A. Jeffers Introduccion Al Antiguo Testamento Ingles

7/30/2019 A. Jeffers Introduccion Al Antiguo Testamento Ingles

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Introduction to the

Old Testament

Divinity/Theology

A. Jeffers

2009 002D135


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This guide was prepared for the University of London External System by:A. Jeffers, Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Department of Theology, Heythrop College,

University of London. [email protected]

Additional contributions by:

K. Southwood, MSt, BA, DPhil candidate, Wolfson College, Oxford.

This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that due

to pressure of work the author is unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or

arising from, the guide. If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or

unfavourable, please use the form at the back of this guide.

Published by: University of London Press

University of London 2009

Printed by: Central Printing Service, University of London, England

The External System

Publications Ofce

University of London

Stewart House

32 Russell Square

London WC1B 5DN

United Kingdom

Website: www.londonexternal.ac.uk


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Contents

Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................1

Chapter 1: Introduction .....................................................................................................3

Aims .................................................................................................................................3

Objectives .........................................................................................................................3

Why study the Old Testament? ........................................................................................3

The subject guide .............................................................................................................4

How to use the subject guide ...........................................................................................4

The examination ..............................................................................................................5

Reading ............................................................................................................................5

Glossary of abbreviations ..............................................................................................10

Chapter 2: Introducing the Hebrew scriptures ..............................................................11Essential reading ............................................................................................................11

Introduction ....................................................................................................................11

Geographical perspectives .............................................................................................11

Historical perspectives ...................................................................................................12

Introduction ....................................................................................................................13

The Assyrian threat........................................................................................................13

The rise of Babylon ........................................................................................................13

Cyrus and the Persian Empire .......................................................................................14

The contribution of archaeology ....................................................................................15

Diversity of the literary material ...................................................................................16

Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................16

Sample examination question ........................................................................................16

Chapter 3: Torah ................................................................................................................17

Essential reading ............................................................................................................17

Further reading ..............................................................................................................17

Introduction ....................................................................................................................17

Denition .......................................................................................................................18

How we read Torah ........................................................................................................18


Gen. 111: cosmology and identity ................................................................................20

Asking the right questions .............................................................................................21

Gen. 1: a cosmology .......................................................................................................22

Gen. 23: in the garden ..................................................................................................23

Gen. 45: Creation perverted .........................................................................................25

Gen. 69: the ood story ...............................................................................................25

Gen. 1012: back to the real world ................................................................................26


Ex. 115: a chosen people ..............................................................................................27

Ex. 17: God remembers ................................................................................................29

Ex. 711: the plagues ......................................................................................................31

Ex. 12: the Passover .......................................................................................................32

Ex. 1315: creation of a chosen people ..........................................................................33


Deuteronomy: a charter for Gods people ......................................................................34The laws of Deuteronomy: a meaningful organisation .................................................37

Contents

i
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D135 Introduction to the Old Testament

ii

Deut. 1216:17: Man face to God, the divine sphere .....................................................38

Deut. 16:1818:22: political and judicial power; a constitution for Israel .....................39

Deut. 1925: mankind in the life of the community; the human sphere .......................39

Deut. 26: the key ............................................................................................................40

Deut. 5:621: the decalogue ...........................................................................................41


Sample examination questions ......................................................................................42

Chapter 4: The deuteronomistic history and 1 and 2 Kings .........................................43


Further reading ..............................................................................................................43

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 44

Deuteronomistic history: the theory ............................................................................. 44

Martin Noths thesis .......................................................................................................45

The ideology of the deuteronomistic work ....................................................................46

Structural organisation of the whole deuteronomistic history ......................................46

Assessment of Noths thesis ...........................................................................................47

Introduction to 1 and 2 Kings ........................................................................................47



Chapter 5: Prophets in pre-exilic times ..........................................................................51


Further reading ..............................................................................................................51

Introduction: eighth-century prophecy ..........................................................................52

Amos: Let justice roll down like water .......................................................................53

Amos 1:32:16: oracles against the foreign nations .......................................................55



Hosea: Come let us return to the Lord ........................................................................56

Hosea 13: marriage as symbol .....................................................................................58Hosea 414: attack upon the cult ...................................................................................59

Hoseas message .............................................................................................................60



Chapter 6: Prophets in exile .............................................................................................63


Further reading ..............................................................................................................63

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 64

Ezekiel: A new heart I will give you ........................................................................65

Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 4055): Behold, new things I now declare! ...............................70

Learning outcomes .......................................................................................................75Sample examination question ........................................................................................75

Chapter 7: The return: Haggai and Zechariah ..............................................................77


Further reading ..............................................................................................................77

Introduction: the historical background ........................................................................78

Haggai: Temple propaganda (1) .....................................................................................79

Zechariah 18: Temple propaganda (2) .........................................................................82



Appendix 1: Sample examination paper .........................................................................87

Appendix 2: Bibliography .................................................................................................89
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Acknowledgements

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AcknowledgementsChapter 2 and part of Chapter 4 have been taken from J. MulrooneysIntroduction to

Old Testament Study (1999), slightly revised, with kind permission of the author.

Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible (NRSV),

copyright 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the

churches of Christ in the USA, and are used by permission. All rights reserved.


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Notes


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Chapter 1: Introduction

3

Chapter 1

Introduction

AimsYou should become familiar with, and be able to discuss and analyse, selected texts of

the following:

the Pentateuch (Gen. 111; Exodus 115; Deuteronomy)

the so-called deuteronomistic history (I and 2 Kings)

the so-called writing prophets (Amos, Hosea, Ezekiel, Deutero-Isaiah, Haggai andZechariah 18).

ObjectivesAfter studying this subject, you should be able to:

discuss the selected texts from geographical, historical and literary perspectives

describe the texts diverse genres

competently handle the main issues arising out of the selected texts.

Note: the texts are not set for strictly exegetical purposes but serve as a basis for

introducing the main elements of the Old Testament (OT).

Why study the Old Testament?What is the place of the Old Testament in the study of Christian theology? You may feel that

this is obvious and, depending on your religious afliations, your answer may be directed

in a particular fashion. You may be reecting on these texts as, in some sense, the word of

God. Or you may simply accept them as part of the Bible that the Christian churches have

accepted as their own particular foundational book. Or you may want to look at the OT as

an ancient work of literature, its stories worthy of examination in their own right.

You may like to reect on the appropriateness of the term Old Testament in our subject

title. Does it allow for the study of the texts in their own right? Or do they fall under

the shadow of the New Testament (NT), it being understood as the key to reading and

interpreting the Old? Are we using Old in the sense of rst or prior? Or is there a

suspicion of obsolete, nished? Scholars in an academic context tend to use the term

Hebrew Bible as being more neutral.

Note that when discussing dates in this guide, bce (Before the common era) will be

used as the more neutral designation. This avoids the Christian connotations implied in

the designations bc and ad (Before Christ and Anno Domini) which are inappropriate

in an academic context.

The Old Testament as part of an academic degree programme

However you feel about the above reections, you are embarking on an academic

degree programme. In such a context, the Bible is studied in a similar way to other texts

from the ancient world. Scholars discuss when the texts were written and what their

original context consisted of. They are interested, too, in such questions as the social

setting of the texts authors and their audience, and they will examine the reasons why a

particular text has been written. They do all this so they can be clearer about its possible

meanings. The Bible is not exempt from such questions, as they will contribute to our

understanding of the texts.


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Most importantly, scholars will be concerned with the historicity of a text. This means

that they will take seriously the fact that it was the product of a particular people, setting

and time. The more we learn about them, the more informed will be our judgements and

the more competent readers we will become.

The subject guideYou will be required to study the literature of the Hebrew Bible in context, and the

subject guide offers material that will help you familiarise yourself with that context.

Think about your own context. It will consist of a variety of elements:

the nature of the physical environment that you inhabit, for example its physicalgeography, its ecology (the geographical perspectives)

the society with which you identify and which has formed you (the sociologicalstudy)

the history and the traditions that inuence how you live and how you behave (thehistorical perspectives).

Likewise, in respect of ancient Israel, all of these elements will form part of our study of

the OT.

Note that I have used the word perspectives (e.g. historical and geographical

perspectives): each of the elements mentioned could constitute a detailed scholarly

study on its own. Do not be dismayed by the vistas of hard work that seem to be

opening up a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of history and geography is

not essential at this stage. You are required, however, to be sufciently familiar, in a

general fashion, with the geography and history of Israel so that you can follow and read

critically the discussions of the material: we will be looking at these geographical and

historical perspectives in Chapter 2.

Prescribed texts

The core of the subject guide will look at some specic texts taken from a wide varietyof material, which I have divided into the following chapters:

1. In Chapter 3 you will study Gen. 111; Exodus 115; and Deuteronomy.

2. Chapter 4 will look at the questions of history writing in ancient Israel, focusing on

1 and 2 Kings (more specically, 2 Kings 17; 2425).

The remainder of the chapters will look at the writing prophets, so-called because books

have been transmitted in their individual names:

3. Chapter 5 deals with eighth-century prophets. You must choose to focus on either

Amos or Hosea.

4. Chapter 6 focuses on prophets living during the exile of the Israelites in Babylon.

Again, you must choose to focus on either Ezekiel or Deutero-Isaiah.

5. In Chapter 7 we will look at prophetic responses ofeither Haggai or Zechariah after

the return of the people to their land.

How to use the subject guideEach chapter begins with a complete reading list for that chapter, which is divided into

Essential and Further reading. The Essential reading sets out what you need to read as a

minimum in order to cover the syllabus. The Further reading list includes a number of

books and articles that will enhance your knowledge and understanding of the subject.

We strongly recommend that you read at least some of the items in the Further

reading lists.


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In each chapter you will come across short exercises called Activities: these allow you

to test your progress and to reect on what you have just read. You will make most

progress if you attempt each of these Activities as you come across them in the text. You

should refer back to the reading list, and either write down your answers or discuss them

with your fellow students.

You will also nd lists of Learning outcomes, which will come either at the end of animportant section within a chapter or at the end of the chapter itself. These Learning

outcomes tell you what you should have learned from that chapter and the relevant

reading. You should pay close attention to the Learning outcomes and use them to check

that you have fully understood the topics covered.

There are Sample examination questions at the end of all the chapters. These are usually

taken from previous examinations in this subject. You should try planning and writing

answers to these questions as part of your study and revision programme.

We recommend that you spend around 300 hours in total in studying this subject. You can

choose to organise this time in any way that suits you depending on, for example, whether

you work full-time or how many other subjects you are studying at the same time.

The examinationImportant: the information and advice given in the following section are based on the

examination structure used at the time this guide was written. However, the University

can alter the format, style or requirements of an examination paper without notice.

Because of this, we strongly advise you to check the instructions on the paper you

actually sit.

The course will be assessed by a three-hour written examination, during which you

will be required to write four essays from a choice of eight to ten questions.

Examination technique

Obviously the usual examination tips apply. Read through the topics and select those

about which you feel most condent about. Spend a few minutes reecting on eachquestion before you begin writing. Note that you are not being asked to write down

everything you know about a particular topic. Each question has been framed to focus

on some particular area. Decide which aspect of the topic you think the question is

addressing, and list the elements that would be required to develop a good argument.

In preparing for the examination, do not prepare answers to particular questions,

although practice in writing answers to questions from past papers is always a useful

exercise. Rather, prepare topics or area of study (e.g. the ood in Gen. 69; or the

celebration of Passover in Ex. 12); then, in the examination situation, you will be able to

construct an argument using whatever material is relevant to the question asked.

ReadingThis reading list of basic introductions will provide you with the main tools for tackling

the overall syllabus. However, there are more specic suggestions for reading listed in

each chapter of the subject guide.

Collins, J.J.Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. (With CD-Rom.) (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress

Press, 2004) [ISBN 0800629914].

Harrison, R.KIntroduction to the Old Testament, including a complete review of Old

Testament studies and a special supplement on the Apocrypha. (Peabody, MA.:

WB Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004) [ISBN 1565633997].

Rendtorff, R. The canonical Hebrew Bible: a theology of the Old Testament. (Leiden: Deo

Publishing, 2005) [ISBN 15662101].

Rogerson, J.W. and J.M. Lieu The Oxford handbook of biblical studies. (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2006) [ISBN 0199237778].


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Other accessible introductions include:

Dell, K.J. Opening the Old Testament. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008) [ISBN

9781405125017].

Coggins, R.J.Introducing the Old Testament. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990)

Oxford Bible Series [ISBN 0192132547]. (Coggins provides a useful guide to the main

methodological issues concerned with Old Testament scholarship.)

Coogan, M.D. The Old Testament: a historical and literary introduction to the Hebrew

Scriptures. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) [ISBN 0195139119].

Dick, M.B.Reading the Old Testament: an interactive introduction. (Peabody, MA:

Hendrickson, 2008) [ISBN 9781565639539] (This also has quite a helpful CD-Rom).

Dillard, R.B. and T. Longman IIIAn Introduction to the Old Testament. (Leicester: Apollos,

1995) [ISBN 0851106536]. (This is strongly conservative.)

Soggin, J.A.Introduction to the Old Testament. (London: SCM Press, 1989) third edition

[ISBN 033400702X]. (The earlier editions of Soggins work are still of value, but one

the bibliographies of the earlier editions are now somewhat outdated. Soggin does not

deal systematically with Genesis 111 and Exodus 115.)

Soggin, J.A.An introduction to the History of Israel and Judah. (London: SCM Press, 1993)

[ISBN 0334025346]. (Outlines main historical developments of the period c.750c.520

BCE. Beware of the many histories of Israel, a trend initiated by John Brights classic,

but conservativeHistory of Israelrst published in 1946.)

Collections of ancient texts:

Beckman, G. and H.A. Hoffner, Jr.Hittite diplomatic texts. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999)

[ISBN 0788501542].

Charlesworth, J. M. The Old Testament pseudepigrapha. (London: Dart, Longman & Todd,

1983) [ISBN 0385096305 (volume 1); 0385188137 (volume 2)].

Clifford, R, J. Creation accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible.(Washington DC:

Catholic Biblical Association, 1994) [ISBN 0915170256].

Dalley, S.Myths from Mesopotamia. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989) [ISBN

0192817892].George, A. (Editor) The Epic of Gilgamesh.(New York: Penguin, 2003)

[ISBN 0140449191].

Hallo, W.W. and K.L. YoungerThe context of scripture. (Leiden: Brill, 2000) [ISBN

9789004135677 (volume 1); 9789004135685 (volume 2); 9789004135693 (volume 3)

(This replaced PritchardsAncient Near Eastern texts (and Pictures) 1950 and offers

more detailed notes.)

Roth, M.T., H.A. Hoffner Jr. and P. MichalowskiLaw collections from Mesopotamia and

Asia Minor. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995) [ISBN 0788501267].

Dictionaries (many are multi-volume works and therefore have numerous authors and

editors):

Arnold, B.T. et al.Dictionary of the Old Testament. (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005)[ISBN 1844740943].

Freedman, D.N. et al. The Anchor Bible dictionary. (New York, Doubleday, 1992.) [ISBN

0385193513 (volume 1); 0385193602 (volume 2); 0385193610 (volume 3); 0385193629

(volume 4); 0385193637 (volume 5); 038526190X (volume 6)].

Sakenfeld, K.D. et al. The new interpreters dictionary of the Bible. (Nashville, TN:

Abingdon Press, 2006) [ISBN 9780687054275 (volume 1); 9780687333554 (volume 2);

9780687333653 (volume 3); 9780687333752 (volume 4)].
http://catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/search~S24/i0788501267+%28pbk.+%3A+alk.+paper%29/i0788501267pbkalkpaper/-3,-1,0,B/browsehttp://catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/search~S24/i1844740943+%28hbk.%29/i1844740943hbk/-3,-1,0,B/browsehttp://catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/search~S24/i0385193513+%28v.+1%29+%3A/i0385193513v1/-3,-1,0,B/browsehttp://catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/search~S24/i0385193513+%28v.+1%29+%3A/i0385193513v1/-3,-1,0,B/browsehttp://catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/search~S24/i1844740943+%28hbk.%29/i1844740943hbk/-3,-1,0,B/browsehttp://catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/search~S24/i0788501267+%28pbk.+%3A+alk.+paper%29/i0788501267pbkalkpaper/-3,-1,0,B/browse


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Commentaries

I suggest you purchase one of the following (the books are available to order online,

for example through Amazon or by going directly to the publishers websites, but most

good bookshops such as Waterstones, Blackwells, or Borders will probably stock them):

Barton, J. and J. Muddiman (eds) The Oxford Bible commentary. (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2001) [ISBN 0198755007]. (Although this massive commentary is expensive, itis an excellent well-referenced starting point. The newer paperback version, published in

2007 is slightly cheaper.)

Dunn, J.G. and Rogerson, J.Eerdmans commentary on the Bible. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,

2003) [ISBN 0802837115].

Specic commentaries (for prescribed texts)

Below are a range of some suggested commentaries. You may wish to consult such

commentaries in the process of essay writing. The New Anchor Bible Series, New

International Critical Commentary and New Word Biblical Commentaries are excellent

starting points since they provide detailed notes on language issues. The JSOT series of

commentaries are often worthy of attention, although some are now rather dated. The

recent Hermeneia Series may be a better option (if you can nd it).Genesis 111

Arnold, B.T. Genesis. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) [ISBN 052100067X].

Hamilton, V.P. The book of Genesis. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991) [ISBN 0802823092]

Chapters 117.

Rogerson, J.W. Genesis 111. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1991) [ISBN 1850752745].

Speiser, E.A. Genesis. (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008) [ISBN

0300140258].

Wenham, G.J. Genesis 115. (Milton Keynes: Word, 1987) [ISBN 0850094488].

Westermann, C. Genesis 111: a commentary. (London: SPCK, 1984) [ISBN 0281040338].

ExodusDurham, J.I.Exodus. (Waco: Word Books Publisher, 1987) [ISBN 0849902029].

Johnstone, W.Exodus. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1991) [ISBN 1850752397].

Meyers, C.Exodus. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) [ISBN 0521002915].

Propp, W.H.C.Exodus 118. (New York: Doubleday, 1999) [ISBN 0385148046 (volume 1)

0385246935 (volume 2)].

Deuteronomy

Christensen, D.L.Deuteronomy 121:9. (Dallas: Word Books Publisher, 1991) [ISBN

0849902053].

Christensen, D.L.Deuteronomy 21:1034:12. (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publ., 2002)

[ISBN 0849910323].

Clements, R.E.Deuteronomy. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1989) [ISBN 1850752141].

McConville, J.G.Deuteronomy. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002)

[ISBN 0851117791].

Tigay, J.H.Deuteronomy . (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1996)

[ISBN 0827603304].

Weinfeld, M.Deuteronomy 111. (New York: Doubleday, 1991) [ISBN 0385175930].

Wright, C.J.H.Deuteronomy. (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1996) [ISBN 0853647259].


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1 and 2 Kings

Cogan, M.I Kings. (New York: Doubleday, 2001) [ISBN 0385029926].

Cogan, M.II Kings. (New York: Doubleday, 1988) [ISBN 038502388X].

DeVries, S.J. 1 Kings. (Waco: Word Books Publisher, 1985) [ISBN 0849902118].

Hobbs, T. R, 2 Kings. (Waco: Word Books Publisher, 1985) [ISBN 0849902126].

Provan, I.W. 1 and 2 Kings. (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1999) [ISBN 0849902126].Provan, I.W. 1 and 2 Kings. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1997) [ISBN

1850758026].

Isaiah

Blenkinsopp. J,Isaiah 5666. (New York: Doubleday, 2003) [ISBN 0385501749].

Blenkinsopp, J.Isaiah 4055. (New York: Doubleday, 2002) [ISBN 0385497172].

Blenkinsopp, J.Isaiah 139. (New York: Doubleday, 2000) [ISBN 0385497164].

Watts, J.D.W.Isaiah 3466. (Waco: Word Books Publisher, 1987) [ISBN 084990224X].

Watts, J.D.W.Isaiah 133. (Waco: Word Books Publisher, 1985) [ISBN 0849902231].

Williamson, H.G.M.Acritical and exegetical commentary on Isaiah 127. (London; New

York: T & T Clark, 2006) [ISBN 0567044513].

Williamson, H.G.M. The book called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiahs role in composition and

redaction. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005) [ISBN 0199281076].

Whybray R.N. The second Isaiah. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1983) [ISBN:

0905774590].

Ezekiel

Allen, L.C.Ezekiel 2048. (Dallas: Word Books Publisher, 1990) [ISBN 0849902282].

Block, D.I. The book of Ezekiel. Chapters 2548, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998)

[ISBN 0802825344 (volume 1); 0802825362 (volume 2)].

Brownlee, W.H.Ezekiel 119. (Waco: Word Books Publisher, 1986) [ISBN 0849902274].

Greenberg, M.Ezekiel 2137.(New York: Doubleday, 1997) [ISBN 0385182007].

Greenberg, M.Ezekiel 120. (New York: Doubleday, 1983) [ISBN 0385009542].Joyce, P.M.Ezekiel: a commentary.(London: T&T Clark, 2009) [ISBN 056702685X].

Joyce, P.M.Divine initiative and human response in Ezekiel. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1989)

[ISBN 1850750544].

McKeating, H.Ezekiel. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1993) [ISBN 1850754284].

Milgrom, J.Ezekiel 3848.(New York: Doubleday) forthcoming.

Amos

Andersen, F.I. and Freedman, D.N.Amos. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008)

[ISBN 0300140703].

Auld, G.Amos. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1986) [ISBN 185075005X].

Jrg, J. and D.W. Stott The book of Amos.(Louisville, KY; Westminster: John Knox Press,

1998) [ISBN 0800660234].

Paul, S.M,Amos. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991) [ISBN 0800660234].

Stuart, D.Hosea-Jonah. (Waco, Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1987) [ISBN 0849902355].

Hosea

Andersen, F.I. and Freedman D.N.Hosea. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004)

[ISBN 0300139691].

Ben Zvi, E.Hosea:the forms of the Old Testament literature. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,

2005) [ISBN 080280795X].

Davies, G.I.Hosea. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1993) [ISBN 1850753938].

Macintosh, A.A.A critical and exegetical commentary on Hosea. (Edinburgh: T & T Clark,

1997) [ISBN 0567085457].


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9

Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi

Coggins, R.J.Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1987) [ISBN 1850750254].

Glazier-McDonald, B.Malachi. The divine messenger. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987)

[ISBN 1555400930].

Hill, A.E.Malachi. (London: Yale University Press, 2008) [ISBN 0300139772].

Meyers, C.L. and E.M. MeyersZechariah 914. (New York: Doubleday, 1993) [ISBN

0385144830].

Meyers, C.L. and E.M. MeyersHaggai, Zechariah 18. (Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1988)

[ISBN 0385144822].

Petersen, D.L.Zechariah 914 and Malachi. (London: SCM Press, 1995) [ISBN 033402594X].

Smith, R.L.Micah-Malachi. (Waco: Word Books Publisher, 1984) [ISBN 0849902312].

Wolff, H.W.Haggai. (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publ. House, 1988) [ISBN 0806623667].

Journals

You will also nd it well worth your while looking up the following (many of which

may be found through JSTOR orAcademic Search Complete:

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

Vetus Testamentum

Zeitschrift fr die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

Journal of Hebrew Scriptures

Journal of Religion

Journal of Theological Studies

Journal of Biblical Literature and Biblical Interpretation. (Contains treatment of both OT

and NT subjects.)

Websites

www.ntgateway.com/

www.otgateway.com/

http://www.biblegateway.com/

Further reading

Barton. J.Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study. (London: Darton, Longman

& Todd 1996) [ISBN 0232515263],

Barton, J. What is the Bible? (London: SPCK, 1991) [ISBN 0281051143].

Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. (London: SCM Press, 1992) [ISBN 0334022533 (pbk)].

Davies, P.R. (ed.) The prophets. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1996) [ISBN

1850757887].

Eaton, J.H.Mysterious messengers: a course on Hebrew prophecy from Amos onwards.

(London: SCM Press, 1997) [ISBN 0334027063]. (Eaton provides a useful account of

the development of prophetism).

Exum, J.C. The historical books. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1997) [ISBN1850757860].

Fewel, D.N. and D.M. Gunn Gender, power and promise: the subject of the Bibles rst story.

(Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1993) [ISBN 0687140420].

Koch, K. The prophets. (London: SCM Press, 1982; 1983) two volumes [ISBN 0334013216

(volume 1); 0334013224 (volume 2)].

Rogerson, J.W. (ed.) The Pentateuch. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1996) [ISBN

1850757852].

Rogerson, J.W. and Philip R. Davies The Old Testament world. (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1989) [ISBN 0521340063].

Sawyer, J.F.A.Prophecy and the biblical prophets. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993)

[ISBN 0198262094].
http://www.ntgateway.com/http://www.otgateway.com/http://www.biblegateway.com/http://www.biblegateway.com/http://www.otgateway.com/http://www.ntgateway.com/


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Glossary of abbreviationsGen. Genesis

Ex. Exodus

Lev. Leviticus

Num. Numbers

Deut. Deuteronomy

Josh. Joshua

Judg. Judges

1 Sam. 1 Samuel

2 Sam. 2 Samuel

1 Chr. 1 Chronicles

2 Chr. 2 Chronicles

Neh. Nehemiah

Isa. Isaiah

Jer. Jeremiah

Ezek. Ezekiel

Dan. Daniel

Hos. Hosea

Am. Amos

Hag. Haggai

Zech. Zechariah

BCE Before the Common Era

NT New Testament

OT Old Testament


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Chapter 2: Introducing the Hebrew scriptures

11

Chapter 2

Introducing the Hebrew scriptures

Essential readingCollins, J.J.Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2004)

pp.146. (This is the best introduction for this subject.)

The other introductions approaches are centred on canon (Rendtorff), development of

biblical studies, archaeology and the Ancient Near Eastern background (Harrison) or

textual criticism (Soggin).

Harrison, R.KIntroduction to the Old Testament. Parts 2, 3 and 5.

Rendtorff, R. The canonical Hebrew Bible. pp.110Soggin, J.A.Introduction to the Old Testament. Chapter 1.

IntroductionIn your initial reading of the biblical texts, you will be focusing on a particular period

of Israels history and its establishment in a particular land. Unless you have a certain

familiarity with the geography and history of that land, you will probably be confused

and unable to exercise critical judgement on what you are reading. It is essential that we

look at the setting of the Hebrew Bible in the geography, history and socio-economic

world of the Ancient Near East.

Geographical perspectivesEssential readingFor your reading in this section, select one of the following:

Aharoni, Y. The land of the Bible: a historical geography. (London: Burns and Oates, 1979).

Baly, D. The geography of the Bible. (Guildford: Lutterworth Press, 1974).

Galil, G. and M. Weineld (eds) Studies in historical geography and biblical historiography.

Presented to Zecheria Kallai. (Leiden; Boston; Cologne: Brill, 2000) [ISBN 9004116087].

Gottwald, N. The Hebrew Bible: a socio-literary introduction. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,

1985) Chapter 3.

Kallai, Z.Biblical historiography and historical geography. (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1998).

Negenman, T. and H.H. Rowley New atlas of the Bible. (London: Collins, 1969).

Rogerson, J. and P. Davies The Old Testament world. (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1989).

Use one of the atlases listed above to locate the world of the Ancient Near East. It was

narrow, bounded by the Mediterranean on one side and the Trans-Jordanian Uplands and

the desert on the other. All trade routes, from one end of the Fertile Crescent to the other

(i.e. from Egypt to the Mesopotamian region), had to pass through this narrow corridor.

Find out the answers to these questions:

How far were the political and economic fortunes of any group of people living inthis area dictated by the power politics of the whole region? How was the united

kingdom under David able to emerge, even for a short period?

Internal factors of geography and ecology are also important. You will nd therelevant information on geology, ecology, etc. in the books cited.


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Now list the factors that emphasised the divisive nature of this region. It wouldnever be easily unied. How far do we mask this factor by referring to it as the land

of Canaan? There was no political unity in the land prior to the emergence of Israel.

Activities

1. Draw your own map of Israel at the time of the exile (for this, you will again need to

refer to one of the Bible atlases).

2. Look at the geographical features. Where was Israel in relation to the other

international powers Egypt and Babylon of the time? Consider its trade routes.

How were they oriented?

3. What do you think were the implications of this orientation for Israel in ancient times

(remember, the roads were used for military purposes as well as for trade)?

Historical perspectivesEssential reading

Several histories of Israel are available. I would suggest:

Soggin, J.A.An introduction to the history of Israel and Judah. (London: SCM Press,1993). (Chapters 1113, pp.23385, are particularly relevant, though the discussion of

methodology in Chapter 3 should also receive attention. It is very desirable for students

to have a history of the period available for regular reference. There are several other

histories available, but it is probably the most balanced account currently available.)

You may also wish to consult the relevant chapters in:

Coogan, M.D. The Oxford history of the biblical world. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2001) Chapters 16.

Isserlin, B.S.J. The Israelites. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001).

Van Seters, J.In search of history. (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 1983). (Van

Seters ideas are much discussed, but his books are probably less often read. This is an

important study of the nature of history writing in the ancient world which deserves the

attention of serious students reecting on the nature of their source material.)

The rest of the reading will help to build up an all rounded understanding of the

background:

Recommended background reading:

Ahlstrom, G.W. Who were the Israelites? (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1986).

Coote, R.B.Early Israel: a new horizon. (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1990).

Davies, P.In search of Ancient Israel. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1999).

Frick, F.S. The formation of the state in Ancient Israel. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1985).

Garbini, G.History and ideology in Ancient Israel. (London: SCM Press, 1988).

Gottwald, N.K. The tribes of Yahweh. (London: SCM Press, 1980).

Jagersma, H.A history of Israel in the Old Testament period. (London: SCM Press, 1982).

Lemche, N.P.Ancient Israel. (Shefeld: JSOT, 1988).

Mazar, A.Archaeology of the land of the Bible. (New York: Doubleday, 1990).

Rogerson, J. and P. Davies The Old Testament world. (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1989) Part 3.

Soggin, J.A.History of Israel: from the beginnings to the Bar Kochba revolt,AD 135.

(London: SCM Press, 1984).

Thompson, T.L.Early History of the Israelite people: from the written and archaeological

sources. (Leiden: Brill, 1992).

Tubb, D.N., R.L. Chapman with P.G. DorrellArchaeology and the Bible. (London: British

Museum Publications, 1990) Chapter 3.

Weippert, M. The settlement of the Israelite tribes in Palestine: a critical survey of recent

historical debate. (London: SCM Press, 1971).


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Whitelam, K.W. The invention of Ancient Israel: the silencing of Palestinian history.

(London: Routledge, 1996).

IntroductionA useful starting point to this part of the unit would be to read the short and up-to-date

accounts in the books listed in Section 1 above. Before I provide you with a time line ofthe history of ancient Israel, you should be aware that many scholars take a very sceptical

view of what may reliably be known of Israels history in the period that is conventionally

described as The Judges Period and The Early Monarchy. For the period you are

now studying, this radical scepticism, though not unknown, is not so common; virtually

all would agree that there were two closely-related kingdoms, Israel and Judah, in the

mid-eighth century BCE; that the Assyrians did indeed bring the independent existence

of the northern kingdom, Israel, to an end around 722 BCE; and that Judah was reduced

to subject status soon afterwards. Similarly, we know from extra-biblical sources of the

downfall of the Assyrians, the rise of the neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar

II, and the replacement of that power in turn by the Persians from Cyrus onward.

The overall historical framework of your period is, then, agreed by almost everyone.That does not mean that historical issues do not arise. They certainly do, and

characteristically they take one of two forms. Either they are concerned with the actual

understanding and interpretation of particular events; or they are concerned with the

interpretation of history offered by the Hebrew Bible.

We will begin by looking at those historical events which have caused dispute among

historians. It may be helpful to consider three in particular; one or other of these will

often form the subject of a question, though other topics may also of course be raised.

The Assyrian threatFirst, there is the issue of Hezekiahs reaction to the Assyrian threat against Jerusalem

in the period around 701 BCE. How are the differences between the Assyrian recordsand the biblical accounts best explained? How do we understand the discrepancies, real

or apparent, within the biblical record? (The theory once popular, of two campaigns of

Sennacherib against Judah, is now largely abandoned; but it is still necessary to propose

satisfactory answers to the questions which the theory aimed to resolve.)

Broadly speaking, it is possible to identify two approaches to this question. It is clear

that the biblical account, in its present form, pictures a great deliverance of Jerusalem

from the Assyrian threat (2 Kings 1819; Isaiah 3637). Some scholars regard that as a

basically historical account; they explain the absence of reference to such a disaster in

the Assyrian records as being due to the tendency of propagandists, ancient and modern,

not to mention defeats; and they may make reference to the passage in Herodotus

which speaks of mice chewing Assyrian bowstrings as a way of referring to some formof plague. Other scholars, however, are much more doubtful whether this degree of

historicity is plausible. They start from the fact, explicit in the Bible and implicit in the

Assyrian records, that Jerusalem was not captured. That fact, they argue, gave rise to

legends as to Jerusalems inviolability, legends which take their most extreme form in

the story of the death of 185,000 Assyrians.

The rise of BabylonSecondly, there are various historical issues which cause dispute in our understanding

of the last years of Judah. Is Josiahs reform reliably reported, and should we see it as

a declaration of political independence? Or has its importance been greatly exaggerated

by the (deuteronomistic) writers of 2 Kings, who wanted to stress the centrality and

antiquity of their reading of the peoples history and law? (The virtual lack of reference

to the reform in Jeremiah, and its complete absence from Ezekiel, are relevant here.)


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In the years following Josiah, how far are we able to reconstruct the course of events?

Was the real end of Judah and Jerusalem 597 BCE, with the reign of Zedekiah just an

epilogue, or is that a misleading understanding?

Cyrus and the Persian EmpireThirdly, historical questions arise with regard to the last part of the period: the fall of the

Babylonian Empire and the rise of Persia. The Persians are very favourably treated in

the Hebrew Bible, as compared with the way they are pictured in Greek literature, where

they are often regarded as oriental barbarians. Some scholars have supposed that this is

due to the fact that much of the Hebrew Bible reached its nal form when the Persians

were ruling. Is this too cynical a view? However that may be, questions certainly arise

concerning Persian policy. Did they really authorise a return from exile in c.538 BCE, or

is that the idealised picture of a later group of Jews? It may be asked whether Isaiah 4055

gives us a picture of the Jewish community in Babylon, hoping for a return to Palestine.

The same kind of issue will, however, arise, if we move on a few years, to the time of

Haggai and Zechariah, usually taken as c.520 BCE. The particular problems of those

books we will consider below; here it may sufce simply to notice that their historical

setting has occasioned discussion. Haggai seems to say nothing of a return from exile.

Is this a signicant omission? Some have alleged that Zechariah reects a shift of

interest from Zerubbabel to Joshua, and that this may imply a shift from more political

aspirations to a purely religious role. Is there any weight in such proposals?

It is important at this stage to try to x in your mind a simple time-chart in which you

can locate the material you are studying.

Date Event

c.1300 bce Exodus from Egypt?

c.1250 bce Period of the Judges?

c.1020bce

United monarchy?930 bce The united kingdom splits into a northern kingdom (Samaria) and a

southern kingdom (Judah)

722 bce The fall of the northern kingdom at the hands of the Assyrians.

640609 bce The reign of Josiah, king of Judah, who dies at the hands of the Egyptiansin 609. The book of Deuteronomy is allegedly discovered during this time.

597 bce Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, invades and conquers Judah. This is thetime of the first deportation in which Jehoiachin, then king of Judah, wastaken to Babylon (Ezekiel was among this group). Zedekiah, a puppet kingwho was put on the throne by the Babylonians, reigns in Jehoiachins place.The country is left virtually in ashes: we know from archaeological evidencethat most fortified cities were destroyed. The so-called First Temple was

burned to the ground.

587 bce Rebellion leads to the return of Babylonian troops and a seconddeportation. The Babylonian governor, Gedeliah, is assassinated.

582 bce The time of the third deportation, probably as a result of the political chaosthat followed Gedeliahs death.

539 bce Cyrus, king of Persia, invades Babylon. The captive nations are allowed togo back home with the financial and political support of the Persians (seethe section in Chapter 6, Deutero-Isaiah). This marks the beginning of theperiod of the Second Temple.

539333 bce The Persian era.

33363 bce The Hellenistic era, which continues until the arrival of the Romans inPalestine.


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15

Now read the relevant chapters of one of the more detailed histories of your period.

It must, however, be stressed that recent developments have brought a fundamental

question to the fore: is it possible to write a narrative history of ancient Israel? Where,

for example, can a history of Israel legitimately start? In his work, Soggin (1984) treats

the period of David and Solomon as historical, whereas the traditions concerning the

conquest and Judges are termed protohistory. Other scholars will state the problem

in another fashion, namely that Israels history does not start until it is established in the

land of Canaan.

Study tip: When you answer any question about the presentation of Israels history, it

is useful to note that retelling the biblical story is not sufcient. We cannot simply read

off the biblical account as history.

Ideologies of the text

In the last few decades, there has been a tremendous shift of focus in the study of

biblical texts. Previously, scholars had attempted to reconstruct the actual history of

early Israel on the basis of books from the Bible. Now, however, the focus is on how the

story is told. There is less concern with the texts as a source for the social or political

history of the Israelite past, and more interest in a particular texts literary merits and

ideology. The ideology can be illustrated by the polarity that existed between Canaan

and Israel: Gottwald (1980) argues that we in fact witness a peasants revolt in other

words, Israel emerged as a political entity from Canaan itself, perhaps during the

transition between the late Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Israel was, perhaps, indigenous

to the land after all, and the polarity between Israel and Canaan is simply a matter of

biblical ideology. Refer here to the Essential reading at the beginning of this chapter to

help you understand this debate.

There is much scepticism, therefore, about our ability to write a narrative history of early

Israel. Some scholars regard the current approach as too sceptical, while others would go

even further and question our knowledge not just of Israels origins in the land but also of

the period of the monarchy.

You must judge for yourself the merits of all sides in this debate. However, the

methodological questions raised are well founded. A fundamental question to emerge,

which you are strongly advised to ponder, is how far Israel, in later times, grafted onto her

origins the unity she had experienced, at least for a short period, under David and Solomon.

The contribution of archaeologyEssential reading

You will nd an excellent section on archaeology in one of the suggested textbooks:

Harrison, R.KIntroduction to the Old Testament. (Peabody, MA: Eerdmans, 2004) Part 2.

For your further reading in this section, select one of the following (you may also wishto look at the list of background reading on pp.1213).

Avi-Yonah, M. (ed.) The encyclopedia of archaeological excavations in the Holy Land.

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 19751978).

Finkelstein, I. The archaeology of the Israelite settlement. (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration

Society,1988).

Kenyon, K.M. Archaeology in the Holy Land. (London: Methuen, 1985). (This is rather

dated, but is one of the classics.)

Laughlin, C.H.Archaeology and the Bible. (New York: Doubleday, 2000).

Millard, A.Discoveries from Bible times. (Oxford: Lion, 1997).

Moorey, P.R.S.A century of biblical archaeology. (Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 1991).

Murphy-OConnor, J. The Holy Land. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).Ramsey, G.W. The quest for the historical Israel. (London: SCM Press, 1982).


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Archaeology is an important source for the historian, and, although questions in the

examination paper will rarely deal solely with archaeology, you must be aware of the

discussions about the value and the limitations of this eld for the historian. You must

also be able to handle critically archaeological data that impinge on the period you are

studying. A valuable overview of the developments in this eld is provided by Mooreys

book. There is a lot of valuable material in the Encyclopedia, while Ramsey and Moorey

contain discussions of the relationship between archaeology and the biblical text. Some

scholars even question whether we should use the term biblical archaeology at all.

Instead, they talk of the archaeology of the Ancient Near East a broader canvas

against which we can critically read the biblical texts.

Diversity of the literary materialEssential reading:

Coggins, R.J.Introducing the Old Testament. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990).

You may also wish to consult:

Boer, R.Bakhtin and genre theory in biblical studies. (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature,

2007).

It is vital that, as part of your critical reading of the text, you should ask the question

of its genre, (that is, what kind of text it is). The literature you will encounter, in the

form of the selected texts of this syllabus, presents a wide variety of genres: you will

nd poetry, narrative, history writing, wisdom and prophecy, to name just a few. You

must be able to identify, or at least be alert to, these genres when coming to the text.

For example, is Ex. 115 a myth, a cultic liturgy or a history (or a bit of all the above)?

There will be further discussion on this later on in the subject guide.

Learning outcomes

After studying this chapter, and the relevant reading, you should be able to:

discuss Israels geography and ecology

describe the historical events of Ancient Israel

critically question the biblical account of Israels history, taking into account the

nature of history and the sources available to the historian.

Sample examination question

In what sense, if any, would you describe the books of 1 and 2 Kings as historical books?


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Chapter 3: Torah

17

Chapter 3

Torah

Essential readingBlenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. (London: SCM Press, 1992) Chapter 2: the basic features of

the Pentateuch: structure and chronology. (It is essential to read this now.)

Clines, D.J.A. The theme of the Pentateuch. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1997).

Collins, J.J.Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2004)

Chapter 2.

Further readingBlenkinsopp, J. Treasures old and new: essays in the theology of the Pentateuch. (Grand

Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004).

Clifford, R.J. Creation accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible. (Washington DC:

Catholic Biblical Association, 1994).

Cragie, P.C. Ugarit and the Old Testament. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972).

Dally, S.Myths from Mesopotamia. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).

Dally, S. The epic of Gilgamesh. (New York: Penguin, 2003).

Harrison, R.K.Introduction to the Old Testament. (Peabody, MA. Eeudmans, 2004)

pp.493541.

Knight, D.A. and G.M. TuckerThe Hebrew Bible and its modern interpreters. (Philadelphia:

Fortress Press, 1985), especially Ackroyd (pp.297323), Knight (pp.263296).

Knoppers, G.N. and B.M. Levinson (eds) The Pentateuch as Torah: new models for

understanding its promulgation and acceptance. (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2007).Nihan, C.From priestly Torah to Pentateuch: a study in the composition of the book of

Leviticus. (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007).

Rendtorff, R. The Canonical Hebrew Bible. (Leiden: Deo Publishing, 2005).

Rogerson, J.W. Genesis 111. (Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1991).

Soggin, J.A.Introduction to the Old Testament. (London: SCM Press, 1989) Chapters 7 and 8.

Whybray, R.N. The making of the Pentateuch. (Shefeld: JSOT, 1987) This is a

comprehensive treatment of the classical view, and also provides a critique of it.

IntroductionTorah, otherwise known as the Pentateuch, has been considered the most important part

of the OT Jewish tradition has it that everything else is just a commentary on this core.

Look at your time-chart in Chapter 1. Having taken on board that there are difculties

surrounding the writing of a history of Israel, take your mind to one of the most

fertile periods in the history of Israel the exile. This was a formative time for many

reasons, but primarily because the people of Israel, having been vanquished by the

more powerful neo-Babylonians in 597587 bce, underwent a majortheological crisis,

which itself led to majorliterary activity in fact, this period was to become the most

fruitful of all times. In an effort to help their people understand the causes of the exile,

a whole school of authors and editors of the time brought together traditions (both oral

and written) in order to show where, when and why mistakes occurred. These are the

deuteronomistic historians whose stance and work we will examine later in Chapter 4.


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18

During this time of crisis, such going back to basics assumed a truly pastoral task

which aimed to give the people hope. To accomplish this, it was essential that they

regained their sense of identity: who they were, where they came from, where they were

going. What was their relationship with the world, and with each other? Where did they

gure in the great scheme of things (Gen. 111)? What made them so special

(Ex. 115)? How should they live out this special understanding of themselves as the

chosen people of God (Deuteronomy)? And how were they to understand their role and

the role of their God in the historical process (see Chapters 3, 5 and 6)?

One of the major tasks of the exile was to shape and to edit the Torah in response to

these questions. The process of carrying out that task was complex, but it is essential

that you have a general idea ofthe theories of how it was compiled. The material we

are going to examine in this chapter is taken from the Torah. Because the subject is huge

and far beyond the scope of this guide, I will concentrate on two aspects: the question of

denition, and the various methods ofreading the text. This is important as it is going

to determine the way we understand a text.

DefnitionIn the Christian tradition, the rst ve books of the OT have been known as the

Pentateuch, at least since the time of Origen (a famous early church father). The

word pentateuch itself comes from the Greek: it is in fact composed of two Greek

words: pente (ve) and teuche (scroll). It thus designates what is called in Hebrew

torah, which is generally translated by the Greek word nomos, or law, although this

translation is somehow inaccurate. The Hebrew word torah has a much wider meaning

than that of law. In some texts, Torah was the response demanded by the priest from

the person in the sanctuary (Deut. 33:10). In others, Torah refers to a set of rules, as

in the torah of sacrices. Often the prophets associated the meaning of teaching to

Torah (Jer 31:33: torah is written on the hearts of the people).

Only in Nehemiah 8, where Ezra promulgates the law of Moses, is it referred to as the

rst ve books of the OT. Note, by extension, that sometimes Torah designates thewhole of Hebrew Scripture.

However, it is essential to remember that Torahs meaning, although including legal

decisions and rules, also encompasses all the narratives and suggests a vision of history

based on election and redemption. Therefore, Torah must not be understood in a strict

legalistic sense only, but in the wider meaning of a teaching revealed by God for our

salvation. An even better way to grasp the meaning of Torah is to say that it is a way

of life.

Activity

The titles of the ve books attempt to give a schematic idea of their content (all the titles

come from the Greek): the story of the origins, in Genesis; the coming out of Egypt, inExodus; the role of the sons of Levi in the cultic legislation, in Leviticus; the counting of

the tribes, in Numbers; and Deuteronomy (in Greek the second law) is a repetition of the

law found in Exodus.

Construct a basic storyline, including its anomalies, for the Pentateuch, using a time-line.

Make notes to remind yourself of the four points made in Blenkinsopp (1992) pp.51ff.

How we read TorahThis issue relates to the problem of authorship. Traditional opinion has it that Torah

was compiled by Moses himself or at least that the material in the book, if not its

nal shape, goes back to Moses. However, even in ancient times there were those who

doubted that Moses could have written the whole of the Pentateuch.1

1 See Deut. 34:512 could this passage really

have been written byMoses?


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Chapter 3: Torah

19

The rst scientic questions on the origins of the material come with the observations of two

seventeenth-century philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza. They observed

that the books were full of repetitions and seemed to lack the style of a single author.

Look up the following passages:

Ex. 3:611; 6:112

Ex. 20:217; Deut. 5:621

Gen. 12:1020; 20:118; 26:614.

Eventually two sources were suggested, which could have been used by Moses who

combined them:

J (after the German word for the name of God, Jahweh)

E (for Elohist, derived from another name for God).

Without going into much detail, it is enough to say that in this way source criticism was

born. It was rened by the German theologian, J. Wellhausen, in the nineteenth century,

into what is referred to as the documentary hypothesis. By this time, two further

sources were added: D for Deuteronomist, and P for Priestly. Here are the four

sources of documentary hypothesis in tabular form.

Yahwist J Elohist E Priestly P Deuteronomist D

Names forGod

God is YHWH: hewalks and talks withhumans

God is Elohim: hespeaks in dreams

God is Elohim God is Yahweh

Theology stress on blessings/promises

stress on fear of theLord

cultic approach toGod: stress on lawobeyed

moralistic approachto God: stress onMosaic obedience

Manner ofspeech

earthly speech refined speech aboutGod

majestic speechabout God

recalls God's work

Ideology orviewpoint

stress on leaders stress on theprophetic

stress on the cultic stress on the fidelityto Jerusalem

Style narratives andwarnings

narratives andspeeches

dry lists andschemata

long homiletic stories

Geographicalfocus

nationalistic stresson Judah

stress on northernIsrael

stress on Judah the whole land ofIsrael is emphasised

Distinctivevocabulary

uses terms like:Sinai

uses terms like:Horeb

the book ofDeuteronomy

Date Davidic EmpireExample: Gen. 2:4ffPromise to the

Patriarchs

Date: eighth centurybceExample: Gen.

2022

the Exile seventh century bce

Now read Blenkinsopp (1992) Chapter 1, pp.119. The view set out here, which

became orthodoxy in the last century, has recently been criticised. Here are some of the

arguments that have contributed to this discrediting of the documentary hypothesis.

It is easy to see, just by looking at the table above, that the hypothesis is dependenton a view of the world that is essentially marked by evolution from the primitive to

the more civilised.

Such analysis also depends on aesthetic premises that are arbitrary. Think howmuch our aesthetic canons have changed in the last century their disparity becomes

even more marked when we apply them to texts at least 25 centuries old!

There has been a shift in epistemology: we have moved from the Enlightenmentsquest for objectivity, towards a view of reality that is much more subjective (i.e.

reality is that which is construed as reality).


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20

Activity

Read Harrison pp.495-541 or Blenkinsopp (1992) Chapter 1, pp.1925. Make notes on his

provisional conclusions.

What is your opinion on the matter? What difference does it make to read the text as part

of source theory or, let us say, as narrative, or continuous story?

Learning outcomes

From your study so far and the relevant reading, you should be able to:

describe the exilic period and its basic theological questions

outline the issues connected with the making of the Pentateuch

discuss the inuence of ideologies on the text.

Gen. 111: cosmology and identityEssential reading

You should refer to your chosen textbook and supplement it with one book selected

from the further reading list (see below for page references).

Collins, J.J. Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2004) Chapter 3.

Harrison, R.KIntroduction to the Old Testament. pp.54266.

Rendtorff, R. The canonical Hebrew Bible. pp.1121.

Rogerson, J. Genesis 111. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1991).

Soggin, J.A.Introduction to the Old Testament: there is no formal chapter on Gen. 111.

Commentaries

You may wish to consult the relevant commentaries listed on page 5. There are a number of

series of commentaries. However a good place to begin is the Oxford Bible commentary.

Further reading

Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. (London: SCM Press, 1992).

Fewel, D.N. and D.M. Gunn Gender, power and promise: the subject of the Bibles rst

story. (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1993) Chapter 1.

Hendel, R. Genesis 111 and its Mesopotamian problem in E.S. Gruen (ed.) Cultural

borrowings and ethnic appropriations in antiquity. (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag,

2005) pp.2336.

Hendel, R.S. The text of Genesis 111: textual studies and critical edition. (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2002).

Hess, R S. and D.T. Tsumura (eds) I studied inscriptions from before the Flood: Ancient

Near Eastern, literary and linguistic approaches to Genesis 111. (Winona Lake, IN:

Eisenbrauns, 1994).

Thompson, T.L. The origin tradition of Ancient Israel: the literary formation of Genesis andEx. 123. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1987).

Van Wolde, E. Stories of the beginning. (London: SCM Press, 1996).

Additional material is suggested in the course of the discussions in this chapter.

Introduction

We must study Gen. 111 because it is at the beginning of the Bible. This is not such a

facetious remark. It is important, before we can appreciate the impact of events in the OT

(or indeed in the NT), that we rst lay the foundations of meaning in order to establish the

tone of the text and what is Gods grand plan for humanity. More on this later.

Gen. 111 is usually referred to as the primeval history that is, the story of the

origins. In the wake of their loss of land, God and country, it was essential that theIsraelites (re)established their sense of identity. The people needed to be told who


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Chapter 3: Torah

21

they were and where they came from like the age-old demand of children from

parents: Tell me again the story of how I came into being. How was I when I was

a baby?

Without a story at the beginning, human beings face chaos, and their origin seems to be

an abyss. In order to provide a foundation for existence, the beginning was lled with

meaning. Moreover, every culture attaches a meaning to the beginning, often in the formof stories. These are not stories in the sense of tales, but realities in which people live.

These are stories which give people roots. (Van Wolde, 1996, p.1)

Asking the right questionsRecommended reading

Please read one of the following:

Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. (London: SCM Press, 1992) Chapter 3.

Rogerson, J. Genesis 111. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1991) Chapters 1, 2 and p.52ff (on myth).

Van Wolde, E. Stories of the beginning. (London: SCM Press, 1996) Introduction (pp.18).

Further reading

Clines, D.J.A. What does Eve do to help? and other readerly questions to the Old Testament.

(Shefeld: Shefeld Academic Press, 1990).

Clines, D.J.A. The theme of the Pentateuch. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1997).

Cohn, R.L. Narrative structure and canonical persperctive in Genesis,JSOT25 1983, pp.316.

The book of Genesis covers a vast amount of time, stretching from the beginning

of time itself to the so-called patriarchal era, sometime in the second millennium

bce. According to geologists, the earth is at least four billion years old, and some

anthropologists believe that human beings have been around for at least two million of

those years. The authors of Genesis did not know this, nor did they care. They simply

wished to sketch out some of the highlights of human origins which had particular

relevance for Israels view of life, and to record a few of the traditions of their ancestorswhich would help them understand how they came to be a people and a nation. The

story we have for indeed it is a story has meaning. But what did it mean for its nal

editor? What did it mean for his audience? What does it mean for us, hearing it many

centuries later? To explore this fruitfully, we are going to have to ask what kind of

literary text have we got. Is it a myth, a wisdom text, a scientic report, an etiology (that

is, a story to explain how things came to be), or a theological dissertation?

A myth (in the sense used by Plato, and not in the sense of an untrue story, or onethat is concerned with gods and goddesses): this is a poetic expression of belief in

realities beyond or underlying the perceived world. In other words, a myth is a story

that seeks to articulate an understanding of the world, and to help human beings

come to grips with the nature and meaning of their own existence. The Romanhistorian Sallust, writing in the rst century bce, aptly characterised it as follows: a

myth has never happened. It happens every day.

A wisdom text: wisdom is concerned with questions of life and death. Why do welive? What is the meaning of our existence? Why do we suffer? Why do we die? All

these are paramount in the exilic context.

Etiology: why do women give birth in pain? Why do snakes crawl on their bellies?Why is life so harsh? Why do we have to work? Questions like these have lain at the

heart of human existence both then and now. Their answers function as a sanction

for the present order: they help people to see how they t into the natural and social

order, and to accept the answers!

Neither wisdom nor myth nor etiologies can be read as statements of historical or

scientic causality.


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22

Gen. 1: a cosmologyRead:

Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. (London: SCM Press, 1992) Chapter 3.

The rst chapter of Genesis shares many of the theological suppositions of the ancient

world. Most of the stories found there and in the following chapters may be best read aspresenting an alternative world view to that generally accepted, say, by the Babylonians

(among whom the Israelites were now living) at the time of the exile. Gen. 1, on the

one hand, challenged assumptions about the nature of God, the world and humankind.

But, at the same time, the polemical thrust of Gen. 111 did not obscure the fact that, at

certain points, biblical and extra-biblical thought were in agreement. Indeed, Genesis

and the world of the Ancient Near East had probably more in common with each other

than either has with modern secular thought.

One thing they had in common was theircosmology. The following table offers a

comparison between Gen. 1 and the Enuma Elish, a Babylonian account of the

worlds origins.

Genesis Enuma Elish

The divine spirit creates by word. Divine spirits and cosmic matter coexist.

Earth is desolate; darkness covers the deep. Primeval chaos; the war of the gods againstTiamat (the sea).

Day 1: The creation of light. Light emanates from the gods.

Day 2: The creation of the firmament. The creation of the firmament.

Day 3: The creation of dry land. The creation of dry land.

Day 4: The creation of heavenly lights. The creation of heavenly lights.

Day 5: The creation of animals (water and sky).

Day 6: The creation of human beings. The creation of human beings.

Day 7: God rests and sanctifies the Sabbath. The gods rest and celebrate.

Now read Chapter 1 of Genesis: it provides a brilliant beginning to the OT, combining

as it does narrative style with the poetry of a hymn. Its carefully worked out structure,

alongside the repetition of key expressions, work together to create a powerful effect for

the audience. Of course, the goal of the narrator was to make the audience experience

something of the majesty of God, but it was also perhaps to set the plot as expressed at

the end of the chapter (vv.2628). This plot can be separated into several themes:

human beings are created in the image and likeness of God

they are to multiply and ll the earth

they are to subdue and have dominion over the earth and all living creatures.The creation unfolds over six days, which are carefully balanced into three pairs. There

are correspondences that link Day 1 with Day 4, Day 2 with Day 5, and Day 3 with Day 6.

Day Event Linking Day Event

Day 1 (H) creation of light Day 4 (H) creation of luminaries

Day 2 (H) creation of the heavens andwater

Day 5 (E) creation of fish and birds

Day 3 (E) creation of land and plants Day 6 (E) creation of vegetable food,humankind and animals

Day 7 the Sabbath


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Chapter 3: Torah

23

Points to note:

1. There are two poles heaven (H) and earth (E); the focus moves from heaven to

earth, and ends with a close-up on humankind.

2. The rst three days (Days 13) show the creation in its generalities; while the next

three days (Days 46) present those of its features that impinge directly upon the

human habitat.

3. The vocabulary is misleading. The use of words like image and likeness suggests

that, in this well-ordered universe, the whole of humanity is given a task akin to that

of kingship. However, that task is actually more about being caring stewards of the

earth to manage the earths resources in a responsible manner would translate

better the kinds of ideas presented here.

Activities

1. Pause to think about the implications of such a command to be caring stewards of

the earth:

from an ecological perspective

from a feminist perspective

from the perspective of liberation theology.

To help you with your reection, see the relevant sections in Rogerson (1991)

Chapters 1 and 2.

Think, too, about what kind of text carries such meaning. You may want to explore the

creationist debate about science and Gen. 1. (Rogerson, 1991, pp.1213.)

2. Draw a picture of the cosmos pictured in Gen. 1. (Remember, this is a tripartite picture

of the universe: land, waters and skies.)

Summary

Genesis sets itself apart in signicant ways.

There is only one God.

Creation is conceived as order: there are clear boundaries.

Creation is good for achieving its own purpose: it is a viable setting for life.

Human beings have a place of honour in the created order.

They have responsibility to look after creation.

Gen. 23: in the gardenRecommended reading

Your reading for this section should focus on one of the following:

Barr, J. The Garden of Eden and the hope of immortality. (London: SCM Press, 1992)

Chapter 1.

Blenkinsopp, J. The Pentateuch. (London: SCM Press, 1992) pp.6367.

Rogerson, J.W. Genesis 111. (Shefeld: JSOT Press, 1991) pp.5365.

Further reading

There are many books on Near Eastern Creation accounts, but I will suggest two that are

fairly comprehensive and easily accessible:

Barr, J. Is God a liar? (Genesis 23) and related matters,Journal of theological studies

57(1) 2006, p.1 22.

Hart, G.Egyptian myths. (London: British Museum Publications, 1990) pp.928.

McCall, H.Mesopotamian myths. (London: British Museum Publications, 1990) pp.5259.


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24

Mettinger, T.N.D. The Eden narrative: a literary and religio-historical study of Genesis 23.

(Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2007).

Moberly, R.W.L. Did the interpreters get it right? Genesis 23 reconsidered,Journal of

theological studies 59(1) 2008 pp.2240.

Stratton, B.J. Out of Eden: reading, rhetoric, and ideology in Genesis 23 . (Shefeld,

Shefeld Academic Press, 1995).

Walton, J.H. Creation in Genesis 1:12:3 and the Ancient Near East: order out of disorder

after Chaoskampf, Calvin theological journal43(1) 2008 pp.4863.

Now that the framework has been set, Genesis turns the focus on human beings.

There has been a raging debate over the meaning of the creation of Adam and Eve, and

you can read all about this in the suggested readings above. However, it is enough to say

here that, since the wider context has been established in Gen. 1, the creation process

continues to introduce the main protagonists. Adam was created from the earth, perhaps

referring back to old Egyptian images of the great God Knum, the potter God; and Eve

was created from Adams esh, highlighting her similarity of nature (as opposed to the

animals). Thus humans are set apart from the rest of the creation and shown to be made

of the same stuff. You may think it strange that it is the man who gave birth to thewoman, thereby perverting the normal natural order. Was this perhaps a case of men

having to justify the existence of a patriarchal political order?

Further boundaries are established this may well be the meaning of the scene that

takes place in the garden of Eden. The text functions on several levels.

You have already identied the exilic context in which the text is constructed. Thiswas essential to give the people both a strong sense of their identity and of their

boundaries a little like helping children to learn how to get on in the world and to

grow through their inevitable mistakes.

On another level, the people had also to understand the connection betweenknowledge and death, and this awareness of human mortality is evident throughout

the text. This echoes other stories from the Ancient Near East: for example, the

Gilgamesh epic describes a hero who was given a root/fruit of immortality but who

did not have time to consume it before it was stolen by a serpent.

Read like this at the two levels of growth and of coming to terms with death

Gen.23 presents an intriguing picture in which Eve nds a way to become immortal

through giving birth to children. This is not personal immortality, but rather a healthy

reminder of the importance of a community of people and its survival through future

generations (a frequent theme in the OT).

Summary

Further boundaries have been established.

There is increasing division and separation (from the earth, from the animals,between the sexes).

There is a progressive consciousness of the role and function of humankind.

Whereas an individuals lifespan is limited by death, immortality is to be found inthe community.

In other words, human beings have conceptualised their place in the cosmos, and have

given their lives and destiny meaning.

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