertain X
Pseudagrion kersteni Kersten’s Sprite 1-3 Not threatened
Pseudagrion makabusiense Makabusi Sprite 1-3 Not threatened
Pseudagrion newtoni Newton’s Sprite 3 Not threatened X
Pseudagrion salisburyense Salisbury’s Sprite 3-7 Not threatened
Pseudagrion sjostedi Savanna Sprite 3 Not threatened
Pseudagrion spernatum Powdered Mountain Sprite 1-2 Not threatened
Pseudagrion sublacteum River Sprite 2 Not threatened
Pseudagrion sudanicum Sudan Sprite 2 Not threatened
Pseudagrion umsingaziense Unsingazi Sprite 6-7 Some threat X
Pseudagrion vaalense Vaal Sprite 2-3 Not threatened X
Ischnura senegalensis Marsh Blue-tail 3-7 Not threatened
Enallagma elongatum Spiny Blue 3 Not threatened
Enallagma glaucum Common African Blue 5-7 Not threatened
Enallagma nigridorsum Black-tailed Blue 3-7 Not threatened
Enallagma polychromaticum Cape Painted Blue 1 DD X
Enallagma rotundipenne Scarce Blue 5-6? Uncertain X
Enallagma sapphirina Sapphire Blue 5-7 Not threatened X
Table 10b Continued
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
Enallagma sinuatum Mysterious Blue ? Uncertain
Enallagma subfurcatum Delicate Mountain Blue 6-7 Not threatened
Agriocnemis exilis Scarce Whisp 3-7 Not threatened
Agriocnemis falcifera White-masked Whisp 5-7 Not threatened X
Agriocnemis gratiosa Zanzibar Whisp 5-7 Not threatened
Agriocnemis pinheyi Pinheyi’s Whisp 5-7 Not threatened
Agriocnemis ruberrima Red Whisp 7 Some threat X
CALOPTERYGIDAE Demoiselles
Phaon iridipennis Glistening Demoiselle 2 Not threatened
CHLOROCYPHIDAE Jewels
Chlorocypha consueta Red Jewel 1 Not threatened
north
Platycypha caligata Glade Jewel 1-3 Not threatened
Platycypha fitzsimonsi Fitzsimon’s Jewel 1-2 Not threatened x
Table 10c: Anisoptera, Gomphidae and Aeshnidae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
ANISOPTERA Dragonflies
GOMPHIDAE Clubtails
Ictinogomphus ferox Tiger Clubtail 6-7 Not threatened
Gomphidia quarrei Quarrei Clubtail 2-3 Uncertain
Lestinogomphus angustus Fairy Clubtail 2-3 Not threatened
Notogomphus praetorius Yellowjack 1 Not threatened
Neurogomphus ? vicinus Neighbourly Clubtail 2-3? Not threatened
Phyllogomphus brunneus Savanna Clubtail 3-7 Not threatened
Ceratogomphus cornutus Horned Stout -tip 2-3 Uncertain
Ceratogomphus hartmanni Hartmann’s Stout-tip 2-3 Not threatened
Ceratogomphus pictus Common African Clubtail 3-7 Not threatened
Ceratogomphus triceraticus Cape Clubtail 3-7? Some threat X
Paragomphus cognatus Brook Brown-tail 1-2 Not threatened
Paragomphus dicksoni Dickson’s Brown-tail 3,5,8,2,6 Some threat X
Paragomphus elipidius Woodland Brown-tail 1-2 Not threatened
Paragomphus genei Green Brown-tail 3-7 Not threatened
Table 10c Continued Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
Onychogomphus supinus Scarce Hooktail 3 Not threatened
AESNIDAE
Aeshna ellioti Elliot’s Hawker 1 Not threatened
Aeshna minuscula Friendly Pond Hawker 1 Not threatened X
Aeshna subpupillata South African Stream Hawker 2 Not threatened X
Anaciaeschna triangulifera Dusk Hawker 5-7? Not threatened
Hemianax ephippigera Vagrant Emperor 5-7 Not threatened
Anax imperator Emperor 3-7 Not threatened
Anax speratus Orange Emperor 1-5 Not threatened
Gynacantha manderica Mander Darner 1? Not threatened
Gynacantha villosa Hairy Darner 1? Not threatened
Gynacantha zuluensis Zulu Darner 1 ? Some threat X
Table 10d: Corduliidae and Libellulidae
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
CORDULIIDAE Syncordulias, hemicordulias and macromias
Syncordulia gracilis Yellow Syncordulia 1 Some threat X
Syncordulia venator Red Syncordulia 1 Some threat X
Hemicordulia asiatica Asian Hemicordulia 1 Not threatened
Macromia bifasciata Delightful Macromia 7 Not threatened
Macromia monoceros Scarce Macromia 7? Uncertain
Macromia picta Darting Macromia 7? Not threatened
LIBELLULIDAE Darters
Tetrathemis polleni Black-splashed Woodland
Flutterling
3-6 Not threatened
Notiothemis jonesi White-spot Primitive 5-7 Not threatened
Orthetrum abbotti Abbott’s Orthetrum 3-7 Not threatened
Orthetrum brachiale Brachiale Orthetrum 3-7 Not threatened
Orthetrum caffrum Mountain Marsh Orthetrum 2-7 Not threatened
Orthetrum chyrsostigma Savanna Orthetrum 3 Not threatened
Orthetrum guineense Guinea Orthetrum 3-5 Not threatened
Orthetrum hintzi Hintzi’s Orthetrum 3-6 Not threatened
Orthetrum icteromelan Pool Orthetrum 5-6 Not threatened
Orthetrum julia Forest Orthetrum 3-5 Not threatened
Orthetrum machadoi Machadoi’s Orthetrum 3-7 Uncertain
Orthetrum robustum Robust Orthetrum 4-7 Not threatened
Orthetrum rubens Cape Red Orthetrum 1 DD X
Orthetrum trinacria Marsh Orthetrum 3-6 Not threatened
Table 10d continued
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
Nesciothemis farinosa Ashen Black-tailed Skimmer 3-7 Not threatened
Palpopleura deceptor Deceptive Widow 3-7 Not threatened
Palpopleura jucunda Lesser Widow 4-7 Not threatened
Palpopleura lucia St Lucia Widow 5-7 Not threatened
Chalcostephia flavifrons Yellow-browned Shadow 5-7 Not threatened
Hemistigma albipuncta Pied Spot 6 Not threatened
Acisoma panorpoides Pintail 3-7 Not threatened
Diplacodes deminuta Tiny Percher 4-6 Not threatened
Diplacodes lefebvrii Black Percher 4-7 Not threatened
Crocothemis erythraea Scarlet Darter 4-7 Not threatened
Crocothemis sanguinolenta Stream Darter 2-5 Not threatened
Bradinopyga cornuta Flecked Wall 6 Not threatened
Brachythemis lacustris Red-winged Groundling 3 Not threatened
Brachythemis leucosticta Four-square Groundling 4-7 Not threatened
Sympetrum fonscolombii Red-veined Darter 4-7 Not threatened
Philonomon luminans Barbet 4-7 Not threatened
Trithemis aconita Monkshood Dropwing 3 Not threatened
Trithemis annulata Violet-red Dropwing 5-7 Not threatened
Trithemis arteriosa Red-veined Dropwing 3-7 Not threatened
Trithemis donaldsoni Donaldson’s Dropwing 1-3 Not threatened
Trithemis dorsalis Upland Spectrum-blue Dropwing 3-7 Not threatened
Trithemis furva Lowland spectrum-blue Dropwing 3-7 Not threatened
Trithemis hecate Fleeting Dropwing 7 Uncertain
Trithemis kirbyi Kirby’s Dropwing 1-5 Not threatened
Trithemis pluvialis Scarce Red Dropwing 2-3 Not threatened
Trithem is stictica Jaunty Dropwing 4-7 Not threatened
Trithemis werneri Werner’s Dropwing 2-3 Not threatened
Zygonyx natalensis Cascader 2 Not threatened
Zygonyx torridus Riffle Cascader 2 Not threatened
Zygonyx fuelleboni Greater Mock Emerald 2 Not threatened
Olpogastra lugubris Lesser Mock Emerald 3-6 Not threatened
Olpogastra semihyalina Phantom Glider 4-6 Not threatened
Zyxomma atlanticum Cryptic Zyxomma ? Not threatened
Parazyxomma flavicans Scarce Zyxomma 7? Uncertain
Table 10d Continue d
Taxon Common name Habitat Status Endemic
Tholymis tillarga Old World Twister 4-7 Uncertain
Pantala flavescens Globe Skimmer 4-6 Uncertain
Trapezostigma basilaris Wheeling Glider 4-7 Not threatened
Trapezostigma continentalis Continental Glider 4-7 Not threatened
Urothemis assignata Crimson Basker 5-7 Not threatened
Urothemis edwadsii Princes’s Blue Basker 5-7 Not threatened
Urothemis Luciana St Lucia Basker ? DD X
Aethriamanta rezia Rezia 5-7 Not threatened
Macrodiplax cora Cora’s Wanderer 7? Uncertain
(Samways 1999)
Appendix 16: Grass, rush and sedge species occurring in the upland areas of the eastern
seaboard and in the Highveld which indicate we tland conditions
Agrostis eriantha Fw CYPERACEAE (Sedges)
Agrostis lachnantha Ow Ascolepsis capensis Ow
Andropogon appendiculatus Fw Bulbostylis schoenoides Ow
Andropogon eucomis Fw Carex acutiformis Ow
Arundinella nepelensis Fw Carex austro-africana Ow
Brachiaria eruciformis Fw Carex cognata Ow
Diplachne fusca Ow Carex glomerabilis Ow
Echinochloa crus-galli Fw Cyperus articulatus Fw
Echinochloa jubata Fw Cyperus denudatus Ow
Reagrostis lappula Fw Cyperus difformis Ow
Eragrostis plana Fw(dry climate)
F (wet climate)
Cyperus dives Ow
Eragrostis planiculmis Ow Cyperus fastigiatus Ow
Festuca caprina Fw Cyperus latifolius Ow
Fingerhuthia sesleriiformis Ow Cyperus longus Fw?
Helictotrichon turgidulum Fw Cyperus marginatus Fw
Hemarthria altissim a Fw Cyperus pulcher Ow
Imperata cylindrical W(dry climate)
F(wet climate)
Cyperus sexangularis Fw
Ischaemum fasciculatum Ow Cyperus sphaerospermus Ow
Koeleria capensis Fw Eleocharis acutangular Ow
Leersia hexandra Ow Eleocharis dregeana Ow
Merxmuellera macowanii Fw Eleocharis limosa Ow
Miscanthus capensis Fw Imbristylis complanata Fw
Miscanthus junceus Ow Fuirena pubescens Ow
Panicum coloratum Fw Isolepis costata Ow
Panicum hymeniochilum Ow Isolepis fluitans Ow
Panicum repens Ow Isolepis prolifera Ow
Panicum schinzii Fw Kyllinga erecta Fw
Paspalum dilatatum Fw Kyllinga melanosperma Ow
Paspalum distichum Ow Kyllinga pauciflora Ow
Paspalum scrobiculatum Fw Mariscus congestus Fw
Paspalum urvillei Fw Mariscus solidus Ow
Pennisetum macrourum Ow Pycreus cooperi Ow
Pennisetum natalense Ow Pycreus macranthus Ow
Pennisetum sphacelatum Ow Pycreus mundii Ow
Pennisetum thunbergii Ow Pycreus nitidus Ow
Pennisetum unisetum Fw Pycreus sp1 Ow
Appendix 16 Continued: Grass, rush and sedge species . Phalaris arundinacea Ow Pycreus uniloides Ow
Phragmites australis Ow Rynchospora brownii Ow
Phragmites mauritianus Fw Schoenoplectus brachyceras Ow
Setaria sphacelata Fw Schoenoplectus decipiens Ow
Stiburus alopecuroides Fw Schoenoplectus paludicola Ow
JUNCAEAE (Rushes) Scirpus burkei Fw
Juncus dregeanus W Scirpus ficinoides Fw
Juncus effuses W Scleria dietelenii Ow
Juncus exsertus/oxycarpus W Scleria dregeana Ow
Juncus krausii W Scleria welwitschii Ow
Juncus lomatophyllus W Scleria woodii Ow
Juncus punctorius W TYPHACEAE (Bulrushes)
Juncus juncos tenuis W Typha capensis W
(Kotze & Marneweck 1999)
Appendix 17: List of Wetland Experts
A. Batchelor, CSIR, Watertek (012) 841 2911
A. Duthie, Oryx Environmental, (011) 403 2195
B.R. Allanson, Allanson Associates, PO Box 1186, Knysna 6579 (0445) 826107
C. Archer, National Botanical Institute (012) 804 3200
D. Kotze, Range and Forage Resources, University of Natal [email protected]
D. Lindley, Rennies Wetland Project (011) 486 3369
D. Marais, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (012) 310 3673
F. Myburgh, Water Research Commission (012) 330 0340
G. Cowan, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (012) 332 6287
K.H. Rogers, Centre for Water in the Environment, University of the Witwatersrand
M. Silberbauer, Institute for Water Quality Studies (012) 808 0374
N.C. Badenhorst, Institute for soil, climate and water (012) 323 1157
P.J. Ashton, CSIR (012) 841 3293
R.M. Cowling, Botanical Society of South Africa (021) 650 2440
S. Kieswetter, Avian Demography Unit (021) 650 2423
