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Journal of of the Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, JED, Vol. 14, No. 2, August, 2019

A Journal of Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo, JED, Vol. 14, N0. 2, August, 2019



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A Journal of Faculty of Environmental Studies, University Of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria Vol. 14, N0. 2, August, 2019

Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria


Journal of environmental Design (JED) is published bi-annually by the Faculty of

Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

All Right Reserved: No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the proprietor of the

copyright, also, where part of this Journal is adapted, credit must be given to the

author(s) and original source and the sense of the original source must not be distorted.

ISSN: 1595-9229-15

Printed in Nigeria by:

Parvenu Technologies

08027228272


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EDITORIAL COMMENTS

Welcome to yet another volume of the Journal of Environmental Design. Volume 14

of the JED contains several thought-provoking well researched papers on the various

dimensions of the built environment. It must be stated that environmental problems in

general have become intricate phenomena requiring a wide range of interests and

experts in their planning, management and design. The JED continues in its 14th

volume to highlight the works of these experts and presents their informed views and

cutting edge research findings for the benefits of policy makers and students of

environmental studies. The papers have been peer-reviewed and carefully selected to

ensure intellectual balance and intelligent discourse.

The views expressed in the articles published in this Journal (JED) are those of the

authors and Journal of Environmental Design (JED) does not hold itself accountable

for such.

Professor Best Ochigbo


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EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

Editor-in-Chief Business Editor Prof. Best Ochigbo Dr. Jacob Atser

[email protected] [email protected]

+ 2348035838077 + 2348036758258

Associate Editors JED Vol. 14, No. 2, August, 2019 Dr.Victor Umoren Department of Urban and Regional Planning University of Uyo, Uyo

Dr. Anselem A. Nyah Department of Fine & Industrial Arts University of Uyo, Uyo

Dr. Francis Udoudoh Department of Estate Management University of Uyo, Uyo

Dr. Samuel Ebong Department of Architecture University of Uyo, Uyo

Dr. Ogwueleka C Amaka Department of Quantity Surveying University of U yo, Uyo

Dr. Aniekan E. Eyoh Geoinformatics, University of Uyo, Uyo

Dr. Anthony O Ujene Department of Building University of Uyo, Uyo

Consulting Editors

Prof. Felix Ilesanmi School of Environmental Sciences, Modibbo Adama Uni of Technology,

Yola

Prof. Ekpo M. Osom Faculty of Agriculture University of Swaziland, Swaziland

Dr. P. C. Nwilo Department of Surveying & Geoinformatics University of Lagos

Prof. I. Ukpong Department of Geography University of Uyo, Uyo

Prof. I. C. Ugwu Dept of Urban & Regional Planning Enugu State University of Science &

Tech

Prof. B. Agbola Department of Urban & Regional Planning University of Ibadan, Ibadan

Prof. Des Wilson Department of Communication Arts University of Uyo, Uyo

Prof. O. B. Ekop Department of Urban & Regional Planning University of Uyo, Uyo

Prof. Hilary Inyang Global Institute for Energy & Environmental System, Uni of North

Carolina, USA

Prof. O. K. Oyeoku Department of Fine & Applied Arts University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Prof. D. Eka Department of English University of Uyo


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mailto:[email protected]



EDITORIAL STYLE GUIDE FOR AUTHORS

Please submit your manuscript double spaced in MS Word 2003 - 2007 version. Provide

tables and figures in a separate file (or files) in MS Excel MS Word or EPS format. Maps

should be supplied in EPS format. Because manuscripts will undergo a blind review, submit

two title pages; the first showing the title of the manuscript, author name, title, affiliation,

telephone number, email address and the date of the manuscript. The second title page should

contain only the title of the paper. Third-person style is always preferred. If appropriate,

authors may make limited use of first-person singular, but a single author should not refer to

himself or herself as "we."

Biography: The manuscript should include; on a separate page or the "first" title page

described above a sentence listing each author's name and affiliation.

Abstract: Include a one-paragraph abstract not exceeding 150 words and place it on the first

page of the text. The abstract describes the issue(s) or question(s) the paper addresses and

states the major findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Keywords: To help users reference the JED published research, keywords are included with

journal articles. Please suggest at least two keywords for your manuscript.

Abbreviations: The definition of an abbreviation or acronym is given the first time it

appears; afterward, only the abbreviation is used. However, an abbreviation that is defined in

the abstract should also be defined in the article. An abbreviation that appears only once in an

article should be deleted and the full wording used. If an abbreviation is first defined in the

text, the abbreviation alone can then be used in subsequent footnotes or tables; however, if

the abbreviation is first defined in a footnote or table, the abbreviation should be defined

again when it first appears in the following text.

Text Headings: Headings are not numbered and are placed to the left. First-level headings

are bold; second-level headings are italicized; and third-level headings are italicized and lead

directly into text.

Tables and Figures: Use Arabic numerals to number tables-and figures consecutively in

separate series in order of appearance. Include a brief descriptive title at the top of each.

Tables and figures should be in separate page not integrated into the text. The text must

contain a reference to each table or figure.

Equations: Make sure that all symbols in equations are clear and that all equations (except

those in footnotes) are numbered. Single-letter variables should be italicized. Multiple-letter

variables, abbreviations (e.g. AGE) and functions (e.g. expo min. In) should not be italicized

neither should be numbered. Parentheses or mathematical operations, vectors and matrices

should be in bold (not italicized).

References: The manuscript must include complete and accurate citations of all materials

referenced in the manuscript that are not of your original authorship. Please double-check

your references to ensure that names and dates are accurate, that Web pages are still active,

and that there are no discrepancies between the text and the reference list. The APA style is

strongly recommended.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - - i

Journal of Environmental Design (JED) - - - - - - ii

Editorial Comments - - - - - - - - - iii

Editorial Committee - - - - - - - - - iv

Editorial Style Guide for Authors - - - - - - - - v

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - - vi

Impediments to Maintenance of Public Buildings in Nigeria: A Case Study of Federal

Secretariat Kawo Kaduna: Yusuf Joe Gandu, Zaki Yakubu, & Grace Yohanna Antony - - 1

Factorial Analysis of the Determinants of Crime on Real Estate Properties in Owerri,

Imo State: Okey F. Nwanekezie and Iheanyi J. Onuoha - - - - - 12

Stress Management Strategies among Students: A Case of Quantity Surveying Students of

Kaduna State University, Nigeria: Christiana AdaPaaul; Tchad Sharon Jatau & Yakubu Michael Zaki 23

Post Occupancy Evaluation of Traders Perception on Shop Design in Markets: Case Study

of Jimeta Ultra Modern Market: Attah, U.A. and Sameer I. Y.

- - - - - 30

Analysis of the Effects of Location of open waste dumps on Residential Property Values in

Ikot Ekpene, Akwa Ibom State: Sunday Usenemana, Augusta Uyai and Iniodu Ibanga - - 38

Ways of Improving the Sourcing and Application of Concrete Constituents in the Nigerian

Building Industry: Dauda Dahiru, Mudasir Ibrahim and Lawal Umar Yusuf - - - 57

Household Income and Water Consumption Rate in Uyo Urban, Nigeria: Beulah I. Ofem,

Jacob Atser & Moses C. Nwagbala - - - - - - - - 66

Commercial Real Estate Investment in Ibadan Property Market: an Examination of

the Risk-Return Characteristics: Lawal Ukamaka Sarah, Oladokun Timothy Tunde and

Ayodele Timothy Oluwafemi - - - - - - - - 75

Impact of Multi-Skilling in Building Construction Firms in Abuja: Abdulazeez A. D, Etubi U, Saad M. M & Tukur R. B. - - - - - - - - 86

An X-Ray of Policy Issues in Rural Housing in Nigeria, Sub-Saharan Africa:

Usen Udoh, Jacob Atser and Daniel Etteh - - - - - - 94

Communal Conflicts and Rural Development in North Central Nigeria:

Stanislaus Anabaraonye Okeahialam & Mohammed Naguto - - - - - 110

The Effects of Building Projects Abandonment in the Federal Capital Territory,

Abuja-Nigeria: AbdulAzeez, A.D., Dada, A. S., Umar, B. and Oyeleke, F. M. - - - 124

Performance of Recreational Facilities in the University of Uyo Staff Club:

Usen P. Udoh, Jacob Atser & Boma Peterside - - - - - - 133

Curbing Insecurity of Buildings in Uyo and its Environs

Uduak Peter Umo, Bon N. Obiadi & Samuel Okon Ebong - - - - - 143

Regression Analysis of Shopping Mall Attractiveness and Customer Allegiance:

The Case Study of Shoprite Owerri Imo State: Okey F. Nwanekezie and Iheanyi J. Onuoha - 154

Pattern and Characteristics of Urban Agricultural Practices in Katsina Metropolis,

Katsina State, Nigeria: Ashiru Bello and Aminu Muhammad Garba - - - - 166

An X-Ray of 2012 National Housing Policy of Nigeria: Abuh, Paul Ojochenemi and Jacob Atser - 177

A Semiotics Analysis of Tiv Cultural Symbols: Johnson Ekanem and Abraham Ver Bai - 182

The Religious Relevance of Tiv Traditional Clothing: Abraham Ver Bai - - - 191


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IMPEDIMENTS TO MAINTENANCE OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN NIGERIA: A CASE

STUDY OF FEDERAL SECRETARIAT KAWO KADUNA

Yusuf Joe Gandu

1, Zaki Yakubu

2, & Grace Yohanna Antony

3

Department of Quantity Surveying, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Nigeria1

Department of Quantity Surveying, Kaduna State University, Kafanchan Campus, Kaduna State 2&3

Abstract

Maintenance of public facilities enhances economic performance of a country. While private facilities are being

maintained, researchers continue to present a poor maintenance state of public facilities in Nigeria. It becomes

imperative to inquest on key impediments to the maintenance of public facilities. A case study focused on

Federal Secretariat building, Kawo Kaduna was considered. The research adopted qualitative method of

analyses and the data generated through convenience sampling technique. The population is expectedly small as

such; the entire staff in custody of relevant information is targeted as "convenient" sources of data which

informed the choice of data collection technique herein. Self-administered structured questionnaire was

targeted identified respondents in possession of such relevant data. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse

values rated by respondents in a 5-point Likert‟s scale and their mean values were computed and ranked.

Twenty five (25) copies of questionnaire were distributed but 18 retrieved and included in the analyses.

Findings show a high frequency of failed components of the secretariat building indicating that the building is

in a poor physical condition. Economic factors like poor funding, late release of funds and poor management of

the funds released remained the key impediment to maintenance. Other impeding factors related to technical

and managerial also exert significant effect that must be addressed to achieve maintenance success. Mandatory

savings dedicated to maintenance of public facilities as source of funding as well as change of positive attitudes

towards maintenance of buildings in Nigeria were recommended.

Key Words: Building facilities, Defects, Infrastructure, Maintenance Systems, policy

Introduction

The maintenance of infrastructure enhances economic performance of a country. It saves cost in

infrastructure provision, provides healthy work place, reduces occupational stress, improves

productivity and enhances national image through pleasant environment (Sani, Mohammed, Shukor,

& Awang, 2011). When a facility is maintained, it is almost certain that the life has been extended to

almost indefinitely. The need for maintenance of facilities in every private or government systems and

subsystems becomes imperative. Maintenance aligns well with the United Nation‘s (UN) Sustainable

Development Goals (Ban, 2014). In sustainability concept, maintenance preserves what exists and

reduces the rate of infiltration into new environment.

The level of success in the maintenance of facilities in any nation cannot be detached from the

maintenance culture of that nation (Olufunke, 2011). Maintenance culture refers to the totality of

thoughts, perception, behavior, and actions taken in keeping facilities, equipment or infrastructure in

good working condition (Abiodun, Olayemi & Joseph, 2016). It means that the entire maintenance

systems and subsystems are embodied in the culture of a maintenance organisation. A good

maintenance culture therefore brings about successes in the maintenance activities of nations‘

facilities. However, it has been generally noted that there is poor maintenance culture in Nigeria

(Kunya, Achuenu, & Kolawale, 2007; Ebi, 2014; Tijani, Adeyemi & Omotehinshe, 2016). This

relates to poor maintenance thoughts and policy articulation (Tijani et al., 2016; Ugwu, Okafor &

Nwoji, 2018), poor maintenance programmes (Ahmed, 2000; Odediran, 2012), and lack of

appropriate tools for the maintenance of facilities (Olagunju 2012) in Nigeria.

Proper maintenance of facilities enhances the nation‘s economy in great measure. If existing

properties are properly maintained there will be less need for new ones and resources saved channeled

into other meaningful businesses for economic growth (Ahmed, 2000; Adejimi, 2005; Odediran, et

al., 2012). Adejimi (2005) identified building properties in Nigeria that could serve as valuable assets

but are abandoned for lack of maintenance. Notably, most facilities lacking adequate maintenance

attention are public facilities (Ahmed, 2000; Kunya et al., 2007; Odediran, et al. 2012). This creates

great concern not only to individuals living adjacent to or occupying them, but to the economic


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growth of the nation. The key issue is that, while there are some reasonable efforts towards the

maintenance of private properties, public facilities are in great disrepairs (Iyamu, Imasuen, & Osakue,

2018). This research therefore sets to inquest on key impediments against the maintenance of public

buildings in Nigeria with a view of availing the key ones preventing successful maintenance activities.

Policymakers and top management level of government organizations will know better the key

maintenance problems and their implications. This will initiate new interest towards better

maintenance culture in the country for the benefit of economic growth.

Literature Review

Research shows that infrastructure in Nigeria are poorly maintained due to poor maintenance culture

(Adejimi, 2005, Iyamu et al., 2018). There are many flaws associated with maintenance culture in

Nigeria (Adenuga, Olufowobi & Raheem, 2010). For example, emphases have been laid on the

provision of new buildings instead of maintaining existing ones (Ahmed, 2000; Odediran et al., 2012;

Olanrewaju & Anifowose, 2015). Nigeria is plagued with corruption, leadership and attitudinal

problems when it relates to maintenance activities (Tijani et al. 2016). Furthermore, there is lack of

appropriate tools for predictive maintenance of existing buildings (Olagunju, 2012), and the country

has poor maintenance policy which breeds apathy in maintenance activities (Tijani et al. 2016, Ugwu,

Okafor & Nwoji, 2018). Adenuga et al. (2010) stated that there is poor emphasis on training,

retraining and continuing education. These have culminated into persistent problems affecting the

maintenance of buildings, leading to array of abandoned and dysfunctional building facilities across

the country (Olanrewaju & Anifowose, 2015). Public buildings are worst affected and most times

defects and failures relate to leaking pipes, ceiling collapse and leaking roof (Ahzahar, Karim, Hassan

& Eman, 2011).This exerts not only great environmental and health challenges on individuals, but

blends the economic consequences on the nation. A strong National policy on maintenance culture has

been advocated by researchers (Tijani et al., 2016; Chidi, Shamsudeen, Oladipupo & Owolabi 2017).

The long-term performance of any building is essentially underpinned by its maintenance (Kayan,

Halim & Mahmud, 2018). Salonen and Deeryd (2911) and Dhillon and Liu (2006) focused researches

on the direct costs and profitability of maintenance, while Ebi (2014) expressed clearly the importance

of maintenance in relation to quality. If buildings are properly maintained, the need for new ones will

be reduced and savings on investments can be achieved.

Methodology

This research is a case study of the Federal Secretariat building in Kawo Kaduna. The secretariat is a

3-storey complex with basement construction that accommodates most of the Federal Government

offices in Kaduna state. The research adopted qualitative method of analysis and the data was

generated through convenience sampling technique. The population is expectedly small and as such,

the entire staff in custody of relevant information is targeted as "convenient" sources of data for the

research (Lavrakas, 2008; Etikan, Musa, Alkassim, 2016) which informed the choice of data

collection technique herein. Self-administered structured questionnaire targeted identified respondents

in possession of such relevant information. Being a case study, the number of respondents was

limited, however, it offered opportunity to obtain information through personal discussions to have

more detailed facts from key respondents and get clarified on areas of doubts. Twenty-five (25)

questionnaire copies were administered but 18 returned and used for the analysis. The first section of

the questionnaire enquired on the demography of respondents in terms of qualification, position,

profession and years in service which enabled the quality of respondents attested. The second section

of the questionnaire addressed the main research issues. Literature presents a list of systems that are

necessary for effective maintenance. Three key systems namely, the maintenance record, policy and

manual were focused. Policy constitutes an embodiment of the maintenance philosophy that guides

the way maintenance department respond to maintenance needs of the secretariat. The manual sets out

the maintenance program and schedule while the record keeps and reminds managers how and when

an item was attended to. Manual is useful in planned maintenance policy which has been

recommended as the best way to keep facilities at good condition always. The questions that followed

contain a set of defects observed in buildings. Respondents rated the most frequently observed defects

and also assessed the degree of response by management to requests for restoration of those defects

observed. Respondents also rated the key impediments that inhibited the maintenance of the complex.

Yusuf Joe Gandu, Zaki Yakubu, & Grace Yohanna Antony

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Mean values were then computed and ranked which enabled inferences made. Five point Likert‘s

scale was used and respondents ticked the degree of agreement on a given statement with, 1- very low

to 5-very high. Mean values are computed using the relative index and the values ranked according to

magnitude. Gandu, Musa, Gangas and Ali (2017) used similar approach in ranking a set of values in a

research work.

Data Presentation and Analysis

The first part of this research aimed at tracking the quality of respondents, as such, sought to know the

qualification, years of experience, position held in the organization and the profession of the

respondents which is reported in Table 1. Table 1: Quality of respondents

Number of Respondents % of Respondents Cumulative %

Qualification of respondents

OND 2 11 11

HND 4 22 34

BSC 8 45 78

MSC 2 11 89

PhD 2 11 100

Total 18 100

Years of experience of respondents

1-5YRS 4 22 22

6-10YRS 2 11 33

10-20YRS 6 33 66

20 and Above 6 33 100

Total 18 100

Position of respondents in the organisation

Top management 6 33 33

Middle. Management 4 22 55

Lower management 2 11 77

Non 6 33 100

Total 18 100

Profession of respondents

Quantity Surveyor 0 0 0

Architect 4 22 22

Mechanical & Electrical

engineers

2 11 33

Builders 4 22 55

ESTATE managers 2 11 66

Others 6 33 100

Total 18 100

About 11% of the respondents were OND holders, 22% had HND while 45% had BSC degree. Those

with MSc. and PhD were 11% each. By implication, those with BSc. degree, its equivalent and above

were 89%. The respondents were educated and qualified to understand the implication of the

questions raised in this research. Only 22% of them have worked in the ministry between 1-5years.

All others (78%) have worked beyond 5years. Most notably is that 66% have worked above 10 years.

Ten years is a long period and sufficient for respondents to get acquainted with the way maintenance

work is being carried out within an organization. Furthermore, 33% of the respondents were at the top

management level, 22% were at the middle, and 11% at the lower management level while 33% at the

non-management levels of the organization. The respondents cut across the strata of the organography

Impediments to Maintenance of Public Buildings in Nigeria: A Case Study of Federal Secretariat…

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distributed. Each level therefore is well represented in the research and the information can cover a

wide range of issues that affect every level. When considered that most respondents are educated, it is

imperative to conclude that quality responses will be obtained. The professions of the respondents

were Architects (22%), Mechanical and Electrical engineers(11%), Builders(22%), Estate

Managers(11%) and others like artisans working in the ministry(33%). It was unexpected that no

Quantity Surveyor responded during the interview. This creates a concern on whether there are no

quantity surveyors employed in the organization or they were so few that it was not possible to get

them at the time of gathering the information. However, other professionals represented are competent

to comment on the research objectives. In general, it is concluded that the respondents are well

educated, experienced, qualified and competent to respond objectively on the research questions and

the information supplied should be relied upon as valid for making inferences in this work.

It was enquired from respondents if the Federal Secretariat has maintenance records, policy and

manual in place. The choice of the three was informed by their importance which should reflect the

kind of seriousness in putting maintenance systems in place. Respondents had options to tick either

yes or no which is reported in Figure 1. It can be seen that 78% of respondents agreed that there is

maintenance record, 44% ticked that there is maintenance policy and 56% ticked that there is

maintenance manual in the federal secretariat. This shows that record-keeping of maintenance

activities is good because majority agreed that it actually exists. Opinion on the existence of policy

and manual are divided almost equally. The research shows that the three basic systems exist based on

the analyses of the responses in Figure 1

Figure 1: Maintenance systems available in the secretariat

78

44

56

22

56

44

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Record Policy Manual

per

cen

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Maintenance Systems

yes No


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However, the existence of a system alone cannot translate into applying the system in meeting

organizational demand. The researchers therefore sought to know if these systems are applied as it

should be in the maintenance of the Federal Secretariat Kaduna in which Figure 2 reports the findings.

It indicates 78% of the respondents affirmed that maintenance record is used, 67% affirmed that

policy is used and 56% affirmed that manual is used. It can be concluded that the three systems are

used in maintaining the complex.

Figure 2: Application of the systems in meeting maintenance needs

One key issue that was not addresses was identifying the content of the policy, manual and records to

attest their relevance and adequacy which is outside the scope of this work. Findings from the two

foregone questions indicate positive results that should set the secretariat on the right track to

maintenance and keeping the complex in good condition. The next question therefore sought to know

about the kind of defects respondents often observed in the course of their activities within the

secretariat. A list of 23 possible defects in a building obtained from literature were provided and

respondents asked to rate the items often noticed. The mean value of each item was computed and

ranked as in Table 2. The table reveals that the most noticeable defect includes broken floor finishes,

which ranks 1st with 0.69 mean value; the 2nd ranked is cooling and ventilating problems, 0.63; the

3rd are peeling of plaster, broken doors and windows, 0.62 each and the 5th and 6th are non-

functional WC/WHB with 0.59, while sockets and switches burnt out, and failed water tap

heads/valves with 0.58 value each. It is noted that the least noticed defects were sagging of beams

which ranked 23rd

position among the problems with mean value 0.35, decay of timber doors, termite

attack on building components, both had mean value of 0.40 and were ranked 21st position while

faulty electrical supply/distribution with mean value of 0.41 was ranked 20th position. However, to

shed more light on the foregone question, Table 3 reports the frequency of occurrence of the defects

noticed. Items with high frequency of occurrence suggest poor maintenance culture and if low, it

suggests that restoration is often done more quickly and suggests good maintenance culture in place.

The highest ranked item with a mean value of 0.75 is waste water pipe damage; next is broken doors

and window glasses with 0.70 mean values. The item ranked 3rd is faulty electrical

supply/distribution with mean value of 0.69.

78

67

56

22

33

44

0

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20

30

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50

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70

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Record Policy Manual

per

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Maintenance Systems yes No


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Table 2: Common defects often observed in the secretariat Defects /Scale 1 2 3 4 5 RII Ranking

1 Wall cracks 6 4 2 4 2 0.51 11

2 Peeling of plaster 4 4 2 2 6 0.62 3

3 Roof leakage 6 4 2 4 2 0.51 11

4 Painting fainted 6 6 2 4 0 0.44 19

5 Rainwater splash into rooms 3 6 2 2 1 0.49 14

6 Rising of dampness in substructure 4 5 0 2 3 0.53 10

7 Decay of timber doors 8 6 0 1 2 0.40 21

8 Failed metal doors, windows, locks 6 6 2 2 2 0.47 17

9 Broken doors and window glasses 3 4 4 2 5 0.62 3

10 Lighting points failure 6 4 2 4 2 0.51 11

11 Sockets and switches burnt out 4 6 0 4 4 0.58 6

12 Faulty electrical supply/distribution 6 6 3 2 0 0.41 20

13 Failed water tap heads/valves 4 4 3 4 3 0.58 6

14 Broken pipes for water supply 4 8 2 3 1 0.48 16

15 Non-functional WC/WHB 2 4 3 3 2 0.59 5

16 Waste water pipe damage 4 4 0 4 2 0.54 9

17 Poor rain water disposal 4 4 2 4 0 0.49 14

18 Sagging of beams 8 6 0 2 0 0.35 23

19 Broken floor finishes 0 6 2 3 5 0.69 1

20 Failed ceiling finishes 4 4 2 4 2 0.55 8

21 Rain waters and dampness problem 4 4 0 4 0 0.47 17

22 Termite attack on building components 6 7 4 1 0 0.40 21

23 Cooling and ventilating problems 2 4 5 3 4 0.63 2

Total 104 116 44 68 48 0.52

Table 3: Frequency of occurrence of the defects on the building

Defects/Scale 1 2 3 4 5 RII Ranking

1 Wall cracks 3 5 5 4 1 0.54 18


3 Roof leakage 4 4 6 4 2 0.56 15















18 Sagging of beams 6 4 4 4 0 0.47 23






Total 64 88 111 76 73 0.60


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The three lowest ranked parameters were sagging of beams (0.47), decay of timber doors and broken

floor finish (0.49). The items ranked with high frequency of occurrence suggest that they are either

neglected or they are quick to fail even after restoration had taken place. These two scenarios can

result in the high frequency of defects. All the items, except 3 were ranked above average. The pooled

mean value of the frequency of occurrence of all the defects was computed. The essence is to have a

general view of whether the frequency of occurrence of all the items put together is high or low. The

value obtained as indicated in Table 3 is 0.60. This value falls within the high level of occurrence. It

therefore suggests that it is either the rate of restoration is so low or the rate of failure of items so

high. Therefore, it can be concluded at this level that the building complex is poorly maintained

irrespective of whether it is case of low level of restoration or high frequency of failed elements.

Respondents were asked to assess how quickly the organization responds to maintenance needs. Since

it has been established the maintenance of the Federal Secretariat is poor, the level of response to

maintenance need will help conclude if the poor state of the building is due to high frequency of failed

items or poor response to failed elements of the building. Therefore, respondents rated the rate at

which failed items are fixed from the list of defects earlier identified and the result reported in Table

4. None of the 23 items scored an index value of up to half.

Table 4 Rate of response to fixing defects by the maintenance department

Defects/Scale of measurement 1 2 3 4 5 RII Ranking

1 Wall cracks 12 2 4 0 2 0.38 7


3 Roof leakage 13 2 3 0 0 0.29 18















18 Sagging of beams 8 6 2 2 0 0.38 7






Total 231 104 52 13 16 0.35

The highest ranked values were-peeling of plaster, lighting points failure, broken pipes for water

supply and waste water pipe damage which scored only 0.42 mean. All other items scored below 0.42,

the minimum scores being 0.23 corresponding to broken doors and windows glasses; the next lowest

is rain water and dampness problems in the building with value of 0.27. By careful observation, it can

be seen that 5 out of 6 items with values up to 0.40 relate to electricity and water services. Light and

water are essential amenities for proper functioning of office organization. It therefore suggests that

no organized maintenance effort exists, rather that fixing services defects was the effort of individual

occupants of offices to meet minimum need to function. The pooled index value of just 0.35 for all the

items attests to this. This confirms a very poor response rate to maintenance needs of the building

generally. The poor state of the building could not therefore be due to frequent failure of various

elements, rather that, it is as a result of delayed responses to request for fixing defects in the building.

Thus, the maintenance culture is poor. The next question identifies key challenges leading to poor

maintenance culture of the Federal Secretariat. Seventeen challenges were identified and grouped into

four in accordance to literature (see Table 5).The groups are economic, technical, policy and


7


managerial-related challenges. Respondents rated the degree of impact of the identified impeding

factors on maintenance progress of the federal secretariat. Mean values were computed and ranked

and the key challenges were identified. Results show that inflation is the main issue affecting the

economic aspect of maintenance works in the Secretariat. The item was scored the highest mean value

of 0.80. The second key factor is inadequate funding which has a mean score of 0.73, then late release

of funds (0.64).The last factor in the group is poor management of finances (0.56). The key technical

challenge is shortage of materials for maintenance works (0.58). Under the policy category,

respondents believe that the existing policy is not clear enough (0.56) to enable right maintenance

actions. By interpretation, there is no clear guide on the maintenance activities. Possibly it was

affected by the poor bureaucratic setting of the organization which is the second highest rank with

(0.50).

FACTORS/ MEASUREMENT SCALE 1 2 3 4 5 RII Raking

Economics Challenges factors

Inadequate funding 0 4 4 4 6 0.73 2

Poor management of finance 4 2 8 2 2 0.56 7

Late release of budget finance 2 2 6 6 2 0.64 3

Inflation 0 0 6 6 6 0.80 1

Total 6 8 24 18 16 0.68

Technical Challenges Factors

Lack of qualified personnel 4 6 2 0 4 0.53 10

Inadequate personnel 6 4 2 2 2 0.48 14

Poor tools for carrying out maintenance work 4 6 6 0 2 0.49 12

Shortage of materials for maintenance work 4 2 8 0 4 0.58 6

Total 18 18 18 2 12 0.52

Policy Factors

Poor record keeping of maintenance activities 8 2 2 0 4 0.48 14

Unclear maintenance policy 4 4 6 0 4 0.56 7

No maintenance manual 6 6 0 0 4 0.48 14

Unclear bureaucratic set up for maintenance 4 4 6 0 2 0.50 11

Total 22 16 14 0 14 0.50

Managerial Factors

Poor personnel management (wrong assigned roles) 8 4 2 0 4 0.47 17

Late notification of maintenance needs 2 10 0 2 4 0.56 7

Late response to maintenance request 2 4 4 2 4 0.63 4

Poor motivation of maintenance staff 4 6 4 4 0 0.49 12

Long bureaucracy in maintenance actions 4 4 2 4 4 0.60 5

Total 20 28 12 12 16 0.55

Bureaucracy often relates to clear direction and chain of command in an organization without which

departmental functions could be confusing. That is enough to cause poor motivation and

dissatisfaction among the labour force which dampens workers‘ morale. The key impeding factor

identified under the managerial category is late responses to maintenance request (0.63). It means

maintenance of defects is often delayed. This confirms early findings that the frequent of defects is

not due to high rate of failed items rather it is the delay in repairs of defects. The highest ranked

impeding factors overall in Table 5 are inflation (0.80); inadequate funding (0.73); late release of

finance (0.64) and late response to maintenance request (0.63).The factors least affecting maintenance

activities ranked are poor personnel management (0.47); inadequate personnel (0.48); poor record

keeping of maintenance activities (0.48) and no maintenance manual (0.48). Respondents imply that

the issue of personnel adequacy and management are not major problems in the organization and

suggesting good record keeping and along maintenance manual in the secretariat confirming earlier

finding in Figure 1.

The last question was an open-ended question in which respondents were requested to freely comment

on the maintenance activities in the federal secretariat. Eight respondents commented but the

researcher identified five issues based on similarity. The comments were that: the Federal

Government has not done impressively/enough on maintenance of the facility; there is poor attitude to


8


the release of funds; there is poor motivation of workers in the maintenance department; policy

makers and executioners lack maintenance culture, and at least some few believe that there is total

failure in previous attempts to maintain the structure. The general comments did not convey any new

information outside what was established in the literature as well as the findings from the previous

sections of the research.

Discussion

This research set out to explore the key impediments to maintenance of public buildings in Nigeria.

Benefits of maintenance were first presented. The Federal Secretariat, Kawo, Kaduna, was the case

study. Appraising the challenges enabled recommendation on best ways to maintain public facilities

and derive associated economic, health, emotional, and productivity as well as integrity benefits.

Three maintenance sub systems- policy, manual and records were the focus to avail the culture of

maintenance of public facilities. Findings show that there exist maintenance records, policy and

manual in the Federal Secretariat and that these items are often put in use when carrying out

maintenance works. This suggests a good maintenance culture that contradicts Kunya (2007) who

found poor maintenance culture of public facilities in similar researches. Notwithstanding, with good

culture, the researchers expect a good testament on the maintenance of the Federal Secretariat

complex in Kawo Kaduna. However, further probing questions revealed different findings.

Respondents were asked to rate the defects they often observe in the building. Over half of the defects

were rated 0.50 and above. The pooled mean value is also slightly above half (0.52). It means

respondents often see defects that are not maintained. Major defects often observed are cooling and

ventilating problems, peeling of plaster work and broken doors and windows. Others are non-

functional WC/WHB, sockets and switches burnt out, and failed water tap heads/valves. It means that

many items in the list are in state of disrepair. To buttress this finding, the frequency of occurrence of

the defects was assessed and the pool mean was above average (0.60). It therefore indicates a high

rate of frequent failed items-the frequency not due to high rate of failure, but due to delayed responses

to maintenance request. In other words, mending the defects observed in the complex are always

delayed. This is a poor maintenance culture similar to findings by Ahmed (2000). The overall rate of

response to the repairs of identified defects was just 0.35 as in Table 4. This shows that there are 65%

chances that request to mend defects observed will not be done when and as due. It reaffirms that

there is delay in responding to maintenance needs of the complex. The research did not establish how

long it takes to respond, however the finding established that the secretariat is poorly maintained due

to poor maintenance culture. The Federal Secretariat is the biggest and most important building

owned by the Federal Government in the state. The building accommodates almost all the Federal

Ministries. The poor attitude to its maintenance could replicate on other Federal Government

buildings or facilities generally.

Since it was established that the complex is poorly maintained, it becomes imperative to assess the

key challenges militating against its maintenance, to enable suggestions on how to improve on the

practice. Table 5 established poor Economic, Technical, Policy and Managerial categories of factors

challenging maintenance practice in the Federal Secretariat. Each of these categories has a pooled

mean above half, the least being technical with mean of 0.50. The ranking of factors showed that

inflation; inadequate funding; late release of finance and late response to maintenance request are top

impeding factors. Three of them relate to economic issues. Usman, Gambo, and Chen (2012) found

funding as key factor preventing maintenance of residential buildings in Nigeria. The 4th factor which

is late responses to maintenance request could also be due to the economic challenges. Poor

management of funds was also found to impede maintenance significantly. Where funding is adequate

and well managed, other problems are easily put right. Technical, managerial and policy issues

depend largely on funding. This issue of funding was also key when respondents commented freely

on the section of the open-ended question. Respondents opined that the Federal Government that

owns the complex is doing less than expected in terms of funding maintenance works. There is poor

attitude in the release of funds which is often inadequate and delayed. Iyamu et al. (2018) similarly

stated that in Nigeria, poor government funding/ lack of fund impede the maintenance of public

facilities. Comments also favour lack of clear policy which was supported by Ugwu et al. (2018) that

ranked ―lack of maintenance policy‖ highest among a set of factors impeding maintenance of public


9


structures. Policymakers and policy implementers lack maintenance culture which confirms the

findings by researchers that maintenance culture of Public buildings is at a low ebb (Kunya, 2007;

Usman et al., 2012; Iyamu et al., 2018). Without a good culture, it is difficult to achieve success in

any maintenance programme. Therefore, most respondents opined that there has been total failure in

the maintenance of the complex.

Conclusions and Recommendations

From the analysis and discussions of the results, it is concluded that public buildings are poorly

maintained in Nigeria due to poor maintenance culture and as a result the associated economic and

social benefits are never maximised. The Federal Government has not done enough in maintaining

public buildings. Funding is inadequate, often released late that breeds poor motivation in any little

effort. Therefore, the main challenge is economic such as inflation of prices, poor funding, delay in

the release of resources and poor management of what is released. This anomaly exerts negative

bearing on technical, managerial and policy systems delivery. These were also found to still

significantly work against successful maintenance of the public buildings. This research therefore

recommends the review of maintenance culture along policy, planning, programmes, manuals,

records, bureaucracy, etc. for public buildings‘ maintenance in line with world‘s best practices. A

body be set up and given a singular role of overseeing the cultivation and proper implementation of

maintenance culture in public buildings in line with best practices. This is to blend with a change of

attitudes to the maintenance of public facilities by the Federal Government. A dedicated account for

the funding of public buildings‘ maintenance similar to the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund)

concept should be established. Alternatively, mandatory percentage deductions from allocations to

public organisations, ministries and departments should fund the account. Adequate inspection routine

of achievements and proper checks and balances of funds released be necessitated to ensure judicious

use of capital resources.

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national development. Civil and Environmental Research, 8(8): 23-30. Obtained from www.iiste.org

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Ahmed, A. (2000). Management System in maintenance of Infrastructure. Fahimta Pub Company, Kaduna

Ahzahar, N., Karim, N. A., Hassan, S. H. and Eman, J. (2011). A study of contribution factors to building

failures and defects in construction industry. The 2nd International Building Control Conference.

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www.un.org/disabilities/documents/reports/SG- Accessed March 23, 2015.

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culture on public buildings in Nigeria (A case study of Osun State). IOSR Journal of Mechanical and

Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), 14 (5):53-57. DOI: 10.9790/1684-1405035357

Dhillon, B.S. and Liu, Y (2006). "Human error in maintenance: a review." Journal of Quality in

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Ebi, U. K. (2014). Maintenance culture and sustainable economic development in Nigeria: issues,

problems and prospects. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management UK, 2(11)1-11.

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Iyamu, I. F., Imasuen and Osakue, E. F. (2018). Analysis of maintenance culture in public primary and

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4(2):23-30. Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK. (www.eajournals.org)

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Management. www.cenresinpub.org


11


FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF THE DETERMINANTS OF CRIME ON REAL ESTATE

PROPERTIES IN OWERRI, IMO STATE

Okey F. Nwanekezie1 and Iheanyi J. Onuoha

2

1Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Nigeria

2Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Imo State University Owerri

Nigeria. [email protected]: 08035460668

Abstract

In recent times the real estate sector in Imo State has been clouded with the fear of uncertainty and insecurity

arising from various forms of crimes. Real estate practitioners and owners now face security challenges as a

result of broad day robbery, looting, arson, theft, extortion, fraud, land grabbing and various forms of property

scams. Large sums of money has been spent on variety of security equipment to improve safety, and protect

property; however increase in property damage, loss of output; financial loss, psychological trauma and loss of

lives and properties have continued unabated. At the moment, there are extremely limited empirical studies on

the determinants of violent property crimes in the study area. This study thus investigates the determinants of

crime on real estate properties with a view to identifying the factors that influence the occurrences of crime on

real estate properties based on the opinions of estate surveyors and valuers, and the real estate developers in

Imo State, and to apply factor analysis technique to determine the extent to which the variables are linked or

clustered to property crime. The result showed that the determinants of crime on real estate properties is a five-

factor-inter correlation determinants that include socio-economic factors, deterrent factors, demographic and

neighborhood characteristics, government and institutional issues and market conditions and causes. It is hoped

that this study will aid real estate managers in their property management duties.

Keywords: Crime, property crime, insecurity, real estate properties, sense of security, crime determinants.

Introduction

Recent decades have seen rapid increase in the rate of crime against properties. Whereas urban

authorities are grappling to contain the rising incidences of crime such as murder, armed robbery,

kidnapping, drug trafficking, sex trafficking, illegal gun running and host of others, fresh and modern

tactics of offence against properties have continued to emerge. For example, housebreaking, burglary,

vandalism/property damage, arson seems to have taken a new and digital dimension. Perpetrators of

crime now employ modern technology such as computer expertise to commit property crime. For

instance, organized/professional crimes, syndicate or business crimes, ―yahoo yahoo‖ and property

scams are now carried out through the internet to defraud people of their properties. In most cases

land scams are committed through Face-book and Whatsapp platforms. The consequences of this have

been increase in the level of insecurity of lives and property, financial loss and psychological trauma

and so on. Experts have argued that one of the causes of this could be due to the significant rapid

urban growth resulting from industrialization, unplanned urbanization with the unrestrained growth

pattern in most of the cities which manifest in diverse urban problems such as urban decay where

visible forms of drug use, ant-social behaviour and criminal damage to public and private properties

are the order of the day (Gibbons, 2004; Bello, 2011). However, studies of the places in which crime

against property occurs, have formed a major theme of empirical study linking deterrent factors and

socioeconomic conditions as major determinants of property crime (Omotor, 2009; Igbuzor, 2011;

Omotor, 2013). Apart from this, Entorf and Spengler (2000); Haddad and Moghadam (2008); and

Achumba et al, (2013) found evidence linking demographic and neighborhood characteristics, market

conditions and government and institutional factors as key factors of crime against real estate

properties.

This suggests that most urban crimes are property based. For example, housebreaking, burglary, or

violent inter-personal crime such as assault, rape and murder often arise as a result of property

induced causes and disputes (Bello, 2011; Khan, 2012). Furthermore there are indications that the

value of a building can be connected to the building‘s apparent level of security and safety (Bello,

2011). For example, Enokela and Tyowuah, Bello (2011) observed that relative safety in properties

boost property values, while the prevalence of armed robbery and crime related issues lead to loss in

rent and property value, as well as destruction of lives and assets. It could equally lead to fear. Thus,

crime and the fear of crime affect many aspect of everyday life. Oftentimes, it leads to permanent


12



shut-down of properties or relocation to less crime-prone areas. As a consequence, increase in cost of

doing business remains high, while business expansion and productivity improvement remains low.

Furthermore, it results to a less than optimal operating strategy. Perhaps, this is why providing

adequate security is a great concern to owners and occupants of landed properties alike. However,

whether a property is owner-occupied or tenant- occupied, providing the best security to ensure the

safety of people and protection of intellectual and physical property is essential (Shneider and kitchen,

2006). While this study agrees to this opinion, it equally add that the top property related issue that

worries property owners and in particular the society most, is the unresolved key factors that

determines crime against properties which have not been fully explored.

For instance, in Nigeria studies show that in the urban areas like Owerri, greater determinants of

crime are socio-economic factors and variables such as income inequality index, unemployment rate

and income variables/per capita income (Gunda et al, 2012; Bhosale and Wavhal; 2013; Enokela, and

Tyowuah, 2014). Also, demographic and neighborhood Characteristics like education/ higher literacy

rate or levels of educational attainment, age-structure of the state, growth rate of population and

gender, urbanization, race, immigration, and population density equally play significant role (Bello,

2011). With this, larger percentage of real estate owners, investors and occupants live in perpetual

fear because of burglary, armed robbery, ―yahoo yahoo‖, kidnapping, property scam and other forms

of crime. Gibbons (2004) opined that no matter the nature of crime, it will have dynamic effect driven

by office owner location decision which in turn affects the price of properties. Therefore, the demand

for low – crime neighbourhoods is often high in the property market (Social Exclusion Unit, 2001).

For example, studies on the impact of urban crime on property values in Akure, Nigeria show that

crime is of great concern to property owners in the state (Bello, 2011). Outside Nigeria, studies of Los

Angeles inner city corridors found that crime was the prominent concern of residents in the area.

Consequently, a potential renter or buyer of property would always be concerned with the crime rate

in a neighbourhood before making his choice. Thus, in high crime areas, rental or sales value tend to

decline. Social Exclusion Unit (2001) noted that areas with high crime and unemployment rates

acquire poor reputations, as properties in the areas are in bad condition and hence attracts low values,

while on the contrary prospective buyers are likely to pay more in a neighbourhood with low crime

rate and adequate security.

This could explain why Bello (2011) posited that rising incidences of crime such as burglary, armed

robbery, shop, office and house breaking are now ravaging the real estate investment sector in Nigeria

like tsunami. For example, the 2016 crime statistics released by the National Bureau of Statistics

NBS, in 2017 show that offence against property has the highest number of cases reported with

65,397 of such cases. This is followed by offence against persons which recorded 45,554 cases, while

offence against lawful authority and local acts recorded the least with 12,144 and 2,695 cases

respectively (NBS, 2017). At the state level, the report ranked Lagos State highest with share of total

cases of 36.08% and 45, 385 cases while FCT and Delta State followed closely with 10.48% and

13,181 and 6.25% and 7,867 cases recorded in that order (National Bureau of Statistics NBS, 2017).

Imo State the study area was not spared. The total cases reported in 2016 stood at 1,930. Reported

offence against persons in Imo State as of 2016 was 954 while offence against property recorded 873

cases (National Bureau of Statistics NBS, 2017). This is followed by offence against lawful authority

which is put at 103(National Bureau of Statistics NBS, 2017).

Furthermore, in another study of crime fatalities in Nigeria as reported by Nigeria Watch Database

(2015) and Nwankwo (2016), States like Lagos, Rivers, Ogun, Benue and Imo state were ranked as

the most affected states in relation to fatal crimes. The study showed that Imo State had cases of 104

armed robbery cases, 47 cult issues, 25 kidnapping cases, 5 cases of rape, 20 domestic violence and

23 assassinations / thuggery / hooliganism. It is suspected these statistics do not tell the whole truth as

many crimes in the state go unreported (Nwankwo, 2016). Today, Imo State is widely known for

major crimes such as organized/professional crimes syndicate (yahoo‖ yahoo) or business crimes,

white collar crimes such as fraud in business and government offices, armed robbery, burglary,

trespass, vandalism, politically motivated killings / assassinations, kidnapping, sabotage and

subversions (Nwankwo, 2016). The upsurge of crime on property has been ongoing as Imo State has

Okey F. Nwanekezie and Iheanyi J. Onuoha

13


been on the national crime map since 1990s. Events in Owerri show that there is an average high level

of real estate activities going on. Also, Owerri houses many commercial banks, insurance companies,

hotels, private and public buildings and housing development companies. Moreover, in recent times,

there has been rapid increase in the number of new and aesthetic/ iconic buildings in various streets of

Owerri. In most cases, some designated residential estates like the World Bank Housing suburbs and

environs have been converted to business outlets with modern facilities. Thus, there has been

corresponding fear and increase in property crime. Most often people are not satisfied to live or do

business in neighbourhoods in Owerri where crime rate is high and in some cases it alters the office

owners‘ location decision and the prices paid for such properties. What fears experts most is that

majority of the buildings within the study area are not built with sophisticated security devices that

can detect or track criminals. As a consequence, crimes have continued unabated with its attendant

effects on property values. Thus, at every level of crime increase, prices of properties seem to

decrease while at every level of crime reduction, property prices seem to increase. With this

fluctuating and erratic security situation in Owerri, the question that has remained unanswered is;

what are the key determining factors that influence the occurrence of crime on real estate properties?

Based on this logic, the objective of this study is to identify and explore the factors that influence the

occurrences of crime on real estate properties in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.

The study Area and Methodology

Owerri is the capital city of Imo State Nigeria created in 1976 with 27 local Government areas. The

State has a total land mass of approximately 5300sq kilometers with an estimated population of about

5 million people. The 1991 and 2006 census figure released by the National Population Commission

puts the population of Imo State at 2,485,635 and 3,927,563 respectively (NPC, 2006; NPC, 2008). It

is predominantly a civil service state with almost the entire workforce residing in the city and its

environs and with an average high level of commercial and business activities going on. As a result,

Owerri houses many banks, insurance companies, primary mortgage institutions (PMIs), State

Housing Corporation and private housing development companies. Owerri experiences high influx of

population from within and outside the State. Of course, security issues which affect persons and

properties pose a serious challenge. The real estate sector which is very strategic in urban

development is increasingly being affected by crime, and this is of great concern to this study.

Therefore, an investigation into the factors that influence the occurrences of crime in real estate

properties is considered useful and desirable hence this study.

This study adopted purposive sampling and stratified sampling techniques. The principal aim of using

purposive sampling method was to identify and select research participants who are knowledgeable

and experienced in the subject matter. This technique is a criterion-based sampling, used when a

researcher requires an informed population. The stratified-sampling participants were estate surveyors

and valuers and developers who are involved in the development and management of real estate

buildings. They formed the unit of analysis of this study. The sample frame was drawn from an

estimated population of 232 registered and accredited estate surveyors and valuers in Imo State and

350 real estate developers who are members of real estate developers association of Nigeria REDAN.

Thus, the total population estimates drawn for both respondents was 582. A total of 500 sets of

questionnaires were distributed among the classes of respondents. In selecting the sample, guidance

was taken from Krejcie and Morgan‘s decision model (1970). It is a model of research instrument that

provides a generalized scientific guide and table for sample decisions. For estate surveyors and

valuers, 200 questionnaires were distributed. Out of this, 185 were returned. Out of 185 returned, 5

were discarded because they were not properly completed. The remaining 180 represented 36.37

percent of the distributed questionnaires. For developers, 300 questionnaires were distributed, with

280 returned. Out of 280 returned, 15 were removed because of incomplete responses, the remaining

265 showing 63.63 percent of distributed questionnaires. Therefore, in all, the total questionnaires

received from both respondents were 465, while 35 were not returned and 20 were discarded. The

remaining 445 representing 76 percent were used for the analysis of this study. Questionnaires were

administered face-to-face to the participants. Several visits were made and reminders sent including

phones calls to the respondents. The study introduced incentives to motivate participants respond to

the questionnaires.

Factorial Analysis of the Determinants of Crime on Real Estate Properties in Owerri, Imo State

14


The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part 1 contained general demographic questions of the

participants designed to know their background information while part 2 comprised a set of questions

that were intended to shed light on participants‘ awareness of determinants of crime and variables that

could influence real estate properties. The distributed questionnaires tapped into the opinions of estate

surveyors and valuers and developers on the following measures: (a) Deterrent Factors (DETER) [1]

Severity of punishment, justice and court systems [2] Conditions of prison, and jail procedures, [3]

Likelihood / risk of being caught and the associated punishment; [4] Level of crime cleared by police.

: (b) Socioeconomic Causes (SOECO) [1] Income inequality index [2] Unemployment rate [3]

Income variables/per capita income [4] Lower income and rental status. (c) Demographic and

Neighborhood Characteristics DNC [1] Education/ higher literacy rate or levels of educational

attainment [2] Age-structure of the state, growth rate of population and gender [3] Urbanization, race,

immigration, population density [4] The percentage of men aged 15-29 years, the share of population

living in provincial capital – area characteristics. (d) Market Conditions and Causes (MCAF) [1]

Labor market conditions represented by unemployment rate, and real average weekly and monthly

earnings [2] Weak market security system [3] Inadequate equipment for security [4] Attitudinal and

behavioral disposition of security personnel. (e) Government and Institutional Issues (GOVIN) [1]

Corrosion and breakdown of institutional factors [2] Inability and failure of government to deliver

public services and to provide for basic needs of the people [3] Lack of basic necessities for the

people.

This study adopted exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The key objective of using exploratory factor

analysis method was to identify and determine the extent to which the observed variables are linked to

their underlying latent factors. Exploratory factor analysis is a multivariate statistical technique that is

used for structure identification within a set of observed variables (Kline, 1999). It is a first order

analysis used in situations where researchers have no knowledge or are uncertain about the links

between the observed variables and the underlying constructs. Thus, exploratory factor analysis is

used to explore an empirical data in order to determine and identify the distinguishing features and

interesting relationships among variables without imposing any definite model on the data. As such,

exploratory factor analysis was adapted to determine and extract the underlying crime factors

influencing real estate properties that account for correlation among the variables. Though, argument

against EFA is based on the fact that its procedures are essentially descriptive by nature. The

implication is that hypothesis testing using exploratory factor analysis is often difficult (Kline 1999;

Aliagha, 2004). Nevertheless, this study adopted the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) popular measure of

sampling adequacy (MSA) and the Bartletts test of sphericity. KMO provides a measure of the extent

to which the variables belong together and are appropriate for factor analysis. Hair et al, (1987)

provided the criteria for assessing the values of MSA. According to the authors, 0.90+ is regarded as

marvelous, 0.80+ is meritorious; 0.70+ is middling; 0.60+ is mediocre and 0.50+ miserable and below

0.50+ is unacceptable. Field (2000) had argued that KMO should be greater than 0.5 if the sample is

adequate. Bartletts test of sphericity tests the hypothesis that the correlation matrix comes from a

population of variables that are independent. A rejection of the hypothesis is an indication that the

data is appropriate for factor analysis.

Review of Related Literature

Studies show that deterrent variables of crime relate to the punishment, justice and court systems, and

prison and jail conditions (Bello. 2011; Ruonanno and Montolio, 2008; Buonanno, 2003). Deterrence

determines the expected returns from crime and thus relates to the probability of apprehension and

severity of punishment. One way of measuring this variable is the number of convicted cases to total

reports of police (Haddad and Moghadam, 2008). This is the form of deterrence variable whose data

is readily available for Nigeria at the state level and equally used. Individuals who commit crime are

assumed to evaluate the likelihood risk of being caught and the associated punishment. Ehrlich (1973

and 1996) confirmed that in the United States both factors have negative effect on crime rates.

Buonanno and Montolio (2008) have also established empirically that deterrence, also known as

clear-up rate has significant negative effects on all typologies of crime (persons, property and total).


15


The implication is that a higher level of crime cleared by police is associated with lower expected

returns from crime.

Omotor (2009) found evidence linking socioeconomic factors to high rate of crime. These factors

include income inequality index (IIEQ), unemployment rate, per capita income etc. For

unemployment rate, studies have shown positive relationship between crime rate and unemployment.

As noted by Gunda et al (2012) the reason behind the positive relationship would be that, as people

become unemployed they would in the short run search for new jobs. In the long run, if they do not

find jobs they would tend to deviate to crime. However, some studies have found a negative

relationship between crime and unemployment rate. Mashi and Masih (1996) summarized existing

literature on this issue. Of the series of studies, 33 of them found positive relationships while 19

studies found a negative or no relationships between crime and unemployment rate. Thus, the

empirical results behind this relationship remain ambiguous. Other detailed reviews of the empirical

literature on these inconclusive relationships are Freeman (1999) and Masciandaro (1999).

Another economic factor that affects crime is income variable. There exists several ways of capturing

the income variable in economics of crime. Income could be measured as per capita income or even

proxies and in supplementary terms by income inequality index (IIEQ), the Gini coefficient

(consistency), etc. In Nigeria, there exists no state level (disaggregate) data on GDP, per capita

income or the Gini coefficient. Consequent upon this, annual federal revenue allocation to states is

used as a proxy for income and as a component measure of per capita income (since state level data

on population and data on population per state exist). Consistent federal revenue allocation data for

the period of the study is published by the Ministry of Finance. In relation to the expected relationship

between per capita income (PCI) and crime, one school of thought holds it to be negative. According

to this thought, as PCI increases on the average in the state, the well-being of everyone is expected to

increase, thus the urge or incentive to commit crime is reduced. Should the Gini inequality index or

poverty line be used, then a positive relationship may be argued as observed by the second school of

thought. This is because as number of persons under the poverty line increases, the crime rate will be

expected to increase. In addition, income increases may also lead to higher number of goods to be

stolen and so increases opportunities for potential offenders all things being equal (Kustepeli and

Onel, 2006; İmrohoroğlu et al, 2006)

Investigations have shown that demographic and neighborhood characteristics have significant

relationship with crime. For example, education could influence the decision to engage in criminal

activities via many ways. This is as a result of the role education plays in the economic development

process of nations. For instance, higher literacy rate or levels of educational attainment could increase

the opportunity cost of criminal behavior. Some studies have empirically shown that criminals tend to

be less educated and as such, it could be reasoned that education raises individuals‘ skills and abilities

and thus increases returns to legal activities (Wilson and Herrnstein, 1985; Gunda et al, 2012;

Omotor, 2009). Thus, a negative coefficient relationship is a priori expected. Some other reasons why

education may affect decision to commit crime are that, education perpetuates the values of society,

acculturates people to serve their communities, promotes virtues of hard work and honesty, etc.

(Buonanno, and Montolio, 2008).

Again, some of the socio- demographic determinants of crime as recognized by scholars are the age-

structure of the state, growth rate of population and gender (percentage of male, or female in the

labour force), urbanization, race, immigration, population density. Other demographic variable

include the population density (measured as the ratio of state and land area to its population). This

could have positive relationship with crime. All things being equal, the higher the population density,

the higher should be the rate of crime. Furthermore, the percentage of men aged 15-29 years; the share

of population living in provincial capital and the share of foreigners have been evidenced as

determinants of crime on properties (Omotor 2016). Young men are said to be more prone to engage

in criminal activities than the rest of the population, this means that the participation to crime is higher

at the initial stage of adulthood (Freeman, 1996; Grogger, 1996, 1991, 1998). Recent studies (Entorf

and Spengler, 2000; Entorf and Winker, 2001; Buonanno, 2005) have included the percentage of


16


foreigners as a possible determinant of crime against property. In particular, illegal immigrants are

more likely to be engaged in crime because they are not eligible for regular works.

Crime has become a means of showing grievances and objection within the property market as

researchers see empirical evidence that it commands greater market attention. For example, report by

National Bureau of Statistics NBS (2013) shows that that market crime for properties are experiencing

increasing growth. Subsequent studies confirm that the labor market conditions are represented by

unemployment rate and real average weekly and monthly earnings. The effect of unemployment on

crime is ambiguous to predict as argued in Ehrlich (1973). Unemployment rate has both motivation

and opportunity effects on crime as argued in Scott et al (2012). As higher unemployment motivates

potential offenders to commit crime by decreasing their opportunity cost of doing so, it also reduces

the opportunities for certain crimes and thus tends to reduce those crime rates. Therefore, the net

effect of unemployment rate will depend on which effect is stronger, motivation or opportunity, and

could be positive, negative or even zero. The average weekly earnings are also expected to have

ambiguous effect. While higher earnings could reduce people‘s incentives to commit crimes, it could

also increase the opportunities for property crimes. Therefore, the net effect of real earnings on crime

rates could be either positive, negative or zero. Furthermore, weak market security system has been

linked to causes of crime. Inadequate equipment for security both in weaponry and training in

addition to poor attitudinal and behavioral disposition of security personnel, seem to create room and

opportunity for crime in property market. For instance, in many cases, security personnel assigned to

guard and deal with security situations connected to property crime lack the expertise and equipment

to handle the situation (Achumba et al, 2013).

The corrosion and breakdown of institutional factors could to lead to serious crime against persons

and property (Fukuyama, 2004). According to Igbuzor (2011), the state of insecurity in Nigeria is

largely a function of government failure. This is manifested by the inability and failure of government

to deliver public services and to provide for basic needs of the people. Lack of basic necessities for

the people has created a pool of frustrated young people who are ignited easily by any event to be

violent. Perhaps this is why (Ani, 2015; Igbuzor, 2011 and Alujor, 2005) described the Nigerian

situation as a paradox of plenty, a situation where the need of its people and to develop infrastructure

as well as the economy, is of less importance to the government. Thus, the author argued that where

this situation exist, crime rate is bound to rise as in the case of Nigeria and the security of lives and

property cannot be guaranteed.

Results and discussion

The certified 445 questionnaires indicated the academic background of the respondents as follows:

Estate surveyors and valuers: diploma 33.2%; degree 55.5% and post-graduate 12.3%. Developers:

diploma 32.46%; degree 44.15% and post-graduate 23.39%. It is evident that the respondents have

either university or polytechnic education. On unit of the analysis, estate surveyors constituted

36.37%% while developers represented 63.66%%.

Table 1 shows the statistics used to identify the variables and assess the determinants of crime on real

estate properties. Nineteen (19) variables were used to determine the factors while Table 2 indicates

the variance extracted. For easier analytical reasons and ease of entering into computer statistical

package, the questions and responses were coded using numerical values.


17


Table 1: Extracted factors of crime on real estate properties (Varimax Loading)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5

DETER1 - 0.762 - - -

DETER2 - 0.710 - - -

DETER3 - 0.759 - - -

DETER4 - 0.644 - - -

SOECO1 0.763 - - - -

SOECO2 0.898 - - - -

SOECO3 0.720 - - - -

SOECO4 0.701 - - - -

DNC1 - - 0.658 - -

DNC2 - - 0.633 - -

DNC3 - - 0.625 - -

DNC4 - - 0.615 - -

MCAF1 - - - - 0.659

MCAF2 - - - - 0.641

MCAF3 - - - - 0.524

MCAF4 - - - - 0.520

GOVIN1 - - - 0.605 -

GOVIN2 - - - 0.628 -

GOVIN3 - - - 0.554 -

Fac 1 = SOECO; Fac 2 = DETER; Fac 3= DNC Fac 4= GOVIN; Fac 5= MCAF

Table 2: Variance extracted that influence the occurrences of crime on real estate properties

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Factors Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of variance Cumulative %

1 9.899 20.623 21.246 6.904 19.389 22.486 6.846 9.345 15.690

2 5.587 10.344 33.897 3.143 9.328 25.455 5.922 8.824 18..124

3 2.011 7.782 39.353 1.635 6. 289 36.015 3.333 6.490 25.840

4 1.386 5.762 48.087 1.222 4. 442 38.304 1.568 5.246 30.190

5 1.255 4.124 50.184 1.101 3.016 45.220 1.223 5.021 45.208

Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy = 0.866; Bartlett‘s Test of Sphericity: x2

(566) = 6686

sig.000. Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood

A look at Table 1 indicates that the variables belong or hang together and therefore are appropriate for

factor analysis. The Bartlett‘s test of sphericity is significant at (2χ(566) =6686, p = .000, α = .01). This

advocates that the data used for this study does not arise from a population of variables that are

independent and it shows that the data is a representation of a sample from a multivariable normal

population. In the same way, the result is also an indicative of the fitness of the data for factor

analysis. Based on eigenvalues criteria in which factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 are extracted,

five (5) factors were extracted using varimax rotated factor matrix method (Table 2). The factors in

Table 1 have a better convergence and did not largely change axis by loading into different factors.

The factor solution shown in Table 2 was created using varimax rotation of maximum likelihood

estimation (MLS). All the variables in Table1 loaded significantly above the recommended threshold

of 0.3 as suggested in the rule of thumb (Kline, 1999). On the other hand, in Kaiser and Rice criteria,

the values could be regarded as meritorious which implies that the variables belong to or hang

together and therefore are appropriate for factor analysis (Field, 2000)

For example, a look at Table 1 under extracted factors that influence the occurrences of crime on real

estate properties show that four variables loaded significantly in factor 1: (Socio-economic causes-

SOECO). They include: SOECO1 = Income inequality index (0.763); SOECO2 = Unemployment rate

(0.898); SOECO3 = Income variables/per capita income (0.720); and SOECO4 = Lower income and

rental status (0.701). With this significant loading above the threshold of 0.3 as recommended in the

rule of thumb (Kline, 1999), factor 1 is regarded as the foremost factor that influence the occurrences

of crime on real estate properties. It goes to show that socio-economic measures such as

unemployment, income level and income inequality are serious factors that influence people‘s

decision to commit crime on properties. As noted earlier, as the number of unemployed or persons on

poverty line continue to rise, the crime rate on properties will be expected to increase. On the other


18


hand, income increases may also lead to higher number of properties constructed or bought which

could also increases opportunities for potential offences against properties all things being equal.

Furthermore, factor 1 account for 9.8% of the variance in the factor solution with (6.846%) on the

rotated sum of square loading as shown in Table 2. Thus, it occurred as the first important factor in

relative terms. Given that the loading estimates are significantly high and the variables have shown

common features in the form of correlation, this study accepted this factor as a factor that influence

the occurrences of crime on real estate properties.

The factor extraction in Table 1 shows that four variables loaded significantly in factor 2 (Deterrent

Factors DETER). These comprise: DETER1 = Severity of punishment, justice and court systems

(0.762); DETER2 = Conditions of prison, and jail procedures (0.710); DETER3 = Likelihood / risk of

being caught and the associated punishment (0.759) and DETER4 = Level of crime cleared by police

(0.644). A look at the above loading shows that deterrent factors are influencers of crime on real

estate properties. For example, when severity of punishment is low and justice systems compromised,

there tend to be high rates of crime in the society and on properties. Thus, given that these variables

emerged significantly only to this factor and also accounts for 5.5% of total variance in the factor

solution with (5.922%) in rotated sum of square loading as indicated in Table 2, it becomes an

underlying explaining factor in this study.

Table 1 also shows that four indicators loaded significantly under demographic and neighborhood

characteristics (DNC). The variables that loaded significantly include: DNC1 = Education/ higher

literacy rate or levels of educational attainment (0.658); DNC2 = Age-structure of the state, growth

rate of population and gender (0.633); DNC3 = urbanization, race, immigration, population density

(0.625); and DNC4 = The percentage of men aged 15-29 years, the share of population living in

provincial capital – area characteristics (0.615). With these significant loadings, this factor is affirmed

as an underlying factor that influences the occurrence of crime on properties. Furthermore, with

rotated sum of square loading of (3.333%) and a percentage variance of 2.0%, in the factor solution as

shown in Table 2 it emerged as the third important factor based on relative importance as factor that

influences occurrences of crime on real estate property. Table 1 also explains the loadings in factor 4.

The Table indicated that three variables loaded significantly. They include: GOVIN1 = Corrosion and

breakdown of institutional factors (0.605); GOVIN2 = Inability and failure of government to deliver

public services and to provide for basic needs of the people (0.628), and GOVIN3 = Lack of basic

necessities for the people (0.554). With the percentage variance of 1.3% and a rotated sum of square

loading (1.568%) in the factor solution as indicated in Table 2, this factor emerged as the fourth factor

in this study in relative importance. The factor is recognized in the analysis as Government and

Institutional Issues (GOVIN). It goes to show that the failure of government to deliver public services

and to provide the basic needs of the people could lead to crime against properties. For example,

government inability to provide the basic necessities such as education and infrastructural facilities for

the people could lead to arson and destruction of public properties. It could create a pool of frustrated

young people who maybe ignited easily by the failure to be violent and embark on riot.

Four variables emerged significantly under Market Conditions and Causes (MCAF) as shown in Table

1. A closer look at the Table suggests that the following variables loaded significantly above the

recommended threshold of 0.3 as advocated in the rule of thumb. They include; MCAF1 = Labor

market conditions represented by unemployment rate, and real average weekly and monthly earnings

(0.659); MCAF2 = Weak market security system (0.641); MCAF3 = Inadequate equipment for

security (0.524); and MCAF4 = Attitudinal and behavioral disposition of security personnel (0.520).

Based on this loading, factor 5 is regarded as the fifth factor that affects the occurrences of crime on

properties. In addition, factor 5 represents 1.2% of the variance in the factor solution with (1.223%)

on the rotated sum of square loading as shown in Table 2. Thus, it occurred as the fifth important

factor in relative terms. Given that the loading estimates are significantly high and the variables have

shown common features in the form of correlation to factor 5, it was accepted as factor that influences

the occurrences of crime on real estate properties. Thus, they become underlying factors that could

encourage crime and affects real estate properties.


19


Conclusion and Recommendations

The key objective of this study is to identify the factors that influence the occurrences of crime on real

estate properties. The five-factor determinants of crime: socio-economic factors, deterrent factors,

demographic and neighborhood characteristics, government and institutional issues and market

condition measures have strong influence on real estate properties based on the findings. For example,

the loading estimates of all the variables used in the analysis of the study indicate that the variables

have showed common features in the form of correlation to property crime. The implication is that

the factors and their variables are perceived by developers and estate surveyors and valuers to have

stronger effect on real estate properties. It further goes to show that estate surveyors and valuers and

developers in Imo State have better awareness of the effect of the identified crime determinants on

real estate properties and the implications of crime on property business.

This is not surprising in view of the fact that crime rate is on the increase in the study area.

Furthermore, the result of the exploratory factors analysis in Table 1 clearly showed that there is a

relationship between determinants of crime and real estate properties. The factors correlate to impact

on real estate properties. The finding showed that the variables are correlated, belonged or hanged

together and measured what they intended to measure. In addition, the findings further indicates that

the consequences of the five determinants of crime could manifest in the form of arson, burglary,

extortion, robbery, vandalism / property damage, and theft on real estate properties. This suggests that

real estate investment cannot effectively take place in an unsecured environment. Thus, real estate

investment strives and booms where security of lives and properties are guaranteed. Perhaps, this is

why experts found that law enforcement variables exert strong negative influence for property crimes

and most of the violent crimes suggesting that crime is also not immune to deterrence effects.

However, on socio-economic variables, income/real earnings were very significant predictors of

property crimes but maybe influenced by the opposing effects of other factors. As explained this may

reflect the fact that the opposing effects that factors like unemployment have on crime, may be

cancelling each other. As mentioned, further empirical investigation of how level of income/earnings

across different percentiles directly affect property crime may gives us a better understanding of the

channels through which earnings affect crime. Moreover, for market conditions and factors, variables

included in the study have very poor representation of variance in the factor solution on the rotated

sum of square loading as shown in Table 2 and requires further research. Nevertheless, the

exploratory factor analysis as posited in this study is an initial exploration and supporting tool for

policy makers in pre-emptying and sustaining the benefits associated with adequate security on

properties. Equally, it provides further bases of identifying the benefits of being security compliant to

avoid and prevent adverse effects of crimes on lives and buildings. Against this backdrop and based

on the revealed significant loadings, it is reasoned that for real estate business to thrive there should

be a robust and secured real estate market in the study area while awareness on security should be

sustained.

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http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2160416

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2160416


STRESS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AMONG STUDENTS: A CASE OF QUANTITY

SURVEYING STUDENTS OF KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY, NIGERIA

Christiana AdaPaaul1; Tchad Sharon Jatau

2 & Yakubu Michael Zaki

3

1,2 &3Department of Quantity Surveying, Kaduna State University, Nigeria

[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract

Academic-related stress among students of tertiary institutions is serious and quite alarming and if unattended

to, could result to negative outcomes such as mental health problems, suicide and drug abuse. Managing stress

can help students cope with it and even improve their academic performance. This study explored stress coping

strategies among Quantity surveying students of Kaduna State University. A survey approach was adopted

using questionnaire to collect the needed data. A total of 169 students of 200, 300 and 400 levels of study who

were registered students of Kaduna State University and have written at least one semester examination were

administered with the questionnaire while the data collected were analyzed using the descriptive statistics of

frequency, tables and percentages. The results of the study revealed that most students adopt more than one

stress coping strategy in dealing with stress. Further findings shows that the most adopted stress coping

strategies among students are sleeping, engaging in religious activities and hanging out with friends. The study

recommended that a qualitative in-depth study be carried out on the stress coping strategies adopted among

students to ascertain pattern, time spent and specific outcomes of these strategies on academic performance.

Keywords: Academic-related stress, academic performance, coping strategies, mental health,

Introduction

Stress is an important subject among researchers probably because it is seen as a major aspect of

modern life that is associated with human existence (Ibrahim, Mohtar, Sabo, Rahm and Ariffin, 2015;

Kio, Omeonu and Agbede, 2015; Khan, Altaf and Kausar, 2013; Thawabieh and Qaisy, 2012).

Studies reported that stress plays a major role in human morbidity in developed countries and around

the world (Ramachandiran and Dhanapal, 2018). Students especially those in tertiary institutions are

not exempted from stress. Currently, there is a high prevalence of academic stress among students that

is quite serious and alarming (Ng, Chiu and Fong, 2016; Bayram and Bilgel, 2008). It is the most

common emotional or mental state students experience in the course of their studies (Ramli, Alavi,

Mehrinezhad and Ahmadi, 2018).

Studies have shown that students in academic organizations such as the university are prone to

academic stress and its effect reflects in social, academic and mental health (Khan, Altaf and Kausar,

2013; Thawabieh and Qaisy, 2012). The transition of students from high school environment to

university environment could cause psychological, academic and social shock to them due to the

differences in educational system in terms of method of teaching, academic requirements, students'

relationship between fellow students and faculty and even relationship among students themselves

(Ramachandiran and Dhanapal, 2018; Thawabieh and Qaisy, 2012). Hence, academic related-stress

among students of higher institutions of learning is widespread and a concern (Ramachandiran and

Dhanapal, 2018).Stress is a major part of students' life that is unavoidable and affects them greatly

due to the demands of academic life (Ibrahim et al., 2015; Khan, Altaf and Kausar, 2013). This is

because students have less time yet, they are required to accomplish many modules resulting to stress.

Some of the predictable times when students reportedly experience more stress are: preparing and

writing examinations, unhealthy competition among students of the same class, mastering bulky

syllabus in a short time, fear of failure in academic achievement, family problems (Khan, Altaf and

Kausar, 2013). Students also suffer academic stress resulting from test, home works and other school

requirements (Thawabieh and Qaisy, 2012).Studies show that, there exist a strong relationship

between stress and reduced academic performance among undergraduate students. When unattended

to, stress can affect a student's academic performance and general lifestyle (Khan, Altaf and Kausar,

2013). Academic stress not only impact negatively on academic performance but results in other

unhealthy habits such as internet addiction, insufficient sleeping time, change in dietary behaviour and

mental health problems, suicide, using alcohol, tobacco and drugs abuse, violent behaviour, and even

social withdrawals (Ng, Chiu and Fong, 2016; Agolla and Ongori, 2009).


23





Like any psychological concept, stress has diverse definition (Thawabieh and Qaisy, 2012). Khan,

Altaf and Kausar (2013) explained stress as occurring when burden exceeds available assets; usually

as an undesirable response from people on burden placed on them. Al-Shagawi, Ahmad, Naqvi and

Ahmad (2017) defined stress as any non-specific body response towards any change, whose outcome

may affect a person's life. While Essel and Owusu (2017) defined Stress as the process, by which an

individual reacts when opened to external or internal problems and challenges. Some of the long

recognized symptoms of stress among students are loss of energy, high blood pressure, depression,

increased craving, and difficulty in concentrating, impatience, nervousness and strain (Khan, Altaf

and Kausar, 2013). Others are minimal productivity or output, leads lack of initiative among students,

and might lead to amnesia (Essel and Owusu, 2017).

It has been reported that there are certain factors or stimulators that cause psychological/physical

stress; they are known as stressors (Kio, Omeonu and Agbede, 2015; Thawabieh and Qaisy, 2012).

These stressors trigger physical and psychological issues resulting in lack of energy, loss of appetite,

headache, sleep problems, anxiety, dizziness, irritability, suicidal ideation, poor health behaviour and

gastrointestinal problems (Thawabieh and Qaisy, 2012). Agolla and Ongori (2009) identified other

results of stressors as resorting to self-medication, high blood pressure, depression, and increase in

appetite, indigestion, trouble concentrating, restlessness, tensions and anxiety. Every educational

institution has peculiar stressors identified in their learning environment (Kio, Omeonu and Agbede,

2015). Some of the common academic stressors highlighted in literature are family-related pressures,

peer pressure, scholarship requirements, financial burdens, competition in class, time-management

and course-related stress. Others are exam workload, Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA), high

expectation on study, and lack of friendship network, academic performance, parental expectation,

and career development (Ramachandiran and Dhanapal, 2018; Ramli et al., 2018; Al-Shagawi et al.,

2017; Ng, Chiu and Fong (2016). Ibrahim et al (2015) in their study also found that academic

programmes, college type and marital status significantly influenced stress level among students.

Agolla and Ongori (2009) identified additional leading causes of stress among students as inadequate

resources, low motivation, continuous poor performance in academics, overcrowded lecture halls, and

the uncertainty of getting job after graduation. Kio, Omeonu and Agbede (2015) highlighted other

stressors to include writing project in the face of limited materials, lack of constant supply of water

and power, examinations under non-conducive environment.

Findings from the studies conducted by Khan, Altaf and Kausar (2013) shows that academic stress is

higher in younger students than the older students; this is because younger students have problem in

adjusting to academic requirements compared to the older ones. This finding agrees with the findings

of Thawabieh and Qaisy (2012), Bayram and Bilgel (2008) who both reported higher level of social

stress among younger students than older ones. Findings from a study conducted by Raja (2001) in

Ramachandiran and Dhanapal (2018) shows that the students in educational programme that was not

their first choice experience higher stress than those who are studying their preferred educational

programme. Khan, Altaf and Kausar (2013) found that there was no significant difference in

perceived stress between male and female students and no significant difference in stress level at the

beginning or end of semester among students. However, Thawabieh and Qaisy (2012) and Bayram

and Bilgel (2008) in their research findings found that female university students experience more

stress than their male counterparts do. Bayram and Bilgel (2008) also found that students who were

satisfied with their academic performance experience lower stress than those who were not, and

students from poor families had higher stress than those from wealthier families.

Khan, Altaf and Kausar (2013) found that students who are able to manage or cope with their stress

effectively performed better than those who are unable to manage theirs. Lazarus and Folkman (1984)

cited in Mason (2015) said coping refers to cognitive and behavioural strategies persons use to

manage situations that they perceive could potentially exceed their personal resources. Coping has

two main functions: to regulate emotions (emotion-focused coping) and to direct behaviour in

addressing the problem (problem-focused coping) (Ramesar et al., 2009 cited in Mason, 2017). He

further reported that coping strategies influence an individuals‘ experience of stress. For most

students, managing stress during college can be extremely challenging. However, learning how to

Christiana AdaPaaul; Tchad Sharon Jatau & Yakubu Michael Zaki

24


manage stress may help students cope with every day social and academic pressures, and thus have a

better college experience (Kumar and Bhukar, 2013). A variety of personal coping strategies helps to

cope with stress and these differ depending on the academic year of study, source of the stress and

supportive networks (Naidoo, Wyk, Higgins-Opitz and Moodley, 2014). Mason (2017) and Govender,

Mkhabela, Hlongwane, Jalim and Jetha (2015) in their studies discovered that students utilised two

prominent stress coping strategies: problem-focused coping and emotion focused-coping. Lazarus and

Folkman (1984) in Govender et al (2015) highlighted problem-focused strategies to include problem

solving, planning, acceptance, active coping, managing their time, seeking information and sport and

recreational activities. While emotion-focused strategies entail tension reduction strategies such as

exercising, balanced diet, getting enough sleep, substance abuse, smoking and engaging in

constructive leisure activities strategies. However, Mason (2017) emphasized that, in real-life

circumstances, people are inclined to use a combination of problem-focused and emotion-focused

coping strategies; and that the outcome of coping strategies employed includes both negative and

positive aspects. Contemporary studies found other coping strategies to include mindfulness,

meditation, cognitive behavioural strategies and healthy living through exercise, nutrition and sleep as

relevant coping strategies (Brown and Gerberg, 2010; Cuddy, 2015; Robertson, 2010 cited in Mason,

2015). Ugwuaja (2009) categorized coping strategies into two: effective and ineffective strategies.

Ineffective strategies include overeating, drug abuse, and aggression. While effective strategies

include thought substitution, relaxation, holiday, meditation and exercise.

Most studies focused on identifying sources of stress or stressors, the events that cause academic

stress and relationships between stress and academic performance. This study appraised stress coping

strategies adopted by students with the stress in order to have a better understanding of how they cope

with stress.

Research Design

A descriptive cross-sectional method was adopted for data collection with the purpose of

understanding the various strategies students adopt to cope with stress using survey method of

inquiry. A self-administered questionnaire was administered to students of 200 levels to 500 levels of

study who have written at least one semester examination at the Department of Quantity Surveying,

Kaduna State University, Nigeria for data collection. The total population of students was 169

respondents. The questionnaire design was valid and contained demographic information like level of

study, gender, age range and their Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) taken as measure of

performance used as the dependent variable. The questionnaire contained close-ended questions with

options for additional response. The design of the questionnaire was such that it meets the aim and

objectives of the study. The questionnaire comprised of two sections; the first section comprised of

demographic information including level of study, gender, age range and CGPA while the second

section outlined six stress coping strategies adopted by students (a combination of problem-focused

and emotion-focused coping strategies) from existing literature instructing students to tick those

strategies they have adopted. Respondents also had the option of listing those strategies they have

adopted but not outlined in the questionnaire. The six strategies adopted for the study from literature

are partying, hanging out with friends, smoking cigarette or weed, drinking alcohol, sleeping and

engaging in religious activities. One hundred and sixty nine (169) students of 200 to 500 levels of

study received the questionnaire by hand to fill and 167 representing 99% was later collected and used

for analysis. The data collected were coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequency,

percentages and tables.

Results and Discussion

Out of the 169 copies of questionnaire distributed, 167 were completed and returned for analysis

thereby representing 99% response rate. The study's finding showed that 79.6% of respondents were

male while 20.4% were female indicating that there are more male students studying Quantity

Surveying in comparison to the female students as shown in Table 1.

Stress Management Strategies Among Students: A Case of Quantity Surveying Students of Kaduna State…

25


Table 1: Respondents' Demographic Information

Students’ Gender Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Male 133 79.6 79.6

Female 34 20.4 100.0

Total 167 100.0

Level of study 200level 83 49.7 49.7

300level 40 24.0 73.7

400level 20 12.0 85.7

500level 24 14.3 100.0

Total 167 100.0

Students’ Age 15-20 years 37 22.2 22.2

21-25 years 104 62.3 84.4

26-30 years 23 13.8 98.2

Above 30 years 3 1.8 100.0

Total 167 100.0

Students’ CGPA Less than 1.00-1.49 4 2.4 2.4

1.50-2.49 65 38.9 41.3

2.50-3.49 77 46.1 87.4

3.50-4.49 20 12.0 99.4

4.50-5.00 1 .6 100.0

Total 167 100.0

The results also indicates that 49.7% of students were in 200 level while 24% are in 300 level, 12% in

400 level and 14.3% in 500 level respectively. The results from respondents' demography as shown in

table 1 indicates that 22.2% of students are within ages 15-20 years, 62.3% are within the age range of

21-25 years, 13.8% within the ages of 26-30 while 1.8% are above 30 years of age. In terms of

CGPA, the findings from the study also indicates that 46.1% of students are within the CGPA range

of 2.50-3.49; an equivalent of second class lower in the Nigerian tertiary institutions while 38.9% are

within the CGPA range of 1.50-2.39; an equivalent third class of degree. 12% of students are within

the CGPA range of 3.50-4.49 (second class upper), 2.4% are within the range of 1.00-1.49 (in

between probation and fail class). Those within the range of 4.50-5.00 (first class equivalent)

constituted only 0.6%. These findings indicate a poor academic performance using CGPA as a

measure for academic performance among the students who participated in the study.

Stress Coping Strategies Adopted by Students

Six coping strategies adopted by students identified from literature are partying, hanging out with

friends, smoking cigarette or weed, drinking alcohol, sleeping, and engaging in religious activities.

However, respondents had the opportunity to outline other coping strategies they have adopted but

were not in the questionnaire. The findings from analysis indicate 10 additional coping strategies

adopted by students as shown in Table 2. These other strategies are reading religious and motivational

books and novels, calling or chatting with friends on phone, engaging in sports or playing board

games, watching movies or hilarious videos, listening to music, playing video games, seeking counsel

or encouragement from other people, dancing, having quiet time or meditation, and exercising.

Findings of the study show that most students adopt more than one strategy to cope with stress. The

most adopted stress coping strategy was sleeping with a 66% adoption rate followed closely by

engagement in religious activities (54%). The third most adopted stress coping strategy is hanging out

with friends (47%). The least most adopted stress coping strategies are seeking counsel and

encouragement from other people, dancing and exercising; all having adoption rate of 1% (Table 3).


26


Table 2: Stress Coping Strategies

Stress Coping strategy Title

Strategy 1 Partying

Strategy 2 Hanging out with friends

Strategy 3 Smoking cigarette or weed

Strategy 4 Drinking Alcohol

Strategy 5 Sleeping

Strategy 6 Engaging in Religious activities

Strategy 7 Reading Religious and motivational books and novels

Strategy 8 Calling or chatting with friends on phone

Strategy 9 Engaging in sports or playing board games

Strategy 10 Watching movies or hilarious videos

Strategy 11 Listening to music

Strategy 12 Playing video games

Strategy 13 Seeking counsel and encouragement from other people

Strategy 14 Dancing

Strategy 15 Having quiet time or meditation

Strategy 16 Exercising

Table 7: Ranking of the stress coping strategies by students S/N Stress Coping Strategies Frequency Percent Rank

1 Sleeping 110 65.9 1st

2 Engaging in Religious activities 90 53.9 2nd

3 Hanging out with friends 78 46.7 3rd

4 Engaging in sports or play board games 24 14.4 4th

5 Partying 21 12.6 5th

6 Watching movies or hilarious videos 12 7.2 6th

7 Listen to music 11 6.6 7th

8 Drink Alcohol 7 4.2 8th

9 Smoke cigarette or weed 5 3.0 9th

10 Calling or chatting with friends on phone 5 3.0 9th

11 Reading Religious and motivational books and novels 4 2.4 11th

12 Having quiet time or meditation 3 1.8 12th

13 Playing video games 2 1.2 13th

14 Seeking counsel and encouragement from other people 1 0.6 14th

15 Dancing 1 0.6 14th

16 Exercising 1 0.6 14th

Discussion

The study appraised stress coping strategies adopted by students of the Department of Quantity

Surveying, Kaduna State University, Nigeria. The results of the study shows that students regardless

of discipline of study or year of study experience academic-related stress and find coping strategies

that best suits them. Findings also shows that most students do not just adopt a particular stress coping

strategy but combine several stress coping strategies to cope with academic-related stress. This agrees

with the previous study conducted by Mason (2017) who reported that students combine both

problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies to cope with stress. The study revealed that

most students (66%) resort to sleep as the most adopted stress coping strategy. However, the duration

or frequency of sleep was beyond the scope of this study. The other two most adopted stress coping

strategies among students are engaging in religious activities (54%) and hanging out with friends

(47%). About 14% of students also engage in sports such as football, volleyball and playing board

games to cope with stress while 12% are involved in partying. Others (about 7%) engage in watching

movies or hilarious videos and listening to music to cope with stress. About 4% of students also

responded that they took alcohol to cope with stress while other students smoked cigarette or weed

(3%), call or chat with friends on phone (3%), read religious and motivational books and novels (2%),

have quiet time or meditation (2%), seek counsel and encouragement (1%), dance (1%) or exercise

(1%) to cope with academic-related stress. According to Ugwuaja (2009)'s classification of coping


27


strategies as effective and ineffective, some of the effective strategies adopted by the respondents are

exercise and meditation/quiet time; while the ineffective ones are smoking cigarette /weed and taking

of alcohol.

Conclusion and Recommendations In conclusion, the study revealed that academic-related stress is real, serious and common among

students regardless of discipline of study or year of study. Students have various ways they respond to

and cope with stress; and most students adopt several strategies and not just a particular strategy to

cope with academic-related stress. The most adopted stress coping strategies among students are

sleeping, engaging in religious activities and hanging out with friends respectively. On the basis of the

findings a qualitative in-depth study be carried out on the stress coping strategies adopted among

students to ascertain pattern, time spent and specific outcomes (positive or negative) of these

strategies as against academic performance. School management should encourage further research on

ways to alleviate academic-related stress and best stress coping strategies to adopt among students.

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and Stress-Related Self-Medication Practice among Undergarduate Male Pharmacy Students of a

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3003.

Bayram, N. & Bilgel, N. (2008). The Prevalence and Socio-Demographic Correlations of Depression,

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Essel, G. & Owusu, P. (2017). Causes of Students' Stress, its Effects on their Academic Success, and

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Khan, M.J., Altaf, S. & Kausar, H. (2013). Effect of Perceived Academic Stress on Students'

Performance. FWU Journal of Social Sciences, 7 (2), 146-151.

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in Nigeria: Implication for Mental Health Policy. IOSR Journal of Nursing and Health Science, 4 (1),

18-23.

Kumar, S. & Bhukar, J.P. (2013). Stress level and coping strategies of college students . Journal of

Physical Education and Sports Management, 4 (1), 5-11.

Mason, H. (2017). Stress-Management Strategies Among first-Year Students at a South African

University: A Qualitative Study. Journal Of Student Affairs In Africa, 5 (2), 131-149.


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Naidoo, S.S., Wyk, J.V., Higgins-Opitz, S.B. & Moodley, K. (2014). An evaluation of stress in

medical students at a South African university. South African Family Practice, 56 (5), 258-262.

Ng, K.C., Chiu, W. & Fong, B.Y.F. (2016). A Review of Academic Stress Among Hong Kong

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Unpublished


29


POST OCCUPANCY EVALUATION OF TRADERS PERCEPTION ON SHOP DESIGN IN

MARKETS: CASE STUDY OF JIMETA ULTRA MODERN MARKET

Attah, U. A. 1 and Sameer I. Y.

2

1Department of Architecture Modibbo Adama University of Technology Yola, Nigeria

2Department of Urban and Regional Planning Nassarawa State University Keffi

[email protected]; 0703 499 6494

Abstract

Public buildings such as markets accommodate a heterogeneous group of traders vending various commodities

with various spatial needs. In Nigeria there are several urban markets spread across the states. These markets

are a product of design by various Architects with shops as major retail units operated by individual traders.

These shops are observed to have undergone several modifications to suit the traders‟ needs and requirements.

This is a clear manifestation of possible design deficiencies. The aim of this study is to carry out a post

occupancy evaluation on traders‟ perception of shops design in public markets and their reactions through

adaptive strategies such as modifications to satisfy their requirement. A survey questionnaire was administered

through random sampling to traders in Jimeta Modern market and observation on state of modification was

done to find out adaptive measures used by traders. It has been found out that most of the traders are not

satisfied with the sizing of retail spaces hence adopting several modifications to suit their needs however most

of them adjudged the circulation routes to be adequate. Thus the result of the evaluation would help the process

of refinement and improvement in designing of Public market buildings.

Keywords: Post Occupancy, Traders, Perception, Shop Design, Modifications

Introduction

Markets are very important in the development of any economy and serves as one of the largest

employer of labour in the world (Odaudu, Zubairu and Isa, 2019). Markets are very crucial in the

economy of every country. Adamawa like many other states in Nigeria have several markets with

different architectural design configurations and retail shops as basic units. Various markets of

different architectural design and functions exist such as shopping malls, departmental stores, street

markets with stalls along one or more public streets as well as urban markets, with the later being

more heterogeneous in nature mainly as a result of its nature in accommodating different type of

traders in terms of socio economic background and non centralized ownership. They also serve as one

of the major employment source to the teeming urban population comprising various traders with

different socio-cultural and economic backgrounds. Onyango et al (2013) defined such market places

as locations where vendors gather periodically to sell merchandise either indoors or outdoors. Such

markets have been central to historical, political, economic and social revolution in cities around the

world. Omole et al (2013) defined a market as a geographical space for the distribution of

commodities and services. The size of an urban area is a function of market size or type, the bigger

the urban centre the larger the market. Attah, Bala and Othman (2017) noted that Grid design is more

common in planned markets in Nigeria, which they described as a rectangular arrangement of shops

that generally run parallel to one another with circulation routes or access in between.

It can be argued that the spatial arrangement of shops in markets is based on planning and fixed

standards assumed by professionals, despite the standard module of the shops especially in Jimeta

Ultra modern market which is acknowledged to meet standard in terms of structural and aesthetics,

the functional aspects tend to show some element of weakness as each trader has personalized his

shop through various solutions to exhibit, protect his goods, attract clients and extend the business and

this has resulted to modifications in shops. These modifications were done to satisfy the users based

on their requirement which the original design did not consider. Nwanko et al (2014) wrote that such

modifications could rightly be viewed as acknowledgement of failure of the buildings and at the same

time deflates the exalted regard for architectural profession and social role of architecture on society.

Various research works on markets were done such as Daniel (2014) who concentrated mainly on the

evolution of petty trading spaces in market places while Adeyinka, Kuye and Agbabiaka (2016)


30



examined the markets facilities level and location effects on adjoining neighbourhoods in a Township.

Zakariya, Kamarudin, and Harun (2016) focused on how to identify and sustain cultural qualities of

market in the process of redevelopment while Cardosi (2012) looked into integrating squatter markets

into an urban environment and further noted that squatter or informal open markets are integral part of

cities thus constitute a large junk of squatter settlements within a city. Existing studies did not

considered the traders perception on shop design which results to modification of shops thereby

altering the original outlook and functions of markets. Thus, this research is aimed at finding out

traders‘ perception on retail shop design in an urban market and how the traders applied adaptive

strategies which results to several modifications in the market. The result of this study will help the

process of refinement and improvement in designing of shops in Public markets. Against this

background, the following objectives are outlined to evaluate the user perception in relation to

functional and aesthetic aspect of shop spaces in public Markets; find out the nature and extents of

post occupancy activities carried out on shops in public markets; and identify shop design

deficiencies, potential and limits based on traders‘ needs in urban markets.

Post Occupancy Evaluation

Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) has a key role in the process efficiency improvement and in

contributing to improved service delivery outcomes. Post Occupancy Evaluation can be termed as a

structured review of the functional, operational and strategic performance of the building during

occupation (SCI-Network 2012). Nathasha and Husrul (2009) also wrote that POE systematically

analyses a particular environment to gain understanding of the impact it has on occupants of a

building and its environment, hence how it facilitates or inhibits daily activities of the occupants.

Tanyer and Pembegül (2010) wrote that POE is an important topic for the building industry as it

provides an important feedback mechanism for architects about the designed buildings. Thus in such

a situation information of how satisfied the occupant are, the design defects, the constraint and the

opportunities that a building entails can be gotten through proper review of how the occupant or users

of a building feels about it. This will greatly help in correcting some defects and the subsequent

application of the knowledge gotten in future designs. Watson (2003) pointed out that the benefits

gathered from POE helps to identify successful design features to repeat and to identify problems to

mitigate or reduce, improve building environment and performance.

Urban Market Design

One of the important Architectural design tasks is related to space layout and the problem it addresses.

Concerted efforts were made by several Architects to provide sustainable design initiatives to solve

spatial problems using several concepts. For an architect to provide a functional and satisfying design

he needs to put himself in the shoes of the building end users so he can understand the mode of use

(modus operandi) of the building. Thus the understanding of user behaviour is very critical in the

sense that without the knowledge of how spatial configuration functions one can only produce form

and just hopes it will work (Kim, Park and Seo 2013). Therefore from the above it could be asserted

that the essential task of an Architectural design involves Architect in direct physical consideration of

factors on ground, putting them in the best position to tackle design challenges in relation to user need

and satisfaction. Attah, Bala and Othman (2017) noted that Grid design is more common in planned

markets in Nigeria, and are described as a rectangular arrangement of shops that generally run parallel

to one another with a circulation or access in between.

Perera (2014) wrote that the functional requirements in market places are getting maximum attraction

of the people therefore it should have adequate convenience, accessibility for easy flow of people to

achieve success in its function. Daniel (2014) posited that market‘s space configuration is an element

that is vital in determining the dynamics of interaction and movement of actors and goods between its

spaces while Perera (2014) noted that the expression evoked by the building should be inviting the

people inside. This implies that an attractive shop-front, adequate lighting and correct planning of

entrances to entice customers are integral to shop design. However it was observed that public

markets lacks sufficient circulation space for both pedestrian and vehicles and sufficient sales spaces.

It was also noted that retail spaces such as sheds and shops are poorly designed, thus making the

marketing process inefficient and inhibiting customer flow (Adeyinka and Agbabiaka, 2016). Nedic

Attah, U.A. and Sameer I. Y.

31


(2012) identified some common problems found in markets as insufficient sales space, particularly of

temporary spaces at peak periods and during peak seasons, leading produce being sold in the open

spaces. Pedestrian flow within the market is crucial for allowing customers to reach every vendor

stall. A logical pedestrian pattern is important for way finding and efficiency as this should be

achieved.

The fundamental aspects of entrance of the marketplace such as quality of inevitable, intimacy and

friendly shop interiors should be defined in manners that encourage the public attraction such as good

floor and wall finishing. Entrance to shops should also offer protection from the rain and hot sun, to

the customers and the shop owners and their goods, as Nedic (2012) opined that a market shed is a

more permanent market design, providing greater protection from weather than open-air markets.

Traders‘ satisfaction in market design can be termed as his or her feeling of pleasure or

disappointment resulting from comparing a product (market design configuration) perceived

performance in relation to his or her requirements. Attah, Bala and Othman (2017) wrote that markets

remain a product of Architectural design like cities which are complex entities and need solutions that

may address and resolve, multiple requirements from economic, socio cultural, infrastructural,

technological and environmental viewpoints. This will lead to an acceptable design for all or an

inclusive design whereby no category of user requirement would be excluded. Thus, the design and

sustenance of the market places would be influenced by social, political or institutional processes

(Daniel 2014). However success or failure to address any of the above requirements effectively in

design leads to user dissatisfaction which will manifest on building in form of design modification

and alteration.

Research Methodology and Study Area

This research made use of mixed methods; that is, both qualitative and quantitative types of research.

Typically, it followed a multi-method strategy, which includes survey questionnaires, and

observations (Akman- 2002). Survey questionnaire was used to enable the coverage of extensive

amount of information on traders satisfaction and their adaptive behavior toward shop design in

markets (Groat and Wang 2013). The questionnaire was distributed randomly to various traders in the

study area; probabilistic sampling was used to achieve a sample that is truly representative of the

larger population of the traders in the study area. Thus 380 copies of questionnaire were distributed

and 323 returned which represent 85% of the total number of Traders/shops in the study area.

Personal observation of the case study was also undertaken so as to collect data related to

modifications works done on shops. Lastly face-to-face interview with ―Gamzaki‖ Traders union

officials was conducted where questions that were not listed on the questionnaire were asked to have

an in-depth understanding of traders‘ perception on shop design in the study area. Result of traders

perception collected was tabulated and analyzed using simple frequency.

Yola North (Jimeta) the capital of Adamawa state is located on latitude 90.12‘48‖ N and longitude

12027‘36‖E, (http://en.m.wikipedia.org). It has an estimated population of about 266800 people

(www.citypopulation.de) and located on the Benue River. It serves as the administrative and

commercial centre of Adamawa state. Jimeta has several shopping centres and markets including

Jimeta Ultra modern market, which is located centrally in the town. It is bordered by three major

roads as shown in Plate I that defines the entry points to the market such as gate one on the north

along Muhammadu Mustapha way, gate two on its Southern axis along Bishop street and Gate three

on the West along Galadima Aminu way, for easy entry and exit of the market especially during peak

periods such as the closing time. The market has a total of 3800 shops comprising of only two types

of shops the open and lockups, with a typical shop size of about 3 meters X 3 meters and a veranda

width of 0.9 meter as shown in plate 2. It also consists of warehouses, a police station, clinic,

restaurants, banks, parking spaces and public convenience.

Post Occupancy Evaluation of Traders Perception on Shop Design in Markets: Case Study of Jimeta Ultra…

32

http://en.m.wikipedia.org/

http://www.citypopulation.de/


Source: (Attah, Bala and Othman 2017)

Plate 1: Satellite image of Jimeta modern market

Plate 2: A typical block of shops in the study area


Table 1 below is a distribution of demographic variables of the respondents, 217(67%) of the

respondents are male while 106(33%) of the respondents are females, on age distribution about 116

(36%) are of the ages between 18-30 years old and 181(56%) of the respondents are of the ages 31-60

while the remaining 26(8%) are above 60 years of age and considering their level of education

113(35%) of the respondents have primary education and 155(48%) of the respondents have

secondary education while 55(17%) of the respondents have higher education.

Table 1: distribution of sample of the study according to demographic variables

Variables Categories Frequency Percentage %

Sex Males 217 67

Females 106 33

Age 18-30 116 36

31-60 181 56

Above 60 26 8

Education Primary Education 113 35

Secondary Education 155 48

Higher Education 55 17

Source: Authors Survey 2018


33


Tables 2 to 4 show the distribution of traders‘ perception on shop size, veranda size, and circulation

route using a likert scale of 1-5 with 1 being very inadequate, 2 being inadequate, 3 being slightly

adequate while 4 and 5 stand for adequate and very adequate respectively.

Table 2: Distribution of trader‘s perception on shop size

User Perception Number of Responses Response %

Very inadequate 53 16

Inadequate 113 35

slightly adequate 79 25

Adequate 69 21

very adequate 09 03

Total Number of Respondents 323 100

Source: Authors field survey 2018

Table 3: Distribution of trader‘s perception on size of veranda



Inadequate 119 37


Adequate 37 11

very adequate 38 12



Table 4: Traders perception on Circulation routes



Inadequate 23 7


Adequate 96 30

very adequate 58 18


Source: (Authors field survey 2018)

Source: (Authors Survey2018)

Figure 1: Respondent perception on shop and veranda size and circulation routes

Tables 5 and 6 show the distribution of traders‘ perception on natural lightning and exterior/interior

finishing (beauty) using a likert scale of 1-5 with 1 being Very dissatisfied, 2 being Dissatisfied, 3

being Moderately satisfied while 4 and 5 stand for Satisfied and highly satisfied respectively.

According to Vischer (2008), how satisfied or not users are with the space they are occupying is a


34


notion that has guided environmental evaluation since its earliest efforts. Below is a distribution on

user satisfaction on the level of natural lighting and Interior/ exterior finish (beauty)

Table 5: Distribution of traders‘ perception on Natural lighting


Very dissatisfied 142 44

Dissatisfied 94 29

Moderate 45 14

Satisfied 26 8

Very Satisfied 16 5



Table 6: Distribution of traders‘ perception on interior and exterior finishing


Very dissatisfied 61 19

Dissatisfied 107 33

Moderate 84 26

Satisfied 42 13

Very Satisfied 29 9



Source: (Authors survey 2018)

Figure 2: User satisfaction on natural lighting and finishing

Table 7: Common cases of modifications of shops observed in various locations of the study area

S/n Description/Category of modification Location

1. Increase of retail space by extension or merging of

two or more shops

Central Part of the Market and

Near Car parks

2. Extension of veranda/ entrance porch Most part of the market

3. Conversion of Open shops to Lock up shops Western part of the market

4. Change in interior finishes such as tiles and Ceiling Central Part of the Market

Source: Authors survey 2018

There seems to be a significant level of dissatisfaction with shop size in the study area as the result in

table 2 above showed that 113 traders representing 35 % of the respondents indicated that the shop

size is not adequate for their wares, only 3% indicates that the shop size is very adequate. The

discussion with traders in a direct interview reveals that they develop some adaptive measures such as

keeping their goods on the veranda during the day time and parking them inside while closing which


35


result in narrowing the circulation routes for customers. It also tend to block view to goods that are

inside shop this is in line with what Nedic (2012) identified as some common problems found in

markets such as insufficient sales space. While majority of traders‘ perception on the size of veranda

was very inadequate, those that were satisfied with the circulation routes formed a total of about 88%

level of satisfaction. This is contrary to what Adeyinka and Agbabiaka (2016) wrote that public

markets lacks sufficient circulation space for both pedestrian and vehicles and sufficient sales spaces,

thus, it can be adjudged that the study area is devoid of such. On natural lighting about 142 (44%) of

the respondents indicated very dissatisfied while 94 (29%) of the respondents indicated dissatisfied,

forming about 73% of the respondents not satisfied with the amount of natural light to the shops. The

observed level of dissatisfaction paves way for modifications to make it attractive to customers.

Perera (2014) noted that the expression evoked by the building should be inviting the people inside,

an attractive shop-front, adequate lighting and correct planning of entrances to entice customers are

integral to shop design, and it can be clearly understood that such is the underlying reason for some

modifications especially that of interior of shops.

Conclusion

The significance of markets was overviewed as markets play very important roles in the economy of

every country. The issues of post occupancy evaluation on user perception and modifications

associated with retail shop design in urban markets were also overviewed. The research aimed to

assess the traders‘ perception on retail shop design and how adaptive measures are developed towards

alleviating their needs in Jimeta ultra modern market Yola, so as to proffer solution for an efficient

way to design functional and sustainable shops in markets in Nigeria. From the research data

obtained from the traders in the market, it revealed that inadequate shop spaces was mainly

responsible for extension of shops as well as veranda, while inadequate size of veranda was found to

be inadequate to protect traders goods from climatic elements (protection from direct sun rays and

driven rain) thereby leading to its extension. However on circulation routes within the market most of

the traders adjudged them to be adequate. In terms of the issue of natural lighting into the shops, most

of the traders were not satisfied leading them to use power generating sets as an adaptive measure

which in return pollutes the immediate environment with smokes and noise. The findings also showed

that majority of the traders were not satisfied with the interior and exterior finishing materials of the

shops thereby compelling many of them to use some adaptive measures such as use of tiles for floor

finish, plastering and painting of the shop interior, use of wall papers, pvc and pop ceilings to improve

on the finishing.

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Effects on Adjoining Neighbourhoods in Nigerian Urban Centers: Empirical Evidence From Akure, Nigeria.

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Attah A.U, Bala, B. and Othman, S. (2017) Design Influence on Squatter Trading: Case Study of Jimeta Ultra

Modern Market Yola, Adamawa State Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Studies and Safety

Research.2(1) 68-85

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Hospitality and Leisure. Cambridge, MA: CABI Publishing, p.190

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Ph.d Dissertation to School of the Built Environment College of Science & Technology University of Salford,

Salford, UK

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Market of Abuja and Prevention Measures against Recurrence. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies &

Management 12(2): 202 – 213 doi: https://ejesm.org/doi/v12i2.8

Onyango, G. M. Wagah, G. G. Omondi L. A. and B. O. Obera (2013) Market Places Experience From Kisumu

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of Osun State, Nigeria. International Journal of Development and Sustainability3(1) 55-69

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Municipal Council Area. Unpublished M.sc Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Estate Management

and valuation University of Sri Jayewardenepura. Srilanka

SCI-Network (2012) An insight into Post Occupancy Evaluation. www.sci-network.eu

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of Lütfi Kirdar Convention and Exhibition Centre. METU JFA 2010/1 241-265.DOI:

10.4305/METU.JFA.2010.1.13

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Environments for Work. Architectural Science Review 51(2), 97-108.www.arch.usyd.edu.au/asr

Zakariya,K. Kamarudin,Z. and Harun, N.Z (2016) Sustaining the Cultural Vitality of Urban Public Market. A

case study of pasar payang, Malaysia. International Journal of Architectural Research (10) 1 Pp 228-239 DOI:

10.26687/archnet-ijar.v10i1.914


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http://www.sci-/


ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF LOCATION OF OPEN WASTE DUMPS ON

RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY VALUES IN IKOT EKPENE, AKWA IBOM STATE

Sunday Usenemana1, Augusta Uyai

2 and Iniodu Ibanga

3

1, 2 & 3Department of Estate Management University of Uyo, Uyo

[email protected]; 08022598811

Abstract

The location of dumpsites in different parts of Ikot Ekpene has resulted in squalid scenery with implications on

health, environmental and economic challenges and attendant effects on residential property values. Thus, this

study aimed to determine the effects of location of open waste dumpsites on residential property values. The

study utilized the survey research method conducted on three different open waste dumpsites located along

Library Avenue, Ikpong Road and Abiakpo Road. A 300 respondents sample size comprising household heads

residing within 500m radius of each dumpsite was chosen using a random method and data collected from

respondents were analyzed using regression analysis to determine if the location of dumpsites had any

significant effect on residential property values. The result of the study revealed that the dumpsites had

significant negative effect on values of property located within 50metres from the dumpsites. With this analysis,

it was concluded that there is a significant relationship between property values and the distances from

dumpsites. Hence, it is recommended that proactive waste management techniques should be enhanced to

improve waste disposal in the study area and help address the proliferation of these dumpsites

Keywords: Open waste dumpsites, Residential Property, Property values, Proximity and Regression Analysis

Introduction

Waste generation is inevitable as long as humans live and strive to improve the quality of their lives

(Udo, 2003). With this background in mind, one would agree that man‘s activity encapsulates the

totality of deriving benefits from raw material while creating left over complexities in terms of waste.

On a further note, Akinola and Salami (2001)postulated that these complexities are tied to factors

such as civilization, improved living standards, economic and cultural attributes and activities of man

within his environment. As a result there is continual increase in both solid and liquid waste which

has in turn has become a menace to man‘s environment. Innovatively, man has decided to create open

waste dumpsites to curb the littering of these wastes Ossai, 2006). Within a few years, it has been

observed that these wastes have out-numbered the available dumpsites, necessitating the creation of

many more. This situation has further caused the proliferation of dumpsites. Sadly, the proliferation of

dumpsites is alarmingly on the increase with an estimated annual rate of about 0.5% to 0.7% and

produces between 0.4 ton to 0.8 ton of waste per annum capital (Thomas, 2000). This challenging

situation had been accompanied by increased inefficiency in waste disposal as stipulated by Udo

(2003). It is with this statistics that Foday (2013) opined that with over 35% of the Nigerian

population living in the cities; only about 7% per annum of the city‘s population enjoy marginal waste

management services. Hence, one therefore is afraid that in a few years‘ time, waste will over-power

our growing cities.

Specifically, as a hub of petrol business in Nigeria, Akwa Ibom has a population of over 3,000,000

(Ukpong, 2008) residing in a land space of just 24,000km2. This invariably has fostered a partial

breakdown of waste management in its major cities like Uyo, Ikot Ekpene, Eket and Abak as could be

seen in other cities such as Port Harcourt, Lagos and Kaduna (Ukpong, 2008 and Ogedegbe and

Oyedele 2006). Therefore, waste disposal and management programs of this state cannot be

emphasized enough vis-à-vis its impact on the environment and predominantly, residential property

values. Taking a case study, Ikot Ekpene metropolis; the raffia city is averagely industrialized with a

projected average population of 200,000 persons (AKSG, 2016), the indiscriminate creation of open

waste dumpsites in various parts of the city had distorted environmental aesthetics in those parts and

has exposed neighboring property owners, residents and their real estate adjacent to these dumpsites

to detrimental environmental damage. Apart from the environmental damage caused by open waste

dumpsites such as the accumulation of methane gas and possible ground water contamination,


38


property owners and investors resident along open waste dumpsites axis experienced diminishing

effects of nearby dumpsites on their property value.

Based on this observation, this study attempts to establish the effect of open waste dumps (Ikpong,

Abiakpo road and Library Avenue) located close to and far away from residential areas in Ikot

Ekpene. As such the research findings were limited to the effect of distance from open dumpsites on

residential property rental in Ikot Ekpene. It covered three major open waste dumpsites, namely,

Library Avenue Ravine, Ikpong Road and Abiakpo Road, which are under the control and

management of Akwa Ibom State Waste Management Authority (AKWMA). Worthy of note is that

these open waste dumpsites were chosen because of their strategic location in the study area.

Specifically, this study aimed at assessing the effects of location of open dumpsites on residential

property values in the study area.

Review of Related Literature

Akinwale (2004) defined wastes as rubbish or materials that are not needed and are economically

unusable without further processing. Here, the author emphasized that to ascertain something as a

waste it has to be economically unusable. In other words, it is unproductive since it has lost the

economic value therein. His position can be questioned because recent practices have shown that what

one party considers as unneeded materials, and of course economically unusable, may be the most

needed and of economic importance to another party. This is to say, what is waste in a place may turn

out to become non-waste in another place. For example, after drinking the liquid contents of a bottle

of champagne, the empty bottle is considered as a waste by the person who drank the liquid content

and perhaps is thrown away. But, another person may pick it up from the point of disposal and either

reuse or recycle the empty bottle for containing another liquid substance or some other item of

economic importance. The bone of contention here is that it is not clear to say at what point an item

constitutes a waste.

Ogbonna, Ekweozor and Igwe (2002) succinctly posited that there is no definitive list of what is and

is not waste. They go further to state that whether or not a substance is discarded as waste- and when

waste ceases to be waste- are matters that must be determined on the facts of the case and the

interpretation of the law. Ogbonna, Ekweozor and Igwe (2002), were of the opinion that whether or

not a substance is discarded as waste rests on one‘s hand, with the producer or holder of such

substance to decide whether it is being discarded as waste and, on the other hand, with regulations or

laws stipulating as such. Contrary to this position that there is no definitive list of what is and is not

waste, the Council of the European Communities had on the 26th of March, 1991, adopted that waste

should mean any substance or object in the categories set out below, which the holder discards or

intends or is required to discard. The categories include: Production or consumption residues not

otherwise specified below, Off-specification products, Products whose date for appropriate use has

expired, Materials spilled, lost or having undergone other mishap, including any materials, equipment,

etc. contaminated as a result of the mishap. Materials contaminated or soiled as a result of planned

actions (e.g. residues from cleaning operations, packing materials, containers), Unusable parts (e.g.

rejected batteries, exhausted catalysts), Substances which no longer perform satisfactorily (e.g.

contaminated acids, contaminated solvents, exhausted tempering salts), Residues of industrial process

(e.g. slags, still bottoms),Residues from pollution abatement processes (e.g. scrubber sludge‘s,

bughouse dusts, spent filters), Machining/finishing residues (e.g. lathe turnings, mill scales), Residues

from raw materials extraction and processing (e.g. mining residues, oil field slops), Adulterated

materials (e.g. oils contaminated with PCBs), Any materials, substances or products whose use has

been banned by law, Products for which the holder has no further use (e.g. agricultural, household,

office, commercial and shop discards), Contaminated materials, substances or products resulting from

remedial action with respect to land, Any materials, substances or products which are not contained in

the above categories ( Ogwueleka, 2009).

There are so many types of waste on the planet earth but a few shall be mentioned here for the

purpose of the study, these are: biodegradable waste, biomedical waste, business or (commercial and

industrial) waste, chemical waste, medical (clinical) waste, commercial waste, construction waste,

Sunday Usenemana, Augusta Uyai and Iniodu Ibanga

39


municipal solid waste, controlled waste and hazardous waste. Biodegradable Waste is a type of waste,

typically originating from plant or animal sources, which may be broken down by other living

organisms. Waste that cannot be broken down by other living organisms may be called non-

biodegradable. Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in municipal solid waste (sometimes

called biodegradable municipal waste, or BMW) as green waste, food waste, paper waste, and

biodegradable plastics. Other biodegradable wastes include human waste, manure, sewage,

slaughterhouse waste (EPA, 2011).

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (2010) identified types of waste to include

biomedical waste which consists of solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory waste that are potentially

infectious or dangerous and are considered bio-waste (EPA, 2011); municipal solid waste (MSW) also

called urban solid waste, is a waste type that includes predominantly household waste (domestic

waste) with sometimes the addition of commercial wastes collected by a municipality within a given

area. They are in either solid or semisolid form and generally exclude industrial hazardous wastes

(United States Environmental Protection Agency (2010); industrial wastes are generated by nearly

every industry; those industries that themselves generate few hazardous wastes nonetheless use

products from hazardous waste generating industries. For example, in the computer software industry,

writing software generates little hazardous waste, but the manufacture of computers involves many

industries processes (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2010).Agricultural wastes such

wastes as pesticides and herbicides and the materials used in their application. Fluoride wastes are by-

products of phosphate fertilizer production. Even soluble nitrates from manure may dissolve into

groundwater and contaminated drinking-water wells; high levels of nitrates may cause health

problems (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2010). Household wastes include toxic

paints, flammable solvents, caustic cleaners, toxic batteries, pesticides, drugs, and mercury from

broken fever thermometers. Local waste-disposal systems may refuse these items. If they are

accepted, careful monitoring may be required to make sure soil or groundwater is not contaminated.

The householder may be asked to recycle or dispose of these items separately. Renovations of older

homes may cause toxic lead paint to flake off from walls. Insulation material on furnace pipes may

contain asbestos particles, which can break off and hang suspended in air; when inhaled, they can

cause lung disease and cancer (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2010); Medical

wastes - hospitals use special care in disposing of wastes contaminated with blood and tissue,

separating these hazardous wastes from ordinary waste. Hospitals and doctor‘s offices must be

especially careful with needles, scalpels, and glassware, called ―sharps‖. Pharmacies discard outdated

and unused drugs; testing laboratories dispose of chemical wastes. Medicine also makes use of

significant amounts of radioactive isotopes for diagnosis and treatment, and these substances must be

tracked and disposed of carefully.

Practically, there are just two methods- those that are environmentally friendly e.g. sanitary or

engineered landfill and composting, and those that are not, including incineration, stream dumping

and open burning. Other existing methods include: prettification, bailing, land burial and pyrolysis,

just to mention but a few. Also of all the listed methods above only the sanitary landfill, stream

dumping and land burial are permanent waste disposal systems while the others are just waste

treatment that is meant to reduce the waste volume (Antonangeli, 2010).

i. Dump Sites: Thomas (2000) observed that dumpsites are places designated for disposal of

normally solid or semisolid materials, resulting from human and animal activities that are considered

useless, unwanted or hazardous. In other words, they are essential part of any waste management

system. According to El-Fadel, Findikakis and Leekie (1995), dump sites are historically the most

used method for waste disposal in the world. It has the longest history, the widest range of capabilities

and in most instances, is the least expensive waste disposal method (Weiss, 1974). Most of the

existing solid waste disposal sites in developing countries are open dumping because the technology

of proper sanitary landfill practice is not totally implemented (Lee and Sivapalasundram, 1979; Lee

and Krieger, 1990; Matsufuji and Sinha, 1990). The environmental conditions from these sites are

thus expected to be bad especially in terms of the contamination to the environment and lives.

Analysis of the Effects of Location of Open Waste Dumps on Residential Property Values in Ikot Ekpene…

40


AIT (2004), pointed out that final disposal in most of the developing countries is usually a matter of

transporting the collected waste to the nearest available open space and discharging them. Jung

Matsuto and Tanaka (2005) established that open dumping has potential to reduce environmental

quality in neighborhood and can also pose a threat to public health, the environment and even

scavengers that depends on scavenging materials for their livelihood. Consequently, the following

associated environmental and health hazards and risks may be experienced continuously, in form of

unpalatable odour, dust emissions, poor aesthetics, environmental nuisances, attraction of vermin,

vector and pest, Severe health risks to human beings and animal, Breeding of disease vectors, flies

and rats (Jung Matsuto and Tanaka 2005). According to Brash (1996), the insects and rats are

potential disease transmitters. These can serve as source of pathogen organisms that can affect the

scavengers who depend on recyclable materials for their livelihood and other waste workers Brash.

(1996) observed that there is the need to provide information on this informal activity (scavenging)

that is on the increase on daily basis. In terms of occupation, he pointed out that scavenging is

becoming an important occupation in waste management disposal system.

ii. Landfill method: According to Antonangeli (2010), disposing of waste in a landfill involves

burying the waste, and this remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were often

established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and

well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste

materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse

environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid

leachate. Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon

dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odour

problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas (Mondal, 2016). Design characteristics of a

modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited

waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting

vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to

extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt

in a gas engine to generate electricity (Brash, 1996).

iii. Incineration method: Basha (2007) noted that incineration is a disposal method that involves

combustion of waste material. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are

sometimes described as ―thermal treatment‖. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam

and ash. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by

industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method

of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a

controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is scarcer, as these facilities generally

do not require as much area as landfills. On the other hand incineration method or the more benign

anaerobic digestion, produces heat that can be used as energy (Antonangeli, 2010).

iv. Plasma gasification method: Antonangeli (2010) observed that plasma is a highly ionized or

electrically charged gas. An example in nature is lightning, capable of producing temperatures

exceeding 12,6000F (6,980

0C). A gasifier vessel utilizes proprietary plasma torches operating at

+10,0000F (5,540

0C) (the surface temperature of the sun) in order to create a gasification zone of up to

3,0000F (1,650

0C) to convert solid or liquid wastes into a syngas. When municipal solid waste is

subjected to this intense heat within the vessel, the waste‘s molecular bonds break down into

elemental components. The process results in elemental destruction of waste and hazardous materials.

Plasma gasification offers states new opportunities for waste disposal, and more importantly for

renewable power generation in an environmental sustainable manner.

v. Recycling Method: The popular meaning of ‗recycling‘ in most developed countries refers to the

widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste materials such as empty beverage containers.

These are collected and sorted into common types so that the raw materials from which the items are

made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from


41


general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste

streams, Antonangeli (2010). The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum

beverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard

cartons, newspapers, magazines, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.

Empirical Framework

Location of dumpsites and hazardous waste sites can severely affect property values. Any property

close to an active dumpsite will probably be devalued as a matter of course (Mundy (1995).

Depending on how close the property lies to the site, whether the site is still active, and (if not active)

if the waste has been properly encapsulated or removed, the value of a tract of land or home could be

affected in many different ways. For example, if an active landfill is declared "closed" and proper

measures are taken to ensure that there is no risk of contamination from the waste therein, the value of

a nearby property may rise from the low value it had from being located near an active waste site.

Devalued property may further regain some of its previous value if the former waste site is improved

or developed commercially. However, if the waste site is not properly closed and encapsulated, or if

waste leaks into the surrounding properties while or after it is active, property values may be

irreversibly lowered (Mundy, 1995).

Much has been written about the effects of open waste dumpsites on residential property values. Udo

and Egbenta (2007) carried out a research on the effects of domestic waste dumpsites on rental values

of residential properties in Enugu. Multiple linear regressions were used and the result showed that

there is no correlation between rental values of property and closeness to waste dumpsites. In another

study undertaken in Port Harcourt, Wokekoro and Uruesheyi (2014), the research relied on self-

administered questionnaire, interview and observation and it was discovered that rental values close to

dumpsites showed a remarkable difference compared to those located far away. The study also

revealed that the negative impacts on dwellings of various standards were different. To ameliorate the

effects of such negative impacts especially that of health and well-being of occupants, the researchers

recommended a massive public campaign on the ‗reduction‘, ‗reuse‘ and ‗recycling‘ of waste.

However, on how dumpsites may affect rental values, (Mundy, 1995) posited that a clean and

uncontaminated property has a value equal to the full market value and a dirty and contaminated

property which poses health or financial risk- ‗real or perceived‘, will affect value significantly in so

many ways. This may affect marketability and when a property loses its marketability, it loses its

value proportionately. According to him, the income effect of dumpsites on a property is the present

value of the difference between the property value as if uncontaminated and the value as if

contaminated. Moreover, in yet another study conducted in Ohio by Reichert, Small and Mohanty

(1991), it was discovered that house prices near dumpsites were less that those located far away.

Rachel, John Karen and Alberto (1995), while studying six dumpsites which differed in size,

operating status and history of contamination found out that only one of the dumpsites had an effect

on property values in close location to it. The evidence suggested that the houses suffered an average

loss of about six percent in value. In another study, Havlicek, Richardson and Davis (1971), analyzed

182 single-family house sales for 8years (1962-1970) surrounding four dumpsites in Fort Wayne,

Indiana region. Their variables of interest were both the linear distance from the nearest dumpsite and

the deviation from the prevailing downwind direction from the dumpsite. Both the distance and the

wind variables were hypothesized; both were important at five percent level. Their results indicated

that for each degree away from downwind, the value of the house increased by about $.61 in a linear

fashion.

Hite (1995) employed a year of real estate transaction data to determine the effects of distance from

three dumpsites on properties in Ohio. It was discovered that distance had a positive effect on the

property values under observation. The author tried to draw a distinction between the life

expectancies of the dumpsites, and also found out that the ‗magnitude‘ of the dumpsite‘s effect on

property values. Again, Zeiss (1989) in a study of 665 residential properties and the impact of a 200-

acre dumpsite in Tacoma, Washington, indicated that the dumpsite had a positive effect on the


42


surrounding property values. The researcher quest might be attributed to this advantage of keeping the

environment clean and ease of transporting car base.

Adewusi and Onifade (2006) in a study of the effects of urban solid waste on the physical

environment and property transactions in Surulere Local Government, it was found out that rents paid

on properties adjourning waste dumpsites were lower compared to similar properties further away and

also, property transaction rates were very slow and unattractive as one approaches a dumpsite.

Contradistinctively, in another study conducted by Parker (1991), who was the President and CEO

National Solid Wastes Management Association (NSWMA), a Los Angeles neighbourhood- San

Fernando Valley was studied based on the effects of a dumpsite on property values. The conclusion

drawn from that study was that a dumpsite, if well managed and constructed can be a good neighbour

and can exert no known negative and statistically measureable effects on adjourning property values.

Gamble, Downing Shortle and Epp (1982) estimated hedonic pricing regressions for house sales near

a dumpsite in Boyertown in Pennsylvania. The purpose was to determine the extent of impact the

dumpsite had on surrounding property values. When the distance was split and separate regressions

estimated by year of sales, the estimated coefficients for distance to the dumpsite were not statistically

significant at the 5% level of confidence. One of the estimated implicit prices was even negative

implying higher prices closer to the dumpsite. This result was later cited byParker (1991) as evidence

that modern dumpsites need not have negative impacts on property values. It could be argued that the

modern dumpsite in this context must have incorporated certain inherent qualities that helped lessen

the environmental effects of the dumpsite. Also, the span of the distance split in the above study was

not specified so as to show the magnitude of the impact. The research had addressed the gap by

adopting 1.2km radius of the concentric ring to measure the impact of the dumpsite on value. A linear

regression model was employed at 95% degree of confidence.

A study by Havlick, Richardson and Davies (1985) is significant to the current study because the

distance variable was a common factor central on both studies, also, the choice of residential

properties as a focus of research introduced a degree of similarity. However, while Havlicek,

Richardson and Davies (1985) adopted a linear distance of 1 mile or 1.6 kilometers in their study in a

developed country, One major outstanding feature of their study was the rigour of not only splitting

the distance into centimeters, but also ascribing values to residential properties near the dumpsite.

Hite, Chern, Hitzusen and Ranfall (2001), specifically embarked on a study to consider whether

sanitary dumpsites had any adverse effect on community development and residential property values,

and if so, measure their magnitudes in selected areas of Pennsylvania. Ten sanitary dumpsites

operating under permits from the Department of Environmental Resources in Pennsylvania were

selected for the study. The sanitary dumpsites were selected based on the presence of residential

development in the surrounding communities. The objective was to measure the effects of the

dumpsites on community developments and residential property values. ―Study areas‖ were defined as

delineated as those around one mile of the dumpsites. Four randomly selected areas, each one-half

mile in diameter, located three miles away from each waste dump site constituted the ―control areas‖.

Several types of data were collected for the dumpsite and control areas. These data included the

number of properties by size, class, dates of new residential building and location of properties to the

dumpsite with respect to three distance zones. For properties purchased from 1977 to 1981, several

other house, lot and location characteristics were also studied.

The study used multiple regression technique to measure the effect of dumpsite on residential

property values. Regression results showed that in 1977 and 1979, the dumpsite had no discernible

effects on residential property values. In 1978, the ―distance to the dumpsite‖ variable was significant

at 90-95% level of confidence. This suggests that distance variable was strongly correlated with some

other variables. The outcome of the research showed that different sets of property characteristics and

different functional forms led to the general conclusion that things other than location to the sanitary

dumpsite were more relevant to explaining property values. It can be deduced from the study that the

real estate markets are dynamic and local in many respects. Also, dumpsites are rather heterogeneous


43


varying in size, visibility, accessibility and appearance and that these intervening variables could

affect study conclusions.

Reichert, Small and Mohanty (1991) examined the effects of location of open waste dumpsite on five

municipal dumpsites in Cleveland, Ohio in the United States. The semi-rural towns studied were

Belchertown, Hudson, Ware, Clinton, Pepperrell and Leicester, all located in Central and Western

Massachusetts, which had, dumpsites with varying sizes, operational status and history of

contamination. Using Ordinary Least Squares, inflation adjusted housing prices were regressed upon

the series of variables derived from previous studies. Regression results indicated that only one

dumpsite (Pepperell) had a significant negative impact on property values. Although this particular

dumpsite was closed, it was unlined and uncapped, and the fact that the dumpsite was on the US

EPA‘s ―potential health risk‖ list might have contributed to its visibility in the community.

Extrapolated results showed that a typical house located half a mile from the dumpsite experienced a

6% rise in property value, while the same increased in value by one percent when located two miles

away. However, in respect of Hudson, Ware, Clinton, Pepperell and Leicester, no statistically

significant effects were found. The reason could be that these effects did exist but were not detected in

the study or possibly of the small sample sizes drawn on each of the landfills. Overall, the study did

not provide grounds for broad generalization about the effects of rural landfills on property values. It

cannot be said that large dumpsites affect property values more than small ones as Hudson was the

largest dumpsite studied and its effect was statistically insignificant. Open wastes dump site do not

affect values more than closed, as Hudson and Ware were still operational and show no significant

effect.

In a more relevant study, Nelson, Genereux and Genereux (1992) studied the effect of a Ramsey,

Minnesota landfill on 708 house sales between 1979 and 1989. Their dependent variable was

residential property sales‘ prices, while distance from the waste dump, age of house, number of

bedrooms and bathrooms were also included as independent variables. The author found that the two

landfills had a negative effect on single family house values for homes within 2 mile radius. The study

showed that a home located at the boundary of the dumpsite could suffer a reduction in value of more

than 12% while the value of a property located at one mile radius from the dumpsite could decrease

by an estimated property gradient of 6.2%. The result of this study contrasts with (Gamble, 1982) who

found no negative impact resulting from location of residential houses to dumpsite.

Bouvier, Halstead, Conway and Malano (2000) estimated hedonic regression for houses located near

six landfills in Central and Western Massachusetts, two of which were open and active during the

study period. The six waste dumps differed in size, operating status and history of accumulation. The

effect of each waste dumps was estimated by the use of multiple regressions. In five of the dumpsite,

no statistically significant evidence of an effect was found. In the remaining case, evidence of an

effect was found, indicating that houses in close location to this dumpsite suffered an average loss of

about 6% in value. Also, for two of the dumpsites, the estimated Marginal Implicit Price (MIP) of

distance was positive for one distance and negative for the other, but statistically insignificant for both

cases. It was observed from the study that the estimated negative coefficient had high sampling

variability due to small sample size. The small sample size had thereby introduced some degree of

unreliability in the result obtained. The study however established an empirical relationship between

residential property values and location to a dumpsite or set of dumpsites.

Cambridge Econometrics (2003) conducted economic study of house prices around landfill sites in the

United Kingdom that was undertaken as part of a dumpsite tax review for the Department of

Environment, Food and Rural Authority (DEFRA). The study provided additional evidence of an

association between location to dumpsite and wealth. The study looked at over half a million sales of

houses situated near 11 300 U.K dumpsites and found that those properties sited within half a mile of

a waste dump site suffered statistically significant disadvantages. The value of houses situated less

than a quarter of a mile away from the dumpsite were an average of £5 500 lower than the value of a

similar house not situated near a waste dump site. For those houses over a quarter of a mile from the

site but under half a mile, the fall in the property value was an average of £1 600 and less than a


44


quarter of a mile saw a fall of 40%. Even within the U.K, there were significant regional disparities

with the most marked effects in Scotland, where areas in closest location to the waste dump site

(disadvantaged socio-economic groups) may migrate to areas near hazards to take advantage of lower

housing prices. This development as shown in the study by Reichert (1991) is characteristic of

dumpsite neighborhoods because as vacancy ratio increases due to the flight of most residents, people

of low class take advantage of this to pay lower rent. The distance-value gradient used in the above

study would be employed in the current study using concentric rings within maximum of 500 meters.

Similarly, Adewusi and Onifade (2006) focused on the effect of urban solid waste on physical

environment and property transactions in Surulere Local Government Area of Lagos State.

Questionnaires were randomly administered on residents and firms of estate agents to gather data on

the subject matter. Data obtained were analyzed using frequency tables and percentage ratings. The

study found that rents paid on properties adjoining waste dumpsites were lower compared to similar

properties further away and also, property transaction rates were very slow and unattractive as one

approaches a dumpsite. However, the study did no monetary explicit on the change in values.

In the same vein, Bello (2007) in Akinjare et al (2011) used multiple regression analysis to determine

the effect of waste dumpsites on property values in Olusosun neighbourhood at Ojota, Lagos State.

The study found that property values increase with distance away from dumpsites. Also, Bello and

Bello (2008) in Akinjare et al (2011) conducted a research on the willingness to pay for

environmental amenities in Akure Nigeria. The study included environmental amenities such as waste

water disposal, water and electricity supplies, neighbourhood roads and other location services. The

study used a two-staged hedonic model to examine the willingness to pay for better environmental

services by residents of two neighbourhoods in Akure, Nigeria. He combined multiple regressions and

predictive model to determine property values as a function of housing attributes and logistic model as

willingness to pay. The study identified households‘ income, distance away from the refuse dump site

and regularity of electricity supply as the major factors that influenced household‘s willingness to pay

for better environmental services. The study recommended economic empowerment of the people,

diligent consideration in the location of dumpsites and adoption of Public-Private Initiative in the

provision of public infrastructure. The study established that real estate values are readily influenced

by resident‘s willingness to pay for both structural as well as neighborhood characteristics where the

real estate is located. However, Bello and Bello (2008) failed to relate property values with distance

from the waste dump site as an environmental dis-amenity. This present study fills this gap.

Bello (2009) in Akinjare etal (2011) carried out a study on the effects of waste dump sites on

proximate property values in Lagos, Nigeria using three dump sites located at Olusosun, AbuleEgba

and Solous adopting 1km distance measurement to assess the effects of the dumpsite on the

neighborhoods. The research sampled 334 residents from the three waste dump sites and 107 Estate

Surveying and Valuation firms in metropolitan Lagos. The study was in the main to measure the

effect of waste dump on property values and to develop an appropriate valuation methodology to

carry out valuation of properties affected by waste dump sites. A combination of valuation

methodologies was adopted such as Paired Sales Analysis, Contingent Valuation Analysis, Option

Pricing Model and Hedonic Approach. The study found that there was a weak linear relationship

between rental value and satisfaction of occupants in the neighbourhood of the waste dumps.

In another research, Akinjare, Oloyede, Ayedun and Okoke (2011), the impact of four operational

sanitary landfills (Gbagada, Olusosun, Abule-Egba and Solous) on proximal residential properties in

Lagos metropolis of Nigeria was studied 229 Estate Surveyors and 315 Lagos State Waste

Management Agency (LAWMA) officials provided data for the study. Evaluation using a hedonically

derived regression function in analyzing data estimates drawn from administered questionnaires

showed a slight evidence of statistical significance indicating that all residential property values

increased with distances away from dump sites at an average of 6% for the four dumpsites. In

conclusion, all the studies conducted showed a direct correlation between the effects of open waste

dumpsites and its impacts on residents most especially those living close to such sites. Such studies


45


included Aluko and Sridhar (2005); Boardi and MarrkkuKuitunen (2005); Gouveia and Ruscitto do

Prado (2010).

Ikpong Road Abiakpo Road

Library Avenue Ravine

Research Methodology

Basically, this study used a survey research method as a sustainable method. Survey research uses

descriptive sampling and questionnaire design to measure characteristics of the population with

statistical precision. The design afforded the opportunity to use questionnaire, interviews and personal

observations to gather data from the respondents. The respondents comprised mainly household heads

of properties in the study area, estate surveyors and valuers and waste management officials in the

study area. Ikot Ekpene is the commercial city of Akwa Ibom State, consequently, Ikot Ekpene is

faced with the challenges of managing waste from commercial, domestic and industrial activities.

Three (3) open waste dumpsites comprising Ikpong Road, Abiakpo Road and Library Avenue formed

the nucleus of the study. The effect of the location of these open waste dumps on residential

properties such as single room, self contain, one bed room flat, two bedroom flat, three bedroom flat

within 500 metres radius round these open dumpsites was surveyed and analyze. The relative

frequency distribution and percentages were used for organizing and presenting data from respondents

while multiple regression statistics was used for testing the effect of waste dump distances on property

values.

Table 1: Population and Sample of the Study

S/N Strata of Population Population Sample

Frequency % Frequency %

1 Households

a. Landlords 190 16.24 49 16.24

b. Tenants 950 81.20 243 81.20

2 Estate Surveyors and vauers 10 0.85 3 0.85

3 Waste management officers 20 1.71 5 1.71

Total 1170 1.00 300 100

Authors‘ field survey

Figure 1: Dumpsite in Study Area


46


The population of the study was 1170 persons from an enumeration of households within 500meters

radius round the dumpsites, including 10 Estate Surveyors and Vauers from Ikot Ekpene (AKS

NIESV 2018) and 20 staffs of the State Ministry of Environment and Waste Management Agency.

The stratified random sampling technique was adopted for the population while the contribution to the

sample size from each strata was base on the contribution to population of the sampling (proportional

sampling). Using Cochran sample size formular for categorical data.

No = (t) 2 x (p)(q)

(d) 2

Where t = 5% level of risk; 95% confidence level = 196, (p)(q) = estimate of variance= 0.25, and D =

acceptance margin of error = 0.05; the sample size for the study was 300 persons. Therefore 300

copies of questionnaire were distributed, 280 copies of the questionnaire were returned. 20 were

considered unfit for the study; hence 260 copies of the questionnaire were fit and used for the study.

Result and Discussion

Table 2: Category of Respondents

S/n Category No. of Respondents %

1. Landlords 45 17.31

2. Tenants 207 79.62

3. Estate Surveyor and Valuers 3 1.15

4. Waste Management Officials 5 1.92

Total 260 100

Source: Authors‘ field survey

The data presented in Table 2 shows the categories of respondents that were sampled. The Table

indicates that 17.31% (45) respondents were landlords, 79.62% (207) were tenants, 1.15% (3)

respondents were estate surveyor managing properties in Ikot Ekpene while 1.92% (5) of the

respondents were staff of the local waste management authority.

Table 3: Economic effect of dumpsite on residential property rental values (N,000)

S/n Distance from

dumpsite (m)

One room

apartment

Self-contain I bedroom

Flat

2 bed room

flat

3 bedroom

flat

1 20 24 65 80 100 120

2 30 24 60 100 100 120

3 40 24 80 80 120 150

4 50 24 80 100 120 150

5 60 30 80 100 120 150

6 70 30 80 100 120 150

7 80 24 85 100 120 150

8 90 30 85 100 120 150

9 100 30 80 80 120 150

10 110 30 80 100 120 150

11 120 30 70 80 120 150

12 130 30 35 80 120 150

13 140 30 85 100 120 150

14 150 30 85 100 120 150

15 160 30 85 80 115 150

16 170 24 80 100 100 200

17 180 30 80 100 100 150

18 190 24 85 100 120 150

19 200 30 80 100 120 150

20 210 30 80 100 120 150

21 220 30 70 80 120 150

22 230 30 85 100 120 150

23 240 30 85 100 100 150


47


24 250 24 75 100 120 150

25 260 30 85 100 120 150

26 270 30 85 100 120 150

27 280 24 85 100 120 150

28 290 30 85 100 120 150

29 300 30 25 85 100 150

30 310 30 80 100 110 170

31 320 30 80 100 120 150

32 330 30 85 100 120 150

33 340 24 85 100 115 120

34 350 30 85 100 120 150

35 360 30 85 100 120 150

36 370 30 70 100 120 150

37 380 30 80 80 120 150

38 390 24 80 100 115 150

39 400 30 85 100 120 170

40 410 30 85 100 115 150

41 320 30 80 100 150 170

42 330 30 85 120 150 170

43 340 30 85 120 150 170

44 350 30 85 120 150 170

45 360 30 100 120 150 170

46 370 30 100 120 150 200

47 380 30 100 120 180 220

48 400 36 100 120 200 220

49

50

440

500

34

30

120

100

130

120

200

200

240

220


Table 3 shows changes in the rental values of residential properties with distance from the dumpsites.

At a distance of 10 metres from the dumpsites, the rental values of residential property were as

follows; one room apartment (tenement building) N24,000, self contain N60,000, 1 bedroom flat

N80,000, 2 bedroom flat N100,000 and 3 bedroom flat N120,000. At a distance of 20 metres from the

dumpsites the rental value of residential properties were; one room apartment N24,000, self contain

N65,000, one bedroom flat N80,000, 2 bedroom flat N100,000 and 3 bedroom flat N120,000. At a

distance of 30 metres one room apartment (tenement building) let for N24,000, self-contain let for

N60,000, one bedroom flat let for N100,000, two bedroom flat let for N100,000, while a three

bedroom flat let for N120,000. At distance of 40 metres one room apartment (tenement building) let

for N24,000, self-contain let for N80,000, one bedroom flat let for N80,000, two bedroom flat let for

N120,000, while a three bedroom flat let for N150,000. At distance of 50 metres a room let for

N24,000, a self-contain let for N80,000, a one bedroom flat let for N100,000, a two bedroom flat for

N120,000, three bedroom flat N150,000. At 60 metres from the dumpsites a tenement room let for

N30,000, a self-contain let for N80,000, one bedroom flat let for N100,000, two bedroom flat for

N120,000 and three bedroom flat for N150,000 etc.

The black line graph is for one room (tenement) apartments. The lowest part of the graph was within

the distance of 1-50 metres from the dumpsites with occasional drop in value which might be

attributed to other factors that affect value aside proximity to dumpsites. The green line graph showed

the changes in rental value with distance for self-contain apartment, it is observed that there is a sharp

slope within 1-50 metres from dumpsites with occasional drop in value. The yellow line graph

showed the changes in rental value with distance from the dumpsites; there is also a steep slope within

1-50 metres with occasional drop in value. The blue line graph is for 2 bedroom flat with a rather flat

slope with 1-50 metres, with occasional rise and fall. The red line graph is for 3 bedroom flat with a

rather flat slope within 1-50 metres from dumpsites and a sharp slope immediately after a distance of


48


50 metres from there with occasional steep rise and fall which could be attributed to other factors such

as age, finishing, convenience, security, quality of neighborhood etc.

120

100

80

60

40

20

200

140

160

180

r 0.

4≤

r 0.

1≤

r 0.

4≤

r 0

.2≤

Area where property value drops slightly

-

Legend

One room - Self contain - One bedroom flat - Two bedroom flat - Three bedroom flat

OR = 0

SC

1BF = r= 0

2BF = r= 0

3BF = r= 0

50 100 200 300 400 500

Figure 2: Distance value gradients of property values of residential types with distance from dumpsites

The black line graph is for one room (tenement) apartments. The lowest part of the graph was within

the distance of 1-50 metres from the dumpsites with occasional drop in value which might be

attributed to other factors that affect value aside proximity to dumpsites. The green line graph showed

the changes in rental value with distance for self-contain apartment, it is observed that there is a sharp

slope within 1-50 metres from dumpsites with occasional drop in value. The yellow line graph

showed the changes in rental value with distance from the dumpsites; there is also a steep slope within

1-50 metres with occasional drop in value. The blue line graph is for 2 bedroom flat with a rather flat


49


No. of

Void

Pro

per

ty

slope with 1-50 metres, with occasional rise and fall. The red line graph is for 3 bedroom flat with a

rather flat slope within 1-50 metres from dumpsites and a sharp slope immediately after a distance of

50 metres from there with occasional steep rise and fall which could be attributed to other factors such

as age, finishing, convenience, security, quality of neighborhood etc.

Table 4: Distribution of void Properties with distance from the dumpsites

S/n Distance property sampled No. of void properties % of void properties

1. 0 – 50 26 10 38.46

2. 51 – 100 26 8 30.67

3. 101 – 150 26 7 26.92

4. 151 – 200 26 7 26.92

5. 201 – 250 26 6 23.08

6. 251 – 300 26 5 19.23

7. 301 – 350 26 4 15.38

8. 351 – 400 26 5 19.23

9. 401 – 450 26 5 19.23

10 451 – 500 26 4 15.38

Total 260 61 23.46


Table 4 which shows the distribution of void residential properties within 500 metres radius from the

dumpsites, voids in property management refers to a situation where properties still remain vacant

despite the lapse of time. The presentation indicated that 38.46% of the residential properties were

void within a distance of 1-50 metres from the dumpsite, 30.67% of the residential properties

remained void within the range of 51-100 metres from the dumpsite, 26.92% of residential properties

were void between the distance of 101-150 metres from the dumpsite, 26.92% were void between the

range of 151-200 metres, 23.08% of residential properties were void between the distance of 201-

250metres from the dumpsite, 19.23% of the residential properties were void between the distance of

251-300 meters from the dumpsites, 15.38% of the residential properties were void between the

distance of301-350 metres, 19.23% were void between the range of 351-400 metres from the

dumpsite, 19.23% of residential properties between the range of 401-450 metres were void while

15.38% of residential properties between the distance of 451-500 metres were void.

Distance from Dumpsite (metres)

Figure 3: Number of void residential properties with distance from dumpsites (0)

The bar chart in Figure 3 showed the frequency of void properties with distance from the dumpsites as

follows; 0-50 metres from dumpsites 10 properties (38.46 %) were void, 51-100 metres 8 properties

(30.67%) were void, 101-150 metres 7 properties (26.92%) were void, 11-200 metres 7 properties

(26.92%) were void, 201-250 metres 6 properties (23.08%) were void, 351-400 5 properties (19.23%)


50


were void, 401-450 5 properties (15.38%) were void, 451-500, 4 proprieties were void. This showed a

decrease in demand for residential properties as one moves closer to the dumpsites.

Table 5: Data on Environmental Characters of Some Properties in Ikot Ekpene Urban S/N Y X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8

One room

1

24 0.1 102 1 0 1 20 0 1

2 24 0.2 108 1 0 1 15 0 1 3 30 0.4 110 1 0 1 10 0 2

4 24 0.5 102 1 0 1 15 0 2

5 30 1.6 112 1 0 2 5 0 2 6 36 5.0 120 1 0 3 5 1 3

7 30 2.0 134 1 0 3 2 1 3 8 30 3.5 140 1 0 4 1 2 4

9 30 2.6 112 1 0 2 5 1 2

10 30 3.0 148 1 0 4 2 1 4 Self-contain

11

65 0.10 24 1 0 1 20 0 1

12 65 0.20 22 1 0 1 20 0 1 13 80 0.40 24 1 0 2 15 0 1

14 75 2.5 26 1 0 2 12 0 1

15 80 0.50 28 1 0 3 5 0 2

16 80 2 26 1 0 2 10 0 2

17 70 1.2 30 1 0 3 5 0 3

18 85 2.9 32 1 0 4 1 0 3 19 85 3.4 32 1 0 4 2 0 3

20 85 4.2 30 1 0 3 5 0 4

One bedroom 21

80 0.10 36 1 0 1 25 0 1

22 80 0.2 36 1 0 1 25 0 1

23 100 0.4 38 1 0 1 20 0 1 24 100 45 40 1 0 2 7 0 2

25 100 0.5 40 1 0 2 7 0 2

26 100 1.5 40 1 0 2 10 0 2 27 75 3 40 1 0 3 6 0 3

28 100 2.5 40 1 0 3 5 0 3

29 80 5 44 1 0 3 2 0 3 30 100 1 44 1 0 4 1 0 3

Two bedroom

31

100 0.1 50 2 0 1 25 0 1

32 120 0.2 52 2 0 2 10 0 2

33 100 0.4 50 2 0 2 15 0 2 34 120 0.5 52 2 0 2 10 0 2

35 115 1.6 50 2 0 1 15 0 1

36 120 2.5 54 2 0 3 5 0 3

37 120 4.5 54 2 0 3 5 0 3

38 115 3.5 56 2 1 3 3 1 3

39 120 2 56 2 0 3 3 1 3

40 120 5 60 2 0 4 1 1 3

43 150 0.4 62 3 0 1 15 0 1

44 150 0.5 62 3 0 1 15 0 1

45 200 1.7 66 3 1 2 10 0 3

46 150 5.0 64 3 0 2 12 0 2

47 150 4.6 62 3 0 2 15 0 2

48 150 4.5 66 3 1 3 2 0 3

49 150 3.6 72 3 1 3 5 1 4

50 150 2.6 84 3 1 4 1 1 4

Source: Authors field survey

Rental value (N000)= Y, Distance from dumpsite (100m)= X1, Total Floor area(m2)= X2, No. of Bedroom= X3, No. of

Boy‘s Quarter = X4, Rank of Quality of building= X5, Area =X6, No of Garages= X7, Security=X8

Using qualitative measure, building quality and level of security were measured using 5 point likert

scale with 5 as excellent, 4 as good, 3 as fair 2 as poor and 1 as very poor. Table 5 showed that

distance or proximity to dumpsites is just one among many variable that affects rental values of

residential properties. Among the factors that affect rental value are; total floor space, No of

bedrooms, No of Boys Quarters, quality of buildings, age of property, Garage, security among others.

The rental values of several properties could be computed using regression analysis based on data

collected from these properties. The regression analysis formula is Y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + b4x4 +

b5x5 + b6x6 + b7x7 + b8x8 + e Table 6: Model summary


51


Table 7: Coefficients

a

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig. Correlations

B Std. Error Beta Zero-order Partial Part

1

(Constant) 37.214 21.337 1.744 .089

X1 .435 .354 .061 1.229 .226 .048 .189 .058

X2 -.682 .095 -.501 -7.155 .000 -.435 -.745 -.339

X3 49.834 3.175 .897 15.694 .000 .816 .926 .744

X4 -18.154 9.548 -.123 -1.901 .064 .355 -.285 -.090

X5 6.168 6.244 .144 .988 .329 .045 .152 .047

X6 .143 .726 .023 .197 .845 .051 .031 .009

X7 6.554 7.216 .068 .908 .369 -.154 .140 .043

X8 2.330 5.635 .052 .414 .681 .027 .064 .020

a. Dependent Variable: Y

Hypothesis decision

The regression analysis in Tables 6 and 2 show the effect of distance from dumpsites among other

variables on residential property value (y). The overall model summary showed a combined r value of

.908 which represents about 89% of the relationship. In terms of distance of dumpsite (x1) the result

shows that residential property closeness to dumpsite has an insignificant effect on rental values

within the 500metres considered in this study, going by the Beta value of .061 and sig. value of .226

(table 7) which is above 0.05 confidence level.

The objective of the study is to assess the effects of location of open waste dumpsites on residential

property values. The analysis indicates that there is a steady decline in the percentage of void

residential properties as one move away from the dumpsites and an increase in void of residential

properties as one move towards the dumpsites. The data showed that as one moves towards the

dumpsite there is a decline in the demand for residential properties. However, Table 3 showed a very

slight reduction in rental value, just between the range of 1-50 metres from the dumpsite. This showed

that despite the decline in demand for residential properties closer to the dumpsites, the landlords have

refused to settle for lower rental values resulting in high rate of void in residential properties as one

moves closer to the dumpsites. This was the opinion of Udo and Egbenta (2007) in a study of the

effect of dumpsites on rental values of properties in Enugu.

The rate of change of rental value with respect to distance from the dumpsite as shown in figure 2

revealed that there was a slight fall in rental value within 1-50 metres from the side where the effect

was strongly felt. However, the rate of change of rental value with respect to distance from the

dumpsite indicated an almost flat gradients i.e. r=0 for almost all the residential property types

between 51-500 metres indicating that the rate of change of rental value with respect to distance from

the dumpsite was insignificant. This is in line with the studies of Wokekor and Uruesheyi (2014);

Reichert (1992); Havlicek, Richardson and Davis (1971), Hite (1995) and Udo and Egbenta, (2007).

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of the

Estimate

Change Statistics

R Square

Change

F Change df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

Durbin-

Watson

1 .953a .908 .890 14.888 .908 50.528 8 41 .000 1.068


52


Conclusion and Recommendation

One of the problems facing municipalities in most developing countries is the management of waste

generated due to urbanization, urban population growth, rising demand for basic amenities and other

services, inadequate environmental inspection officials, inactive policing and court system and low

budgetary allocation to the environment ministry. This has caused serious physical, economic and

health challenges to households resident within close locations to these open waste dumpsites with

resultant decrease in the demand for properties that are within 50metres from the dumpsites. Ikot

Ekpene the study area is not an exception. In consideration of these environmental challenges and its

socio-economic implications, it becomes necessary to examine the effect of these dumpsites on

property values. The findings from this study indicate that dumpsite has adverse effect on property

values. Household residents especially those within the radius of fifty metres from the dumpsite

experienced deficit demand for properties within the dumpsites. However, despite the deficit demand

the Landlords are not willing to accept reduced rent resulting in a very high percentage of void

properties within close location from the dumpsites; although there is slight reduction in rental value

in areas within a radius of fifty metres.

Modern municipalities should adopt worthy strategies to take advantages of the waste they generate

and manage. The American Environmental Protection Agencies recommends that there is no single

approach that can be applied to management of all waste streams. Hence waste management practice

should be a combination of waste strategies which include four basic components; recycling,

compositing, disposal, and waste-to-energy via incineration. Therefore the Environmental Protection

Agency, and the Ministry of Environment should develop a hierarchy ranking. The strategy for

municipal solid waste includes four levels ordered from most preferred to least preferred methods

which should be based on their environmental soundness. This option includes source reduction and

reuse; recycling or composting; energy recovery; treatment and disposal which can be categorized

under these activities; Collection of Waste, Waste Handling and Separation, Storage and Processing at

the Source, Thirdly, Segregation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Wastes, Transfer and

Transport, Disposal, Reusing of Waste, Landfills and Energy Generation strategy.

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56


WAYS OF IMPROVING THE SOURCING AND APPLICATION OF SOME CONCRETE

CONSTITUENTS IN THE NIGERIAN BUILDING INDUSTRY

Dauda Dahiru1, Mudasir Ibrahim

2 and Lawal Umar Yusuf

3

1 & 3Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria – Nigeria

2Department of Building, Federal University, Birnin – Kebbi, Kebbi State – Nigeria

[email protected]; 0909 134 444 3; 0803 111 8339.

Abstract

The ever growing demand on the earth scarce resources has made many of them extremely rare and the use of

remaining stocks should be treated cautiously through efficient resource use and avoidance of consumption of

disproportionate amount. This paper evaluated the sourcing and application of most widely used concrete

constituents in the building industry in Nigeria, with a view to enhancing the quality and sustainability of built

environment. This was achieved through field survey, using structured questionnaire as well as structured

interview as data collection instruments. Result of the study shows that there are legislations on sourcing and

use of construction materials and 0.5%, 55.8% and 74% of respondents were of the view that such legislations

are adequate, sufficiently cover major issues, and there are government agencies responsible for the regulation

of use and application of construction materials, respectively. However, 35% of respondents noted that there is

lack of enforcement. The mode of sourcing and application of construction materials can really affect

sustainability, strength and durability, and also quality among others. Therefore, there is need for Government

to promote the technology/mode of use of materials for construction that encourages the use of renewable

materials. Also Professional bodies and NGOs should constitute themselves as "watch dogs" against

unsustainable sourcing of materials.

Keywords: Application, concrete, constituents, sourcing, sustainability, Nigeria

Introduction

The construction industry is very vital to the socio-economic development of a nation. In many

countries, the yardstick for the measurement of national progress is hinged on the degree of

contributions of the construction industry to the nation‘s economic, social and political advancement.

Okigbo (1982) and Mogbo (2001) described the building and construction sector in Nigeria as being

‗important‘ and ‗crucial‘ to the economy. Abiola (2000) identified building materials as one of the

principal factors affecting the effective performance of the Nigerian construction industry. The

building materials sector is a major contributor to the construction industry because materials

constitute the single largest input in construction often accounting for about half of the total cost of

most or any construction products (Mogbo, 2001; Fellows et al., 2003; Bamisile, 2004; Arora &

Bindira, 2005; Okereke, 2007).

The construction industry is the largest destroyer of the natural environment (Woolley, 2000). It is a

major consumer of non- renewable resources, produces substantial waste, pollutes air and water, and

contributes to land dereliction (Wallbaum and Buerkin, 2003). Sustainable development is a

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). A primary goal of sustainability is to reduce

humanity‘s environmental or ecological footprint on the planet. Sustainable development has given

rise to green buildings. Most green building practices fall into seven basic categories: energy saving,

land saving, storm water runoff-reducing, material conservation and pollution reduction. A green

building uses an average of 30% less energy than conventional building (Halliday, 2008). Material

waste generated during construction is reduced or recycled. Energy efficiency is improved, perhaps by

relying on the use of natural light and ventilation or solar power. Less water is used, or rainwater

harvesting system is installed to ensure wiser use. Measures taken to make buildings and construction

more sustainable rely increasingly on life cycle approaches.

All the building structures are composed of different types of materials. These materials are either

called building materials or materials of construction. It is very essential for a builder, may be an

architecture or engineer or contractor, to become conversant thoroughly with these building materials.


57



The knowledge of different types of material, their properties and uses for different purposes provides

an important tool in the hands of the builders in achieving economy in material cost. The material cost

in a building ranges 30 to 50 percent cost of total cost of construction. In addition to material

economy, the correct use of material results in better structural strength, functional efficiency and

esthetic appearance (Rao, and Vishnukanth, 2006). According to Wahab and Lawal (2011), control of

material is relatively a new practice in the construction industry. In the present situation, the

management and the designers are mainly concerned on how to control cost without any emphasis

on waste control measures. Generally, it is accepted that cost of materials accounted for a

great percentage of the total cost of construction projects. Therefore, a critical control of

materials on site should be adopted. Materials wastage on site cannot be treated fully without

materials control. In fact, material waste level on site is a measure of site management. It is also

one of the enemies of contractors. Most loss of materials occurs as a result of the decision of

the site management. Decision taken at the initial stage of any project that is the design stage,

either by the manufacturer or supplier of materials are capable of increasing waste level. This

can occur as a result of manufacturers not following strictly the buyers' specification and

supplier not packaging the product for easy transportation. Since all the burden of waste lies solely

on the contractor, it is important that the site management should ensure a good supervision of

materials and apply an effective method of controlling waste. Waste normally emanates during

different stages of construction which can be during planning, estimating or construction stage. In

Nigeria, not all the materials procured are used during construction and this indicates that the left-

overs may remain as waste that may not be accounted for.

In some United Nations reports (UNCHS, 1992), the building materials sector was split into three

production groups: Modern or conventional building materials which are materials based on modern

conventional production methods like concrete, steel and glass; traditional are those materials that

have been in local production from ancient times using small-scale rudimentary technologies, e.g.

laterite, gravel, thatch, straw, stabilised mud, Azara and raphia palm; and innovative materials which

are materials developed through research efforts aimed at providing alternatives to import-based

materials e.g. fibre-based concrete, ferro-cement products etc. However, despite the general

popularity of both the modern and innovative building materials in the market, there exist calls for the

return to traditional materials, referred to in this study as Indigenous Building Materials (IBM).

Amongst the reasons advanced for these calls are high cost of both the modern and innovative

building materials and their inadequate supply in the market (UNCHS, 1992; Lilly and Wai, 2001).

Furthermore, the need to revert to IBM is also traceable to prevalent dictates of some neo-global

concepts vis-à-vis sustainability, and the use of biodegradable and renewable materials (Adams, 2000;

Mourshed et al., 2000; Peakstoprairies, 2005). This has led to the creation of global political agenda

and researches on the potential for wide application of IBM.

The extraction of raw materials such as mineral ores, stone and cement for building necessitate

quarrying and mining for their distribution, can have negative effects on the wildlife and amenity

value of the country side. According to Huby (2005) and Dahiru and AbdulAzeez (2010), the

damages caused to land and wildlife, habitats, are often under estimated due to the fact that the

negative impact is caused at distance from the point at which the extraction of materials take place.

Various studies were carried out in order to overcome the problem of building collapse, but still there

is need to undertake yet further research on materials that are used for construction to improve quality.

The effective sourcing and application of construction materials should be reviewed in order to make

an evaluation. Moreover, materials are the building block or soul of any construction, to achieve

quality, rigid and building that is capable of supporting its self-weight and the imposed load over it;

there is need to know the source of the materials and how they are used in the construction industries

especially in this era of reasonable amount of building collapse in Nigeria. This study therefore

assessed the sourcing and application of some major concrete constituents.

Dauda Dahiru, Mudasir Ibrahim and Lawal Umar Yusuf

58


Methodology

The research was designed in such a way that certain vital issues were addressed, which includes;

issue of legislation regarding sourcing of materials, laws of sourcing, approach used by construction

industry in sourcing as well as the issue of application of materials and better ways of sourcing. Field

survey was conducted using structured questionnaire and structured interview as the instruments of

the study. Four professionals in the built environment were the targeted respondents (Architects,

Builders, Quantity Surveyors and Civil Engineers) using two sets of data collection instruments.

Structured questionnaire was used to elicit information on respondents profile as well as other

research questions in close ended fashion using likert scale. Interview was also carried. In order to

obtain accurate and qualitative information concerning the research topic, only personnel working at

agencies/organization that ensures quality in sourcing and use of building materials as well as

professionals that include architects, builders, quantity surveyors and civil engineers especially those

with long time experience in the construction industry were involved in the study. The rationale

behind this selection is to ensure the validity of the information obtained from respondents.

The research employed the use of convenience sampling technique in particular. Personnel working at

various organizations/agencies and professionals who are directly engaged in building construction

with an adequate level of work experience were given preference. The sample technique was based on

convenient selection of personnel and professionals to whom the questionnaires were administered in

order to get views and responses. The questionnaire was administered to professionals in the

construction industry in Kaduna from whom information was acquired. For ease of comprehension,

the descriptive statistics was used for the purpose of this research. Data collected from the

questionnaires distributed were analyzed using tables to display background information, percentages,

and relative index. Descriptive statistical tools were employed which offer simplicity, clarity, and

adaptability of the qualitative study. Statistical functions such as percentages, frequency, mean and

standard deviation were used to determine the objectives of this research work.


A total number of 50 copies of questionnaire were administered for this research and 43 of the copies

of questionnaire were retrieved which gives 86% response rate and this was distributed among the

respondents as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Profession of the Respondents

Profession Frequency Percentage (%)

Architects 2 4.6

Builders 26 60.5

Quantity Surveyors 10 23.3

Civil Engineers 5 11.6

Total 43 100

Table 1 shows the various professionals that were used as the target respondents. From the analysed

questionnaire gathered, 2 of the respondents (4.6%) were Architects by profession, 26 were Builders

(60.5%), 10 were Quantity Surveyors (23.3%) while 5 were Civil Engineers (11.6%) respectively.

Table 2: Qualification, projects handled and years of experiences of respondents

Qualification Frequency Percentage (%)

HND 3 7

B.Sc 27 62.8

M.Sc 13 30.2

Total 43 100

Types of Project Handled

Building Construction Works 25 58.2

Civil Engineering Works 9 20.9

Both 9 20.9

Ways of Improving the Sourcing and Application of Some Concrete Constituents in the Nigerian …

59


Total 43 100

Years of Experience in Construction Works

0-5 years 26 60.5

6-10 years 12 27.9

11-15 years 5 11.6

Total 43 100

Table 2 shows the highest educational qualification attained by the respondents. Majority of the

respondents (62.8) had B Sc degrees, followed by M Sc degrees (30.2%) and the least qualification

was HND (7%). In terms of the types of projects usually handled by the respondents, Table 2 has

classified them into three types. From Table 2 a total of 25 of the respondents which represents 58.2%

handled only Building construction work while Civil Engineering works is carried out by 9 (20.9%)

respondents. However, those that handled both Building Construction and Civil Engineering projects

were also 9 persons and this reflects 20.9%. This result shows 58.2% of the projects handled by the

respondents were building construction works. In terms of the years of experience of the respondents

in construction industry, Table 2 also shows that 26 (33.3%) out of 43 of the respondents were within

the range of 0 – 5 years of experience, 12 (38.1%) of the respondents fell between 6 – 10 years of

experience, while 5 of the respondents (16.7%) had 11-15 years of experience respectively.

In view of the fact that legislation is one of the important measures that will ensure sustainable

sourcing and use of materials, attempt was made to establish the existence of relevant laws on

sourcing and application of building materials. Details of the result of the survey are presented in

Table 3.

Table 3: Legislations on sourcing and application of construction materials

Means of Sustainable Sourcing and Use of Materials Frequency

Yes No

Existence of Legislations on sourcing of materials 65% 35%

Adequacy of the legislations 61% 39%

Sufficiency of the coverage area 57% 43%

Established government agency that regulate sourcing 74% 26%

Opinion on the performance of the government agency 15% 85%

Enforcement of law by the government agency 35% 65%

Negative implication of lack of enforcement 72% 28%

Punishment covering the established law 72% 28%

Awareness of the law on sourcing and application of materials 77% 23%

Seeking permission before sourcing the materials 55.8% 43.2%

Table 3 shows the opinions of the respondents regarding the issue of legislation on sourcing and

application of legislation materials. As it can be observed, there is a consensus of opinion among

respondents that there is existence of legislation on sourcing of materials as 65% said Yes while 35%

declined. In addition, the result also shows that respondents were of the view that such legislations are

adequate. However, the major problem borders around the issue of enforcement of law by the

government agency. This perhaps explains the reason why majority of the respondents were of the

view that the opinion on the performance of the government agency were not to their desired

expectation leading to negative implication. As regards sufficiency of the coverage area, adequacy of

the legislations, established government agency that regulate sourcing, punishment covering the

established law and seeking permission before sourcing the materials, the positive opinions of the

respondents outweigh their negative responses as each of these issues had positive responses more

than average. Thus, from the result, it can be inferred that lack of sincere and serious commitment

towards enforcement of the legislation could be the single most important factor responsible for how

the experts describe the sourcing and application of construction material in Nigeria as ‗unregulated

and unsustainable‘. It also shows that mere existence of these legislations is not enough. Deliberate

efforts towards monitoring and control by enforcing these legislations is the reliable way of achieving

sustainable sourcing and application of construction materials.


60


Table 4: Adequacy of legislations concerning sourcing of construction materials

Frequency Percent

Very adequate 8 18.6

Adequate 16 37.2

Undecided 8 18.6

Inadequate 11 25.6

Total 43 100.0

The respondents were requested to rate the adequacy of legislation on sourcing and application of

building materials in Nigeria. Table 4 shows the breakdown of the response. A total of eight (8)

respondents representing 18.6% rate it as very adequate. Adequate was the rating choice of 16

respondents (37.2%), 8 respondents who constitute 18.6% rate adequacy of legislation on sourcing

and application of building materials in Nigeria as ―undecided‖. However, 11 respondents or 25.6% of

the respondents rated it as Inadequate. This shows that the legislation on sourcing and application of

construction materials is "fair".

Sourcing is the same thing as procurement. Specification is done based on type of materials and event.

Each of the professional/member of the construction team has his own role depending on the area of

specialization. Nowadays Architects defines the materials, but it is still open for other professionals.

Table 5: The important criterion to consider during sourcing and application building materials

CRITERIA Frequency ∑f ∑fx Mean Rank

1 2 3 4 5

Responsiveness to environmental regulations 4 4 4 14 17 43 165 3.84 6th

Material conservation 1 4 7 20 11 43 125 2.91 10th

Efficient Energy conservation 1 6 9 19 8 43 156 3.63 7th

effective Cost of the materials 1 4 9 14 15 43 167 3.88 5th

Safety of the workers and environment 4 5 6 5 23 43 167 3.88 5th

Durability and serviceability of the materials 2 7 - 16 18 43 170 3.95 4th

Manpower optimization and development 4 2 4 10 23 43 175 4.07 3rd

Ergonomic(effect of repetitive action) and

aesthetic concerns

3 7 9 14 10 43 150 3.49 8th

Total quality management of the finished

product

1 2 2 24 14 43 177 4.12 2nd

Sustainability criteria and rating the sourcing of

construction materials

3 10 10 8 12 43 145 3.37 9th

selection criteria in rating the sourcing of

construction materials

4 5 2 12 20 43 198 4.60 1rt

5= very important, 4= important, 3= don‟t know, 2= less important, 1= not important

Table 5 shows that the selection criteria in rating the sourcing of construction materials ranks the

highest variable in criteria to consider during sourcing and application of building materials with a

mean score of 4.6. The second criterion is the total quality management of the finished product with a

mean score of 4.12. Manpower optimization and development comes third with a mean score of 4.07.

Durability and serviceability of the materials comes fourth with a mean score of 3.95. Effective Cost

of the materials and Safety of the workers and environment comes fifth with a mean score of 3.88

each. The sixth variable on the table with a mean score of 3.84 is responsiveness to environmental

regulations. Effective energy conservation comes seventh with a mean score of 3.63. Ergonomic

(effect of repetitive action) and aesthetic concerns with a mean score of 3.49 comes eighth on the

ranking. The ninth on the table is sustainability criteria and rating the sourcing of construction

materials with a mean score of 3.37. Material conservation is tenth on the table with a mean score of

2.91. However, by observing the mean score, most of the result shows that the overall mean score is

above 3.0 and thus implies that there is consensus of opinion that the entire criterions are important

except materials conservation.


61


Table 6: The criterion to consider during sourcing and application of imported building materials

CRITERIA Frequency ∑f ∑fx Mean Rank

1 2 3 4 5

Quality standard 7 - 3 8 25 43 173 4.02 2nd

Environmental impact 3 4 5 16 15 43 165 3.84 5th

Testing the finished product - 6 8 16 13 43 165 3.84 5th

Compatibility to the weather condition - 3 6 22 12 43 172 4.00 3rd

Ease of use (buildability) 3 2 - 10 28 43 187 4.35 1st

Ease of maintenance 3 4 1 21 14 43 168 3.91 4th

5=very important, 4= important, 3= don‟t know, 2= less important, 1= not important.

Table 6 reveals the opinions of the respondents on the criteria to consider during sourcing and

application of imported building materials. Ease of use (buildability) came first on the ranking with a

mean score of 4.35. The second on the ranking is quality standard with a mean score of 4.02.

Compatibility with the weather condition is the third with a mean score of 4.00. The fifth is testing the

finished product and environmental impact which has a mean score of 3.84 each is least on the rank

scale. Also from the result the mean scores exceed 3.0 and implies that there is a consensus of opinion

among the respondents that the entire criteria are important. However, buildability, quality standard

and compatibility with the weather condition are the respective criteria with the highest mean scores

and should be given more emphasis.

The materials used for the construction must be sourced before they are applied to construction. The

following are the results obtain from field survey.

Table 7: Role of Professionals in Ensuring Quality Building Materials

Ways of ensuring quality building materials Frequency ∑f ∑fx Mean Rank

1 2 3 4 5

Professional advice 10 1 4 2 26 43 162 3.77 3rd

Operation research 1 11 3 11 17 43 161 3.74 4th

Specifying quality building materials 4 8 7 7 17 43 154 3.58 5th

Feedback on performance of materials used 5 1 4 20 13 43 164 3.81 2nd

Rejecting substandard building materials 2 8 1 12 20 43 169 3.93 1st

5= very important, 4= important, 3= don‟t know, 2= less important, 1= not important.

In Table 7, rejecting substandard building materials with a mean of 3.93 ranks the highest variable in

the role of professionals in ensuring quality building materials. The second variable which has a mean

score of 3.81 is feedback on performance of materials used. Professional advice ranks the third factor

on the list with a mean score of 3.77. Operation research is the fourth in the table with a mean score of

3.74. Specifying quality building materials which ranks the fifth in ways in which professionals can

help in the best practice of sourcing building materials come last with a mean score of 3.58. However,

the individual mean scores are above 3 and thus show there is consensus of opinions that all the

factors are important.

Table 8: Measures to be considered during sourcing and application of Building Materials

Best practice Frequency ∑f ∑fx Mean Rank

1 2 3 4 5

Used from single source 1 3 18 20 1 43 146 3.40 15th

Proper evaluation and testing from different

source

6 5 4 24 4 43 144 3.35 17th

Initial test from each source of supply 5 8 5 16 9 43 171 3.98 2nd

Test once every two months 3 4 16 12 8 43 147 3.42 1414

Adequate storage under cover 5 5 5 22 6 43 148 3.44 13th

Aggregate piled in a single size 1 - 11 20 10 43 164 3.81 6th

Materials should be free from impurities and

deleterious materials

11 4 5 15 8 43 134 3.12 19th

Controlling the moisture content 3 9 8 15 8 43 145 3.37 16th


62


Checking quality of mixing water 5 10 5 14 9 43 141 3.28 18th

Right capacity of batching, mixing and

vibrating equipment

8 5 2 14 14 43 150 3.49 12th

Frequent checking of the accuracy of batching

equipment

4 7 9 13 10 43 147 3.42 14th

Chosen suitable batching method 1 7 6 19 10 43 159 3.70 8th

Mixer performance to the relevant standard 5 4 3 20 11 43 157 3.65 10th

Time of mixing the materials 3 9 6 20 5 43 144 3.35 17th

Frequency and amplitude of vibrator 1 9 9 14 10 43 152 3.53 11tt

Handling, transporting and placing of materials 6 2 5 10 20 43 165 3.84 5th

Time interval between mixing, placing and

vibration

1 9 2 19 12 43 161 3.74 7th

Adequate compaction 4 7 1 10 21 43 166 3.86 4th

Adequate curing 2 7 3 12 19 43 168 3.91 3rd

Shape, type, sizes, ambient temperature and

humidity condition

3 5 7 16 12 43 158 3.67 9th

Mix ratio of the materials 7 1 - 10 25 43 174 4.05 1st

5= strongly agree, 4= agree, 3= don‟t know, 2= disagree, 1= strongly disagree.

Table 8 shows measures that should be considered during sourcing of materials, as it can be observed

mix ratio of the materials comes first with a mean score of 4.05. The second on the ranking is initial

test from each source of supply with a mean score of 3.98. Adequate curing comes third with a mean

score of 3.91. Adequate compaction is the fourth with a mean score of 3.86. The fifth measure on the

table is handling, transporting and placing of materials with a mean score of 3.84. Aggregate piled in

a single size is the sixth with a mean score of 3.81. The seventh measure is the time interval between

mixing, placing and vibration with a mean score of 3.74. Chosen suitable batching method with a

mean score of 3.70 is the eighth on the ranking. Frequent check of the weight-volume ratio and Shape,

type, sizes, ambient temperature and humidity condition come the ninth in the table respectively. The

tenth on the table is Mixer performance to the relevant standard with a mean score of 3.65. Frequency

and amplitude of vibrator with a mean score of 3.53 comes the eleventh on table. The twelve on the

table with a mean score of 3.49 is Right capacity of batching, mixing and vibrating equipment.

Adequate storage under cover has a mean score of 3.44 which is the thirteenth on the table. Test once

every two months and Frequent checking of the accuracy of batching equipment comes fourteen on

the table with a mean score of 3.42 each. Used from single source comes is the fifteenth with a mean

score of 3.40. Controlling the moisture content with a mean score of 3.37 is the sixteen on the table.

Proper evaluation and testing from different sources and Time of mixing the materials are the

seventeenth on the table with a mean score of 3.35 each. The eighteenth on the ranking is Checking

quality of mixing water with a mean score of 3.28. Materials should be free from impurities and

deleterious materials are the last on the ranking with a mean score of 3.12. However, all the mean

score are above 3. This also shows there is consensus of opinion that all the practices are agreed on

their importance, but as it can be observed, mix ratio of the materials, initial test from each source of

supply, and adequate curing are ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively given more emphasis. While

used from single source as a very important factor, the respondents ranked it very low.

Views on mode of sourcing of construction materials are one of the issues concern during the survey.

The results are presented in Table 9.

Table 9: Effect of mode of sourcing and application of construction materials

Effect of mode of sourcing and application Frequency ∑f ∑fx Mean Rank

1 2 3 4 5

Strength and Durability of the structure 7 3 1 17 15 43 159 3.70 2nd

Safety to the workers and environment - 4 17 16 6 43 153 3.56 4th

Functions 7 6 3 23 4 43 134 3.12 5th

Sustainability - 6 1 11 25 43 184 4.28 1st

Quality of the construction - 12 1 20 10 43 157 3.65 3rd

5= strongly agree, 4= agree, 3= don‘t know, 2= disagree, 1= strongly disagree.


63


Table 9 shows the opinions of the respondents‘ evaluation of effects of mode of sourcing and

application of construction materials in Nigeria. These factors are ranked based on the level of

agreement. Sustainability ranks first with a mean score of 4.28. The second on the rank is Strength

and durability of the structure with a mean score of 3.70. Quality of the construction ranks third with a

mean score of 3.65. The fourth on the table is safety to the workers and environment with a mean

score of 3.56. The fifth on the table with a mean score of 3.12 is Functions. Concerning the effect of

mode of sourcing and application of construction materials, Table 9 shows the whole mean scores

exceed 3 and implies that there is consensus of opinion. However, sustainability and strength and

durability of the structure are factors which have the highest mean score of 4.28 and 3.70 respectively

and represent the most important factors affected by mode of sourcing and application of construction

materials from the respondents.


In conclusion, this research has identified the existence of government agencies that are responsible

for controlling sourcing and application of construction materials and level of awareness of

professionals on the subject matter. Also some of the criteria to be considered during sourcing and

application of construction materials, which include; selection criteria in rating the sourcing of

construction materials, responsiveness to environmental regulations, total quality management of the

finished product etc. were established. Besides, the practices to be given emphasis during sourcing

and application of construction materials such as mix ratio of the materials, initial testing of materials

from each source, adequate curing, adequate compaction, handling, transporting and placing the

materials, time interval between mixing, placing and vibration and choosing suitable batching method

have been revealed. The respondents identified some measures that professionals can engage to

ensure quality construction materials as well as how mode of sourcing can affect quality, durability,

strength, sustainability and also workers and environment. Based on the outcome of the study, it is

recommended that adequate measures should be put in place for the control and monitoring of

sourcing and use of construction materials. Professionals and Non-Governmental Organisations

should constitute themselves as "watch dogs" against unsustainable sourcing of materials.

Government should provide the means of enforcing testing of materials and should also promote the

technology/mode of use of materials for construction that encourages the use of renewable materials.

Government should serve as good example by enforcing such measures/Legislations on sourcing on

public projects.

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http://www.academicjournals.org/AJEST


HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND WATER CONSUMPTION RATE IN UYO URBAN, NIGERIA

Beulah I. Ofem, Jacob Atser & Moses C. Nwagbala

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Uyo

[email protected]; [email protected]; 08023180512

Abstract

This paper aimed at determining the relationship between household income and public water consumption

rate in Uyo urban. To achieve this, 10 out of 47 neighbourhoods/communities with available and active public

water supply infrastructure were sampled for study. A survey research technique using interview, questionnaire,

observation and extraction of recorded data were employed to gather the needed data. Descriptive and

inferential statistics such percentages and Multiple regression analysis technique were used for data analysis.

The results revealed that; on the average, households spend about three thousand naira (N3, 000) monthly for

water representing about 7.5% of their total income and this implies that households spent on the average

above and against UNDP (2006) maximum recommended 5% monthly income on water. On the basis of the

findings, it is recommended that public water supply should be made sustainable and subsidized for the low

income group and communities to avoid the patronage of un-wholesome and exploitative sources.

Keywords: Urban water, Household income, Consumption rate, Uyo

Introduction

Water is a very precious natural resource that covers a great percentage of the Earth‘s surface. It is

essential to a country‘s social, economic and environmental security. Thus, without any exaggeration,

water can be described as the most helpful servant of mankind, and consequently the most important

resource of a society (Gray, 2005). Successive governments over the years in Nigeria made

considerable investment in water supply yet a large number of the populace still does not have access

to water in adequate quantity and the right quality. It was estimated that only 48% of the inhabitants

of the urban and semi-urban areas and 39% of rural areas of Nigeria had access to potable water

supply. In spite of these low figures the average delivery to the urban population was only 32 litres

per capita per day (lpcd) and that for rural areas was 10 lpcd ( FMWR, 2000). Evidently, this situation

today may not have improved as the population of the country has continued to increase without a

significant improvement in water supply. Sustainable water systems should provide adequate water in

quantity and appropriate quality for a given need, without compromising the future ability to provide

similar capacity and quality.

In most states, public water use is highly subsidized as water tariffs are set below the supply costs and

often below the operation and maintenance costs (Nnodu et al. 2009). Water supply over the last five

years showed that the average incremental costs (the appropriate basis for efficiency prices) and

actual average prices in most urban centres have been low (Nnodu et al. 2009). This implies even high

levels of subsidies since price is still almost the same even in the face of increased cost, so in order to

stay afloat cost will have to be subsidized. According to Eugene (2005) the level of subsidy would be

higher if the marginal production costs included environmental cost or opportunity cost of access to

water resources, reflecting the full economic costs. However, pricing decisions are generally

influenced by political considerations, preferred priority users, and equity reasons (Nnodu, et al.

2009).

The benefit of subsidies by government does not necessarily go to the low-income groups. Ironically,

it is usually the low-income groups and high density areas that are normally not patronized by

constant water supply. The low-density areas with mostly high income residents (well-to-do) enjoy

more and constant patronage of pipe borne water supply, and by implication capture a high proportion

of the subsidies; thus, the higher the consumption by an individual user, the higher the subsidy

(Nnodu, et al. 2009). On the other hand, those not reached by formal services often spend so much

yet consume more often than not unwholesome quality. Furthermore, the absence of revenue

undermines sustenance of supply and investments for expansion of services to those who need it most.

The situation is such that the higher the level of subsidy, the fewer the resources available to extend

services to the previously un-served population.

66





As a result of population increase, Uyo capital city has experienced increase in water demand, without

a commensurate improvement in water infrastructure facility over the years. Also, rising water

production costs and inadequate distribution network to various communities; residential and

institutional areas, have led to diminishing and deteriorating supplies and consumption treated public

water through pipe-borne. Due to the poor service delivery, water has become a commodity of

strategic importance in the city. The situation is one in which those living in low-density areas of the

urban area like Ewet Housing Estate, Shelter Afrique, Abak Road Housing and Ebiye Estates are

benefiting greatly from the under-pricing of water while the low income groups of high-density areas

like parts of Nwaniba Road, Aka Road, Oron Road, Urua Ekpa, Ekpiri Nsukara with formal water

services get much lower unit subsidies. Most people within the capital city have resorted to private

boreholes to augment public water supply or in some occasions completely replace public water

supply. It is against this backdrop that in this study, the ratio of household income and water

consumption in Uyo urban is assessed. This is in order to determine what percentage of household

income is spent on water consumption.

The Study Area and methodology

Uyo the capital of Akwa Ibom State is in the coastal South-eastern part of Nigeria, and lies between

latitudes 04˚ 52' and 05˚ 07‘ North and longitudes 07˚47' and 08˚ 03' East. It was delineated by Uyo

Capital City Development Authority Law as an area within a 10 kilometre radius with epicentre at the

Ibom connection (AKSG, 2003). The city lies on an elevation of about 60.96 metres (2090ft) above

sea level (Njungbwen, 2001). The land area of the city is estimated at about 214.31square kilometres

(AKSG, 2000). It is bounded in the east by Uruan Local Government Area (LGA), in the west by

Abak LGA, in the north by Ibiono Ibom and Itu LGAs and in the south by Ibesikpo Asutan and Nsit

Ibom LGAs. For the purpose of this study, Uyo capital city here refers to such areas which are already

built up as well as those declared by Government as planning areas within Uyo LGA and adjoining

communities of neighbouring LGAs that fall within the capital city development territory. According

to Udom (2008) most people in Akwa Ibom State are without access to public water supply and

current efforts of government are concentrated in the urban areas. Uyo capital city has the highest

population in the State but only about 3.8% is linked to public water supply. This seemingly uneven

distribution of water infrastructure in Uyo capital city reduces in quality and quantity as the distance

from the city centre increases (Ofem & Udida, 2014).

The requisite variables were identified (Table 1) and corresponding units noted while data were

collected via interviews, semi structured copies of questionnaire, field observations and documentary

analysis. Purposive sampling technique was used to select ten communities (Table 2 and Figure 1) out

of 47 with available active public water supply infrastructure in the built-up urban area of Uyo capital

city. This is because some of the data required are qualitative in nature and could best be obtained

through interviews while others are quantitative. In the course of this work several data such as water

tariff, quantity of water consumed and cost of water by households, bio-data of respondents, income

level of respondents, sources of water supply among others were obtained.

Table1: Variables and units of Measurements Variables Definition Measurement

Independent Variables

Household size Number of persons in household Number

Education level Educational qualification attained Type

Age Number of years of a person from birth to present Number

Income Amount of money earned by head of household per month Naira

Tariff Cost per litre of water consumed Naira

Average price water bill paid by the consumers Naira

Dependent Variables

Service delivery Level of water delivery Type

Water sources Source of water and accessibility Type

Affordability Income against tariff Naira

Infrastructure Coverage Coverage area of water infrastructure within study area. Km2

Demand Quantity and quality of water consumed at a given price Naira

Source: Compiled by the Researchers (2018).


67


The study results were compiled for analysis using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

Two types of statistical tools were employed in this study, descriptive and inferential statistics.

Multiple regression was used to test the formulated hypothesis which states that; "there is no

significant relationship between population/average income factors and water usage on the other hand

in Uyo capital city"

Table 2: The ten study communities by population

Where: Mbiabong = Mbiabong Ayanya, Nsukara = Ekpiri Nsukara

Source:* Adapted from NPC, 1991, **Population projected to 2018 by researchers.

Source: Field Data (2018)

Figure 1: Sampled communities on the map of Uyo capital city

S/N Community 1991 Population * 2018 Projected Population **

1 Ikot Oku Ikono 1,900 4,382

2 Afaha Offot 1,989 4,588

3 Ekit Itam 2,925 5,695

4 Eniong-Ewet 4,901 11,305

5 Afaha oku 4,127 9,520

6 Mbiabong 1,718 3,963

7 Nung Ukot Itam 939 2,166

8 Itiam Etoi 3,227 7,444

9 Nsukara 1,143 2,636

10 Obio Etoi 1,445 3,333

Total 24,314 56,087

Household Income and Water Consumption Rate in Uyo Urban, Nigeria

68


Literature Review

When considering natural resource use in an economic sense, questions of both adequacy and quality

levels available to the communities are of vital importance. The water supply and sanitation facility

for each person must be continuous and sufficient for personal and domestic uses. These uses

ordinarily include drinking, personal sanitation, washing of clothes, food preparation, personal and

household hygiene. Akintola and Areola (1997) pointed out that as the socio-economic standard of a

society improves the demand for water increases. This makes socio-economic status of a community

an important factor to be reckoned with while estimating the required amount of water to be made

available to the general public. Due to increasing demand, limited availability and supply constraints,

water has become a scarce resource and the scarcity is deepening day-by-day because additional

quality deterioration further exacerbates the current situation (Ahmad, et al., 2005). Scarcity of public

water has changed initial perception of water as a free gift and has brought to the fore the economic

realities in public water supply. It has also given credence to the idea that scarcity of water increases

the value of water.

According to Briscoe and Malik (2006), several researchers and developers observed that both quality

and quantity could be compromised when it comes to providing water to communities in developing

countries and that the inadequate water supply situation has pushed urban communities to seek

alternatives to augment their water needs such as direct use of ground water from private wells and

development of a small supply network fed by untreated ground water or supplies by vendors. In all

these, groundwater still remains the primary source of raw water in most of those private supply

chains (Saleth and Dinar, 2001 and Ramachandran, 2008). As a way of realizing the essential of water

in human life, Whittington (1990) estimated per capita water for bathing, washing, flushing of toilet

and scrubbing as 40, 100, 45, and 5 litres respectively and 150 litres per capita per day for comfort

requirement. The Second Nigeria National Development Plan (1970-1974) recommended a minimum

of 82 litres per capita per day for urban and rural dwellers. Altaf (1994) suggested a minimum of 81

litres per capita per day to be used by urban inhabitants for their various domestic purposes. Most

people need at least 2 litres of safe water per capita per day for food preparation (WHO, 2003). The

UNDP (2006) basic requirement of drinking water for a lactating woman engaged in even moderate

physical activity is 7.5 litres a day. WHO (2010) revealed that 100litres is enough for basic needs

without raising health concerns while our national water policy (FMWR 2000) prefers 120litres per

capita per day.

Water and sanitation facilities and services must be available and affordable for everyone, even the

poorest. The costs for water and sanitation services should not exceed 5% of a household‘s income,

meaning that the cost of water services must not affect peoples‘ financial ability to acquire other

essential goods and services, including food, housing, health services and education (UNDP, 2006).

Almost two in three people lacking access to clean water survive on less than $2 a day, with one in

three living on less than $1 a day (UNDP, 2006), they also revealed that people living in the slums of

Jakarta, Manila and Nairobi pay 5 to 10 times more for water than those living in high-income areas

in the same cities and more than consumers in London or New York (UNDP, 2006). In Manila the

cost of connecting to the utility represents about three months‘ income for the poorest 20% of

households, rising to six months‘ in urban Kenya (UNDP, 2006).

Wendimu and Bekele (2011) revealed that household income, education level of the respondent,

reliability on existing water supply, respondent perception about quality of the existing water supply,

household family size and age of the respondent are significant variables that explain willingness to

pay (WTP). On the other hand, Adepoju and Omonona (2009) observed that a high literacy level

gives rise to increased willingness to pay for water services. They also stated that most homes are

willing to spend 1-3% of their income in alternative means of clean water, implying that increase in

income will bring about increased willingness to pay. Water expenses vary little with income because

water is an essential good necessary for life. It represents a higher proportion of total consumption

expenses of low income than of average people (Smet, 2009).


69


In a number of countries, public authorities seek to maintain the water affordability index of poor

households below 3 to 7% of their disposable income (Smet, 2009). Lower values of this range are

used in developed countries. In developing countries higher values are often found (Smet, 2009).

Affordability indices exceeding 10% are observed for a small minority of poor people (Smet, 2009).

While affordability of 3 to 5% is promoted by international organizations, such limits cannot be

achieved unless targeted social measures are implemented and funded. In some cases such

benchmarks are not realistic at all because in order to implement them there would be a need to

provide aid for water to a large fraction of the population (Smet, 2009).

Most of the literature reviewed support the position that low-income households spend a substantial

share of their income on utility services. The expenditures of an average household currently account

for not more than 4-10% of total outgoings (WHO, 2010). However, for low-income households the

affordability ratios are much higher. The difficulty these socially vulnerable consumers have in

affording further tariff increases is often used as an argument against tariff reform. In spite of the

various authoritative recognitions of the importance of water by Akwa Ibom State Government,

currently, the low income earners tend to spend higher than those in the high income class. In 2004,

25 litres of water could be obtained at N3 (Akpabio, 2004). Currently, same litres of water costs N10

and will double (N20) in the dry season (Akpabio, 2004). A survey update of the 2004 report showed

that households spend as high as 20.7% of their monthly income on water in the city (with up to 5

adult persons in the household), excluding other related expenditures (Akpabio, 2004). In a nutshell, it

is often assumed that the poorest people in the world do not have formal water supplies because they

cannot afford the bills, however the poorest are not only paying, they are paying far more than others,

in most cases as high as 20% of their monthly income as against UNDP values of not more than 5%

(UNDP, 2006).

Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion

Estimation of Quantity of Water Used Daily: In order to consider the average water consumption

need and the cost implication to the finance of respondents, quantity consumed and proportion of

income spent were considered. From collated data in Table 3, 115 respondents (31 %) represent those

that used less than 100 litres daily, 151, 85 and 21 respondents (40.6 %, 22.8 % and 0.3 %) represent

those that used between 101-300, 301-500 and 501-700 litres respectively. This reveals that on the

average, over 70 % of households consume less than 500 litres per day per house hold.

Table 3: Estimation of quantity of water used daily

Quantity Communities

(in litre) Ikot

Oku

Ikono

Afaha

Offot

Ekit

Itam

Eniong-

Ewet

Afaha

Okut

Mbiabong Nung

Ikot

Itam

Itiam

Etoi

Nsukara Obio

Etoi

Total

F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F % Freq. % Less than 100 7 30 7 31 9 33 27 41 28 39 4 34.2 3 35 11 28 13 27 15 62 115 30.9

101-300 8 35 9 36 11 39 20 30 32 39 7 42.1 5 41 15 39 19 46 17 38 151 40.6

301-500 7 30 6 28 9 23 11 24 17 17 5 18.4 2 19 10 26 11 21 7 21 85 22.8

501-700 2 5 2 5.5 2 5.1 2 5.4 2 5 2 5.3 1 5.4 3 5.1 2 6.1 2 5.9 21 5.7

701-900 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

901 and above - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Total 24 100 24 100 31 100 60 100 79 100 18 100 11 100 39 100 45 100 41 100 372 100


In estimating the monthly expenditure on water supply, Table 4 revealed that a total number of 149

respondents representing 40% spent less than N2000 on water monthly.


70


Table 4: Estimation of amount spent on water monthly

Amount Communities (in Naira) Ikot Oku

Ikono Afaha Offot

Ekit Itam Eniong-Ewet

Afaha Okut

Mbiabong Nung Ikot Itam

Itiam Etoi Nsukara Obio Etoi Total

F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %

<2,000 9 33 10 36 12 38 17 27 29 40 6 38.1 15

38 15 40 19 43 16 38 149 40

2001-5000 9 33 8 31 10 33 21 37 28 38 3 31 13

33 12 29 12 26 15 35 116 31

5001-8000 2 14 2 14 3 13 6 15 15 13 3 11.9 6 15 5 13 10 20 6 15 54 15

8001-11000 2 14 1 11 3 10 9 12 4 10 2 9.5 5 13 5 13 3 8.6 3 8.8 32 8.6

11001-14000 1 2.8 1 2.8 1 2.5 2 4.9 - - 2 4.8 1 2.5 - - 1 2.9 1 2.9 10 2.7

14001-17000 - - 1 2.8 1 2.5 1 2.4 - - 1 2.4 - - 1 2.6 - - - - 5 1.3

17001-20000 1 2.8 1 2.8 1 2.5 1 2.4 - - 1 2.4 - - 1 2.6 - - - 6 1.6

20001 + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Total 24 100 24 100

31 100

60 100

79 100 18 100 11

100 39 100 45 100 41 100

372 100


On the other hand, 116, 54 and 32 respondents (31.2 %, 14.5 % and 8.6 %) spent between N2001-

5000, N5001-8000 and N8001-11000 respectively. While, 10, 5 and 6 respondents (2.7 %, 1.3 % and

1.6 %) spent N11001-14000, N14001-17000 and N17001-20000 respectively. The differences in the

amount spent as against the flat rate (Table 5) for the households location is attributed to under

payments and amount spent on water from other sources.

Table 5: Current Akwa Ibom Water Company monthly water rate

Location Residential client in Naira Commercial client Ikot Oku Ikono 2,100 4,200

Afaha Offot 2,100 4,200

Ekit Itam 2,100 4,200

Eniong-Ewet 4,200 4,200

Afaha oku 2,100 4,200

Mbiabong 2,100 4,200

Nung Ukot Itam 2,100 4,200

Itiam Etoi 2,100 4,200

Nsukara 2,100 4,200

Obio Etoi 2,100 4,200

Source: Akwa Ibom Water Company (AKWCL) (2017)

In terms of income and per capita water usage, data collated in Table 6 shows the average income and

average per capita water usage for the ten communities. Eniong - Ewet with the highest average

income (N 89,875) had the least per capita water usage (182 litres). The community with the highest

per capita water usage is Mbiabong Ayanya with 266 litres.

Table 6: Population, average income and average residential per capita water usage in communities

Community Population Average income per Community(N) Average Per capita

water usage in litres

Ikot Oku Ikono 4,382 62,000 197

Afaha Offot 4,588 73,000 239

Ekit Itam 3,695 48,709 240

Eniong-Ewet 11,305 89,875 182

Afaha Oku 9,520 75,981 240

Mbiabong Ayanya 3,963 75,227 266

Nung Ukot Itam 2,166 59,545 231

Itiam Etoi 7,444 68,846 239

Ekpiri Nsukara 2,636 59,722 223

Obio Etoi 3,333 76,097 198

Source: Akwa Ibom Water Company (AKWCL) (2017) Juxtaposing the population figure on that of per capita water usage in the communities, Table 6 shows

that Eniong Ewet with the largest population ranks amongst those with low per capita water usage.

According to WHO, the minimum water requirement for hygiene and food per capita is 20 litres per


71


day. If laundry, bathing and flushing of toilet is included as is the case in most city centres, the per

capita requirement rises to about a 100 litres per day without raising health concerns. Using an

average household figure of 5, it is therefore expected that for dwellers in Uyo capital city, 500 litres

per household per day will be the minimum requirement. This survey reveals that over 70 % of

households in the study area consume less than the minimum 500 litres per day (WHO, 2010) not

because they do not need it but because they cannot afford or access it. From the analysis, an

estimated of the amount of household expenditure on water in the study area has been made. In the

study area, 40 % of respondents spent less than N2,000, 31.2 % and 14.5 % spent between N 2001

and N 5000 and N 5001 and N 8000 respectively on water consumption. However, 8.6 % and 2.7 %

of the respondents spent between N 8001 and N 11000 and N 11001and N 14000 respectively on

water consumption. Then, 1.3 % and 1.6 % of the respondents also spend between N 14001 and N

17000 and N 17001 and N 20000 respectively on water consumption. On the average, households

spent about N3,000 or about 7.5% of their monthly income on water. The average income established

for the study area is N 40,000. This is above and against UNDP (2006) maximum requirement of 5 %

of monthly income on water.

Applying standard multiple regression analytical technique, the mean income and population

variables were entered into the equation simultaneously as independent variables. Each independent

variable was evaluated in terms of its predictive power. The total variance explained by the model as a

whole is 0.338 (11.4%), F (2,7) = 0.452, P < 0.653. This means that the two factors explained only

11.4% of the variance in water consumption. This is a statistically insignificant contribution, as

indicated by the Sig. F change value of 0.653 which is far greater than 0.05. The ANOVA table also

indicated that the model as a whole is insignificant.

Table 7:Result from Standard Multiple Regression Model Summaryb

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

Change Statistics

Durbin-Watson

R Square Change F Change df1 df2

Sig. F Change

1 .338a .114 -.139 27.372 .114 .452 2 7 .653 1.816

a. Predictors: (Constant), Income, Population; b. Dependent Variable: water usage

ANOVAb

Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 677.998 2 338.999 .452 .653a

Residual 5244.502 7 749.215

Total 5922.500 9

a. Predictors: (Constant), Income, Population; b. Dependent Variable: water usage

Coefficientsa

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

T Sig.

95% Confidence Interval for B Correlations

Collinearity Statistics

B Std. Error Beta Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Zero-order Partial Part

Tolerance VIF

1 (Constant) 267.691 55.404 4.832 .002 136.682 398.701

Population -.001 .003 -.166 -.413 .692 -.008 .006 -.272 -.154 -.147 .781 1.280

Income .000 .001 -.227 -.565 .590 -.003 .002 -.305 -.209 -.201 .781 1.280

a. Dependent Variable: water usage

In order to know which of the variables included in the model contributed to the prediction of the

dependent variable, the table labelled Coefficients was examined using the Beta values under

Standardized Coefficients. In this case, the higher beta coefficient is -0.227 which is for income

variable while the population variable had a beta coefficient value of -0.166. This means that the

income variable made stronger contribution to explaining the water consumption variable than

population. The coefficient table also shows information on the part of correlation coefficients which

when squared gives an indication of the contribution of that variable to the total R square. In other


72


words, it reveals how much of the total variance in the dependent variable is uniquely explained by

that variable. In this study, population has a part of correlation coefficient of -0.147(2.16 %) while

income has -0.201(4.04 %). On the basis of the result, the null hypothesis which states that there is no

significant relationship between income of households and water consumption in Uyo capital city is

hereby accepted. On the whole, the existing relationship between income of households and public

water consumption is not statistically significant. This means that the water is not supplied to the

people only on the basis of their income as seen in Ekit Itam with the least average income but not the

least water consumption, same as Eniong Ewet with the highest income not having the highest per

capita water consumption. This trend can be attributed to other factors such as the implementation of

wrong/poor pricing mechanism which does not take into cognizance the different income levels in the

study area, irregular or unreliable water supply service that has forced high income earners to embrace

private boreholes at the expense of public water supply. Other factors include political patronage at

the expense of economic viability, as well as certain stakeholders treating public water as a social

service.


Based on the findings, it is important to conclude that the low income earners consume more of

public water and are already spending above 5 % of their monthly income on water consumption in

the face of erratic public water supply in Uyo urban. The high income group to a large extent has

bridge the public supply gap by developing privately owned borehole water supply sources for their

comfort. The low income population however cannot afford to own borehole water facility. It is also

important to note that the low income residents in Uyo urban are consequently exposed to other

sources of water which are likely to be unwholesome such as the commercial water vendors with their

exploitative tendencies. These tendencies result into health problems and further impoverishment. For

an appropriate ratio of income and water consumption mechanism in Uyo urban, the following

recommendations should be considered; public water supply should be made sustainable and

subsidized for the low income group and communities to avoid the patronage of unwholesome and

exploitative sources. This is important as improved supply will certainly engender users‘ willingness

to pay for potable water, improved services and the overall wellbeing of the citizens.

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L. Mandi, G. Trisorio-Liuzzi, I. Martín, A. Rabi, and R. Rodríguez (Editors) Technological Perspectives for

Rational use of Water Resources in the Mediterranean Region. Bari, ciheam. 57-68

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Geological Science, 6 (2).

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Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE), Water Aid, Centre on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, WHO

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74


COMMERCIAL REAL ESTATE INVESTMENT IN IBADAN PROPERTY MARKET: AN

EXAMINATION OF THE RISK-RETURN CHARACTERISTICS

Lawal Ukamaka Sarah1, Oladokun Timothy Tunde

2 and Ayodele Timothy Oluwafemi

3

1,2&3Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Environmental Design and Management,

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State.

Abstract

The study examined the investment performance of commercial properties; proxied by office and shop

properties, in Ibadan metropolis. Specifically, the study examined the return-risk profile, risk-adjusted

performance and downside risk characteristics of shop and office property investments in Ibadan property

market from 2007 to 2016. The study employed average rental and capital values of office spaces and shops

(per square meter) in selected prime locations (commercial hubs in Ibadan). A total of 119 commercial

properties were surveyed representing 23.20% of commercial properties in the study area. The total return and

risk of the assets were calculated using holding period and standard deviation. However, due to the fact that

appraisal based return series often underestimate inherent risk the capital return component was

desmoothened. Using the first order serial autoregressive correlation, and given that investors are more

concerned with the downside risk of investments, the study employed the Lower Partial Moment (LPM) model in

assessing the downside risk. Subsequently, the risk adjusted performance was evaluated using both the Sharpe

ratio and the Sortino ratio. The results showed that commercial properties in the selected commercial hubs in

Ibadan mostly had negative mean returns except for shop property at Abeokuta road and office properties at

Challenge/Ring road and Dugbe. The results suggest that the global economic recession had a resultant effect

on commercial properties in the study location. However, the study concludes that office property investment

performed efficiently than shop property investments in Ibadan property market over the period analysed.

Hence, investors considering direct real estate assets could take advantage of the high risk-return benefits

offered by office property investment.

Keywords: commercial property, investment, real estate, return, risk, Nigeria

Introduction The ripple effect of the global meltdown which started in the USA in 2007 appears to have led to a

shift in the focus of investor from investing solely in financial assets to other investment media which

provides favorable risk-return trade-off such as real estate. According to Jones Lang LaSalle, JLL

(2015) market report, there has been an increase in the volume of real estate investments globally. The

JLL (2015) report further noted that a greater percentage of these global investments involve

institutional investors and the investment have largely been focused on core real estate properties –

retail, commercial and industrial properties. Furthermore, owing to the investment peculiarities of real

estate assets, it is expected that there will be a global expansion in the stock of institutional-grade real

estate investment by 55% between 2012 and 2020. Much of this expansion was predicted to take place

in emerging economies; Nigeria inclusive, where there is much room for economic development

(PwC, 2014). Factors stimulating investors interest in the real estate sector; especially commercial

property investment, cannot be far-fetched.

Previous studies like Higgins (2013); Lee (2003); Adair, McGreal and Webb (2006); Amidu and

Aluko (2006); and Olaleye, Adegoke and Oyewole (2010) revealed that unlike other investment assets

such as equities, fixed income securities (bonds), money market instruments and commodities, real

estate assets possess unique features which reportedly accounts for its attractiveness to investors. This

includes its inflation hedging ability, potential to generate excess returns and its diversification

benefits to investment portfolios. However, there are uncertainties about future trends of risk and

return performance of real estate assets, especially where there are evidences of co-movement in the

investment characteristics of real estate assets and the stock market (Olaleye and Ekemode, 2014) and

high rate of market/economic volatilities as often been witnessed in most emerging markets. Thus, the

success of any investment is dependent upon the ability of the investor to accurately predict the future

expected returns and changes that may occur to vary such expectations within the property market and

economy at large (Keeris and Langbroek, 2009). Furthermore, there is a growing emphasis on the

downside risk analysis of investments (Hamelink and Hoesli, 2004, Lee, 2009, Marcarthy, 2014).

Apparently, investors who are risk averse are more particular about the possible losses associated with

their investments than the upside risks. Certainly, upside risks are potential gains of an investment 8


75


which are rather desirable to investors. Also, there is a possible understatement of the risk associated

with real estate assets owing to the smoothing problem of appraisal-based property returns series

(Hoesli and Lizieri, 2007). Most studies examining direct real estate investment, especially in Nigeria,

do not desmoothen the appraisal based data. Hence there is a likelihood for overestimation or

underestimation of risk and returns attributable to the investment.

It is against this background that this study examines the investment performance of commercial

properties; proxied by office and shop properties, in Ibadan metropolis. Ibadan is adjudged to be the

largest indigenous city in the West Africa sub region, having a population of about 5.6million

according to the 2006 census estimate. This city was the administrative centre for the former western

region of Nigeria. Though rated as a second tier market according to Olaleye (2008), it is recognized

as the second most vibrant property market in the southwest region of Nigeria, after the Lagos

property market. Specifically, the study examined the return-risk profile, risk-adjusted performance

and downside risk characteristics of shop and office property investments in Ibadan property market

from 2007 to 2016. The choice of commercial real estate assets is premised on the fact that they are

becoming a major component in the real estate holding of most institutional investors, owing to their

regular yielding ability (Hargitay, Hargitay and Yu, 2003). This study will provide information to

investors and other stakeholders on the characteristics of commercial real estate assets in Ibadan

property market.

Review of Literature

Extant studies have examined the performance of real estate assets returns owing to its preference as

an investment asset class by investors (JLL, 2015). This has often necessitated an examination of the

investment performance of real estate assets vis-a-viz other assets classes. Most of these studies

focused on the developed property markets of Europe and America and have mostly been on the Real

Estate Investment Trust (REIT) vehicles. The results of these studies have been mixed. For instance,

Fischer (2000) compared the performance of direct real estate investment, Listed Property Trusts and

property stocks. Using the Australian Property Council Index which measures the income, capital and

total return performance of commercial properties in Australia as a proxy for direct property and ASX

Listed Property Trusts index, the paper concluded that direct commercial retail assets outperformed

all the other property assets on the basis of their risk-adjusted performance. Hwa (2003) examined the

performance of Malaysia residential property sector between 1989 and 2001. The study focused on

the risk-return comparison of residential property asset and equity. Findings from the study indicate

that detached houses provided higher capital gains compared to other forms of housing. The study

concluded that population growth rate and location are the major drivers of residential property

performance in the Malaysia property market. Bello (2003) study compared the performance of

residential real estate investment in Lagos with the performance of investments in ordinary shares of

non-real estate companies as well as investment in savings accounts between 1996 and 2000. The

study noted that the higher returns from ordinary shares were associated with higher risk while real

estate returns exhibited low risk. The study concluded that ordinary shares outperformed investments

in residential real estate assets on the basis of absolute rates of return and risk-adjusted returns. The

study, however, discovered that the rate of growth of returns from real estate exceeded that of

ordinary shares dividends and price for the period under study.

West and Worthington (2006) employed a generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity

in mean (GARCH-M) model to compare returns of three direct investments (office, retail and

industrial) and two indirect (Listed Property Trust and property stock) investments in the Australian

real estate market. The study also examined their relationship with economic variables such as interest

rate and inflation rate over the period 1985-2002. The results showed that there is forecast accuracy in

the model for direct office, listed property and property stock returns and that the persistence of

volatility shocks varies across the different markets. Rozali and Hamzah (2006) investigated the

performance and systematic risk of listed property trusts and real estate stocks in seven markets

including Malaysia in Asia. The authors concluded that the risk-adjusted return of LPT and real estate

stocks varied across the different market and over time did not produce superior returns.

Lawal Ukamaka Sarah, Oladokun Timothy Tunde and Ayodele Timothy Oluwafemi

76


Amidu and Aluko (2006) compared the investment performance of listed property and construction

companies with the All Share Index for the period of 1998-2005. The study concluded that both

property and construction companies did not perform better than stocks on the basis of their risk-

adjusted returns. The study focused on securitized real estate leaving out the direct real estate

investment. In the same vein, Amidu, Aluko, Nuhu and Saibu (2008) examined the performance of

securitized real estate relative to stocks of other listed construction companies. Using the Sharpe

Index, the study compared the risk-adjusted return of the only listed property company in Nigeria-

UACN Property Development Company relative to other companies for the period of 1998-2005. The

study revealed that property and construction companies offered no superior returns to stocks on the

basis of the risk-adjusted performance. Adegoke (2009) examined the performance of direct

investments in residential real estate in Lagos metropolis and compared it with investments in shares

of selected sectors in the Nigerian stock market. The findings showed that the investment in stocks

performed better than investments in residential real estate on the basis of the absolute rate of return

and risk. The study however discovered that residential real estate investments performed better in

terms of risk-adjusted return. This finding which negates results of previous studies underscores the

need for continuous examination of real estate investment characteristics.

Olaleye, Adegoke and Oyewole (2010) examined the characteristics of the direct property and listed

property companies compared with other securities in the Nigerian Stock Exchange within the period

of the year 2001-2007. The study concluded that direct and indirect real estate investments

outperformed other investment options on the basis of their return/risk characteristics. Bello (2012)

compared the performance of investments in commercial real estate with investments in stocks of

selected companies on the Nigeria Stock Exchange NSE within the period of 2000-2009. Data on

rental and capital values of commercial real estate were analysed together with stock prices and

dividends of selected companies. The findings ranked return on stock higher than returns on

commercial real estate. The study concluded that stock market investments offered a higher return

than commercial property howbeit with a higher degree of risk.

Oyewole (2013) compared the performances of residential and commercial real estate investments in

Ilorin, Nigeria within the period of 2000 and 2011. Using data on rents and sale prices, the study

examined the average return, risk-adjusted return, income growth and capital appreciation

characteristics of residential and commercial real estate assets. The study concluded that commercial

real estate investments performed better than residential real estate investment with a mean annual

return of 14.2% as against 11.8% and a risk-adjusted return of 1.11 as against 0.55 using the Sharpe

index method. The study noted that the rate of growth in income and capital appreciation of

commercial real estate exceeded that of residential real estate assets. Udobi (2014) investigated the

performance of residential property investment and bank shares in Anambra state. The study posited

that residential property returns had a stable performance over the period studied, thereby

outperforming investment in bank shares. Ayodele and Olaleye (2015) examined the downside risk

performance of securitized real estate and other investment assets in Nigeria. The study found that the

standard deviation measures did not adequately account for risk inherent in most of the investment

asset. Ekemode and Olaleye (2016) examined the return risk characteristics of direct commercial

properties and indirect real estate investments in the Nigerian property market. The result showed that

indirect property asset outperformed direct real estate assets on a risk adjusted basis. The study

concluded that real estate investors could improve their investment performance by investing more in

listed property assets than direct real estate in the Nigerian market.

Igw-kalu and Akpan (2019) analysed the performance of commercial and residential property

investment in Kaduna from 2003 to 2015. The study submitted that commercial property assets

outperformed residential property investments in terms of capital value growth. Coën, Desfleurs and

Lecomte (2019) examined the performances of indirect real estate proxied by real estate investment

trusts REITs and listed property companies in 14 countries selected from North America, Europe, and

Asia from 2000 to 2015. The study revealed that the global economic crises negatively impacted on

the investment performance of international listed real estate asset. Summarily, the conclusions from

the studies appears mixed, however, most of the studies submitted that direct investments performed

Commercial Real Estate Investment in Ibadan Property Market: An Examination of the…

77


better than the other investment options in terms of risk-adjusted returns. It is important to also note

that the economic conditions of each property market, and the cycle of the particular market are often

strong influences in the output of performance measurement. Furthermore, there is dearth of

knowledge in performance analysis based on comparison between the total risk and downside risk.

Thus, studies of this nature, especially from a downside risk analysis perspective, are needed to

provide timely assessments of the market and keep property investors and managers abreast of such

changes and their resultant effect on commercial property investments characteristics for prudent

property investment decision-making and management.

Research Method

In order to examine the return-risk profile and the risk-adjusted performance of commercial properties

in the study area over the period 2007 to 2016, the study employed average rental and capital values

of office spaces and shops (per square meter) in selected prime locations (commercial hubs in

Ibadan). These were obtained from the records of registered and practicing Estate Surveying and

Valuation (ESV) firms within Ibadan property market. Ibadan is home to several commercial

concerns found along major axes such as Gbagi, Dugbe, Challenge and Iwo among others. Thus, the

Ibadan property market has sufficient commercial real estate concerns that will provide robust data for

the study.

Within the Ibadan metropolis, five major commercial hubs were identified which are Challenge/Ring

Road, Dugbe, Iwo Road, Oyo Road and Abeokuta Road. According to the 2017 database of Oyo State

Ministry of Lands, Housing and Survey, a total of 513 commercial properties are located within these

major axes. These are distributed as 51 commercial properties in Ring Road/Challenge, 171

commercial properties in Dugbe, 90 commercial properties in Iwo Road, 119 commercial properties

in Oyo Road, and 82 commercial properties in Abeokuta Road. However, data were successfully

obtained from 18 commercial properties in Challenge/Ring Road, 24 in Dugbe, 20 in Iwo Road, 39 in

Oyo Road and 18 in Abeokuta road. Thus, a total of 119 commercial properties were surveyed

representing 23.20% of commercial properties in the study area. The total return and risk of the assets

were calculated using holding period and standard deviation. However, due to the fact that appraisal

based return series often underestimate inherent risk, the capital return component was desmoothened

using the first order serial autoregressive correlation and lagged of by 1. The study employed the

model:

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)

Where: rmt = return observable if market prices were correctly captured by valuation

rt = return derived from the valuation series

α = a constant lying in the range from 0 to 1

rt-1 = return derived from the valuation series of previous period

Subsequently, the holding period and standard deviation were calculated. The holding period return

(or total return) combines the income return and capital return in a single expression. The standard

deviation is the dispersion of a return distribution around the mean or average, and sometimes referred

to as mean variance. Given that investors are more concerned with the downside risk of investments,

the study employed the Lower Partial Moment (LPM) model in assessing the downside risk (equation

2). The LPM model measures the probability that actual return falls below the target return for an

investment. It was developed by Roy (1952) upon the idea to secure investors‘ interest in an

investment. In this case, the semi-variance measure is adopted. Semi-deviation has reported the best

risk measure in real estate as it captures non-normality. That is, it does not assume the distribution of

asset return nor quadratic utility function (Lee and Stevenson, 2005).

LPMn (ῑ ) = ………………………………… (2)

Where: ῑ is target rate; is the return of asset I; f (ri) is the density function of the ith asset return.


78


In contrast to the variance, LPMs only capture a specified target‘s negative return deviations, which

are more intuitive because returns above the target are considered desirable and non-risky (Koniarski

and Sebastian, 2015). With respect to the target rate of return, the study adopted the return on a 90-

day treasury bill. Subsequently, the risk adjusted performance was evaluated using both the Sharpe

ratio and the Sortino ratio. The Sharpe index (reward per unit of risk, Lee and Higgins, 2009) is

mathematically given as

SI = (Ri - Rf) ……………………… (3)

σj

Where: SI is the Sharpe index; Rf is the risk-free rate of return; σj is the standard deviation.

The Sortino ratio is the ratio of the return in excess of the Minimal Acceptable Return (MAR) to the

risk below MAR. It takes into account the volatility of returns and is thus relevant for measuring the

performance of a portfolio with skewed returns.

Sortino = E (Rp) – MAR …………………………………………. (4)

BTSDMAR

BTSDMAR = √ 1 Σ [max(0, (MAR – Rp,i))]2 ……………………. (5)

N i=1

Results and Discussion of Findings

The Preliminary Survey Details:

The relatively low number of commercial properties covered in the study was attributable to the

reticent attitude of respondents; ESV firms to research of this nature. Preliminary analysis revealed

that 15% (18) of the commercial properties surveyed were located in Challenge/Ring road, 20% (24)

were situated in Dugbe, 17% (19) in Iwo road, 33% (40) in Oyo road, and 15% (18) in Abeokuta road.

The result also showed that 61% (72) of the commercial properties surveyed were office properties

while 39% (47) were shop properties. Further preliminary analysis showed that 95% (113) of the

commercial properties surveyed were low-rise buildings on 1 to 4 floors, while 5% (6) are high-rise

buildings on 5 floors and above. This shows that the Ibadan metropolis is mainly characterized by

low- rise commercial buildings. The result in respect of the rate/frequency of rent review indicated

that 56% (67) of the commercial properties were reviewed every two to three years, 36% (43) of the

properties were reviewed four to five years, while 8% (9) of the properties were reviewed above five

years. The high frequency/ rate of review enhanced the realization of the full market value at every

point in time.

Analysis of Returns on Office and Shop Property Investment in Ibadan

Tables 1 presents the holding period returns of the office and shop properties from 2006 to 2016 for

each of the commercial hubs identified in the study area. The holding period returns (Raw) were

calculated from the average rental and capital values provided by the ESV firms in the study area. The

returns obtained through the appraisal based process were subsequently subjected to a de-smoothing

procedure since the capital value components were not real transaction prices. The results of the de-

smoothed holding period returns for office and shops properties showed that in 2007, office properties

in Challenge/Ring Road generated a return of 11.42% while shop properties generated negative

returns of -0.57%. In 2008, both office properties and shop properties exhibited negative returns at -

8.66% and -0.37% respectively. This could be associated with the effects of the global economic

recession during this period. In 2009, however, the market seemed to have improved with return at

3.32% and 0.22% for both office and shop properties respectively. The returns increased in 2010 and

2011 to 10.62% and 11.70% for office properties while for shop properties, returns were 0.43% and

0.42% respectively. The findings show that between 2012 and 2014, office properties had negative

returns of -0.71, -8.72, and -13.46 respectively. In an almost similar pattern, shop properties exhibited

returns of -0.51%, 0.87%, and -0.96% within the same period. This may be attributed to the economic

recessions witnessed in Nigeria‘s economy between 2009 and 2010. For instance Oyewole and Ajayi

(2013) have alluded to the fact that macroeconomic factors were major determinants of the

performance of direct real estate investments especially in an emerging market like Nigeria. In 2015,

while the return for office properties improved to 6.67% that of shop properties was -0.41%. While

office return diminished sharply in 2016 to -12.18%, shop properties in this commercial hub


79


generated its highest return at 0.88%. The highest return of 11.70% for office properties in this

location was generated in 2011 while the lowest return of -13.46% was generated in 2014. For shop

properties, the highest return of 0.88% was generated in 2016 while the lowest return was -0.96% in

2012. Further findings reveal that office properties exhibited the highest positive returns and the

highest negative returns too. Also, 50% of the returns of both office and shop properties in this hub

were negative within the study period.

Table 1: De-smoothened Returns (%) of Office and Shop Properties in Ibadan Property Location Property

Type

Year

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Challenge/Ring Rd Office N/A 11.42 -8.66 3.32 10.62 11.70 -0.71 -8.72 -3.46 6.67 -12.18

Dugbe Office N/A -10.35 -2.80 3.95 1.62 0.76 0.25 3.37 3.28 -2.20 2.12

Iwo Rd Office N/A 14.32 -2.66 -2.01 -4.16 -5.18 14.70 4.89 -10.06 -4.44 -5.40

Oyo Rd Office N/A -3.36 -0.89 -1.74 2.94 1.43 -0.63 2.11 2.28 -2.44 0.30

Abeokuta Rd Office N/A -3.75 0.25 -2.32 2.00 0.33 7.45 0.02 -3.49 -1.11 0.63

Average N/A 1.70 -3.88 1.04 3.28 1.34 7.10 -1.54 -6.47 -0.25 -2.30

Challenge/Ring Rd Shop N/A -0.57 -0.37 0.22 0.43 0.42 -0.51 0.87 -0.96 -0.41 0.88

Dugbe Shop N/A -0.63 0.48 2.36 -2.74 2.08 -1.52 7.94 1.40 -6.04 -3.31

Iwo Rd Shop N/A 4.77 -1.62 -1.69 6.17 0.07 -1.89 1.28 -4.93 -4.76 2.61

Oyo Rd Shop N/A 4.34 -1.46 -10.13 3.17 9.15 -4.86 10.06 -4.32 -3.09 -2.85

Abeokuta Rd Shop N/A -1.80 -4.10 0.52 0.51 4.00 1.11 4.90 -1.54 -7.13 3.53

Average N/A 1.98 -1.65 -1.61 1.38 2.35 -1.11 4.54 -1.99 -3.70 -0.18

For the office properties in Dugbe, the effects of the global economic recession seemed to sip in quite

early in 2007 with negative returns being generated for both office and shop properties at -10.35% and

-0.63% respectively; and in 2008, returns for office remained negative at -2.80 while shop properties

had a return of 0.48%. However in 2009, returns for both office and shop properties improved to

3.95% and 2.36% respectively. While office properties returns consistently nosedived between 2010

and 2012 to 1.62%, 0.76%, and 0.25%, shop properties returns were fluctuating at -2.74%, 2.08%, and

-1.52% between 2010 and 2012. In 2013, there was a slight improvement as returns rose to 3.37% and

7.94% for office and shop properties respectively; diminishing to 3.28% and 1.40% in 2014 for both

office and shops. Probably due to the effect of another economic recession, returns were -2.20% and -

6.04% for office and shop properties in 2015. In 2016, returns seemed to improve to 2.12% for office

properties and -3.31% for shop properties. Office properties at Dugbe exhibited its highest and lowest

returns of 3.95% and -10.35% in 2009 and 2007 respectively while shop properties exhibited its

highest return of 7.94% in 2013 and its lowest return of -3.31% in 2016. Findings show that for the

period of study, shop properties generated the highest positive return while the highest negative return

was generated by office properties. However, 50% of shop properties returns were negative while

office properties generated negative returns only 30% of the study period.

Of all the locations, office properties in Iwo road exhibited the highest returns. In 2007, office and

shop properties generated a return of 14.32% and 4.77% respectively but in 2008, the returns

diminished sharply and turned negative, -2.66% and -1.62% for both office and shop properties which

corresponds with the period of global economic recession. The effects of the recession on office

properties in this commercial hub lasted for three subsequent years between 2009 and 2011 with

returns at -2.01%, -4.16%, and -5.18% while for shop properties, returns were fluctuating at -1.62% in

2009 with a sharp improvement in 2010 at 6.17% and declined to 0.07% in 2011. In 2012, office

properties however recovered from the recession and generated the highest return in this commercial

hub at 14.70%, and fell sharply to 4.89% in 2013. For shop properties, the return was -1.89% in 2012,

and improved slightly in 2013 to 1.28%. Between 2014 and 2015, both property types exhibited

negative returns at -10.06% and -4.44% for office properties; and -4.93% and -4.76 for shop

properties, which could be attributed to the effect of the recent economic recession in Nigeria. In

2016, while office properties holding period return remained negative at -5.40%, shop properties

showed an improved return at 2.61%. Findings showed that office properties exhibited the highest

returns in this commercial hub at 14.70% in 2012 and also had the highest negative return of -10.06%

in 2014. Findings also revealed that 70% of the returns for office properties for this commercial hub

within this study period were negative while shop properties exhibited negative returns 50% of the

time. In Oyo road, office properties generated negative returns of -3.36%, -0.89%, and -1.74%


80


between 2007 and 2009 while shop properties showed a positive return of 4.34% in 2007 and turned

negative in 2008 and 2009 at -1.46% and -10.13% respectively. This could be attributed to the effects

of the global economic meltdown witnessed during the period. In 2010, the market seemed to improve

slightly as office properties generated positive returns at 2.94% and 1.43% in 2011 while for shop

properties, returns were 3.17% and 9.15%. In 2012, office property market in Oyo road suffered loss

at -0.63%, however, in 2013, the return improved to 2.11%, and increased slightly to 2.28% in 2014.

For shop properties, the return was fluctuating, being -4.86% in 2012, it produced its highest return at

10.06% in 2013 and diminished sharply to -4.32% in 2014. Both office and shop properties exhibited

negative returns in 2015 at -2.44% and -3.09% respectively. Return for office properties however

improved slightly to 0.30% in 2016 while shop properties return remained negative at -2.85%. The

results showed that shop properties exhibited the highest and lowest returns for this commercial hub at

10.10% and -10.13% respectively. Also, shop properties showed a greater percentage of negative

holding period returns (60%) against that of office properties (50%).

In Abeokuta road, office properties generated fluctuating returns of -3.75%, 0.25%, and -2.32%

between 2007 and 2009, which is a reflection of the economic instability of the period around the

globe. Shop properties also exhibited negative returns in 2007 and 2008 of -1.80%, and -4.10% but

improved in 2009 to 0.52%. Between 2010 and 2014, both property types exhibited positive returns at

2%, 0.33%, 7.45%, and 0.02% for office properties; and 0.51%, 4.0%, 1.11% and 4.90% for shop

properties. Probably owing to the market suffering another period of recession, both property types

exhibited negative returns in 2014 and 2015 at -3.49% and -1.11% for office properties; and -1.54%

and -7.13% for shop properties respectively. In 2016, the property market in this hub seemed to

recover with a return of 0.63% and 3.53% for office and shop properties respectively. Results showed

that office properties generated the highest return for this commercial hub at 7.45% in 2012 while

shop properties displayed the lowest return in 2015 at -7.13%. Both office and shop properties

exhibited negative returns 40% of the study period. `An examination of the aggregate values of the

entire study area for the period under study revealed that the highest return generated by office

property investments in Ibadan metropolis was 7.10% in 2012, and the lowest return of -6.47% was

generated in 2014. Also, office property investments in Ibadan metropolis generated negative returns

for about 50% of the period under study. On the other hand, the highest return generated by shop

property investments was 4.54% in 2013 while the lowest return of -3.70% was generated in 2015.

Shop property investments generated negative holding period returns for about 60% of the entire

study period.

Analysing the returns on the basis of the average return values (Table 2), shop property investments at

Abeokuta road ranks the highest with a mean return of 1.03%. This probably owes to the various

shops in this upcoming commercial centre which are recently built with modern facilities and features

and as such are more convenient for contemporary shopping. Office property investments at

Challenge/Ring road ranks second with a mean return of 0.49%. The offices in this area could have

enjoyed more patronage as a result of the recently rehabilitated roads embarked upon by the state

government. Shop properties at Dugbe (-1.94%) and Iwo road (-4.95%) and office properties at

Abeokuta road (-18.29%) underperformed other commercial property investment across the selected

locations over the study period.

Table 2: Average Returns of Office and Shop Properties Asset Class Office Shop

Location Challenge/

Ring Rd

Dugbe Iwo Rd Oyo Rd Abeokuta

Rd

Challenge/

Ring Rd

Dugbe Iwo Rd Oyo Rd Abeokuta

Rd

Mean (%) 0.49 0.27 -1.03 -1.45 -18.29 -1.44 -1.94 -4.95 -0.27 1.03

Rank 2 3 5 7 10 6 8 9 4 1

Risk Analysis of Office and Shop Property Investments in Ibadan

An examination of the risk levels of the commercial property investments is shown in Table 3. This

was analysed using the standard deviation and the downside risk measures. Based on the standard

deviation values, the results revealed that shop property in Challenge/Ring road outperformed other

commercial properties across other locations with a standard deviation value of 1.37. This is followed


81


by office property in Oyo road and Iwo road with standard deviation values of 1.57 and 1.60

respectively. The shop property in Iwo road and office property at Abeokuta road underperformed

other commercial property types across other locations. These have standard deviation values of 8.97

and 56.64 respectively. Analysis of the returns based on the deviation of returns from the target rate of

return (downside deviation) showed that shop property at Abeokuta road, office property at Dugbe

and shop property at Oyo road outperformed other commercial properties across other selected

commercial locations. These had a downside risk value of 1.19, 1.44 and 1.69 respectively. The least

performing of the commercial properties are shop properties at Dugbe and Iwo road and office

properties at Abeokuta road. These have a downside risk of 3.30, 9.80 and 59.4 respectively over the

period under analysis.

Table 3: Risk Profile of Office and Shop Properties Asset Class Office Shop

Location Challenge/

Ring Rd

Dugbe Iwo

Rd

Oyo

Rd

Abeokuta

Rd

Challenge/

Ring Rd

Dugbe Iwo

Rd

Oyo

Rd

Abeokuta

Rd

SD 4.28 4.51 1.60 1.57 56.64 1.37 2.92 8.97 2.65 2.89

rank 7 8 3 2 10 1 6 9 4 5

DSR 1.77 1.44 2.20 2.18 59.4 2.03 3.30 9.80 1.69 1.19

rank 4 2 7 6 10 5 8 9 3 1

Risk-adjusted Returns of Office and Shop Property Investment:

The Sharpe ratio and Sortino ratio were adopted as the risk adjusted measures for this study (Table 4).

The Sharpe ratios for each of the investments was calculated and compared for the various locations

in the study area. The analysis of the results reveals that most of the locations had negative Sharpe

ratios. The reason for this might be due to the fact that most of the mean returns of the investments

under study were negative, as the study period was characterized by long market downturns.

Apparently, long market downturns are major factors affecting investment performance (Israelsen,

2010). The commercial properties with negative Sharpe ratio are shop properties at Abeokuta road

and office properties at Challenge/Ring road and Dugbe. These had Sharpe ratios of 0.36, 0.12 and

0.06 respectively. Office property at Oyo road and shop property at Challenge/Ring road

underperformed other commercial properties with Sharpe ratios of -0.93 and -1.04 respectively for the

period under study. Results based on the Sortino ratio revealed that shop properties at Abeokuta road

outperformed other commercial property investment with a sortino ratio of 0.86. This is followed

closely by office properties located at Challenge/Ring road having a sortino ratio of 0.28. Office

property investments in Dugbe ranked third in performance having a sortino ratio of 0.19 and

performed better than shop property investments in Oyo road having a sortino ratio of -0.16. Shop

property investments at Iwo road, Dugbe and office property at Oyo road and shop property at

Challenge/Ring road underperformed other commercial property investment with ratios -0.51, -0.59, -

0.67 and -0.71 respectively for the period under study.

Table 4: Risk Adjusted Returns for Office and Shop Properties Asset Class Office Shop

Location Challenge/

Ring Rd

Dugbe Iwo

Rd

Oyo

Rd

Abeokuta

Rd

Challenge/

Ring Rd

Dugbe Iwo

Rd

Oyo

Rd

Abeokuta

Rd

Sharpe Ratio 0.12 0.06 -0.64 -0.93 -0.32 -1.04 -0.67 -0.55 -0.1 0.36

Rank 2 3 7 9 5 10 8 6 4 1

Sortino Ratio 0.28 0.19 -0.47 -0.67 -0.31 -0.71 -0.59 -0.51 -0.16 0.86

Rank 2 3 6 9 5 10 8 7 4 1


The study examined the risk return characteristics of commercial real estate investment in Ibadan

property market. The study analysed returns on office and shop properties over a ten year period

spanning from 2006 to 2016. The results showed that commercial properties in the selected

commercial hubs in Ibadan mostly had negative mean returns except for shop property at Abeokuta

road and office properties at Challenge/Ring road and Dugbe. The results suggest that the global

economic recession which started in 2007 in USA had a resultant effect on commercial properties in

the study location. However, the study concludes that office property investment performed

efficiently than shop property investments in Ibadan property market over the period analysed. The

study further found that while the income component increased throughout the study period, the


82


returns on commercial property investment were low and recorded negative returns for most of the

period under study. This apparently might be due to the tight economic outlook during the period

under study, as the period covered by the study is characterized by two cycles of economic recession.

The findings underscore the impact of economic fluctuations on property returns. However, while

further studies could investigate the co-integration of the property returns with macroeconomic

variables, the results of the study tend to suggest a strong causal relationship between commercial

property returns and macroeconomic variables. This further reinforces the assertion that indirect real

estate behaves synonymously like the stock market (Olaleye and Ekemode, 2014) and it is strongly

influenced by responses in macroeconomic factors. It is recommended that the results of the study

should serve as a case scenario of investment characteristic of real estate assets during economic

downturns, in order to rovide relevant information to investors considering investing in direct real

estate assets in emerging markets like Nigeria.

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http://www.pwc.com/realestate


IMPACT OF MULTI-SKILLING IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION FIRMS IN ABUJA

Abdulazeez A. D1, Etubi U.

1, Saad M. M.

1 & Tukur R. B

2

1Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria

2Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria

[email protected]; 08099329937

Abstract

One of the major hindrances to global and local construction process has been the inadequate supply of labour

or craft to drive the industry task. Strategically deploying multi-skilling approach is one way of addressing the

problem. This study aimed to address skills shortage by assessing the impact of multi-skilling and identifying

impediments to multi-skilling in building construction firms. The study utilized a population of 170 building

construction firms registered in Abuja with updated remittance to the Industrial Training Fund (ITF). Simple

random sampling was used in selecting 140 firms. Two sets of questionnaires were administered to the most

senior professionals and craftsmen in each of the 140 firms sampled. Data obtained was analysed and

presented with mean, percentages and standard deviation as well as charts and tables. The major findings in

this study revealed Workforce Saving as the most important impact of multi-skilling while, High Cost of

Training and Retraining and Complexity of Management are viewed to be most important impediments to multi

skilling in building construction firms. This study recommends that construction firms should strategically adopt

multi-skilling in order to overcome skills shortage.

Keywords: Building Construction Firms, Craftsmen; Multi-skilling, Impediments, Impact.

Introduction

The building construction firms in Nigeria are mainly driven by activities of skilled labour or

craftsmen because most of the construction activities are carried out manually (Ayegba & Edwin,

2014). According to Odunsami, Oyediran and Oseni, (2007) the capability of the construction

industry to develop, procure and deliver innovative, complex and demanding projects is driven by

involvement of highly knowledgeable and skilled personnel. This is also supported by Yakubu (2003)

that the building construction firms in Nigeria is built on the foundation of skill craft workers who are

primarily supplied through various sources such as craft training institutions, vocational or technical

colleges, on the job training and apprenticeship.

However, one of the major hindrances to global and local construction process has been the

inadequate supply of labour or craft to drive the industry task. Bruce and Dulipovici (2001) defined

skills shortage as the difficulty in finding the right people to fill the available job. Darren, Mark and

Christopher (2012) considered skill shortage to occur when the demands for workers for a particular

occupation is greater than the supply of personnel who are qualified, available and willing to work

under existing market conditions.

This menace had hampered the industry‘s capacity to deliver maximally for the benefit of the

Nigerian economy. Expectedly, the construction industry is a huge employer of labour. It is however

faced with great challenges of harnessing the right skills in quantity and quality. This in turn leads to

poor workmanship, low productivity, late completion, cost overruns and high accident rates (Dantong,

2006). According to Medugu, Majid, Bustani, Bala, Abdulahi & Mbamali (2011), skilled labour

shortage impact different areas of construction activities and impact on time, cost and quality of work

and that this may also endanger the achievement of financial prosperity for which such projects are

conceived.

This trend requires that managers in the construction industry employ better strategies. One of the

ways to address the situation is to strategically deploy the multi-skilling approach (Ejohwomu, 2007).

Multi skilling is defined as a labour utilization strategy that is motive driven, factor influenced-

regardless of any limitations and benefits inclined (Ejohwomu, 2007). A multi-skilled construction

trade worker is an individual who possesses or acquires a range of skills and knowledge and applies

them to work tasks that may fall outside the traditional boundaries of his or her original trade (Dada &

Ekpe, 2006). The potential for multi-skilling in the construction industry is an aspect of cost reduction


86



benefit that has been poorly utilized (Ejohwomu, 2007). Assessment of impact of multi-skilling

practice in the building construction firms is however important in order to validate this claim. This

study therefore, focused on the assessment of perception of multi-skilling practice in addressing skills

shortage in the Nigerian building construction firms. The skills selected for this study included

bricklaying, carpentry, plumbing, iron fixing and painting. These were considered because they are

most common in the building construction firms.

Literature Review

The poor image of the construction industry makes it difficult to attract new workers. According to

Ade et al. (2015), the construction industry lacks appeal to young, potentially skilled workers which

increasingly give poor image associated with construction labour as work done by less intelligent

craftsmen (incompetent craftsmen). Similarly, Darren et al. (2012) opined that this is due to the

inefficiencies which lead to poor workmanship that result to rework that brings about cost and time

overrun. Poor image and career paths over the last couple of years has discouraged young people from

seeing the construction industry as a viable career path. These and other factors have led to difficulties

in recruiting skills among the construction companies. To be competitive in the construction industry,

it is necessary to consider other crisis management strategies to mitigate this trend. One potential

strategy is called multi-skilling (Ejohwonu, 2007), Research results indicate that multi-skilling can

reduce a number of skills required, increase the productivity, quality, and continuity of work, while

providing for a safer site and providing managers more flexibility in assigning tasks (Li-Cheng

(2010)). Field studies have also indicated that multi-skilling may benefit workers. Such benefits

include longer employment duration, better qualifications resulting in increased employability, and

increased job satisfaction (Li-Cheng, (2010)).

Multi-skilling has been viewed from different perspectives. Dada & Ekpe, (2006) affirmed that with

multi skilling, workers possess a set of skills that are appropriate for more than one work process and

that can be deployed and used flexibly on a project or within an organization. In a construction

context, this does not necessarily mean that a worker obtains or possesses mastery level skills in

multiple trade areas. However, based on the flexible application of skills the worker already possesses

or is willing to acquire, the worker can be an effective and productive contributor to the work output

of several traditional trade disciplines. Fundamentally multi-skilling can be considered as increasing

people‘s skills and competencies, enabling them to carry out tasks previously or traditionally carried

out by other persons (Caroline & Wright, 2001).

According to Caroline & Wright, (2001), organisations typically apply multi-skill with the intent of

removing functional barriers and increasing the flexibility of the workforce, it is rarely about the

ideals of job enrichment and empowerment. Multi-skilling in the UK can be considered to be

essentially job enlargement and skill broadening, using people to cover a larger proportion of

production activities, with the intention being to reduce labour (Cockrill & Scott, 1998). In practice,

multi-skilling could be incidental or planned. Incidental refers to multi-skilling that takes place

without the management or the craftsman planning or taking note of it. While planned multi-skilling

refers to a strategy driven type of multi-skilling (Caroline & Wright, 2001). The management had

done an evaluation of the skills strength and had assembled a well-planned strategy to multi-skill the

workforce. Whether as incidental or planned, for the purposes of this review we consider multi-

skilling to fall into the following categories as defined by (Li-Cheng, (2010):

Vertical multi-skilling: This process is the extent to which supervisory or administrative support tasks

are learned by craftsmen (Li-Cheng, (2010). For example, a mason/bricklayer becoming a foreman

and takes some elements of management, e.g. work planning, quality control, work supervision etc.

This could be a team leader or a member of a self-managed team (Li-Cheng, (2010). Basically, this

type of multi-skilling takes place along the same career path either upwards or downwards.

Horizontal multi-skilling: This is learning skills from another discipline or function within an

organisation. For example, an electrician is learning some plumbing tasks or a mason/bricklayer

learning some carpentry skills (Li-Cheng, (2010). According to (Li-Cheng, (2010) horizontal Multi-

skilling can be considered as two main types:

Abdulazeez A. D, Etubi U., Saad M. M. & Tukur R. B.

87


Skill broadening: where minor elements and tasks are learned on top of the predominant skills or task.

So expertise is maintained in the major task with elements added to increase efficiency. For example,

a mason/bricklayer may learn how to dismantle or remove formwork from the concrete to allow for

further works to avoid the use of a carpenter.

Cross skilling/dual skilling: where another major activity is learned in addition to the main craft and a

person is considered competent to carry out any activity in these two main disciplines. For example,

multi-skilled craftsmen considered competent to carry out both iron work (iron bending) and

carpentry tasks. An electrician can equally carry out the task of a painter.

Depth Multi-skilling: This is the acquisition and application of more complexes, specific skills within

the same trade or discipline, for example a building electrician acquiring specific skills, such as

expertise in power systems, telecommunication, and security systems like installation of CCTV

cameras (Li-Cheng, (2010).

Typical examples of multi-skilling

Typical activities that craftsmen are trained to carry out are briefly listed out here as given by Caroline

& Wright (2001). Multi-skilling operators or project managers, for example, can involve equipping a

mason with the skills to traditionally build with the sancrete block; build with the bricks (most masons

do not know how to build with bricks), plan and lead construction work process; do plastering work;

and do wall screeding work. Traditionally craftsmen learnt just one trade, for example being a

plumber, an iron worker, a painter or a carpenter (Li-Cheng, (2010). Multi-skilled craftsmen can take

a number of forms, for example, an individual is trained in the other main discipline, and would be

competent in both carpentry and plumbing skills. So a carpenter would learn plumbing skills such as

wall chasing skills; basic pipe joinery and handling; leakage monitoring; and water pressure analysis.

Some organizations also multi-skill to ensure that incident management is adequate and appropriate.

In these situations, individuals are equipped with adequate skills and knowledge to competently

handle an abnormal or emergency situation (Matias-Reche & Fuentes-Fuentes, 2006) Multi-skilling is

used in incident management scenarios, where it is imperative that there are appropriate skills to

manage an incident or event at all times. This means that there has to be flexibility within the team to

ensure competent cover for lunch and other breaks, as well as for training and holidays (Keiber, Riley

&Jones 2000). Multi-skilling staff in emergency management shares elements of vertical and

horizontal Multi-skilling, where staff may have to assume a more senior role than their status

traditionally allows because of the incident scenario (Keiber et al. 2000)

The Impact of Multi-skilling

Multi-skilling plays an important role in reducing workforce demand, fulfilling job flexibility for the

purpose of better management. This is believed to be the most cost-effective way to improve labour

productivity, and to create a more flexible workforce within construction firms (Matias-Reche &

Fuentes-Fuentes, 2006). This is because multi-skilled workers are capable of working across

traditionally distinct occupational boundaries because of the increasing pool of skills and concomitant

loss of emphasis on job demarcation (Matias-Reche & Fuentes-Fuentes, 2006). In Caroline & Wright

(2001) benefits of multi-skilled labour utilization were observed with regard to total project labour

cost, employment opportunities for construction workers, and other industry labour issues. These

benefits included conservative estimates of 5% or more total labour cost savings, a potential 35%

reduction in required project workforce, a potential 47% increase in average employment duration,

and an increase in wage/annual earning potential for multi-skilled construction workers (Keiber et al.

2000). In addition, multi-skilling involves the creation and promotion of dynamic capabilities. These

capabilities allow rapid response to a variety of unpredictable contingencies and demand changes

(Ittner & Kogut, 1995).

Multi-skilling has provided benefits for both organisations and individuals, as it enables organisations

to cope with rapidly changing environments, and on the other hand, sustains the employability of

individuals (Keiber, Riley &Jones 2000). Generally, multi-skilling has many advantages, and the

adoption for strategic skills crisis management and human resource development in the construction

industry is encouraged (Caroline & Wright, 2001). According to a study undertaken at Charles Sturt

Impact of Multi-Skilling in Building Construction Firms in Abuja

88


University (2009) the notion of multi-skilling has been evidently proved to have many advantages,

these advantages include the following:

Workforce saving: The main aim of multi-skilling is to develop a workforce that work across

traditional duty boundaries and ultimately reduce skills demand and recruitment while the job is done

with fewer skills (Kelliher et al., 2000). Research studies reveal that the benefits of multi skilling are

labour cost savings and fewer workers needed; it also enables an increase in average employment

duration and of earning potential for multi-skilled construction workers (Irene, 2009). Multi-skilled

workers have contributed significantly to the substantial workforce savings so that the cross-training

depth of 50% is sufficient to provide 80% of the available savings from cross-utilisation (Keiher et al.,

2000).

Time saving: The success of any construction project is also measured by the degree of compliance

with stipulated time of completion (Ayegba & Edwin, 2014). But shortages of skills with the attendant

time spent on recruitment are a menace staring contractors in the face (Medugu, Majid, Bustani, Bala,

Abdulahi & Mbamali, 2011), But multi-skilling process is known to have reduced number of skills

demanded and also saves idle times among craftsmen onsite. (Keiher et al., 2000).

Flexible Workforce: According to Irene (2009), multi-skilling makes workers more competitive as

they stay longer on a project; they can be utilized more flexibly including unforeseen maintenance

activities and since multi-skilled workers and crews have a broader variety of skills. It enables

workers to perform a large number of tasks, allowing them to fill in for other workers and increase

workforce flexibility (Irene, 2009). Multi-skilled workers have improved the quality of service by

reducing departmental boundaries, as there is teamwork and inter-departmental cooperation (Keiher et

al., 2000). Thus, multi-skilling is beneficial to firms only if labour flexibility can be mobilized (Huang

& Cullen, 2001)

Communication of skills: Multi-skilling practice had proved to enable workers to increase the

understanding of other tasks and improve coordination within their knowledge of various tasks

(Keiher et al., 2000).

Employment security: It enables workers to freely upgrade themselves and sustain themselves if skills

become obsolete because of new technology. Higher retention results from the provision of a greater

variety of jobs with further skills training and development (Keiher et al. 2000).

Efficiency: Multi-skilling practice enables workers to satisfy customers through the decrease of

labour cost due to reduction of turnaround time and number of workers involved (Charles Sturt

University, 2009).

Job satisfaction: Multi-skilled workers are more satisfied with their jobs because of more variety and

interesting work (Lockyer, 2007).

Better pay and promotion: Multi-skilled workers receive higher rates of pay (Clark, 1989). This is

because they are engaged in different work activities on the same site. Multi-skilled workers have

gained more opportunities to be promoted within the organization (Clark, 1989).

Management effectiveness: It enables managers to reduce the product completion time, to decrease

project planning time, and to cut back on administration costs (Charles Sturt University, 2009). In

summary, there are six benefits regarding the results of multi-skilling in the construction industry that

have been identified (Keiher et al., 2000). The first three attributes are related to organisational

benefits, whereas the last three attributes are related to individual benefits. Although multi-skilling

promotes such benefits, the consequences of increasing job complexities and work intensity stresses

have been raised, which require attention when implementing such training (Keiher et al., 2000).


89


Impediments to Multi-skilling

One of the known criticisms of the concept of multi-skilling has been associated with the

consequences of ‗change‘ implementation and a barrier to specialisation (Burleson, 2002). Carmichael

and Macleod (1993) argued that although training workers in several jobs is a successful redress for

labour market shortfalls there have been retrospective periods when a singly skilled workforce has

resisted adopting labour saving changes for fear of losing their jobs. Other impediments include limits

on skills retention, complexity of maintaining a multi skilled workforce from management and human

capital investment perspectives and high cost of training (Burleson, 2002)


Research methods are blue print to complete a study (Bhojanna, 2007). It refers to entire process

employed in obtaining information and data for a successful study. This study is survey approach

which involved gathering and collection of primary data. This quantitative research dwelled on

obtaining responses from respondents with the use of questionnaires. The population for this study is

the 170 Abuja based building construction firms with updated remittance or contribution to the

industrial training fund (ITF). The sample size was calculated using Cochran‘s formula for

determining sample size cited in Bartlett, Kotrlik & Higgins (2001). The sample size for this study is

obtained by applying Cochran‘s (1977) formula for determining sample size thus:

n0 =

n = (correction formula for final sample size), Where t = 1.96 obtained for alpha level

of 0.05 (which is usually between 0.05 and 0.01 for most educational research). Where =

Estimate of variance = 0.25. Where ―d‖ = acceptable margin of error for proportion being estimated =

0.050, n0 = Sample Size, n = Corrected Sample Size. According to Bartlett et al. (2001) a margin of error

between 3% and 5% is acceptable for educational and social research. Population (N) = 170

(representing number of construction firms that remit to ITF in Abuja)

n0 = = = , n0 = = 384. Therefore, n0 = 384 the value for n

can be obtained as presented: n = (correction formula for final sample size) n

= , n = = = 117 (actual sample size Fred, (2015) opined that sample should be

increased by 15-25% in studies that require response from craftsmen/artisans because of their known

reluctance to respond to questionnaires. This study added 20% of 117. = x = 23.4. no= 140

(sample frame) construction firms. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 140 firms

from the entire population

Two (2) forms of structured questionnaires were designed and administered. One set was

administered to most senior professionals in each of the 140 building construction firms, while the

other set was administered to the most senior craftsmen in the same 140 firms. The construction crafts

selected for this study were Bricklaying, Carpentering, Plumbing, iron fixing and Painting. The choice

of these trades was as a result of their level of dominance and popularity in building construction

process. The questionnaires were self-administered and collected from the professionals over a period

of time while services of well-trained multi-lingual research assistants were employed to help some

craftsmen with low level of literacy. Variables were measured using likert scale (1 = strongly

disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree,). Data obtained was analysed

using descriptive statistical measures such as frequency, tables, mean, and standard deviation.


90


Results and Discussions

Table 1: Details of structured questionnaire administered and returned Questionnaires Administration Professional‘s Craftsmen‘s Total

Distributed 140 140 280

Returned 125 119 244

Percentage of Returned 89.30% 85.00% 87.15%

Source: Field Survey (2017)

The Table 1 shows that 280 copies of questionnaires were distributed to the professionals and

craftsmen and a total number of 244 questionnaires were returned valid by respondents. The

professionals returned 125 questionnaires, while the craftsmen returned 119 questionnaires that were

valid. The valid questionnaires returned constituted 87.15% of the total questionnaires distributed.

This percentage of return is considered substantial for analysis. According to Moser and Kalton

(1971) the end result of a survey could be considered substantial if the response rate is not lower than

30-40%.

Table 2 presents respondents‘ assessment of impact of multi-skilling in the building construction

firms. The mean score of their responses is indicated and ranked from the highest to the lowest. The

result shows that Workforce Saving is ranked first by both professionals (mean=3.83) and craftsmen

(Mean = 4.13), while Hindrance to Specialization is least ranked by both professionals and craftsmen

with Mean = 3.57 and Mean =2.85, respectively. It is inferred in this study that Workforce Saving is

the most important factor responsible for skills shortage in the building construction firms. Although,

multi-skilling is claimed to be averse to specialization, this study shows that its impact is negligible.

Table 2: Assessment of impact of the practice of multi-skilling S/No Impact of multi-skilling Professional‘s Craftsmen‘s

Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank

1 Workforce saving 3.83 1.306 1st

4.13 0.911 1st

2 Better Pay and Promotion 3.80 1.308 4th

3.56 0.860 2nd

3 Skills Communication/Transfer 3.67 1.306 9th

3.56 1.030 3rd

4 Work Force Flexibility 3.78 1.323 5th

3.50 1.016 4th

5 Time Saving 3.82 1.245 2nd

3.46 1.307 5th

6 Work Force efficiency 3.70 1.326 8th

3.44 1.079 6th

7 Work force development 3.82 1.260 3rd

3.43 1.022 7th

8 Work Force Optimisation 3.78 1.337 6th

3.34 1.077 8th

9 Job Satisfaction 3.59 1.339 10th 3.34 0.985 9

th

10 Easy employment for craftsmen 3.71 1.288 7th

3.32 1.241 10th

11 Hindrance to Specialisation 3.57 1.393 11th 2.85 1.176 11

th

Source: Field Survey (2017), SD = Standard deviation.

Table 3 presents respondents‘ assessment of impediments to multi-skilling in the building

construction firms. The mean score of their responses is indicated and ranked accordingly. The result

in Table 3 shows that the professionals ranked High Cost of Training and Retraining‖ (Mean = 3.78)

first while Complexity of Management (Mean =3.51) was ranked first by the craftsmen. It is inferred

that High Cost of Training and Retraining and Complexity of Management are major impediments to

practice of multi-skilling.

Table 3: Assessment of impediments to the practice of multi-skilling

S/No Impediments to multi-skilling Professionals‘ Craftsmen‘s

Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank

1 Complexity of Management 3.70 1.320 4th

3.51 0.882 1st

2 Lack of Awareness of Multi-skilling 3.54 1.417 5th

3.43 0.869 2nd

3 High Cost of Training and Retraining 3.78 1.389 1st

3.42 0.970 3rd

4 Limits on Skills Retention 3.74 1.339 2nd

3.18 0.840 4th

5 Resistance to Change 3.72 1.348 3rd

2.80 1.078 5th

Source: Field Survey (2017), SD = Standard deviation.


91



Based on the data presented, the study concluded that multi-skilling practice attracts high cost of

training and presents firms with needs to deal with complexities in management. However, a well

adopted multi-skilling process has impact on workforce saving. This is a reliable way of addressing

skills shortage in the building construction firms. The study recommends that building construction

firms should strategically deploy multi-skilling approach in order to address skills shortage.

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93


AN X-RAY OF POLICY ISSUES IN RURAL HOUSING IN NIGERIA,

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Usen Udoh1, Jacob Atser

2 and Daniel Etteh

3

1 &3Department of Architecture, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria

2Department of Urban & Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria

[email protected]; [email protected]; +234 (0) 803 549 0104

Abstract

The policy thrust of delivering adequate and sustainable housing presents a critical challenge to

development in many nations of the world despite varied UN conventions and international protocols

in this direction. It has been observed that the sheer phenomenal size of the rural population globally

despite the much touted spontaneous growth in urban sprawl have led to the scenario where housing

in Nigeria is found to be inadequate, indecent, substandard and lacking in basic services and

infrastructure both from the qualitative and quantitative perspectives. These alongside other factors

like poverty, primitive environmental living conditions, discrimination against the use of indigenous

materials and ineffective housing finance constitute the Rural Housing Question. In examining the

role of housing policy on rural development in Nigeria, the paper underscores the need to strive for

balance in development drives by simultaneously covering both the urban and rural sectors through

the enshrinement and application of a pragmatic framework that could enhance optimum utilization

of existing resources for the purpose. It also specifically advocates for the creation of an enabling

environment that will give the States and especially the Local Governments the capacity to fulfill their

Constitutional obligations regarding housing as well as to boost a novel partnership between them,

donor agencies, the private sector and the communities, and not just for the publication of some new

set of rules.

Keywords: Housing Policy; Sustainability; Rural Housing Question; Development; Nigeria

Introduction

Housing signifies not just a roof over one‘s head but the conjunction of the dwelling, the home, the

immediate environment and the community as well as the dynamic process of providing and

improving them (Chenga, 1986; Bonnefoy et al., 2004; WHO, 2004; Jinadu, 2007). Housing as one of

the 3 basic needs of man (others being food and clothing) offers a combination of services, the first

and most essential of which is shelter and allied environmental services like water supply, sewage and

solid waste disposal and energy use. In most developing countries, the home is also the workplace for

a significant section of the population. Housing also provides a range of locational advantages such as

household wealth, health, education and recreation resulting in improved life quality and prospects for

social mobility. According to National Aboriginal Capital Corporation Association (NACCA, 2005),

housing is the largest single investment for most families and the driver of demand in enormous

sectors of the economy, hence its role in the economies of nations. Consequently, a sound approach to

the formulation and implementation of housing policies will greatly promote the development of

economic and social welfare of any people (Arku, 2006; Gopalan and Venkataraman, 2015; World

Bank Group, 2015).

Globally, urbanization in developing countries has increased significantly since the end of the World

War II (Ajala, 2005, UN-HABITAT, 2015). Africa which accommodates 11.3 percent of the world‘s

urban population is however the least‐urbanized continent and the Sub‐Saharan region is the

continent‘s least‐urbanized area (World Bank Group, 2015). In most cities of the developing

countries, investment in infrastructure including housing has failed to keep pace with the growth in

population which, according to available statistics, has been growing at an alarming rate and ranks

among the fastest growing in the world (Oladunjoye, 2005; World Bank, 2008; Jiboye, 2009;

Oduwaye, 2009). In India, for instance, the problem is so vivid with an estimated shortage of around


94




18 million houses of which 99% are said to be in the economically weaker sections of society

(Gopalan and Venkataraman, 2015).

Situational Context of Study Area

The study area represents the entire area of the African continent which lies below the southern edge

of the Sahara Desert with a significant human history, a distinct world culture and a geography

consisting primarily of grasslands with scattered trees except for the humid rainforests near the earth‘s

equator. The region is arguably the poorest region in the world and it is still being plagued with the

bequests of colonialism and slavery, endemic corruption, socialist economic policies, inter-ethnic

conflicts, social upheavals and natural disasters which have negative effect on social peace and the

execution of development activities (Buckley and Kalarickal, 2004; Okpala, 2009). According to

World Bank‘s brief on ‗Global Economic Prospects: Sub-Saharan Africa‘, the region‘s largest

economies to date are Angola, Nigeria and South Africa with Nigeria anticipated to accelerate to an

exceptional 2.5 percent economic growth rate in 2018 compared to Angola‘s 1.6 percent and South

Africa‘s 1.1 percent. Other countries in the region include Benin Republic, Botswana, Burkina Faso,

Burundi, Cape Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of

Congo, Congo, Cote d‘Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana,

Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Kenya. Others are Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,

Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,

Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia

as well as Zimbabwe (The World Bank Group, 2018).

Recent data also indicate that the total area of urban land and that of rural land in Sub-Saharan Africa

are 140,495.0269 square kilometres and 17,310,643.96 square kilometres respectively while the

region‘s estimated total population at an annual growth rate of 1.8842% in 2016 stands at

1,033,212,743 persons of which 61.7295 percent are rural (Figures 1& 2). Data from World Bank

Group in 2017 put Nigeria‘s rural population at a whopping 52.224% of the country‘s total. It is

therefore accurate to affirm that the rural areas are a key sector in the region‘s economy and that rapid

population growth of the rural sector also compounds the problem of housing which is not growing at

a rate near to that of the population (World Bank Group, 2017).

Figure 1: Percentage habitable area of Urban to Rural Land in Sub-Saharan Africa

(Source: Adapted from World Development Indicators of The World Bank Group, 2018)

Usen Udoh, Jacob Atser and Daniel Etteh

95


Figure 2: Percentage of Rural to Urban population in Sub-Saharan Africa

(Source: Adapted from World Development Indicators of the World Bank Group, 2018)

Another key challenge for African cities is the comparatively low growth in per‐capita income which

serves as ceiling for the available resources that households have to expend or invest in housing. The

formal channels through which quality housing is produced and financed similarly face major

constraints that limit access to a large share of both rural and urban households across board, thus

making the housing sector a near insignificant part of the economy due to diminutively effective

demand (Dasgupta et al, 2014). Figure 3 features 2011‐2013 data from the Center for Affordable

Housing Finance in Africa (CAHF) on the price and size of the least expensive newly built house by a

formal, private developer in some selected countries. According to the chart, the mean per‐capita

income is US$1,764, the average house price is US$31,085 and the red band identifies the price of an

affordable house within a range of three to five times the average annual household income which is a

standard affordability measure, thus clearly showing that the cost of most houses is far outside the

domestic income/ affordability range.

It is also a fact that African nation-states are seldom treated as entities in their own right who possess

some jealously-guarded special state interests as well as the interests of the dominant societal classes

depending on the extent to which such groups pose potential threat to the state‘s existence at any

given time – interests which influence, dominate and drive policies including those related to housing

(Njoh, 2017). South Africa Housing Policy correspondingly highlights the exclusion of rural housing

needs from the mainstream of housing policy approaches as a specific area of concern (Republic of

South Africa, 1995). It even recommends that State housing policy and strategy should seek a balance

in emphasis between the urban and the rural or be ready for what Fox (2013) calls ‗disjointed

modernization‘, taking cognizance of the particular characteristics and requirements of rural

communities.

Other researchers have also established that housing in Sub-Saharan Africa is affected by such

problems as poverty, primitive environmental living conditions, discrimination against the use of

indigenous materials, ineffective housing finance, inadequate financial instruments for mobilisation of

funds and high cost of building materials in addition to other demographic, cultural and socio-

economic bugs like the effects of demoralizing images of community identity from local and

international media domains, the sheer reluctance of professionals to take countryside positions, and

the non-saleable nature of the rural home due to the prevalent owner-occupier tenure type (Republic

of South Africa, 1995; Festus and Amos, 2015; Government of Ghana, 2015; The Republic of

Uganda, 2016; Udoh, 2016). Nevertheless, it is important to note that whereas a policy is a statement

of guidelines provided by a government with the aim of meeting the people‘s needs through

appropriate fiscal, institutional, legal, regulatory and performance-evaluating strategies, urban housing

in Sub-Saharan Africa has received significant attention in the context of rapid urbanisation,

demographic pressure, slum formation and increasing demand for housing, land and infrastructure

An X-Ray of Policy Issues in Rural Housing in Nigeria, Sub-Saharan Africa

96


from governments, the organized private sector, non-governmental organizations and development

partners while rural housing is still gravely left on the back burner (United Nations, 1978;

Sterkenburg, et al. (1986), Ezeah, 2005; Wahab, 2007; United Nations, 2015; National Housing

Federation, 2014).

Figure 3: Relationship of Income to House Prices in Sub-Saharan Africa

(Source: CAHF, 2013)

In fact, the critical situation of the predominantly low income inhabiting rural areas continues

unabatedly in spite of several inter-national goals and policies designed to achieve ‗housing for all‘

(Omole, 2010; Holne, 2015; United Nations, 2015; Udoh, 2016). Since housing constitutes a

significant component of the social dimension of sustainable development (NAHA, 2006), its

adequacy in terms of quantity and quality plays a dominant role in gauging the level of development

as well as indicating a person‘s standard of living in the society (Jiboye, 2009). Therefore, the need to

explore the role of an effective housing delivery mechanism or policy that could engender optimum

utilization of existing resources for effective housing delivery especially in Africa‘s predominantly

rural settings is the overall aim of this study. Study scope justifiably focuses on the rural component

of housing. Data analysis is based on textual and qualitative enquiry using key informants‘ interviews,

extensive literature reviews as well as secondary data from journals, government publications and

other documents on housing.


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National housing policies and the rural gap: a time-space context

Contextually, the term ‗rural‘ has demographic, socio-cultural, economic or occupational proportions

and is characterized by population size, distance from urban centres, a strong sense of local identity as

well as an economy built majorly around natural resources (Chenga, 1986; Flora et al., 1992). In

terms of spatial spread, the American Bureau of Census classifies ‗rural‘ to be a group of people

living in a community with a population of not more than 2,500 while in Nigeria a settlement is

deemed ‗rural‘ if it has a population of less than 20,000 living inhabitants (National Bureau of

Statistics, 2012). It is within this context that Jones (2011) reports that many post-colonial

governments in Africa as well as Asia and Latin America undertook various forms of public housing

provision intended for middle class public sector employees, the building of public housing estates for

lease or outright sale to low income urban residents, and slum clearance projects. Kenya of the 1950s

witnessed how the Mau Mau struggle compelled the colonial government to draw up new

development plans which aimed to improve conditions for the African population and encourage the

growth of a stable African middle class in both urban and rural areas (Ogot and Ochieng, 1995).

Similarly, Nigeria has had a number of policies to address its housing needs before its emergence as

an independent State and all through its existence thus far as a nation. However, the import of the

various National Development Plans was either petty regarding housing delivery in the rural areas or

later overwhelmed by the urban facets of such plans (Kalu, Agbarakwe and Anowor, 2014; Ajibola

and Sanmi, 2015). The Nigerian example shows that government‘s policy thrust prior to the country‘s

independence in 1960 focused on the provision of staff quarters for expatriates and for selected

indigenous staff in specialized occupations like the Railways, Police, Armed Forces and the Marines

(FGN, 2006). Urban councils were created in 1946, Lagos Executive Board (LEBD) was established

in 1954 and the Nigerian Building Society was formed in 1955 trailed by the enactment of Regional

Housing Corporations in 1959. In 1950-1976, the Cameroonian government‘s policy emphasized

direct construction of houses as well as the provision of housing allowances or subsidies to a paltry

3% of its civil servants with the support of external funding (Hotouom, 2015). However, the above

highlights were directed at planning and controlling housing developments in the region‘s urban

centres with no plan or action for the rural areas.

The Post-Independence housing era of between 1960 and 1979 in Nigeria witnessed the

institutionalization of the first National Development Plan by the Government with emphasis on

Lagos which was the capital city at the time and the second National Development Plan of 1970-1974

to build 59,000 housing units in the regional capitals throughout the federation. The River Basin

Development strategy was developed during this period to enhance agricultural productivity and to

assuage the poverty level among the people living within the catchment of river basins, and not to

improve the housing situation of the rural dwellers of the entire locale. Nevertheless, it was in the

third National Development Plan of 1975-1980 that the government pledged to provide housing for all

income categories, especially for the low income group. This gave birth to both the Integrated Rural

Development and the Directorate for Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI) reforms, which

sought to develop all aspects of the rural economy and to promote spatial, social and economic

linkages within the sector through the provision of potable water, construction of feeder roads, rural

industrialization and grassroots‘ sports development (Ajibola and Sanmi, 2015). Unfortunately, these

lofty programmes were later overwhelmed by the urban facets of the Plan.

Within the same era, the Federal Ministry of Housing, Urban Development and Environment and the

Committee on Standardisation of House Types and Policies were established in 1975 culminating in

the country‘s recognition of the Low Income Housing Concepts and Strategies of the World Bank in

conjunction with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. According to Omange

and Udegbe (2000), the Nigerian Building Society was transformed into Federal Mortgage Bank in

1977 while the Land Use Act with its gallant aim of making land available for development came into

use in 1978. Interestingly, these mechanisms were still regrettably concentrated in the urban settings

though they were created to enhance housing development and delivery in the whole country.


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During the Military Era of 1984 to 1999, government‘s approach to housing changed from direct

housing construction to the provision of sites and services. The Central Government also launched the

National Housing Policy in 1991 where 8 million housing units were proposed with 5 million planned

for the urban areas while 3 million were designated and reserved for the first time as housing for the

rural population to ensure that all Nigerians own or have access to decent, safe and sanitary housing

accommodation at affordable costs by the year 2000. Sadly, however, the performance level was

miserably low regarding housing delivery in the rural areas.

According to Waziri and Roosli (2013), a new National Housing Policy which was published in 2006

emanated from the recognition of the various impediments to housing policy and programme

implementation in the past and attempted to perfect long lasting solutions. Its scope was widened to

include institutions having political will for housing provision to encourage greater participation of

the private sector, guarantee the participation of all levels of governments and boost the mobilization

of sustained long term funding. However, the place of rural housing in this celebrated policy is clearly

captured in the fact that the overall improvement of the quality of rural housing, infrastructure and

environment forms only one of the fourteen avowed objectives of the policy (FGN, 2006). Another

National Housing Policy (Revised) in 2012 highlighted the deliberate introduction of mass housing

and social housing for the low income, no income, disadvantaged and underprivileged groups; a clear

emphasis on the need for proper planning of the environment; and the issue of urban renewal and

slums‘ upgrade as well as the establishment of new cities (Federal Government of Nigeria, 2012).

It is instructive to note that many housing problems can be stated simply and their solutions may

therefore appear simple, even though most ‗facile‘ solutions only serve to compound the problems

(Mayo, Malpezzi and Gross, 1986; Arnott, 2008; Kalu, Agbarakwe and Anowor, 2014). Njoh (2017)

corroborates this by positing that the post-colonial leaders in Africa with the least exception all

decided in favour of adopting European models of development though the struggle for independence

in colonial Africa was characterized by rhetoric that unconditionally vowed to eliminate imperialism

and all other vestiges of European domination. Moreover, a sufficient body of knowledge exists that

gives credence to the reality that advanced market economies like US, Canada, UK, Germany, Japan

and France which markets private sector led housing frameworks to developing economies like

Nigeria strongly intervened in their own nation‘s housing sub-sectors by massively constructing and

renting out housing units to low income earners at subsidized rates thereby reducing housing

problems to a bearable minimum and are still doing so (Mayo Stephen, 1981; Meen, 1998; McMaster

and Watkins, 1999; Hong Kong Housing Bureau, 2002; Doling and Ronald, 2010). This agrees with

World Bank Group (2015) position that the majority of housing investment in most African countries

comes from domestic savings and investments rather than finance obtained through international

capital markets as is the case in developed economies.

Other institutional frameworks on Housing in Sub-Saharan Africa

Table 1 is an array of some notable institutional frameworks and arrangements that were brought to

the fore to address the region‘s multidimensional housing problem to date. Interestingly, however,

none of these instruments squarely decides the question of rural housing for the huge rural population

of countries within the region.


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Table 1: Some Institutional Frameworks regarding Housing in Sub-Saharan Africa

S/No. Institutional Framework Achievements Limitations

1 National Plan of Action for Habitat II

(NPA), 1996; and launch of UN-

Habitat‘s Good Urban Governance

Campaign in Nigeria in 2001

To stem ‗the decline in the condition of

cities, towns and villages, and to make

them healthy, safe and sustainable‘

There is a rising/ growing inter-

national awareness over the

abating housing conditions in

the nation‘s urban areas

(Aribigbola, 2011)

Continuous calls by the

developed world to devolve

UN-Habitat functions with a

view to creating a ‗City

Agency‘ to date betray the

world‘s neediest population

2 Implementation of Goal 7 Target 7C of

the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs) since 2000

Towards widespread urban renewal and

slum upgrading in urban communities

nationwide

More involvement of the

international community in

Nigeria‘s development as a

developing economy

Obvious urban bias; and

target date of year 2015 had

passed with no significant

impact on the standard of

living of rural dwellers

(Awojobi, 2014)

3 The economic blueprint for Vision

20:2020, 2010; and National Financial

System Strategy (FSS 2020)

To make the housing sector one of the

top three contributors to the nation‘s

economy by contributing not less than

20% to the GDP by 2020

Setting up of committee to

review FMBN/ NHF

operations, the report of which

is already being implemented;

Executive Bill at National

assembly seeking review of

consent provisions in Land Use

Act

Projected construction of one

million houses per year to

address the nation‘s over

17million housing deficit,

though unattained as yet, is

predictably skewed towards

the urban and peri-urban

environments.

4 Programmes to construct 10,000 low-cost

houses as well as to develop 50,000

building plots and constitute land

reserves by the Head of Government of

the Republic of Cameroon in 2008

The programmes were

reportedly progressing to

different stages of completion

across the 10 country regions

depending on availability of

resources as at 2013, with fears

of failure for the adoption of

universalized concept in an

environment where ‗housing

for sale‘ is nondescript (Njoh,

2017).

10 years afterwards, the

government has only been

able to construct 1,500

houses and has declared the

erstwhile housing policy and

allied mechanisms and

apparatuses obsolete

(Panorama Papers, 2018).

5 40-year National Road Map (FMLHUD,

2014)

To facilitate private sector led delivery

and implement special housing programs

to promote the delivery of 1million units

of homes per annum for the next 10 years

as well as to transform the way

FMLHUD is structured and operated as

Industry regulator and facilitator

Successful pre-qualification

and mobilization of developers

based on track record, quality

of work in line with building

standards and codes etc. to

access construction loans for

approved projects in some

urban centres

The depictions of National

Social Housing Act and

National Social Housing

Regulatory Authority

(NSHRA) as well as

development of a Financing

Plan, eligibility criteria,

tenure options and pilot

schemes for social housing

are yet to make any direct

impact on the rural

population.

6 National Human Settlement Policy, 2004

To develop a model village program for

the upgrading of villages with the aim of

providing mixed use opportunities for

their residents.

Full alignment with the

country‘s Vision 2020 which

highlights that human

settlement shall be based on

plans and equipped with basic

infrastructure, among other

parameters.

Only 48% of rural

households live in rural

settlements as at 2015

(Republic of Rwanda, 2015).

7 Republic of Namibia (2009)

Positioning housing as one of the main

enablers of Namibia‘s economic growth;

and to pursue the concept of ―creating

sustainable human settlements‖ endowed

with all social and economic ingredients

necessary to sustain communities,

The giving of credence to

Housing as a means of reducing

poverty in both urban and rural

areas, hence the emphasis to

extend housing to rural areas

inhabited by approximately

62% of the populace as an

Despite the ten (10) key

housing development

strategies espoused in the

document, it has regrettably

not been translated into

accelerated redress in the

country‘s urban-rural


100


particularly in rural areas without

neglecting urban development.

integral part of the Government

rural development efforts as

well as to upgrade and

formalize the informal

settlements.

imbalances due to contractual

delays and other challenges

in implementation (Republic

of Namibia, 2018).

8 National Housing Policy (Republic of

Rwanda, 2015) – where ―everyone

independent of income, base of

subsistence, and location shall be able to

access adequate housing in sustainably

planned and developed areas reserved for

habitation in Rwanda‖.

An established awareness of the

continuously growing demand

for housing in urban and rural

areas and the need to develop

master plans for the whole

country in a bid to continuously

promote settlement in rural

areas.

Of the 8 identified housing

access groups, only 2

however have direct bearing

on the rural sector, namely:

Housing accessible to rural

population; and Housing

accessible to landless and

vulnerable rural population.

9 Nigeria‘s Federal Government-adopted a

30-year National Integrated Infrastructure

Master Plan (NIIMP 2014-2043) and

States‘ Integrated Infrastructure Master

Plan (SIIMP)

To build world class infrastructure

required to grow economy, enhance

living conditions and improve Nigeria‘s

global competitiveness from the current

20-25% of GDP to at least 70% in 2043

(FMLHUD, 2014)

An elaborate and inclusive

policy document that included

the work of 11 technical

working groups and business

support groups which provided

private sector perspectives;

changes are being sought in

about 20 legislations over

obstructions in capital flow and

PPP

First medium plan of 2014-

2019 is currently undergoing

review even before its take-

off. Also, though 50% for

energy, 39% for transport and

32% for social infrastructure

are captured in the Plan and

has the attention of

government, the critical

priority status of rural

housing is not specified in

the only 23% reserved for an

essential sector like housing

Source: Literature Review by Author (2018)

The limitations of applying a universalized policy framework in Sub-Saharan Africa are glaring even

as they seek to manage the symptoms of housing challenges and never do fully address the root causes

of the peculiar problems. For instance, the government of Cameroon allocated US$50.1 million to

fund the construction of 10,000 social housing units as well as the development of 50,000 buildable

plots in 2009. However, 80 percent of Cameroon‘s population could not afford these social housing

units, hence the total collapse and failure of the programme so much that the government is

canvassing for a new housing policy as shown in Table 1. Figure 4 indicates that the units were far

outside of the typical price‐to‐income range of between 3:1 and 5:1 with prices over 44 times the

average household‘s income level and two to three times the conventional affordability thresholds for

public sector employees.

Figure 4: House price to income ratios in Government-sponsored housing in Cameroon

(Source: World Bank Group, 2015)


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In the same vein, Zambia, Ethiopia and Liberia‘s own housing subsidy programmes focused on a

single city each. In Tanzania, housing parastatals compete directly with the private sector and yet

provide units that are only affordable to middle and upper income groups while Nigeria‘s Federal

Housing Authority had met only 15 percent of its goal of supplying 261,000 units over the course of

more than 40 years as at 2012. It is also a matter of record that an alternative subsidy programme

targeted at urban developers in Nigeria rather served to encourage land speculation rather than

housing production (World Bank Group, 2015).

Emerging Realities

Inclusive, safe, resilient, affordable, accessible and sustainable housing is a fundamental human right

articulated by the United Nations‘ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) number eleven (11) and

most nation states in sub-Saharan Africa at the instance are signatories to many such international

protocols (United Nations, 2015; UNDP, 2017). Nigeria‘s 1999 Constitution (Fundamental Objectives

and Directive Principles of State Policy) for instance also encapsulates that ‗suitable and adequate

shelter be provided for all citizens‘. Nevertheless, the challenge posed by available housing quantity,

quality and other such institutional and structural factors all over Sub-Saharan Africa and particularly

in Nigeria‘s rural areas is still increasingly dire despite the indisputability of government rhetoric at

providing housing. The proceeding section highlights the various housing problems facing rural

Nigeria.

Housing Quality: The rural housing question in Nigeria is predominantly in the dimension of the

quality of housing and is associated with insufficiencies in place, degrees of goodness and in the value

of the house or home (Wahab, 2007; Ibimilua and Ibitoye, 2015). According to Udoh (2016), the

environmental quality index in rural Nigeria indicated that 50% of the households suffer from rain

floods/ stagnant water (Plate I), 76% lived in bushy surroundings (Plate II) and that 91% experienced

mice/ rat infestation.

Plate I: Rain Water Floods in a Rural Settlement at Ogriagbene, Bomadi, Delta State, Nigeria

Source: Authors‘ Study, 2017

Plate II:Bushy Housing Environment at Pilanesberg Game Reserve, South Africa

Source: Authors‘ Study, 2018

Infrastructural Services and Sanitation: Aliy (1999) and Abah (2000) agree that housing is

incomplete when social services required for adequate housing like electricity, drainage and

transportation facilities are not amply linked with them. According to them, the rural areas are thus


102


worse off as they are notably peppered with haphazard developments that are not properly planned

and are lacking in basic infrastructure and services. Furthermore, the massive effects of the illogical

and fragmented policy approach of daring to separate the provision of housing stock from other

services in both urban and rural areas are damaging and dislocating the physical and social fabric of

the entire society (Republic of South Africa, 1995). A NISER (2010) study also revealed that most

rural housing lack basic facilities like toilets, kitchen and a landscaped environment due to individual

owners‘ low earning power and income. Table 2. Percentage Distribution of Households by Type of Toilet Facility in 2010

SECTOR None Toilet

on

water

Flush to

Sewage

Flush

to

Septic

Tank

Pail/

Bucket

Covered

Pit

Latrine

Uncovered

Pit Latrine

VIP

Latrine

Others

Urban 9.4 8.4 15.2 15.5 1.4 36.8 7.5 2.5 3.2

Rural 18.1 5.7 3.2 2.6 1.5 34.9 20.9 2.7 10.3

National 16.1 6.3 6.0 5.6 1.5 35.4 17.8 2.6 8.7

Source: Adapted from National Bureau of Statistics, 2012

Table 3. Percentage Distribution of Households by Type of Refuse Disposal Facility in 2010

SECTOR Household (HH)

Bin collected by

Government

HH Bin

collected by

private agency

Government

Bin or Shed

Disposal

within

Compound

Unauthorised

Refuse Heap

Others None

Urban 15.0 8.0 5.8 21.2 40.8 2.7 6.5

Rural 1.0 1.5 1.2 42.6 37.8 3.9 12.2

National 4.2 3.0 2.2 37.6 38.5 3.6 10.9

Source: Adapted from National Bureau of Statistics, 2012

Table 4. Percentage Distribution of Households by Source of Water [Wet Season] in 2010

SECTOR Trea-

ted

pipe

borne

water

Un-

trea-ted

pipe

borne

water

Bore-

hole

hand

pump

Pro-

tected

well

spring

Un-

protected

well

spring

Rain

water

River/

springs

Lake/

reservoir

Tanker

truck

vendor

Others

Urban 15.9 2.3 26.8 16.6 5.3 22.8 2.5 0.1 4.8 2.9

Rural 4.2 2.7 19.9 10.0 15.9 28.3 16.8 0.5 1.1 0.4

National 6.9 2.6 21.5 11.5 13.5 27.1 13.5 0.4 2.0 1.0

Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2012

As data in Tables 2 and 3 supports, a marked 59.7% of the rural population have less than hygienic

toilet facilities or none at all in their housing developments while a frightening 96.5% have no access

to safe refuse disposal mechanisms. Table 4 also highlight that only 4.2% of the rural population have

access to treated pipe borne water in their settlements and that the bulk of the people still depend on

untreated and unprotected water sources for their daily nutrition and upkeep.

Rural-Urban Linkages: Traditionally, social, cultural and economic ties have subsisted between rural

and urban dwellers in the Sub-Saharan region as a whole and Nigeria in particular despite the rising

rate of urbanization (Abbass, 2012; World Bank Group, 2015). For instance, while the average urban

dweller is a ‗dual home occupier‘ who mostly lives and goes to work from rental housing in the city

and must as a matter of cultural pride dream to own a house in his or her village of origin which is

occasionally used for meetings and family ceremonies and for the purpose of ultimate retirement,

cities and large urban enclaves conventionally depend on and sustain rural communities for supply of

food, agricultural products and other industrial raw materials as well as serve as economic centres

providing services and attracting labour from surrounding rural areas in line with the Central Place

Theory principle. These connections should of course be reinforced with more emphasis on rural

development instead of the present swizzes of ordinarily ―promoting a robust network of roads and

communication channels to ensure accessibility to all land uses that is of high standards of designs

and to provide effective linkages with rural areas‖ (Okpala, 2009; Kalu, Agbarakwe and Anowor,

2014; UN-HABITAT, 2015; Federal Government of Nigeria, 2016; German Habitat Forum, 2016).


103


Role of Governments and Relevant Institutions: Given that leadership is an essential pre-requisite for

delivering rural affordable housing both from the national to the community level and from policy

development to on the ground implementation (Report of the Rural Housing Policy Review, 2015),

there is no gainsaying of the fact that the Federal, State and Local Governments have displayed a

sheer lack of political will to develop the rural areas. It is such failure in governmental responsibilities

at the various levels that has resulted in the phenomenon called ‗rural-urban drift‘ - a situation where a

major percentage of the active rural populace abandon the abundant natural resources in the rural

domain into the hands of the ‗aged‘ in search of life improvements in the comparably smaller,

present-day urban settings (Abbass, 2012; Isaac and Raqib, 2013). Put more specifically, Dasgupta et

al. (2014) confirms that formal housing investment according to national current accounts data lags

behind urbanization by nine years in Africa. Integrating housing policy objectives with the rural

planning responsibilities of local governments is thus central to sustainable development especially

because local governments influence the private housing market through their planning and

development control decisions, their strong connections to the local community and their strategic

positioning to facilitate a ―whole of government‖ approach to housing outcomes (Guran, 2002; Njoh,

2017). Correspondingly, the several institutions set up to deliver housing in Nigeria like the Federal

Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, the Standards Organisation of Nigeria as well as the

Federal/ State Housing Authority/ Corporations perform their duties without any contemplation of the

entire rural countryside. Even financial institutions like the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria and the

Federal Mortgage Finance Limited which were statutorily established to provide and facilitate funding

for housing projects in the country does not service the rural areas at all due to high interest rates and

the apparent inability of the rural dwellers to meet the stringent conditions and guidelines set out for

obtaining such facilities.

Other Demographic, Cultural and Socio-economic considerations: Rural housing situation in

Nigeria and other nations in Sub-Saharan Africa are also affected by the challenge of marginal living

space - where the influence of civilization and allied factors on the local cultures and traditions

continually seek to foster smaller household sizes and an increased predisposition to live outside the

nuclear family arrangement (National Housing Federation, 2014). The effects of demoralizing images

of community identity from both local and international media domains as well as the sheer reluctance

of professionals to take countryside positions cannot be over-emphasized (Udoh, 2016). Other special

needs of rural housing in the region include the dilemma facing the predominantly subsistent

agricultural workers reaching the end of their working lives; the different composition of rural

households; the non-saleable nature of the rural home; the imminent predominance of female headed

households; and the diversity of tenure arrangements (Republic of South Africa, 1995; National

Bureau of Statistics, 2012; Government of Ghana, 2015; The Republic of Uganda, 2016; Udoh, 2016).


The paper has shown that most policies and programmes on housing and housing-related services in

Nigeria in particular and Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole lack the sufficient edge in features and

mechanisms to cater for the rural housing situation in the region. From the study, it has also been

established that aside from the necessity for all strategic and integrated approaches to rural and urban

development to mandatorily put housing at their core, there is also the specific need to evolve an all-

rural housing policy that should promptly address the myriads of housing issues in the rural areas

based on the positive significance of available land and natural resources as well as the severity of

necessity in these settings. It is strongly recommended that governments at the Federal and State

levels in the entire region should rise to the responsibility of statutorily mandating and empowering

municipal administrations in concert with the traditional institutions to squarely pursue decent, safe,

sanitary and highly subsidized housing for the rural population. In summation, Sub-Saharan Africa is

vested with tremendous potential for growth even in the medium term and it is the thorough

institutionalization of strong and sound domestic housing policy measures hinged on access to

infrastructure, habitability, affordability and security of tenure that should guarantee it alongside the

expected support of external development partners.


104


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COMMUNAL CONFLICTS AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN

NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA

Stanislaus Anabaraonye Okeahialam1 & Mohammed Naguto

2

1Department of Estate Management, Imo State University, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

2Department of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

+2348037960430; [email protected]; +2348036100302: [email protected]

Abstract

Communal conflict means violent clash between non-state groups using lethal weapons to gain control over

some disputed resources such as land. Such violent clashes usually result in destruction of lives and properties.

In the North central region of Nigeria, the scale of communal conflicts have become very worrisome because of

its frequency of occurrence. The aim of this study is to examine the effects of communal conflict on rural

development in the North central region of Nigeria. Data for the research was collected through the key

informant interview technique and personal observation. Using frequency distribution tables to analyse the

data, the study revealed that communal conflict has adversely affected rural housing and economic development

in the area as indigenes of the affected communities are forced to flee from their homes. The reasons for this

situation have been identified as land ownership tussle, ethnic leadership struggle, religious difference and

politics among others. The study recommended among others that the government should rise up to its

responsibility by confronting this challenge decisively without aiding or abetting any particular ethnic group to

the detriment of the others, make available more land for grazing purposes in the states where the predominant

agriculture is nomadic agriculture and states should equally be allowed to establish their own police force.

Key words: communal conflict, rural housing and economic development, loss of lives and Properties.

Introduction

The word conflict means disagreement, quarrel or clash. It could be violent or non-violent. At any

level, it arises as a result of divergence of interests, desires, goals and value aspirations in the

competition for resources to meet imposing demands on social life in a defined socio-physical

environment (Otite and Isaac, 2004). As a matter of fact, Man in a socio-physical environment lives in

continuous process of dependence and interdependence which often produces contradictions and

conflicts within and between communities. Communal conflict is defined as violent conflict between

non-state groups that are organized along a shared communal identity using lethal violence to gain

control over some disputed and perceived indivisible resource such as a piece of land or local political

power (Galtung, 1965). This definition implies that the groups involved are non-state groups, meaning

that none of the actors control the state and armed forces (although state actors may be involved as an

important supporting actor in a communal conflict), and that the groups are organized along a shared

communal identity, meaning that they are not formally organized rebel groups or militias but that the

confrontation takes place along the line of group identities. But nowadays, some groups/communities

have raised militia groups for incidence of conflicts.

According to Azuonwu (2002), communal conflict is a conflict that occurs between two or more

communities. Oboh and Hyande (2006) described it as conflict involving two or more communities

engaging themselves in disagreement or act of violence over issues such as claims for land ownership,

religious and political difference leading to loss of lives and destruction of properties. Communal

violence can also be seen as a situation where violence is perpetrated across ethnic lines, and victims

are chosen based on ethnic group membership (Horowitz, 2000). In the opinion of Dzurgba (2006),

communal violence is that violence that occurs between two or more communities over territorial

land. When communal conflict occurs within a group it is known as intra-communal conflict but when

it occurs between groups it is known as inter-communal conflict. The destructive tendencies of

communal conflicts are such that have largely affected the developmental prospects of an area. The

consequences range from envy, suspicion, jealousy, large scale destruction of lives and properties

with the attendant displacement of many families and communities (Nasarawa State Government

Gazette Nov, 2012). North Central Nigeria is seen by many today as the theatre of communal

conflicts in Nigeria. Nasarawa, Plateau and Benue States have experienced more communal conflict

in recent times in this region than the other states and thus the focal point. The aim of this study is to


110




identify the effect of communal conflicts on rural housing and economic development in the North

central region of Nigeria with a view to suggesting a lasting solution to communal conflicts in the

area. This study aimed at identifying the factors of communal conflicts in the areas; the effects of

communal conflict on rural housing development; the measures used to quell the conflict; and

measures that can be adopted to end communal conflict in the area.

.

History of Communal Conflict in Nigeria

Nigeria gained independence in 1960. Since then she has continued to experience communal violence.

Presently, Nigeria has 36 states which are divided into six geo-political zones namely: North-East,

North-West, North-Central, South-East, South-West and South-South. 19 out of these 36 states are in

Northern Nigeria. The region is characterized in the last sixteen years by ethno-religious and political

conflicts, violent crimes and widespread corruption resulting into socio-economic and political

insecurity and forced internal displacement of population. The reasons for this situation have been

attributed to injustices and inequalities, socio-economic and political imbalances, insensitivity to the

plight of citizens and bad governance (Ladan, 2013).

Northern Nigeria is made up of many ethnic groups and religious communities. It is largely rural and

boasts of such historical urban centres as Sokoto, Kano, Kaduna, Zaria and Maiduguri. These cities

have been famous Islamic education centers for centuries. Islam was introduced into Northern

Nigeria, about 1,000 years ago through the Trans-Saharan-Trade (Uzoatu, 2012). The predominant

ethnic groups of the region are Hausa, Fulani and Kanuri. There are also over 150 smaller ethnic

groups. The religion of the three largest ethnic groups is Islam, while the other smaller ones are either

Christianity or traditional religion. In 1804, a Fulani preacher by name Othman Dan Fodio, carried

out a jihad that resulted in the subjugation of the old Hausa states of northern Nigeria. Having

conquered the Hausas', they merged their language with that of the ruling class to create a Hausa-

Fulani ethnic group under the rulership of what is till today known as the Sokoto Caliphate

(Mohammed 2016). But with British colonization in the early 1900s, the area was sharply divided into

majority and minority groups. This situation was further aggravated by the arrival of substantial

number of Christians from the southern part of the country. However, in order to ensure that the

people owe allegiance to them, they adopted the indirect rule system (Uzoatu, 2012). But the Tiv of

central Nigeria revolted against this perceived domination by the Northern regional government

controlled by Sokoto province. One year later, violence exploded in the western region following the

outcome of the federal elections of 1964 and regional elections when it was perceived that the

Northern People‘s Congress, which was controlling the central government had rigged the elections

for its preferred candidates (Uzoatu, 2012).

Violent conflict, whether riots or fighting between insurrectional groups and the police also occurred

at specific cities. Examples are the cities of Kaduna and Zaria, whose populations were religiously

and ethnically mixed, and the very poor states of the far north east, where anti-establishment groups

emerged. Many factors fueled these conflicts across Nigeria. However, the inability of the state to

assure public order and contribute to implementation of post-conflict peace building measures was a

major factor that drives conflict (African Report No. 168, Dec, 2010). In December 1980, there was

religious conflict in Kano for several weeks as a result of confrontation with the Marwa led Maitatsine

religious sect with the police leaving hundreds dead and spreading to other states (The African Report

N0 168. December, 2010). In May 1999 violence erupted in Kaduna state over the succession of an

Emir. More than one hundred people died and buildings and properties worth millions destroyed. Also

from February to May the year 2000, over 1000 people died in different parts of Kaduna state while

protesting over the introduction of Sharia in the state. Again in the early 2000, another group referred

to as the Taliban who rejected all secular authorities emerged in North-eastern Nigeria. But as their

position was becoming increasingly hardened and therefore unacceptable, the police in the then Borno

state was drafted in to check the situation in 2004. The clash resulted in several deaths and destruction

of properties worth Millions of Naira (Uzoatu, 2012).

Stanislaus Anabaraonye Okeahialam & Mohammed Naguto

111


Communal Conflicts in North Central States of Nigeria The North Central region of Nigeria comprises of Benue, Nasarawa, Plateau, kwara, Niger, and Kogi.

In October 2001, hundreds of ethnic Hausas‘ were killed in inter religious rioting in Jos and thousands

of people displaced in a communal violence that spread across Taraba, Benue, Plateau and Nasarawa

states. Plateau state had the highest number of displaced people as a result of clashes between Muslim

and Christian communities there (Higazi, 2011). The predominantly Christian indigenous famers

considered the minority Muslim Hausa cattle herdsmen as outsiders and accused them of stealing land

and trying to usurp political power. These led to the burning down of over 72 villages between 2002

and 2003. The conflict later spread to the rural areas where the mainly Christian famers have

dominance and clashes were repeatedly recorded with the predominantly Muslim Fulani. Hundreds of

people died in these conflicts consequently forcing thousands of people to flee for their safety and

abandon their homes.

Communal conflict is more prevalent in the North Central Nigeria than any other part of the north.

The conflict has made the region highly unstable, creating high tendencies for security risks and

distorting the opportunities for development of the region. A Strategic Conflict Assessment of Nigeria

with particular reference to the North Central Zone concluded that conflicts in the North Central

region revolve largely around ethnic plurality, religious difference, access to political and traditional

positions of authority, land ownership and the clash of herder/cultivator interests. (Mohammed, 1997;

NOA, 2002 and (IPCR, 2003). Conflicts in this region have some unique characteristics which

differentiate them from the rest of the regions in the country. These unique characteristics are

responsible for the recurring conflicts in the region. These as summarised by NOA, (2002), and

Mohammed, (1997) implies that over 50% of the ethnic groups in Nigeria are found in this zone, and

each of these ethnic groups maintain their cultural values different from that of other ethnic groups in

the region; Christianity, Islam and Traditional African Religion all command considerable influence

on the lives of the people. In other words, there is deep-seated religious and cultural diversity; apart

from rich mineral resources, the zones is also endowed with massive land and grazing activities. This

explains the massive influx of people from other areas to this zone including the herdsmen. In terms

of development, the zone is one of the least developed despite the location of the Federal Capital close

to the zone. The people of this zone are known to be hospitable, accommodating and peaceful.

However, it is worrisome that such a people could suddenly be engaged in frequent violent clashes.

Causes of Communal Conflict

Conflicts usually appear to be caused by one factor: religion or ethnicity, but in reality the cause(s)

can be very complex. Perhaps the most significant cause of communal violence in Nigeria is the

entrenched divisions across the country between people considered indigenous to an area, and those

regarded as settlers or foreigners. In Nigeria, a person‘s status as an indigene has an impact on access

to public services and opportunities (Moti, 2002). A settler might be born where he/she lives but

because his/her ancestor do not originate from that particular area, that person will always be

considered a settler. Settlers may have lived in an area for hundreds of years, they are consistently

discriminated against in terms of land ownership, political opportunities, jobs and education. Most

times, what appears to be an ethnic or religious conflict may on the long run be closely linked to the

indigene-settler divide, or competition for political and economic advantages. In fact, the indigene-

settler divide often coincide with ethnic or religious divisions. In some cases, ethnic conflicts are often

not primarily about ethnicity but as a result of indigene-settler divide. The actors tend to use it to gain

support for their stand in a given dispute, which might in reality be about land and chieftaincy

disputes, access to a wide range of economic and or political resources (Moti, 2002).

Various factors have been identified by scholars as responsible for the rising communal conflict in the

country (Yecho 2006). These causes differ from one area to another and are dynamic. They depend on

the socio-economic and geo-political circumstances at the time. Onwudiwe (2004) listed social

conditions such as population explosion, economic migration, and the anti-poor policies of the

government as triggers of communal friction. Horowitz (1990) and Hembe (2000) stated that causes

Communal Conflicts and Rural Development in North Central Nigeria

112


of communal conflict revolve around politics, politicians and their pursuit of group advantage while

Albert (2001) and Mohammed (2016) stated that reasons for communal conflicts in Nigeria are multi-

faceted and include: indigene/settler problem, religious differences, land ownership dispute,

traditional chieftaincy problem, political authority and conflicts linked to oil Development in the

Niger Delta among many others. Lyam (2006) and Yecho (2006) added loss of soil fertility, soil

erosion, deforestation, bush burning, grazing land, flooding, the quest for and fear of domination by

other groups, market ownership, as other causes. Yecho, (2006) summarised them into economic,

social, political, ecological and colonial factors.

According to Mohammed (2016), land ownership and chieftaincy disputes have been identified as the

major causes of communal conflict. For instance, in Nasarawa state, the Hausa and Tiv people clashed

over land and chieftaincy tussle for eleven (11) years (1995-2005), (Yecho, 2006). On January 13th

2013, the Vanguard Newspaper reported that clashes have torn Nasarawa apart as famers and Fulani

headsmen clash leading to the destruction of lives and properties. This clash caused the natives to flee

from their homes. Some of them later returned home after sometime. In Anambra State, the Aguleri-

Umuleri communities have for decades lived and farmed side by side in enmity and distrust as a result

of land dispute (Ekeh, 1999). In September 1995, the Eggon conflict led to the destruction of public

properties worth millions of Naira including schools, banks, post offices, town halls and even

churches (Ekeh, 1999). On December 2012, the conflict between the Gwari and Fulani nomads at

Gwagwalada in Abuja area produced over 1,500 displaced persons from about 27 settlements. Today,

the most predominant communal conflict in Nigeria is between Fulani headsmen and farmers for

reasons being attributed to dispute over grazing land. The clash is more deadly in Benue and Plateau

states where lives and properties are destroyed almost on daily basis with its consequent displacement

of inhabitants (ancestral land owners and settlers). Suffice it to state that communal conflict is highly

destructive, generates psychological and humanitarian problems and adversely affects the security,

housing and economic development of an area.

Table 1: Some Communal Conflicts in North Central Nigeria. s/n Conflict State Year

1 Egbira-Bassa crisis in Toto Nasarawa 1999 - 2000

2 Migili and Alago in Nasarawa - Eggon Nasarawa 2013 – 2014

3 Gwari and Fulani nomads conflict in Gwagwalada. Abuja 2012

4 Fulani herdsmen and Tiv farmer‘s conlict in Doma. Benue 2011

5 Fulani herdsmen and farmers in Jankwe, Obi, Nasarawa 2013

6 Alago and Eggon people conflict in Lafia. Nasarawa 2012.

7 The Hausa and Tiv clash over land and chieftaincy tussle. Nasarawa 1995 - 2005,

8 Fulani and Idoma communal conflict in Omosu village of Edumoga,

Okpokwu.

Benue 2018

9 Jukun /Fulani communal clash. Taraba 2014 – 2018

10 Fulani/Farmers communal conflict. Plateau 2014 – 2018

11 Fulani/Eggon communal conflict. Nasarawa 2013 – 2016

12 Fulani and Tarok communal clash Plateau 2014 – 2018

13 Fulani/Agatu communal clash Benue 2014 – 2018

14 Fulani and Bokkos communal clash Plateau 2014 – 2018

15 Farmers/Fulani conflict in Guma. Benue 2014 -2018

16 Fulani/Egbe farmers‘ communal conflict. Kogi 2014

17 Fulani and Farmers of Riyon Clashe, Barkin Ladi, Jos, Plateau 2016 – 2018

Source: Field work (2017) and Chukwuma and Ateli (2014).

Effects of Communal Conflicts The following are the effects of communal conflicts as summarised by Chukwuma and Ateli (2014).

Humanitarian Effects: Communal conflicts have led to loss of lives and properties, population

displacements, human injury and livelihood crisis. Psychological Effects: Communal conflicts have

resulted in an atmosphere of mental siege and terror among the populace in a way that threatens

public peace and tranquility.


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Social Effects: Communal conflicts have also led to a tensed up, envious and volatile inter-group

relations amongst the various people involved. This manifests in mutual mistrust and animosity

which are often misplaced. The pastoralists see the settled farmers as enemies of their collective

survival and destiny, and vice versa. This creates an ambience of mutual suspicion and perpetual

tension that threatens peaceful coexistence, security and stability of society.

Economic Effects: The economic impact of communal conflicts can be seen in terms of losses

associated with destruction of homes, household properties and community assets. All these damages

when translated into real and quantifiable terms amounts to billions of material losses.

Socio-economic Effects: The socio-economic impacts of the conflicts are evident in the level of

rural impoverishment and destitution in the environment. The violence associated with the conflicts

has tended to exacerbate homelessness, hunger and human insecurity. This does not augur well for

sustainable socio-economic development of the nation. Generally, the conflicts have resulted in untold

hardships that impede sustainable development and societal peace.

Methodology:

The study was conducted in Plateau, Nasarawa and Benue states of the North Central Region. These

three states lie in Nigeria‘s Middle Belt region that separates the predominantly Muslim North from

the largely Christian South (Figures 1 and 2)

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria Showing the North Central Region

Source: Federal Ministry of Information, Abuja. (2018).


114


Figure 2: Map of North Central Nigeria showing the study area.

Source: Federal Ministry of Information, Abuja. (2018).

These are the states that have experienced many communal conflicts in recent times. Three local

governments were selected from each of the three states for the study. They are: Agatu, Guma and

Logo for Benue state; Obi, Nasarawa-Eggon and Toto for Nasarawa state and Bassa, Bokkos and

Wase for Plateau state. The population of study is the population of the local governments. However,

Projecting from 2006 national population census using an annual growth rate of 3.04%, 3.05% and

2.94% for Benue, Nasarawa and Plateau states respectively, their population in 2018 are as follows:

Agatu, 165,583; Guma 278120; Logo 242,892; Obi, 213,616; Nasarawa-Eggon, 212,812; Toto,

170,719; Bassa, 268,771; Bokkos, 254,206 and Wase, 226331. Sources of data were through

questionnaire, interviews and direct observation. Relevant information from text books, government

bulletins, newspapers and the internet were also utilised. The sample population constitutes the

following in each local government; Traditional Rulers and Community Leaders; Security agents (The

Police, Civil Defence Corps, State Security Service); Government Officials; Farmers/Land Owners;

Religious Leaders; and Herdsmen.

Multistage sampling technique was used for the study. The simple random sampling technique was

used to select three out of the six states in the region and three local governments from each of the

three states chosen. Then, the purposive sampling technique was used to select the sample population.

The sample size was calculated using the Cronbach Alpha formular: n=z2pq/d. Applying this formular

a sample size n of 422 was arrived at after an addition of 10% attrition. Then 422 questionnaires were

proportionally distributed to the sample population in each of the local governments using the simple

random sampling technique. However, data from the herdsmen were collected through interview

conducted on their leaders. The total number of questionnaire retrieved was 2715. The research design

adopted was the descriptive cross sectional. The collected data was analysed using frequency

distribution tables

Data Presentation and Interpretation

Table 2 shows that 21.1% of the respondents linked communal conflicts to religious differences.

However, 553 respondents representing 20.4% associated communal conflicts with ethnicity while

grazing land (19%), land ownership problem (13%), indigene/settler problem (11.7%), chieftaincy

disputes (11.4%) were significantly relevant factors for communal conflicts. This presentation makes

for an understanding that all the stated options are reasons for communal conflicts in the region, with

religious difference, ethnicity and grazing land ranking first, second and third as the major reasons.


115


Table 2: Factors of Communal Conflicts.

Factors Frequency Percentage

Religious Difference 574 21.1

Ethnicity 553 20.4

Land Ownership Problem 353 13

Indigene/Settler Problem 317 11.7

Grazing Land 516 19

Chieftaincy Disputes 309 11.4

Others 93 3.4

Total 2715 100

Source: Field Survey 2017

Table 3: Effects of Communal Conflicts on Rural Housing Development in the Study Area

Effect Total number Percentage

Destruction of lives and properties 2688 20.27

Homelessness 2644 19.94

Sickness 667 5.03

Psychological imbalance 2283 17.22

Loss of land 2517 18.98

Poverty 2460 18.56

Total 13259 100.00


Table 3 shows that 20.27% of the respondents gave destruction of lives and properties and

homelessness respectively as the effect of communal conflicts on rural development in the region. A

total of 2644 respondents representing 19.94% identified homelessness as the outstanding effect of

communal conflicts while 17.22% maintained that communal conflicts is portent to cause

psychological imbalance. Therefore it is generally concluded that all the above-mentioned options are

effects of communal conflicts on rural housing development in the region with destruction of lives

and properties and homelessness ranking highest. In this regard, indigenous and other investors in

land and properties will feel highly insecure to invest in the region. This will eventually lead to

shortage of accommodation and poor economic development

Table 4: Effects of Communal Conflicts on Rural Housing Development in the sampled States of Study Area

State Local

Governments

Destruction of lives

and properties

Psychological

imbalance

Homelessness Sickness Loss of

land

Poverty

Benue

Agatu 407

(15%)

317

(13.9%)

403

(15%)

101

(15.1%)

323

(12.8%)

349

(14.2%)

Guma 318

(12%)

260

(11.4%)

321

(12%)

71

(10.6%)

265

(10.5)

321

(13%)

Logo 301

(11.2%)

222

(9.7%)

305

(13.5%)

89

(13.3%)

215

(8.5%)

314

(12.8%)

Nasarawa

Obi 319

(10%)

303

(13.2%)

296

(11%)

81

(12%)

352

(14%)

265

(10.8%)

Nasarawa/Eggon 273

(10%)

225

(10%)

231

(8.7%)

53

(8%)

332

(13.1%)

233

(9.5%)

Toto 248

(9%)

195

(8.5%)

247

(9%)

54 (8.1%) 329

(13.1%)

217

(8.8%)

Plateau

Bassa 281

(10%)

238

(10.4%)

311

(11%)

102

(15.3%)

239

(9%)

233

(9.5%)

Bokos 238

(9%)

266

(11.7%)

271

(10%)

81

(12%)

245

(10%)

227

(9.2%)

Wase 303

(11.3%)

257

(11.2%)

259

(9.8%)

35 (5.2%) 217

(9%)

301

(12.2%)

Total 2688

(100%)

2283

(100%)

2644

(100%)

667

(100%)

2517

(100%)

2460

(100%)



116


Table 4 revealed that in Benue state, destruction of lives and properties is highest in Agatu local

government followed by Homelessness. In Nasarawa state, loss of land is highest in Obi local

government followed by destruction of lives and properties. Same is applicable to Nasarawa-Eggon.

In Plateau State, homelessness is highest in Bassa and Bokos local governments while destruction of

lives and properties is highest in Wase local government. However on the whole, destruction of lives

and properties ranks highest, followed by homelessness and loss of land while sickness ranks least.

This explains why it became imperative to establish Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) centers.


Findings from Table 2 show that communal conflicts in the area are as a result of religious difference,

ethnic difference, land Ownership problem, indigene /settler problem, grazing land dispute,

chieftaincy disputes and other reasons such as governments inability to take decisive action when

communal conflicts occur and politics. All these factors are in line with the findings of Horowitz

(1990), Albert (2001), Hembe (2000) Moti, (2002), Yecho (2006), and Mohammed (2016). The

research further revealed that these factors do not stand out distinctly but rather act in a combination

of several factors. The trend today is the attack by Fulani herdsmen on other ethnic groups. Some

community leaders of the middle belt have attributed these attacks as an ethnic war aimed at

conquering the middle belt: the gate way to the southern part of the country and then proceed to

conquer the south (The Leader Newspaper, April 29, 2018). They use lethal weapons to attack; killing

adults and children, and damaging and burning down properties. In fact, they carry most of these

weapons openly (See plates 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Plate 1: A Fulani Herdsman carrying his Gun instead of the usual Stick.

Source: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2018/01/look-bala-usmans-analysis-communal-

conflicts-nigeria-3/


117


Plate 2: Violent communal clash in Nasarawa state. Source: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2018/01/look-bala-usmans-analysis-communal-conflicts-nigeria-3/

Plate 3: Houses burnt down during a communal clash in Nasarawa.

Source: Mohammed 2016.


118

https://www.vanguardngr.com/2018/01/look-bala-usmans-analysis-communal-conflicts-nigeria-3/


Plate 4: Houses burnt down during a communal clash in Nasarawa.

Source: Mohammed 2016

No one is spared even the religious and at times security personnel. For example, two Reverend

Fathers were killed while celebrating mass and their churches destroyed in Benue state. As a result of

these killings, those who manage to escape death eventually run to other places not yet attacked for

their safety. There are strong suspicions that the attacks are being sponsored by some powerful people

in our society going by the trend by which these attacks are being carried out without any appreciable

effort by the government to put a stop to it. The government in order to shelter these displaced people

who have become homeless has provided camps for Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps (Plate

5). There are many IDP camps already created in North central Nigeria such as Mbalom in Benue

state, Daffo in Plateau state and Keana in Nasarawa state.

Plate 5: Displaced People queuing up for relief in one of the IDP Centres

Source: Pulse Local News Agency of 07.01.2018 as reported by NAN.


119


According to the Nation Newspaper of 27th March 2018, close to 50 villages have been lost (existing

now only in names) in Taraba state as the indigenous population have abandoned their homes to take

refuge elsewhere. Serious as the situation is, the government has not taken it as a serious national

issue as there are no concrete steps to address it. Some of the reports of investigative panel of

some of these conflicts have not been made public and neither has any action taken against some

people implicated in the report That is why some well-meaning Nigerians such as major General T.Y.

Danjuma (Rtd) have called on all Nigerians not to wait for the government for protection when they

are attacked but to rise up and defend themselves (The Nation Newspaper of 27th March 2018).

The study also confirms that communal conflict has adversely affected rural housing and economic

development in the areas (Tables 3 and 4). The conflicts have led to loss of lives and properties,

thereby rendering the people landless, homeless/refugees in their own land. Most people in the

affected communities now live in make shift accommodation/houses or moved to IDP centers. The

health and psychological implications this situation has created in the lives of the affected people is

better imagined. This being the situation, the indigenes are no longer courageous to rebuild their

houses but prefer to desert their homes for their safety while investors are scared of investing in the

areas. The people of the areas not yet attacked are living in fear and some of them have even deserted

their areas in advance because their own attack could come at any time. In fact, there is an uneasy

calm in the whole region.

In communities not yet attacked, local militia groups have been raised to face any conflict situation

and that is what has brought them some respite. The reason for this is because dialogue has not

worked and neither has the presence of security personnel brought any peace (Plates 6 and 7).

According to the respondents, the presence of the security personnel give the herdsmen confidence to

unleash more and more harm as their attacks are more serious with the presence of the, Army and

Police who do not resist them or offer encouraging protection to the people. That is why there are

wide speculations that the security personnel could be collaborating with the herdsmen in this regard.

Plate 6: Some Policemen sent to restore order in a conflict community in Plateau State.

Source: Vanguard Newspaper of October 16, 2017


120


Plate 7: Soldiers deployed to restore peace in Nasarawa state during one of the crisis. Source: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/01/communal-clashes-tear-nasarawa-apart/


From the findings of the research, it is concluded that communal conflict has adversely affected rural

housing and economic development in the area. The cause of the conflict in this region is more of

ethno-religious than other causes. Lives have been lost, houses and properties worth billions of Naira

destroyed, many people have been displaced, rendered homeless and made refugees in their own

lands. In fact the trauma people in these communities pass through leaves much to be desired.

Unfortunately, the government whose function is to ensure adequate security of her citizens has not

taken any serious and decisive step to put a stop to it. This is likely going to affect investments

decisions in the region as many investors will be scared investing in the area due to the state of

insecurity in the region. The study recommends that anybody implicated as masterminding the crisis

should be exposed and made to face the full weight of the law. Government should make more

grazing land available in the states within the Fulani ethnic extraction where nomadic agriculture is

predominant. The government should establish a Communal Conflict Management Agency in every

state in Nigeria specifically concerned with matters of communal conflict prevention, management

and resolution. Again, nomadic education programme of the country should be taken more serious so

as to give proper education to the nomadic fulanis. Finally, government should take prompt and

decisive action to stop any act of communal violence in any part of the country not minding the ethnic

group concerned.

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and Consequences,‖ in Nigerian Journal of Policy and Strategy. 12 (1&2).

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Development. Nigeria. University of Abuja.

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Community of Oju LGA in Benue State. In Gyuse T.T. and Ajene, O.(eds) Conflicts in the Benue

Valley. Makurdi: Benue State University Press.

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perspective/#sthash.yfVTsc7n.dpuf

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http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/08/conflicts-in-northern-nigeria-13-years-of-civil-rule-in-perspective/#sthash.yfVTsc7n.dpuf


THE EFFECTS OF BUILDING PROJECTS ABANDONMENT IN THE FEDERAL

CAPITAL TERRITORY, ABUJA-NIGERIA

AbdulAzeez, A. D.1

, Dada, A. S.2, Umar, B.

3 and Oyeleke, F. M.

4

1,2,3& 4Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Nigeria

[email protected]

Abstract

The prevalent and incessant abandonment of building projects is alarming with enormous negative effects on

real property values, property owners, residents, the built environment and the economy as a whole. However,

the abandonment of public building projects by the governments is an urgent problem within the building

industry that needs to be addressed. The aim of the study is to appraise the effects of building projects

abandonment. The study identified and assessed the effects of building projects abandonment. A structured

questionnaire was designed and administered to the in-house consultants of the F.C.D.A because they act as

consultants on behalf of the government. Data was analysed using Charts, Tables, Means, Percentages and

Relative Importance Index (RII). The study found out that cost overrun is the most significant effect of

abandonment of public building projects with a RII of value of 0.81 as the initial cost of the project becomes

greater than the final cost of the execution of the building projects if the contract is to be re-awarded. The study

recommends that the government should set up a project team to carry out a research on the actual needs of the

people before embarking on any projects.

Keywords: Effects, Building Projects, Abandonment, Abuja, Nigeria

Introduction

Building projects, a component of infrastructure development, are key drivers of economic growth of

a country. Governments globally thus invest heavily in this sector. Building construction projects

must be made to succeed because its execution and activities often involve substantial funds, the loss

through failure or abandonment has a negative effect on the capabilities of the investors, the financiers

and for the fact that scarce resources are tied down for a long time as opportunity cost for its

alternative uses. The number of abandoned buildings in Baltimore in 2001 is between 12,700 and 42,

480. Between 1996 and 2001 Detroit, Michigan demolished 18,200 condemned buildings with an

estimated 10,000 substandard structures still remaining. Razed buildings were estimated to be more

than 20% of urban structures in Houston, Texas and more than 12% in Las Vegas, Nevada (Mallach,

2004). Mohd (1989) argues that the housing industry has a multiplier effect that influences the growth

of the economy. For instance, this industry provides new occupation, increases the gross domestic

product, the existence of new housing areas and the existence of supporting industries that are

indirectly related to the construction industry. Nevertheless, the existence of abandoned housing

developments is another phenomenon in the Malaysian housing industry. It has become a serious

problem and is considered as one of the national problems, since it involves a high number of housing

projects and homebuyers. Indeed, housing abandonment has caused a waste of money for reviving

processes and the waste of resources: land and human resources. A high incidence of landed property

abandonment has been observed the world over (Mallach, 2004). Forth- Worth Environmental

Management Department in the United States has currently identified over 3,250 abandoned buildings

in the city. Also according to a report by Stanley (2014), about 437 uncompleted and abandoned

buildings in Abuja had so far been captured. Based on these facts, the continuous abandonment of

building projects by the government has negative effects on human and the environments. It therefore

justifies the need to examine the effects of public building projects abandonment. Literature Review

It is useful to offer a precise definition of the concept of housing abandonment for this study. This is

because the definition and the concept of housing abandonment might be different from one country

to the other. Dahlan (2001) states that the abandoned housing project in the court case of Syarikat

Faber Merlin Sdn.Bhd referred to a project in which some money had been spent and the physical

work had been stopped. However, if the amount of money which has been spent on that project is

small, i.e. less than 10 percent of the total project cost, and the construction work has stopped, it is not


124


considered as an abandoned project. He further contends that the definition of abandoned housing

projects was derived from the project management perspective. Dahlan (2001) argues that different

parties in housing development can define abandoned projects differently: for instance, either the

receiver in the case where the developer company has been winding up defined the abandoned project

as the project which had to be stopped owing to financial problems, or the developer of that project

has disappeared. He further contends that, from the planning point of view, the term ‗abandoned

project‘ refers to a project in which the construction work has been postponed, even though planning

permission has been granted to the developer. For example, in the United Kingdom, housing

abandonment refers to the existence of housing projects which have been completed, and is related to

low demand for housing that is usually more to do with second-hand stock (Lowe et al., 1998)

The definition of abandoned projects by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government (MHLG) in

Malaysia was more detailed and comprehensive. The MHLG has two definitions: one for 1990 and

one for the year after 1990 (Rahmat, 1994). The definition of housing abandonment in 1991 was as

follows:

i. Any housing scheme where activities at the construction site have been stopped for more than

1 year after the expiration of the scheduled completion period (24 months – according to the

Sales and Purchase Agreement signed by the developer and buyer).

ii. If the developer has collected 10 percent payment from the buyer, and the Sales and Purchase

Agreement has been signed, but the developer has not carried out any activity at the

construction site after a lapse of one year from the date of signing of Sales and Purchase

Agreement (S&P)

iii. However, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government defined the term ‗abandoned

housing project‘ differently as follows, before the year 1990; as any housing scheme where

activities at the construction site have been stopped for 6 months or more and it is

continuously within or after the expiration of the scheduled completion period (24 months –

according to the Sales and Purchase Agreement signed by the developer and buyer)

iv. The developers are not capable of continuing the projects

From the above definitions of abandoned projects in Malaysia, it can be concluded that the term

‗abandoned housing project‘ refers to a housing project which is incomplete and the construction

work has stopped. Hanachor (2012) opines in his works that a project is termed abandoned when

some of the physical features are seen wearing out and becoming out of use, such that it will attract

cost of replacement. Physical development projects in Nigeria (e.g. building projects) are not only the

means of making life more meaningful for members of a community; they also results to

empowerment, wakening of grass root organization and collective action toward self-improvement. In

this study, a project is confirmed abandoned when the time lag between suspension and resumption is

so much to attract loss and weakening of materials.

According to the Ministry of Housing (MHLG), the abandoned housing projects can be classified into

four categories as follows: Projects which are still abandoned; Projects which have been revived;

Projects taken over by another developer; and Projects with no chance of revival. According to

Tamonu and Otto (2000), there are two time lags, the short-term and long-term. The short-term

projects are between 1-2years; long-term projects are between 3-5 years.

Effects of Building Projects Abandonment

Vacant and abandoned houses have been a problem in urban areas for years. These problems, to some

degree, are the result of well-intended governmental policies that encouraged an emigration of

middle-class people and families to the suburbs after World War II. The encouragement came in the

form of the Federal Housing Administration, Veterans Housing Administration, new interstate

highways, and turning a blind eye to redlining (Bluestone et al., 2008; Rooney, 1995). Other

governmental policies that have contributed to the vacant and abandoned housing problem include

state and local laws regarding wills, land surveys, property descriptions, property assessment, and

foreclosure on tax delinquent properties that can make transferring the ownership of property difficult

(Bright, 1995). The various taxes and fees associated with owning and transferring property can be so

AbdulAzeez, A. D. , Dada, A. S., Umar, B. and Oyeleke, F. M.

125


onerous that some property owners decide that giving up ownership of the property is the best option

(Accordino and Johnson, 2000).

Many cities in the United States experienced a renaissance in the 1990s and saw growth in their

populations and tax bases. However, 55 percent of all large cities in the United States saw no growth,

or even lost population (Schamess, 2006). As populations in urban areas decline and surplus housing

appears, a fairly routine sequence of events has taken place according to Salins (1980): first,

nonessential repairs on houses stop; second, mortgage payments stop; and third, property tax

payments stop and ownership of the property is lost. This results to abandonment. The problem of

vacant and abandoned houses has been exacerbated by the struggles in the housing market late in the

first decade of the 2000s. Fortunately, the effects of vacant and abandoned houses have been the focus

of much research, but the field still is in its infancy. The research and highly-profiled programs show

that urban areas are wise to deal with vacant and abandoned houses. Burchell and Listokin (1981)

pointed out that abandonment indicates migration, loss of jobs, poverty, and a loss of revenue for

municipalities. These are negative externalities that can feed on themselves and result in a perpetual

decline of urban areas (Kraut, 1999). As early as 1973, the United States Department of Housing and

Urban Development (HUD) concluded that when three to six percent of the structures in a

neighbourhood are abandoned, the neighbourhood will have hit the tipping point for heading into

decline (Andrew, 2010). Many cities have undertaken major redevelopment and revitalization projects

to slow and reverse the decline of neighbourhoods; however, if they do not address the problem of

vacant and abandoned houses, they may just be wasting ever-increasingly scarce resources on these

big projects (Accordino and Johnson, 2000).

Unfortunately, along with depressing the value of properties, vacancies and abandonments can cause

other vacancies and abandonments. Vacant and abandoned houses can create an environment that

lowers confidence, discourages investment, and actually encourages homeowners to leave the

neighbourhood (Immergluck, 2006). Several studies have found that higher foreclosure rates are

associated with higher vacancy rates and contribute to the problem (Baxter and Lauria, 2000). Andy

(2007) also identified resource overruns, schedule overruns as well as cost overruns due to re-

awarding of the contract. This problem of landed property abandonment can be more ingrained in less

developed countries like Nigeria. Buildings will inevitably deteriorate and may subsequently be

abandoned as they age unless they are properly maintained. Besides, changes in technological and

commerce trend may edge out some structures; making them obsolete and prone to abandonment. The

case in the cities studied is not different. Obsolete structures and infrastructures are very much part of

the core city‘s landscape. Spurred by the family traditional and communal land tenure system, the old

buildings remain where they are as a rule either boarded or not; and not just anyone could put them

into use without general consensus of the family. This factor alone is capable of inducing

abandonment.

The political will and influence is on the decline and this probably account for the out migration of the

indigenous population. The sites are replete with unhealthy pollution activities especially within the

area where toilet and waste disposal facilities are inadequate or non-existent. This may be why the

prevalent health problems in the city are diarrhoea, typhoid fever and other filth related health

problem. Such sites are also vagrant‘s delight, miscreants convenient abode and the den where

criminals plan, conclude or perpetrate nefarious acts in the neighbourhood. For instance, the presence

of abandoned structures has been observed to encourage arson and other crimes, waste dump, and

property value decline where they exist (Adedibu and Akindele, 2007). Drawing from Akindele

(2013) who pointed out that a major dangerous or hot point in Abuja Nigeria are mostly those areas

where development is not complete, where there are shanty developments and unused buildings are

the settlement of miscreants. This confirms two things. First that abandoned structures are associated

with crime and second that the incidence of abandoned structures occurs even in the fastest growing

cities of the world.

Building projects in communities results to changes in the face look of a community. The true

objective of the execution of building projects is to bring about a positive change in the community,

empowering the individuals, economically and socially. Any change which takes place, for whatever

The Effects of Building Projects Abandonment in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja- Nigeria

126


reason, in one aspect, is likely to lead to a further change in other aspects. When building projects are

abandoned, the members of the community are automatically robed of the expected changes and

consequently leave them worse than they were before the project. Therefore, when building projects

are abandoned, the effect is felt by the individuals in the community, the community and the

government. The common effects of building projects abandonment as identified by Adesina (2010)

are disappointment of the populace, lowering of living standard, wastage/underutilization, reduction

of employment opportunities, decrease in the tempo of economic activities, decrease in revenue

accruing to government and difficulties in attracting foreign loans. Abandoned building projects site

have been targeted as a place where most criminal and illegal activities are carried out, thereby

endangering the life of the citizens. Another important effect of abandonment is the declining of the

property values and also the declining of the property conditions.


The research work adopts qualitative approach to evaluate the effects of building projects

abandonment. The study specifically identified and also examined several variables (19 variables) that

are impacted adversely by building projects abandonment using 5 point likert scale (1 = Strongly

Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree). The population of the study consisted of

consultants of the identified abandoned building projects which are made up of in-house consultants

at the Public building department (Federal Capital Development Authority) and they include the

Architects, Builders, Quantity surveyors, and Engineers (Mechanical, Electrical and Structural). It

was gathered that the total population of the in-house consultants consisted of 106 consultants.

The study used stratified random sampling. This was adopted so as to enable the in-house consultants

that are practically involved in each of the identified abandoned building projects to be selected. The

minimum statistically acceptable sample size was determined by employing the Kish formula to

justify the responsive sample size of the survey. According to Agbodjah (2008), Kish formula states

that:

n = M

1+ M

N __________________________________________ (eq. 1)

Where N = Total population, n = Sample Size

M = S2

V2 ________________________________________________ (eq.2)

Where V is the standard error of the sampling distribution and

S is the maximum standard deviation of the population element

S2 = P x (1 −P) _________________________________________ (eq. 3)

P is the proportion of population elements belonging to the defined class.

Using a total error of 0.1 at 95% confidence interval,

V is 0.05 and P is 0.5; S2 = 0.5 X (1 − 0.5) = 0.25

M = 0.25

(0.05) 2

Hence M = 100;

n = M ; N = 51

1+ M

N

Adding 10% of 51 for non-responsiveness, sample frame = 51 x 1.1 = 56

Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Data analysis was achieved

using descriptive analysis. Charts, Tables, Means, Percentages and Relative Importance Index

(RII) were used to express the statistical results to achieve the objective of the research.

Relative Importance Index was used in this study to rank the environmental factors that lead

to abandonment of building projects.


127


Relative Importance Index (RII) ----------------------------- ------------4

Where,

∑fx = is the total weight given to each attributes by the respondents.

∑f = is the total number or respondents in the sample; K = is the highest weight on the Likert scale.

Ranking of the items under consideration was based on their RII values. The item with the highest RII

value is ranked first (1) the next (2) and so on. The guide for the rating is given in Table 1

Table 1: Guide to Degree of Significance

Degree of significance Rating

Very significant

Significant

Fairly significant

Not significant

0.76 above

0.67-0.75

0.45-0.66

0.44 below

Source: Vanduhe (2012)


The aim of this research work was to assess the effects of abandonment of building projects in the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The questionnaires were administered to the respondents that

included consultants such as Architects, Builders, Quantity Surveyors and Engineers (structural,

electrical and mechanical). Not all the questionnaires administered were returned, forty-two (42)

questionnaires directed to the in-house consultants of the F.C.D.A were returned making a percentage

of seventy-five (75%). According to the assertion of Moser and Kalton (1971), the result of a survey

could be considered significant if the response rate is not lower than 30-40%. Therefore, the

percentage of the returned questionnaires is adequate for analysis.

From Figure 1, Architects and Quantity surveyors had the highest percentage with equal percentage of

31 followed by the Engineers with a percentage of 21 while builders had the lowest percentage of 17.

Therefore, it can be inferred that most of the respondents are Architects and Quantity Surveyors

thereby allowing accurate and unbiased data to be collected from the professionals within the

construction industry.

Figure 1: Profession of Respondents

Source: Field Survey, 2015

In terms of years of experience, figure 2 shows that majority of the respondents have

experience of more than 15 years representing about 28.6%, followed by 0-5 years with a

percentage of 26.2 while 10-15 and 5-10 years of experience have 23.8% and 21.4%

respectively. Therefore, the respondents can be said to have adequate knowledge and

experience.


128


Figure 2: Years of Experience of the Professional


The academic qualifications of the respondents is shown in Figure 3 out of which Master‘s

degree holders had the highest percentage of 28.6 while the other categories of academic

qualifications reflected thus; HND (26.2%), First degree (23.8%), OND (21.4%) and none of

the respondent had a Doctorate degree. This further supports the fact that the respondents are

knowledgeable and capable of providing the much desired professional and judgemental

opinion required for achieving the aim of this research.

Figure 3: Level of Qualification


Table 2 shows the ranking of the effects of building projects abandonment. Cost overruns and

Reduction of employment opportunities ranked first and second among the effects of abandonment of

building projects and they both obtained a RII of ᵡ 0.76 and considered very significant effects.

Decrease in the tempo of economic activities, Resource overruns, lowering of living standard,

Wastage/underutilization, Schedule overruns, declining of the property values, Decrease in revenue

accruing to government, Structural failure (collapse of building), Menace to the beauty of the


129


environment, declining of the property condition and Criminal hideout fall within the range of

0.67≤RII≤0.75 and are all considered significant effects. Disappointment of the populace, Difficulties

in attracting foreign loans, discourage investment, Pollution of the environment, Migration and Health

problems fall within the range of 0.45≤RII≤0.66 and are all considered fairly significant effects. With

these results, it can be inferred that Cost overruns is the most significant effect of building projects

abandonment followed by Reduction of employment opportunities and the other effects identified in

the table 2 in the order of their respective significance. Therefore, the government will end up re-

awarding the contract at even higher value than the initial cost of the project thereby causing wastage

of public funds involved in initiating such projects.

Table 2: Ranking of the Effects of Building Projects Abandonment ________________________________________________________________________

S/N Effects Frequency of response

1 2 3 4 5 ∑f ∑fx Mean RII Position

1. Disappointment of the

populace 4 9 11 10 8 42 135 3.21 0.64 14th

2. Lowering of living standard 4 4 7 16 11 42 152 3.62 0.72 5 th

3 Wastage/underutilization 6 6 0 17 13 42 151 3.60 0.72 5th

4 Reduction of employment

Opportunities 0 6 8 14 14 42 162 3.86 0.77 2nd

5 Decrease in the tempo of

economic activities 0 7 11 12 12 42 155 3.69 0.74 3 rd

6 Decrease in revenue

Accruing to government 0 11 8 14 9 42 147 3.50 0.70 9th

7 Difficulties in attracting

Foreign loans 5 9 9 11 8 42 134 3.19 0.64 14th

8 Resource overruns 0 6 10 16 10 42 156 3.71 0.74 3rd

9 Schedule overruns 3 4 9 17 9 42 151 3.60 0.72 5th

10 Cost overruns 0 0 12 15 15 42 171 4.07 0.81 1st

11 Structural failure

(collapse of building) 4 5 9 15 9 42 146 3.48 0.70 9 th

12 Declining of the property

Values 2 8 8 12 12 42 150 3.57 0.71 8th

13 Declining of the property

condition 8 4 4 16 10 42 142 3.38 0.68 12 th

14 Criminal hideout 8 7 0 14 13 42 143 3.40 0.68 12th

15 Menace to the beauty of

the environment 4 8 5 14 11 42 146 3.48 0.70 9th

16 Discourage investment 7 6 8 16 5 42 132 3.14 0.63 16th

17 Migration 9 10 14 9 0 42 107 2.55 0.51 18th

18 Pollution of the

environment 9 8 11 14 0 42 114 2.71 0.54 17th

19 Health problems 7 14 11 10 0 42 108 2.57 0.51 18th

__________________________________________________________________________________________

(1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree)

Source: Field Survey, (2015)


130



The study concluded that cost overruns ranked the first among the effects of abandonment of building

projects as the final cost of the building projects is greater than the initial cost of the project as a result

of the non-completion of the building projects at the exact completion date. Another important effect

is the increase in the rate of unemployment in the country as a result of the abandonment of the

building projects. The study recommends that there must be a proper coordination and collaborative

effort between the government, consultant and contractors. It also recommends that the government

should set up a project team to carry out a research on the actual needs of the people before embarking

on any projects.

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Osogbo: A Planner‘s perspective. Journal of Nigerian Institute of Town Planners 20 (1), 201-202.

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effects. Journal of Education and Practice, 3(6), 33-36.

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132


PERFORMANCE OF RECREATIONAL FACILITIES IN THE UNIVERSITY

OF UYO STAFF CLUB

Usen P. Udoh1, Jacob Atser

2 & Boma Peterside

3

1 & 3Department of Architecture, University of Uyo, P.M.B.1019, Uyo, Nigeria

2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Nigeria

Tel:+234 (0) 8035490104; [email protected]

Abstract

The study examined three key issues of availability, functionality and adequacy of recreational facilities at the

University of Uyo Staff Club. Physical assessment with the aid of a checklist was used to collect data on the

availability, functionality and adequacy of recreational facilities at the club. Using structured questionnaire,

data was collected from members of the club based on convenience sampling. Data was analysed using

descriptive statistics. The findings showed that majority of critical structures/facilities were either non-existent,

dysfunctional or inadequate - a situation that diminished the satisfaction level of users of the facilities.

Furthermore, findings showed that poor maintenance, improper spatial planning, poor layout design and

inadequate design elements were the major impediments to the performance of the club. The study justified the

need for architects and other players in the built environment to focus on creating user-centred designs

especially for recreational facilities in order to enhance their performance.

Keywords: Performance; Recreational facilities; University of Uyo, Staff Club.

Introduction

Recreational facilities are part of the critical structures necessary to drive productivity in a University

system. However, the provision of a user-friendly recreational facility requires baseline knowledge of

users‘ expectation and knowledge of such a structure. According to Kaplan (1980), the fundamental

purpose of recreation is to provide people with opportunity to recreate and relax so that they may

efficiently return to activities which are not recreation but economically gainful. Like culture and art,

recreation, leisure and sports activities play an important role in communities. Their many benefits

include improving the health and well-being of individuals, contributing to the empowerment of

individuals and promoting the development of inclusive communities. A recreation facility's main

purpose should therefore be the provision of opportunities for active living and recreation in a safe,

inclusive environment.

The service of recreation can be enhanced or achieved through use of the concept of spatial planning

which embraces not only a regulatory posture but a promotional one that supports businesses and

developers to deliver economic development as well as the livelihoods of individuals and households

by removing unnecessary regulations, prohibitions and costs. The concept emphasizes the need to

think and act within and across spaces, thereby ensuring effective integration of polices between

spatial scales and across different institutions in the public policy arena. Spatial planning also refers to

the methods and approaches used by the public and private sector to influence the distribution of

people and activities in spaces of local, regional, national and international scales. It implies not only

an evolving ethics of planning but also a shift in the culture of planning practice. Spatial planning is

comprehensive in nature and emphasizes the need for policy integration, co-ordination and

collaboration among multiple actors (Heerwagen, 2004).

According to Arubaysand Aruoren (2015), many universities recognize the importance of their human

resources and affirm that optimum productivity is however tied to organisations that function as a

team. Nigerian higher institutions are characterized by long and tedious working hours often

associated with research and community development and some University staff has problems

maintaining a work life balance in spite of presence of clubs and recreational facilities. Some authors

have attributed the low participation of University staff in recreation activities to the low performance

of recreational facilities (Ihenacho and Ikpeme, 2013; Akinsola et al., 2012; and Babatope, 2010).

Studies have shown that recreation exercises can reduce stress and lower blood pressure (Maller,

2006). However, the achievement of these advantages are largely dependent on the design and

development of a standard recreation facility (Welch and Johnston, 2010). It is important to note also

that recreation can offer direct and immediate satisfaction and happiness, enhance organic balance and


133



wholesome personality, feelings of mastery, achievement, exhilaration and acceptance (Jaten and

Drive, 1998). At the University of Uyo, the University staff club was designed as a recreational

facility to encourage staff participation in outdoor and indoor recreational activities. However, this

arrangement seems to have failed to generate desired result considering the low staff participation and

utilization of the club. Some authors believe that University staff apathy to recreation are largely

attributed to the condition of recreational facilities provided in the institutions (Babatope, 2010;

Akinsola, 2012; Ihenacho and Ikpeme, 2013). The above observation re-echoes the need to examine

the aesthetic and architectural foundation of recreational facilities available to University staff in

Nigerian Universities. Essentially, therefore, the present study was designed to assess the adequacy of

structural components of facilities in University of Uyo staff club; evaluate the performance of the

recreational facilities based on users‘ satisfaction; and identify and examine factors that influence the

performance of the recreational facility.

Literature Review

Studies have shown that spatial, structural and design elements‘ consideration is critical regarding the

design of a recreational facility that is billed/made for users‘ satisfaction (Shane 2011). In the same

vein, Sport England (2004) observed that spatial planning remains the most critical aspect in the

design of sustainable recreation facility. The Agency identified six themes that are critical for

increased participation in recreation and enhanced facility performance to include environmental

sustainability; community safety; health improvements; local economic viability; improved quality of

life and well-being; and the raising of standards in schools (Sport England, 2004).

Cowan (2002) maintained that the design for sports and recreational facilities should recognize best

practice in respect of energy efficiency, the use of appropriate construction material and opportunities

for minimising travel distances for users. Studies by Manali (2012) also showed that a well-designed

recreational facility should allow for convenient use of all means of transportation with clearly

identifiable entrances and building accessibility which encourages both existing and new facility users

to easily understand building organisation for easy and safe movement through the facility. According

to Cube (2014), properly done design of recreational facility should possess a good functional fit with

specific technical requirements of the particular sports use and comfort derivable from daylight in

internal spaces. Similarly, applying sound spatial principles in the design of public facilities can

enhance safety and security with highlights such as clear definition of boundaries to prevent

unauthorized vehicle access; fencing and landscaping to allow for natural surveillance; appropriate

lighting to facilitate natural surveillance at night; and no structures or landscape feature to

compromise boundary security by providing climbing over points (Bougdah and Sharples, 2010).

It is important to note that some studies have directly examined the structural components of

recreational centres at various places. Alexander (2000), for instance, posited that recreational centres

are intended to provide a means of escape from the crowded confined spaces and those recreational

centres are intended to improve fitness by supplying air screened and purified trees. The author

believed that an integrated approach for improving environmental quality can be achieved through

creation of open spaces in terms of its typology, morphology and functional attributes. Elias and

Solomon (2010) also examined the adequacy and functionality of recreational facilities in Edo and

Delta State of Nigeria, and their findings showed growing inadequacy in the structural components of

the facilities given that most of the equipment, facilities and structures were dysfunctional. Whereas

Iheanacho and Ikpeme (2013) examined the structural component of recreational facilities in first

generation Universities in Nigeria and found out that they had low level availability of the needed

recreational facilities such as playing courts and indoor sports hall, swimming pool, gymnastic and

open spaces, Ntan (2014)reviewed the structure of municipal recreation centres in Nigeria and

concluded that Architects need to take full advantage of the cultural characteristics of local

environment in the design of recreational facilities. Specifically, the author noted that indigenous

spatial organisation, site planning, indigenous arts, local building materials and construction

techniques should be incorporated into future schemes.

Usen P. Udoh, Jacob Atser and Boma Peterside

134


Study Area and Method of study

The study area is situated in Uyo which is the capital of Akwa Ibom State. Akwa Ibom State is one of

the States in Nigeria, located in the coastal south-south zone of the country and lies between latitudes

4032' and 5

033' North of equator and longitudes 7

025'and 8

025' East of the green wish meridian. The

State is bounded on the east by Cross River State and Abia State, and on the south by the Atlantic

Ocean and Cross River State (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Map of Uyo Capital City (Source: Authors‘ Study, 2019)

The University of Uyo has facilities in three locations namely: Main Campus along Nwaniba Road

and about 4.5km from the city centre; Town Campus; and Town Campus Annex. The recreational

facility is located at the Town Campus which is about 1km from the city centre (see Figure 2).

Performance of Recreational Facilities in the University of Uyo Staff Club

135


Figure 2: Map of University of Uyo Town Campus (Source: Authors‘ Study, 2019)

The study was designed as a cross sectional survey employing both qualitative and quantitative

approaches. The convenience sampling method (which is non-probability) was employed to select 120

members of the University of Uyo staff club from as estimated total of 150 registered members.

Through direct observation, a checklist of required structural components for a model University staff

club was used to collect data on the availability, functionality and adequacy of the structural

components of the club. The structures include parking space, paved driveways and walkways, entry

and exit points, fence, open space, swimming pool, restaurant/bar, toilet/conveniences, conference

hall, outdoor courts and pitches (lawn tennis, basketball, volley ball and football), indoor sports hall,

gymnasium, lighting, sewage/waste facility, water supply, green space, administrative offices and

ancillaries. A well-structured questionnaire was designed and administered to users of the club to

collect data on the performance of the club based on a 5-point Likert scale indicating different levels

of users‘ satisfaction as follows: 5-highly satisfactory; 4-satisfactory; 3-undecided; 2-unsatisfactory;

and 1 -highly unsatisfactory. Structured interviews were held with the management and service

providers at the University of Uyo staff club to obtain information on the likely factors that influence

the performance of the club. Photographs of existing facilities were taken to provide pictorial

evidence about the state of the facilities. Plates, Tables and descriptive statistics were employed to

organize and present data.


For objective 1 which was to assess the adequacy of the structural components of the facilities at the

University of Uyo Staff Club, a score of one was used to indicate the availability, functionality and

adequacy of a given component while zero indicated otherwise. As data in Table 1 indicates, of a total

of twenty-four facilities assessed, only eleven facilities representing 45.8% was available at the

University of Uyo staff club. These facilities include swimming pool, lawn tennis court, club lounge,

sanitation/waste facility, table tennis, parking space, restaurant/bar, toilet/conveniences, open spaces,

fence and entry/exit points. However, only seven facilities representing 29% of all the facilities were

considered functional. More than 90% of the facilities were also found to be inadequate (based on

international standards). Specifically, as evidence in Plates I to V show, the swimming pool, bush bar,


136


parking area, entry/exit point, fence, restaurants, and landscaping of the environment were found to be

grossly inadequate and non-functional.

Table 1: Availability, functionality & adequacy status of recreational facilities at University of Uyo staff

club

Components/Structural Facilities Availability Status Functionality Status Adequacy Status

Administrative building 0 0 0

Conference hall 0 0 0

Toilet/convenience 1 1 0

Fencing 1 1 0

Entry - exit points 1 1 0

Open space 1 0 0

Green space 0 0 0

Paved road 0 0 0

Walkways 0 0 0

Parking space 1 0 0

Restaurants/bar 1 1 0

Swimming pool 1 0 0

Indoor sports hall 0 0 0

Gymnasium facilities 0 0 0

Club lounge 1 0 0

Lawn tennis court 1 1 1

Basket ball pitch 0 0 0

Football pitch 0 0 0

Street/path lighting 0 0 0

Table tennis court 1 1 0

Landscaping 0 0 0

Water supply facility 1 0 0

Sanitation/waste facility 1 1 0

Drainage facility 0 0 0

Total 12(45.8%) 7(29%) 1(4.1%)

Source: Researchers‘ Field Survey, 2019

Data in Table 1 shows the non-availability of some critical structures and facilities at the University of

Uyo staff club. These include administrative building, conference room/ hall, storm water

drainage/gutters, well-designed layout (soft and hard landscaping), gymnasium, indoor sports hall,

well-finished driveways and walkways for easy/ clear access, outdoor/ street lighting within the

facility, basketball court and football pitch.

Plate I: Staff cars entry/exit point (Source: Authors’ Study, 2019)


137


Plate II: Driveway used as cars parking area (Source: Authors’ Study, 2019)

Plate III: Dysfunctional bush bar (Source: Authors’ Study, 2019)


138


Plate IV: Dysfunctional swimming pool (Source: Authors’ Study, 2019)

Plate V: Covered space for table tennis (Source: Authors’ Study, 2019)

For objective 2 which is an evaluation of the performance of the recreational facility based on users‘

satisfaction, a five-point Likert scale was used as follows: 5-Highly Satisfactory (HS), 4-Satisfactory

(S), 3-Undecided (U), 2- not satisfactory (NS) and 1- Highly not satisfactory(HNS). Furthermore, one

hundred and twenty (120) copies of questionnaire were produced and administered to users of the

facility based on non-probability sampling. However, only 108 questionnaires were returned and used

for the analysis indicating a 90% return rate. Table 2 shows the result of the analysis.


139


Table 2: Users level of satisfaction of available facilities at Uniuyo staff club

Facilities Percentage 5 4 3 2 1 Mean Rank

Fence HNS - 81.4% 0 0 8 12 88 1.25 5th

NS - 11.1%

Parking space HNS - 81.4% 0 0 0 20 88 1.18 6th

NS - 18.5%

Swimming pool HNS- 100% 0 0 0 0 108 1.00 8th

Restaurant/bar HNS- 62% 0 0 20 20 68 1.55 3rd

NS - 18.5%

Club lounge HNS- 49% 0 0 12 43 53 1.62 2nd

NS - 39.8%

Lawn tennis HS - 13.8% 15 93 0 0 04.13 4.13 1st

S - 86.1%

Entry/exit point HNS- 98.1% 0 0 0 2 10% 1.01 7th

NS - 19%

Table tennis hall HNS- 56.4% 0 8 13 26 61 1.40 4th

NS - 24%

Source: Researchers‘ field survey, 2019

Data in Table 2 identifies the various levels of satisfaction for available facilities at the University of

Uyo staff club. The satisfaction derived from lawn tennis was ranked highest with a mean of 4.13.

The swimming pool was the lowest with a mean of 1.00. In fact, 100% of respondents expressed poor

level of satisfaction on the swimming pool. For the entry and exit points within the facility, 98.1% of

respondents showed poor level of satisfaction as the facility was ranked 7th with a low mean score of

1.01.81.4% of respondents considered the availability of parking space as poor while 18.5% of the

respondent considered it as fairly satisfactory. Regarding restaurant and the club lounge, 62.9% and

49% of respondents expressed poor level of satisfaction on the respective facilities. However, 18.5%

and 39.8% respectively considered the facilities as fairly satisfactory. The security component

indicated by the availability of fence was also rated poorly by respondents. Specifically, 81.4% of

respondents showed poor satisfaction level for available fence as most parts of the facility were

without adequate fencing. It is instructive to note that the general expression of respondents as

indicated in their responses showed a great displeasure on most of the available facilities except for

the lawn tennis court.

For objective 3 which was to identify and examine the factors that highly influence the performance

of the University of Uyo staff club, a structured interview was held with the management of the club.

Qualitative data was collected on four main aspects of funding, maintenance, design element and

spatial planning. Table 3 displays the dimensions of the problem as captured during the interview.

Table 3: Factors that influence the performance of the University of Uyo staff club

Identified Factor Dimensions of the Problem Remarks

Funding Paucity of funds, limited contribution from

members, non-release of approved funds,

low private investment

Public - private partnership can help

improve funding

Maintenance of

facilities

Poor maintenance culture, lack of proactive

approach by physical planning unit of the

University, limited number of technical

personnel

Employment of high skilled staff may

be required

Spatial planning Limited space for proper planning and

landscaping: inappropriate site location,

menace of gully due to proximity to ravine

Relocation a more specious and suitable

site would allow for proper spatial

planning

Design element Poorly designed structures without recourse

to laid down standards

Need for re-modelling and re-designing

facility to reflect the need of users

Source: Researchers‘ field survey, 2019


140


Data in Table 3 highlights the major factors that interplay to shape the performance of the club. The

issue of design elements and spatial planning are architectural dimensions of the problem. Just as

Bullinger (2010) indicated that performance of a facility is tied to a large extent to its spatial planning

and design consideration, this informs the need to conduct an empirical survey of users‘ and clients‘

opinion and incorporate same into the design consideration in order to produce users-centred design.

Similarly, the issues of funding and maintenance as highlighted in Table 3 represent the

administrative dimensions of the problem. There is need to strike a balance between these components

in order to enhance the performance of recreational facilities.

The findings of this study have clearly justified the need to create user-centered designs which

supports the earlier study by Arubays and Aruoren (2015) that recreational facilities should be user

friendly to help staff maintain work-life balance. Apart from the aesthetic value of architectural

design, the satisfaction derived from the utilization of a given facility can be directly linked to its

architectural design. As findings of the study indicated, the University of Uyo staff club falls short of

satisfying its users‘ needs because some of the critical facilities and structures required for enhanced

recreational activity were non-existent. The result corroborates with the assertion by Heerwagen

(2014) that the design for sports and recreational facilities should pay heed to best practices with

respect to architectural design (green architecture), core recreational facilities and appropriate

construction materials. More so, users of a recreational facility pay high premium on the ease of

access, exit and security. These components can be enhanced through a properly designed facility

with separate points provided for entry and for exit as well as standard fence infrastructure. The

situation at the University of Uyo staff club where a single route is used for both entry and exit

portends difficulty in access and free flow of traffic. This assertion agrees with Bougah and Sharple

(2010) who reported that a well-designed recreational facility should allow for convenient use of all

means of transport and clearly identifiable entrances which will ease safe movement for all transport

of all users and equipment of the facility. Additionally, the University of Uyo staff club lacks

adequate plan and design that provides proper landscaping and provision of green area, good parking

space and open space. This agrees with Ntan's (2014) assertion that a recreational facility needs clear

definitions of boundaries, proper site plan and natural landscaping to allow for natural surveillance

and aesthetics. In summary, findings justify the need for the design of a model staff club that would

enhance its performance and users satisfaction,

Conclusion and Recommendations This study evaluated the performance of the University of Uyo Staff Club using several research

parameters. The result showed that facilities of the centre failed to satisfy users‘ expectation due to

four main factors. The factors include design elements, spatial planning, maintenance and centre

administration. Based on the shortcomings associated with the University of Uyo Staff Club, the study

recommends that the design of a recreational facility should be user-centred from project conception,

execution, completion to usage for ease of operation and maintenance. The mechanical and electrical

systems should be fully integrated into the facility design. Also, the facility should have multipurpose

hall, educational spaces at indoor and outdoor levels for all season and time usage while the structures

should be designed to take advantage of the environmental conditions of the site in terms of lighting,

air circulation, sun shading, storm water control, buildings and facilities orientation and juxtaposition.

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http://www.cabe.org/

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http://www.cabe.org/


CURBING INSECURITY OF BUILDINGS IN UYO AND ITS ENVIRONS

Uduak Peter Umo1, Bon N. Obiadi

2, Samuel Okon Ebong

3

1 & 3Department of Architecture, University of Uyo, Akwa-Ibom State

2Department of Architecture Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.

[email protected], +2348038700037 Abstract

This study is poised to examine the types of buildings in Uyo and its environs with a view to isolating the types

of buildings and their most vulnerable to attack by armed robbers. Descriptive and explanatory design methods

were utilized for this study and data was generated from primary and secondary sources. Questionnaire and

interview were the major tools for data collection while descriptive statistics were used in data presentation and

analysis. The results showed that the highest in ranking of parts of the buildings most vulnerable to insecurity

are the entrances; with the entrance doors having 49%s; windows (20%), weak walls broken easily by

attackers(5%), ceilings, roof eaves, and side doors(6% each). The type of building most attacked was bungalow

with 83% while storey building was 17%. On the basis of the findings it is recommended that Architects should

spend more of their design skills in the design and specifications for entrance doors and windows that will be

impenetrable, frustrating and being a deterrent to prospective attackers.

Keywords: Insecurity, Buildings, Vulnerable Parts, Armed Robbery, Uyo

Introduction

In the run up to independence and post-independence, up to 1970 when the civil war ended, Uyo was

characterized by pockets of criminality. These criminal elements or attackers were then called

―Amauke‖, Ama Mkpa or Ama Uwem – meaning ―which option do you want, Death or Life‖. If a

victim refused to let go of what the thieves wanted, the option was death. The thieves forcibly take

away what the victim had and in the process the victim could be killed. After the Nigerian Civil War

many weapons were unaccounted for. The style of attack on victims changed. The attackers became

armed with guns. Armed robbery took hold of Uyo; a provincial headquarters in the then Cross River

State. The government at the time implemented capital punishment on armed robbers by public

execution. This drastically reduced armed robbery attacks and Uyo became peaceful for many years.

Uyo, the capital of Akwa Ibom State started witnessing increased political, economic and social

activities from the 23rd September 1987 after being created out of erstwhile Cross River State.

With increased business activities in the state other anti-social activities sprung up and started

growing too. These emerging anti-social beings were armed robbers, thieves, pickpockets, assassins

and later came the worst – kidnapping. The rapid socio-economic transformation mixed with the

menace of armed robbery attacks affected the lifestyle of the people and their buildings. The

revolution has been the emergence of all manner of buildings with concrete eaves, high gates and

fence(s), the use of all types of building materials untested. Despite these measures armed robbers still

gain access into many buildings unabated perpetrating their nefarious activities which had caused

victims, psychological trauma, and heavy losses of both materials and life of innocent people. The

aim of the study is to isolate the types of buildings and their parts most vulnerable to criminal attacks

with a view to achieving the objectives of establishing the types of buildings most attacked in Uyo

and its environs; identifying types of home burglars/armed robbers prevalent in the study area;

determining the mode and operation utilized by armed robbers; and proffer design solutions to curb

insecurity of buildings in Uyo and its environs.

Study Area and methodology

Uyo is one of the fastest growing cities especially after it became the state capital of Akwa Ibom

State, an oil-producing state in Nigeria on 23rd September 1987. The population of Uyo, according to

the 2006 Nigerian census is 554,906. Uyo is located between 5.03° North latitude, 7.93° East

longitude which is within Akwa Ibom State latitudes 40 251 and 50 351 North and between longitude

70 301 and 80 East of Greenwich Meridian and 196 meters elevation above the sea level. This is

within the equatorial rain forest belt, which is a tropical zone and home to vegetation of green foliage

of trees, shrubs and oil palm trees. Uyo people are of the Ibibio stock and they speak Ibibio language.

This area is made up of Ikono, Etoi, Oku, Ukana Offot. It has a total land area of 362km2(140 sq mi),

a density of 1,200 persons/km2 (3,100/sq mi). Uyo is a Local Government Area in Akwa Ibom State,


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with headquarters in the city of Uyo which also functions as the administrative capital of Akwa Ibom

State. Uyo Local Government Area is in Akwa Ibom North-East Senatorial district alongside Etinan,

Ibesikpo Asutan, Ibiono, Itu, Nsit Atai, Nsit Ibom, Nsit Ubium and Uruan Local Government Areas.

Uyo Local Government Area also forms a Federal Constituency alongside Uruan and Nsit Atai Local

Government Area. The people of Uyo Local Government Area have unique but varying traditions and

culture. In mode of dressing the dominant attire of an Ibibio man is a lion-cloth ―Unwanwang Ofong

Isin‖ and shirt with Hat and staff to go with. Women also wear loincloth generally known as ―Ndot

Iba‖ with a piece of it on the head as head-tie with blouse to match. The people of Uyo Local

Government Area prepare some famous delicacies such as white soup (afia efere), Afang soup,

Edikang Ikong soup, Ubo Nkong, Efere Ibaba, Efere Mbukpap Uyo and a host of others. Uyo people

are very hospitable and accommodating people.

This work adopted the descriptive and explanatory research design methods. Expressing ―what is

going on‖ (descriptive research) and ―why is it going on‖ (explanatory research) will provide the

needed data for the study. ―What is going on‖ is the insecurity of the buildings at Uyo and its environs

resulting from armed robbery attacks. The Primary sources of field data were from the scheduled

interviews with victims. To complement the information obtained from the interviews, a set of 450

questionnaires were administered out of which 195 stochastically found victims in Uyo town and its

environs were obtained and this represents 43% response rate. The 255 copies of lost questionnaires

(57%) constituted either those that have not been robbed, those that refused to return, those that

misplaced their copies or those that refused to be involved as it concerns security matters. The

questionnaire contained questions among others that probed into the psychological effect, trauma,

losses experienced by respondents, individual report on how it happened and the most vulnerable

parts of the building that gave attackers easy access into the buildings and types of residential

buildings mostly attacked. It also sorts for suggestions to curb reoccurrence and general comments

from the victims of insecurity in the town. Secondary sources included facts from various publications

in the newspapers, magazines, journal, reports, books, internet and works from contemporary authors.

Data collected in this study were organized, processed and presented using descriptive statistical

instruments such as tables, charts, and figures.

Literature Review

Ajayi (2011) is of the opinion that the corresponding advancement in telecommunication technology

which makes contact between criminals easier has added fillip to individuals and collective insecurity.

The new generation armed robbers have proven to be more daring; blood thirstier, deadlier and even

better equipped to practice this evil vocation. Everybody now appears to be potential victim; every

organization is a potential target. Ajayi (2011) opined that, crime will therefore continue to increase in

the society given a number of factors as availability of guns/lethal weapons and easy access to drugs

by miscreants, street urchins and men of underworld, large consignment of arms and ammunitions

smuggled into the country regularly according to media reports; lack of co-operation with the law

enforcement agencies by the public (even victims) as far as sourcing for information is concerned;

extreme economic deprivation causing blistering state of unemployment in the country; and no

sharing of security information or protection of source.

Everyone pays lip service to security issues. It does appear therefore that there is no security

consciousness. Ajayi (2011) explained further that the courage and tenacity often exhibited by armed

robbers are baffling. They move around freely in thickly populated residential and commercial areas

sometimes numbering up to fifty leaving deaths, rape, sorrows, tears and blood on their trails.

In affirmation of the insecurity of buildings McKay and Brett (2018) in their work on security,

asserted that each year, there are millions of home burglaries committed; that only people can decide,

based on their personal circumstances and inclinations how much time and money to invest in

buttressing their home against the possibility of invasion and theft. Mckay et al (2018) opined that

most burglars are criminals of opportunity. That burglar is typically only going to target homes they

can access easily without being detected. There are three common factors that determine whether or

not burglars will carry out robbery. These are time, noise, and visibility. Burglars want to get in and

Uduak Peter Umo, Bon N. Obiadi, Samuel Okon Ebong

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out of a house as quickly as possible. The longer it takes to enter a home, the more likely someone

will notice and call the police. So the harder entry is made, the better. Unfortunately, many people

make the way too easy for criminal activities to strive. Barking dogs and home security systems will

bring unwanted attention to a burglar due to the noise they create. Consequently, burglars will often

skip homes with these features.

Ajayi (2011), classified armed robbers based on the mode and operation they utilize; basically into

two classes: the psychotics and the normal robbers. The normal robbers want to enjoy the booty

acquired during the robbery. They consider their lives as sacrosanct and are prepared to escape alive

at all cost. They tend to avoid hard targets so that there will be no confrontation with equally armed

protective organizations. The Psychotics do not care to die as their doctrine is to kill or be killed,

being desperate to vent venom on the society. Armed robbers in this category engage in mindless

killing, rapping and elimination of any opposition to their nefarious activities. They put their victims

in a psychological horror, taking away the manliness in their victims, Ajayi (2011) further explained

that most of the armed robbers are either Professionals or those at the criminal level who could be

armed with pistols, pump action guns and others. That they are always in a hurry and might not be

well calculated. They fear the police and the reaction of the people. They prefer areas of the city

where there is little chance of law abiding citizens providing collective defense against their attacks.

Other categories include pickpockets, rabble rousers, muggers, petty thieves who take advantage of

confused situation to perpetrate minor crimes. Amateur thieves carry out most of the stealing, while

few constitute the hard core of professional criminals, terrorizing everybody. Ajayi (2011) alleged that

your next-door Neighbour may be an armed robber. This is a country where charlatans and people of

dubious characters without visible and productive means of livelihood act as pathfinders and

celebrities.

Barker (2014), on general building security accepts that windows and doors at ground floor level are

most vulnerable and therefore they should be fitted with good quality locks. Shutters or fixed security

bars are also recommended on windows. Preferably buildings should be protected by an automatic

intruder alarm system. The building should be kept locked and all keys should be kept under close

control. Keys should be distributed to nominated key holders only and regular checks should be made

to ensure that they have not been lost. The locks should be of a type whose keys cannot easily be

copied, or can only be duplicated with the written authorization of the building manager (landlord,

caretaker or estate manager whichever is applicable). If possible, key fob and or number code entry

systems should be used instead of keys. An audio or video entry system is recommended for

additional security (Barker, 2014).

Granzer, Praus, Kastner (2010) are of the opinion that nowadays, with the rising desire to integrate

security critical services that were formerly provided by isolated subsystems, security must no longer

be neglected. To be able to integrate security – critical services, the implemented control functions,

that is functions that control the building automation services, have to be protected against

unauthorized access and malicious interference (security attack). A typical example of such a security

attack is the manipulation of an access control system that opens and closes an entrance door.

Hufnagel (1999) opined that burglars like to get into the house the same way you do – by walking

through the door. That is the easiest way for them to get items out too. High quality doors and locks

make unwanted entry difficult and time consuming – two things no burglar likes. Just the sight of a

solid door and high quality lock can be enough to make a thief walk away. Hufnagel (1999) advised

that if entry door is a hollow – core door, it should be replaced as hollow core door can very easily be

broken through. Doors made of solid wood usually provide adequate securities if they are in good

condition. Solid facades with little or no decoration are best. Metal clad doors provide the most

security. These doors are strong, weather proof and low maintenance (Hufnagel, 1999).

Mckay and Brett (2018) asserted that the hinges of all entry doors should be on the inside of the

house. If the hinges are on the outside, would be home invaders can pop them off to break in and


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advised that the installation of security film on glass panes be given attention. It is a clear, virtually

undetectable, tear resistant film that holds pieces of glass together when a pane is shattered, check to

see if your doors fit the frame snugly. Criminals can insert crowbars in the gap between the door and

the frame to pry it open. Sliding glass doors typically have ineffective locking mechanisms, so they

are often a favoured entry point for burglars. Buttressing them is to add a lock that vertically bolts into

the floor and the top frame. Make sure that locks of new apartment were changed when you move in.

otherwise, the previous tenant or others associated with them could enter your dwelling with an old or

duplicate key (Mckay and Brett, 2018).

Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion

Types of residential buildings mostly attacked by Armed Robbers in Uyo and its Environs are shown

in Table 1.

Table 1: Types of Residential Buildings mostly attacked in Uyo and its Envrions

Type of Building No. of Buildings Attacked Percentage (%) of total

Storey Building 33 17

Bungalow 162 83

Total 195 100

Source: Field Work, 2018

The types of residential buildings as obtained from the 195 returned questionnaires that armed robbers

attack most were the storey and bungalow residential buildings. As contained on table 1, the total

number of bungalow buildings attacked by armed robbers was 162 bungalows and this represents

83% of the 195 buildings attacked. The number of storey residential buildings attacked was 33 or 17%

of the attacks. From this analysis bungalow buildings are more vulnerable for attack more than storey

residential buildings, and this brings to reality the fact that more attention should be given to

bungalow building designs in terms of security by the architect –designers, builders, developers.

Clients should avail themselves with this fact when they plan to build having in mind that bungalow

buildings are easily and mostly attacked by armed robbers in Uyo and its Environs.

The responses from the 195 questionnaires that were returned on the most vulnerable parts of the

building that allow armed robbers easy access into the building when attacked is presented as

contained on Table 2. The respective vulnerable building parts were classed and presented in Part

Houses 1 – 8 as follows:

Part House 1 – The wall they (armed robbers) broke.

Part House 2 – The ceiling

Part House 3 – The main entrance door

Part House 4 – The kitchen door

Part House 5 – The side door

Part House 6 – The back/rear door

Part House 7 – The window

Part House 8 – The carport ceiling into the interior

Table 2: Parts of buildings most vulnerable and accessible by criminal activities in Uyo S/N Part of the building through which attackers

access easily

Number of access

vulnerability

Percentage

(%) of total

Part house 1 Through the wall they broke 9 5

Part house 2 Through the ceiling 12 6

Part house 3 Through the main entrance door 96 49

Part house 4 Through the kitchen door 12 6

Part house 5 Through the side door 12 6

Part house 6 Through the back/rear door 15 8

Part house 7 Through the window 39 20

Part house 8 Through the carport ceiling into the interior 00 00

Total 195 100

Source: Fieldwork, 2018


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Figure 2: Bar chart showing number of easy accessibility from parts of buildings most vulnerable

As shown in Table 2, Part House 3 which is access through the main entrance door had 96

respondents on access vulnerability and this represents 49% of the 195 victims who participated in the

study as respondents. Part House 7 which is the access through the window had 39 respondents on

access vulnerability, representing 20%. Part House 6 which stands for access through the back/rear

door had 15 respondents representing 8% of the total number of attacks. Part Houses 2, 4 and 5 which

represent access through the ceiling, kitchen door and side doors respectively had 12 respondents each

on access vulnerability, representing 6% each. Part House 1 which is through broken walls by armed

robbers during attacks had 9 cases representing 5% of total attacks in the study area. The information

above was further represented graphically using bar chart as shown in Figure 2. From the above

presentation and analysis, it could be deduced that the main entrance doors and windows are the most

vulnerable parts of the building(s) that armed robbers and other attackers gain accesses into the

building with ease. From the Table 2, the main entrance door (96), back/rear door (15), side door (12),

kitchen door (12); that is, doors from all sides of the building; summed up to 135 numbers of access

vulnerability representing 69% of the occurrences. This implies that serious emphasis should be given

to the type of door(s) designed or specified for any part of the building since doors on any part or side

of the building can easily be attacked by armed robbers.

Types of Home Burglars/Armed Robbers Prevalent in Uyo and Environs

Types of attackers were grouped into categories as contained on Table 3. The first type refers to the

armed robber(s) (normal robber who wants to steal and escape); the second type refers to the

Professional armed robber(s) (aggressive robber who wants to torture, rape, steal and kill and attack

confrontationist); the third type refers to the Petty thieves (those who sneak or put their hands through

the windows to steal); the fourth type refers to the Amateur thieves (sneak in when no person or

children are around to steal properties). While the fifth type refers to the Armed robbers/assassins

(armed robbers who forcefully access the house and kill the target with or without stealing anything or

search and carry documents that interest them), the sixth type refers to the Armed robbers/kidnappers

(armed robbers who decide to kidnap occupants for a ransom if unsatisfied with the value of what

they have stolen). Table 3 and Figure 3 present the frequency of attacks by the six types of attackers

as collated from the 195 returned questionnaires


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Table 3: Types of Home Burglars Prevalent in Uyo and Environs

S/N Types of Attacker(s) No. of Incidents (%)

Type 1 Armed robber(s) (Normal robber who wants to steal and escape

without being caught).

66 34

Type 2 Professional armed robber(s) (aggressive robber who wants to torture,

rape, steal and kill and attack confrontationist).

42 22

Type 3 Petty thieves (Those who sneak or put their hands through the

windows to steal).

39 20

Type 4 Amateur thieves (Sneak in when no person or children are around to

steal properties).

30 15

Type 5 Armed robbers / assassins (Armed robbers who forcefully access the

house and kill the target without stealing anything or search and carry

documents that interest them).

12 6

Type 6 Armed robbers / kidnappers (Armed robbers who decide to kidnap

occupants for ransom if unsatisfied with the value of what they have

stolen).

6 3

Total 195 100 Source: Field Work 2018

Figure 3: Number of attacks from types of attackers

From the presentation and analysis Type 1 armed robbers (normal robber who wants to steal and

escape without being caught) are most prevalent in Uyo and its environs This is followed by Type 2

which is the Professional armed robber(s) (aggressive robber who wants to torture, rape, steal and kill

and attack confrontationist).

A lot of damage by attackers has been done to human lives and properties for occupants habiting

bungalow type of buildings than those in storey buildings in Uyo and its environs. From the two

types of residential buildings studied, 83% of attacks were on bungalow buildings while storey

buildings had 17%. This implies that architects - designers should design secret safe havens in every

bungalow building and must not take for granted the design of bungalow buildings security wise.

The most vulnerable parts of buildings in Uyo and its environs mostly attacked by armed robbers and

other attackers as shown in Table 2 were the main entrance doors with 49% of vulnerability. Windows

were the next with 20% of vulnerability. Back or rear door(s) was third on the vulnerability table.

Barker (2014), Hufnagel (1999), Mckay and Brett (2015) asserted that generally building security

accepts that windows and doors at ground floor level are most vulnerable and therefore they should be

fitted with good quality locks and constructed with quality materials. Just the sight of a solid door or

high quality lock can be enough to make a thief walk away. It is of course expedient to look beyond

the main front and back doors and secure all exterior entry ways (Hufnagel, 1999). Rao and

Subrahmanyam (2012) defined door as a movable barrier which facilitates the inhabitants to move


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freely in and outside of a building. While the study agrees with the assertion of Rao and

Subrahmanyam, it believes that doors also inhibit the movement of criminals in and outside of a

building. A door mainly consists of these parts: the frame, shutter or leaf: the shutters which are the

movable parts of the door are secured in position by the frame, hinges, locks which locks the shutters

onto the frame, and the handle which facilitates open and close. For added interior security, there is

the need to installed dead-bolt locks.

The aforementioned door parts are the major functional parts that architects, fabricators and others

should consider when designing and giving specifications for a door that should be satisfactory

security wise. So many materials have been used in the production of doors such as wood, steel,

aluminum, iron of various qualities, metal, fibers, glass and many others. Many types of doors and

door sizes exist which depend upon the members and the materials used their arrangements and mode

of operation. According to Rao and Subrahmanyam (2012) doors are classified as; Battened and

ledged door, Battened, ledged and braced door, Battened, ledged, braced and framed door, Framed

and paneled door, Glazed or sash doors, Flush door, Louvered or venetian doors, Fly and mosquito

proof doors, Collapsible steel doors, Rolling steel shutter doors or rolling grill doors, Revolving

doors, Side sliding doors, Swinging doors, and Metal doors.

From the study, occupants of residential buildings in Uyo and its environs prefer metal doors as it is

affordable, durable, not easily destroyed by attackers and it gives metallic aesthetics. However, high

quality security doors are available even though expensive. All clients are advised to cooperate with

their architects in their choice of appropriate security doors. Architects are advised to reach out to

other door manufacturers in the world for quality security doors. There is need to supervise the

fabrication and production such standard doors especially in Uyo where there are evidences of low

quality doors being produced for sale. Metal-clad doors provide the most security. Steel-plain or

pressed to look like a wood panel - is attached to a solid wood frame and a fiber core. These doors are

strong, weatherproof and low-maintenance (Hufnagel, 1999).

Rao and Subrahmanyam (2012) had it that ―a window may be defined as a secured opening which

provides proper ventilation and lighting‖ but this study is of the opinion that a window is a secured

opening which provides proper ventilation, lighting, internal and external viewing, comfort,

aesthetics, thermal control and other functional parameters as behold by the designer. Similar to a

door, a window consists of a frame and shutters. The frame consists of two vertical members called

posts and horizontal members connecting the posts at top and bottom called head and sill respectively.

If the number of shutters is more than two, intermediate vertical posts called mullions are introduced.

These are the basic parts of windows that architects, and others in building construction industry

should consider in designing and fabricating for windows to meet all security non vulnerable

standards after construction and on installation.

Rao and Subrahmanyam (2012) had that depending upon mode of operation of shutters, materials

used for fabrication and method of fixing, windows can be classified as follows: Bay windows,

Corner windows, Dormer windows, Gable windows, Sky light, Clerestory windows, Casement

windows, Sash or glared windows, Sliding windows, Louvered or venetian window, Wire gauged

windows, Metal windows, and Fan lights. Sliding windows are the most commonly used windows in

Uyo and its environs after louvered windows are considered outdated. The worst window in terms of

security is the commonly used sliding windows, because with a jack upwards, the shutter or leaf is off

the track, same with sliding doors. However the use of properly hinged casement windows with

quality accessories will offer a more secured building.

Mode of Operation of the Armed Robbers

The modes of operation of these robbers are as contained in this work. The Architects should avail

themselves of these facts in their design of buildings that will curb attack. Occupants should avail

themselves too by conducting themselves not to easily fall prey to their tactics. Ajayi (2011) opined

that some of the things considered by the armed robbers include, time essence, recognition, exchange

of fire/police reaction, escape routes/preferences for places of easy retreat, likely routes of pursuit,


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information, hideouts, evacuation of stolen goods/items, environmental and inside factor. After this,

the operation is either launched or called off. The 195 respondent victims attacked by armed robbers

in Uyo and its environs expressed their experiences as stated in Table 4:

Table 4: Victims experiences

1 Criminals attack late in the evening and forcefully pulled down the doors and order occupants

of each room to surrender their possession(s).

2 Armed robbers gain access into premises through carelessly opened gates to attack occupants.

3 Armed robbers in large numbers advance to attack environment or estate. One of them will

jump in through the fence and open the big gate for others. They attack by spoiling the

aluminium locks and point gun at sleeping occupants. Doors are forced open for them to take

their loot.

4 Armed robbers are very patient in spying at any of their targeted buildings. ―The thieves saw

where the key was kept since there was no spare key. Used it to gain entry into the house and

carted away with electronics when we went out‖ as reported by one of the victims.

(undisclosed identity for security reasons)

5 Armed robbers and thieves usually pass through the fence , cut the protector at the kitchen

window (as sliding windows can easily be pulled from outside) and gained entry into the

house. They bent the window protector and opened the door close to window

6 Armed robbers can camouflage as police by shouting ―mopol‖.with their legs they can bang

on poor quality wooden doors (doors made with softwood).

7 When occupants are all out of the compound (especially on Sundays during service) armed

robbers break into the house, even in the morning hours and loot

8 Armed robbers can disguise as visitors. If allowed they drive or ride into the compound for

their attack on the occupants.

9 Armed robbers shoot guns sporadically to terrorize occupants and deter others in the

neighborhood before they break in and attack. When the operation is in progress they still

continue firing till when they are done.

10 Armed robbers do call their target and tell any lie that will move the target to disclose vital

information including their homes for them to reach and attack the target. This happens

mostly when the target‘s number gets to them through their spy or informant mostly friends.

11 Armed robbers make use of metal cutter on padlock, master key and other skills to open gates.

. Items stolen by armed robbers in Uyo amongst others include the followings: Cellphones, Money

summing up in high millions, Laptops, Male dresses, Shoes, Television, speakers, Generators, Water

pumping machine, Vandalized an installed MIKANO generator, carting away major parts, Five

barrels of palm oil and others.

Measures to Curb Insecurity in buildings by survived victims

All entrance doors of the building should be protected with angle bar protectors, if timber casement

doors are in use. High quality steel doors are highly preferred for all external entrances. Main doors

should have spare keys or duplicated for all occupants as the act of hiding keys under carpet, flower

pot and other presumed hide outs is risky. Any targeted building is always watched by burglars before

operation. If the hiding place is uncovered the building is at serious risk. High quality protectors

should be fixed in windows and routinely checked. The steel angle bars used for protectors should be

high grade steel angle bars that armed robbers cannot bend easily and effortlessly.

Windows especially sliding windows are easily removed from tracks by jacking the shutters up.

Armed robbers take advantage of this construction details defect to pull sliding members off the

windows. By this, the protectors that are fabricated with low quality steel angles are exposed and

could be bent, sew or smacked off to gain access.


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Vigilante groups should be well equipped to carry out operations at night as most armed robbery

attacks happen in the night or early in the morning hours of between 1am and 4am. Provision of

CCTV cameras at concealed strategic locations in the premises of the estate as well as individual

residential buildings is necessary. Provision of flood lights and other street lights are very important.

Legit form of Identification should be adopted before anybody gains access into the estate. The entire

compound should be fenced round with American wire gauge on top. Security should be beefed up

around the target area, with regular patrol of police men and other security officers. Police mobile

patrol post (vehicles) should be spread into streets and highly attacked areas. Land lords should obtain

the bio-data of tenants and confirm their contents before renting out spaces. This prevents armed

robber‘s informants, spy agents from being accommodated. Every person should be security

conscious and also be on the alert. Occupants of the affected or targeted areas should see it necessary

in giving useful information to the security officials about criminal elements in the area.

Support the services of vigilante group and security operatives by paying the stipulated levy. Olujimi

(2008) acknowledged that the rate of default of payment of security-guards levy was higher among

male-headed households than female-headed households. Wives of landlords and tenants often effect

the timely payments on behalf of their husbands only to recover the money from their husbands

directly or indirectly.

Curbing Insecurity through Architectural Design

To curb insecurity in buildings in Uyo and its Environs, the architects should consider security from

inception of design as a major Architectural Design Parameter alongside with other parameters which

include form, function, structures, aesthetics, cost and others. All stakeholders in the construction

industry must be security conscious in all phase of construction. Emphasis on the security based

design and specification(s) for the vulnerable and easily accessible parts of the building like entrance

doors, windows should be paramount consideration for architects when designing and specifying for

buildings.

For bungalows, the main entrance and one side or rear entrance is appropriate as many external

entrances weakens security controls. High quality door and window frames, locks, shutter or leaf,

hinges, handle and dead bolts should be used as the attacker will be discouraged when such quality

components are sighted. All parts of the building should be designed to delay, frustrate and expose

any attacker. From this study normal armed robbers are those that attack people most and they want to

steal fast. Any delay frustrates and discourages them. They may abort attack thus curbing insecurity in

buildings.


Architects are trained to be proactive, sensitive and creative. This work is to encourage Architect

designers, engineers and other professionals to know that the solution to insecurity in buildings rests

in their design spirits and intellectual capabilities.

All professional architects should include security as a major consideration for the design of buildings

for clients, such that buildings will be security compliant. Buildings designed with security

consideration(s) from inception will satisfy security demands, safety standards and quality material

specifications. Extra design considerations for bungalow buildings, doors and windows are of essence

in order to delay, frustrate and expose intruders.

For door and window frames fixed to walls not to be vulnerable if kicked/pushed by attackers, quality

blocks should be used for construction, implying that during moulding of blocks, approved proportion

of cement sand ratio should be adopted as most recent blocks (especially those from commercial

block moulders) have excess sand more than cement in proportion resulting in very weak blocks being

used for the construction of building walls and fence.


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Hufnagel (1999) stated that doors made of solid wood usually provide adequate security if they are in

good condition. Solid facades with little or no decoration are best. Metal clad doors provide the most

security. Steel-plain or pressed to look like a wood frame and a fibre-core. These doors are strong,

weather proof and low maintenance. Locally quality gauged fabricated steel doors are resistant to

armed robbery attack than the imported doors. Spare keys, ladders, old furniture, garden tools and

others should not be hidden, forgotten or kept outside the building. Attackers may discover and use

them.

Hufnagel (1999) on security windows stated that no matter how your windows are secured, whether

they are locked, fastened, shut in some other manner, consider how you and your family could exit

them in an emergency. If you install locks, keep the keys nearby and make sure everyone except

attacker(s) knows where they are. Of course too much fortification, use of protectors and other

appliances to secure windows may be dangerous in emergency situations such as fire and other

emergencies. Some secret openable protectors should be provided and known to only the occupants.

The use of properly hinged casement windows with quality accessories and steel protectors of high

quality are highly recommended. Casement windows gives complete openable space for ventilation,

unlike the commonly used sliding windows that allow 50% of openable space and can easily be pulled

out of track by armed robbers. Aluminum sliding windows and doors can be fitted with metal anti lift

strip in the track of windows to keep the panel from being lifted out when in the locked position or

slide bolt lock at the bottom or pin for sliding doors. Security films are recommended on the glass

panes of sliding windows and doors as the film makes the glass harder to break through, it does not

scatter to pieces, thus increasing entry time and noise that will bring attention to the attacker.

All compounds should be fenced round with high quality blocks. Complete with American wire gauge

on top. The height of fence should be within 1.5 to 1.8m. There is high increase in crime rate around

Uyo metropolis and environs, so there is need for improved security along the streets especially dark

alleys and residential areas in the night. The services of quick response police presently located at

some locations along major roads should extend into streets in the metropolis and their numbers

should be increased. The police should be armed with sophisticated weapons as armed robbers or

better. Vigilante groups should be properly constituted and their activities approved by the appropriate

government agency.

The bio-data of all tenants must be obtained by the land-lords, who must study and confirm before

renting out spaces. Many of today‘s modern security systems allow to activate locks, alarms, and

CCTV remotely from smart phone. Avail yourself with available Internet Protocol (IP) cameras and

wireless smartphone alarm kits that allow you to monitor your home remotely, record any activities

and respond to alarm notifications when out and about or on holidays.

Burglar alarms offer one of the most reliable pieces of security. Although there is no ideal system that

can be recommended for everyone, a few basics apply, every exterior opening, including those on the

upper level should be alarmed. The system should combine perimeter and interior sensors and should

have a battery backup. Because it is expedient for alarm system to activate before attacker enters the

premises and not after they are inside and walking around. By concentrating on exterior crime

prevention techniques, the interior is equally protected.

Dogs and vigilante groups are more reliable than gate/security men. Dogs are more alert and their

barking (or yelling) scare attackers away. Gate/security men can betray their masters by arranging

with the armed robbers spy, giving information that robbers need most before attack. Dogs do not and

will not wait to discuss with any attackers spy. Vigilante group are professionally trained to perform.

Securing a place should not be left for the security personnel alone. Every person must be security

conscious and alert in the state and country.

The Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) should be strict in performing their duties in the

country including Uyo and environs as sub-standard and low quality materials flood Uyo market and

other markets in the country. Robbers take advantage of the low quality doors, windows, angle bars


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and others when used on buildings. Robbers find them as vulnerable spots for attack when found on

buildings. Task force on building materials and other related items should be set to monitor and

control the quality of materials sold in Uyo and environs.

References

Abdulkarim, Mas‘ud, (2005) Between Theory, Education and Practice of Architecture, AARCHES

journal Vol 4 No 1.

Ajayi, Gabriel A. Col(rtd), (2011) Crime and Security The Menace Of Armed Robbers in

Nigeria, World Feature Article October 24, 2011.

Barker, Clare (2014), Building Security and Fire protection, Technical Supplement to WHO

Technical Report Series No. 961, (2011), World Health Organization (2014), Pg 10.

Chukwuali C.B. (1990) Some Aspects of Architectural Education and their Implications on the

Practice of the Profession, AARCHES Journal.

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University Press, Great clarendon Street, Oxford.

Granzer, Wolfgang, Praus Fritz and Kasner Wolfgang (2010), Security in Building Automation

Systems, IEEE Transacts on Industrial Electronics Vol 57, No 11.

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Meredith Corporation, Des Maines, Iowa

Mckay, Kate and Brett, (2018), Burglar – Proof Your Home: A Complete Guide to Home Security/

The Art of Manliness www.artofmanliness.com/articles/complete guide to home security.

Newman, Oscar (1973), Crime prevention through Urban Design, Defensible Space, Collier Books,

New York.

Obot, I.D. (2008) Towards an Acceptable Architectural and Housing Estate Designs For the New

Federal Government Social Housing Scheme for the Less Priviledged Nigerians, Journal of

Environmental Design (JED), University of Uyo, Uyo pg 35.

Ojeifo Magnus O and Akhimien Fransis O. (2013), Pattern of Fencing and Impacts in urban Auchi;

Edo state, Nigeria, European Center for Research Training and Development, UK.

Okpoechi, Chinwe U, Ebiringa, Christian, N, (2011), The Architect, The Environment and the

Challenges of Sustainable Design. The Architecture Forum, Theme: Architecture and the Nigerian

Development Agenda IV- Sustainable Built Environment. Talas Press Nigeria pg 129,

Olujimi, Julius Ajilowo Bayode, (2008). The Role of women in the security of lives and household

properties in a Government Residential Estate in Akure, Nigeria, The Nigerian Journal of

Environmental sciences.

Rao, Y, N. Raja Subrahmanyam Y. (2012), Planning and Designing of Residential Buildings, standard

Publishers Distributors, 1705-B, Nai sarak, Delhi.

Rao, M.Pratap (2009) Architectural Design Theory, Standard Publishers Distributors, 1705 – B, Nai

Sarak, Delhi.

Umo, Uduak, Luna bassey and Mbina, Anthony (2008) Practicing Architect in the Nigerian Built

Environment Journal of Environmental Design (JED) University of Uyo, Uyo pg 31.


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http://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/complete


REGRESSIONAL ANALYSIS OF SHOPPING MALL ATTRACTIVENESS AND

CUSTOMER ALLEGIANCE: THE CASE STUDY OF SHOPRITE OWERRI IMO STATE

Okey F. Nwanekezie1 and Iheanyi J. Onuoha

2

1Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Nigeria

2Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Imo State University, Owerri

Nigeria. [email protected]: 08035460668

Abstract Recently, there has been rapid increase in the number of shopping malls and retail superstores operating in

Owerri. This is has brought about competition and new strategies to keep hold of customers and stay relevant in

the retail industry. It has also raised the challenge of customer allegiance as customers find it easier to defect

from one shopping mall to the other for their daily purchases. However, one shopping mall that seems to have

uniquely attracted and retained customers‟ loyalty more than any other shopping mall in Owerri, is Shoprite.

This study investigates why the shopping mall is attractive and commands high level of customers‟ allegiance.

Based on a survey of 300 customers and managers of business outfits within the mall, this study examined the

strength of relationship between customer allegiance and the shopping mall attractiveness. Multiple regressions

method was used to develop three models that assessed the strength of relationship between customer allegiance

and Shoprite attractiveness. The models include: get friends, acquaintances and family members initiated

allegiance model; receive prize and reward with free gift promo initiated customer allegiance model; and keep

on shopping initiated customer allegiance model. The findings indicate that some predicators such as the

cleanliness of the mall, variety of choice, cheaper price, good road network, access to bus/taxi stations,

washrooms, ATM/bank, car parks, architecture and design, food court, games, sociability of staff and location

contributed to a great extent in influencing customers allegiance and Shoprite attractiveness in their respective

models. However, model one which accounted for 82.1% of variance in customer allegiance to Shoprite was

found to be the best model among the three models developed. It is hoped that this study would be of practical

utility to prospective business merchants, property developers and property managers who may want to invest,

develop and manage shopping mall business and properties.

Keywords: Shopping mall, attractiveness, customer allegiance, satisfaction, retail market, Owerri

Introduction

The significant rapid urban growth resulting from industrialization, high urbanization and unplanned

city growth pattern together with increasing purchasing power and globalisation has created a boom

market for the building of high quality and world-class shopping malls and superstores in Owerri, Imo

State. There is a projection of likely oversupply of goods and services in the state owing to increase in

the number of superstores, supermarkets and shopping malls across the state. Those knowledgeable

with the subject matter have also predicted an unprecedented looming defection of customers from

daily local markets to shopping malls for their everyday needs. For example, investigation shows that

the newly built Shoprite in Egbu Road, Owerri has become a beehive of activities as customers move

in large numbers to buy their daily needs. Furthermore, subjective evidence shows that between 2014

and 2018 over 110 state-of-the-art supermarkets and shopping malls were opened in Owerri and its

environs. Top among them include: Shoprite, House of Freeda, Owerri Mall, Orburu/Obokwe

Shopping Mall and Aladinmma Shopping Mall (Wikipedia, 2018). Furthermore, there are more than

58 leading supermarkets and superstores in Owerri (Wikipedia, 2018). Amongst them are Everyday

Supermarket, Maris, Destiny, Estevia, Priceless, Our Need, Daily Need, Crystal, Heartland, Candic,

Grand, Ju-Mart, Multi-life, St Michael, Noble, Amby, De-Favoured, De-Success, Stelkings, Glorisco

and Blessed Mum supermarkets at World Bank Housing Estate. Besides, investigations show that

there are more than 200 mini superstores and business outlets within the streets of Owerri (Wikipedia,

2018). Many others are still under construction and at various stages of completion. The inference is

that the rise in shopping malls has created a new way of life and a change in consumer behaviour in

Owerri.

Imo people, specifically Owerri residents, have become more demanding in their shopping

expectations. Different from the past, the matter of shopping mall today in Owerri has become


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gradually more complicated in terms of size, type and characteristics. Shopping centres have moved

further from their primary role as centres of retailing goods to becoming centres for social gathering

and leisure activities. This is not peculiar to Owerri, but also in developed and urbanized cities of the

world. As posited by Aliagha et al (2015) due to the persistent alterations in shopper needs, shopping

malls have grown bigger and their one-stop convenience has grown to include service outlets and

activity centres. Perhaps this is why Ahmed et al, (2007) stated that today‘s shopping malls are

gradually turning into entertainment centres while their usual retail components are now seen as less

important. It is becoming difficult to distinguish nowadays, whether one is inside a mall or at a Theme

Park, due to the creative and interesting images, shopping malls present (Underhill. 1999; Pitt and

Zairul 2009). In Owerri, the situation is such that supermarkets and shopping malls have exceeded

their key roles as focal point of economic activity to becoming a meeting place for the young and the

old for fun and other social activities. For example, apart from business activities, Shoprite Owerri has

become an exciting centre attracting people for all kinds of recreational activities such as kids playing

ground and game centre for the old and young. Furthermore, other shopping malls like Owerri Mall,

Aladinmma Shopping Mall, and House of Freeda have all become attractive centres for recreational

activities during daylight hours and in particular all through night hours. In addition, superstores such

as Destiny, Maris and Everyday supermarkets have become thrilling places for shopping, fun, leisure

and site-seeing. The inference is that with the increasing number of shopping malls and supermarkets,

there is now increased competition, and customers can move or switch to other malls. This is mainly

now, most of the shopping centres and supermarkets in Owerri, are offering the same goods and

services. To retain customers‘ allegiance, and possibly curtail likely occurrence of defection and

switching, shopping mall operators now strategize and explore new ways to improve and remain

attractive.

Experts have argued that a shopping mall complex may be unable to survive in a highly competitive

market if it is unattractive and unappealing. This is because it could lose many customers who may be

attracted by the aesthetic appearance, promotional packages offered and quality of goods and services

provided to customers, by other malls. Besides, the strategies put in place to retain customers could

catch the attention of other potential buyers. However, for shopping malls to be centres of attraction,

scholars in customer and merchant relationship have argued that it is more cost effective to hold on to

customers than to acquire them. Their argument is based on the fact that customer allegiance creates

and attracts a steady and new group of customers for a firm‘s product or service (Aliagha et al, 2015).

This is because committed customers are inclined to purchase more and pay higher prices and have

good judgment about the firm (Wallacea, et al, 2004). Largely, studies (Cronin, et al, 2000; Kotler,

and Cunningham, 2002; Yiu and Yau, 2006; Khairul, and Juliana, 2010; Wong, et al, 2012) on

consumer behaviour, customer retention and shopping mall attractiveness, appear to focus specifically

on customers, whereas employers behaviour and fulfilment of his obligations to customers, have

remained less researched. While customer‘s satisfaction and employer‘s fulfilment may be very much

connected, there are basic distinctions between the two.

Whereas customer satisfaction is concerned with explicit need of a rational mind being met, fulfilment

talks about the emotional sensitivity of the employer to satisfactorily perform his responsibilities to

the customer, while on the other hand attractiveness considers those factors that could be put place by

a shopping centre to catch the attention of customers, retain them and surmount possible frictions in

the business and market. It also explains what creates a centre of attention to customers to patronize

shopping malls either for purchase or for pleasure. Even though customer satisfaction is often seen as

precursor to employer fulfilment, employer‘s performance and shopping mall attractiveness creates

longer term customer retention (Aliagha et al, 2015). For example, when a shopping mall discharges

its obligations admirably to customers, it would result to repeat purchase tendencies by the customers

towards the business enterprise. Besides, dependable customers practically promote and tell their

friends about the business, and may not even look at competitive offerings in a different place. More

significantly, they may perhaps pardon and absolve slight errors on inconveniences, if they are

attended properly (Doren, 2006). This study looks at the nature and strength of relationship between

shopping mall attractiveness and customer allegiance in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Put in a different


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way, the study examines the basic characteristics of shopping mall attractiveness and the models that

best give detailed explanation of customer allegiance using Shoprite business complex as a case study.

The study Area and Research Design

Shoprite Owerri is a magnificent contemporary and state-of-the-art mall located at 3 Egbu Road

Owerri Imo State. The shopping mall was unveiled in Owerri the Imo State capital on March 17, 2016

courtesy of a South African based property developer Resilient Africa. The mall houses more than 45

trading outfits. It is sited on 9,950 square metres of land (The Guradian, 2016). It is an anchor tenant

with a ground land area of 3,500sqm. It has provided direct job to 2,000 persons (The Guradian, 2016;

Vangurad News, 2016). It was purpose built to be the premier provider of shopping, food, leisure and

entertainment. It is a magnificently designed luxurious shopping mall and one of the landmarks

adorning the Owerri city. The state-of-the-art mall is an exciting centre attracting people to a

wonderland of sorts. For example, the Mall had over 7,000 shoppers visit on the first day of its

opening and has continued to attract large numbers of visitors (Vangurad News, 2016). From the over

45 brands present, it is always a thrill place to check out, hang out with people and shop at. It is a

world class shopping mall equipped with all safety gadgets to physically and electronically keep the

faculty secure round the clock. It has state-of-art facilities such as banks, ATM machines, washrooms

and car parks including children playing grounds. The mall features a tenant mix and offices that

includes fashion, accessories, telecommunications, health and beauty retailers as well as restaurants‘,

fast food services and entertainments, providing a wide range of choices to Owerri residents in

particular and Imo at large. It also provides services to neighbouring states of Imo like Akwa Ibom,

Abia and Anambra states.

As noted earlier, Owerri where Shoprite is sited is the capital city of Imo State Nigeria. Imo State was

created in 1976 with 27 local Government areas. The State has a total land mass of approximately

5300sq kilometres with an estimated population of over 5 million people. The 1991 and 2006 census

figure released by the National Population Commission puts the population of Imo State at 2,485,635

and 3,927,563 respectively (NPC, 2006; NPC, 2008). It is predominantly a civil service state with

almost the entire workforce residing in the city and its environs and with an average high level of

commercial and business activities going on. As a result, Owerri houses many shopping outlets,

superstores, supermarkets, and shopping malls. Apart from Shoprite, top among them include

Aladinmma Shopping Mall, House of Freeda, Owerri Mall, and Orburu/Obokwe Shopping Mall. For

superstores and supermarkets, they include Everyday supermarket, Maris, Destiny, Estevia, Priceless,

Our Need, Daily Need, Crystal, Heartland, Candic, Grand, Ju-Mart, Multi-life, St Michael, Noble,

Amby, De-Favoured, De-Success, Stelkings, Glorisco and Blessed Mon supermarkets and others. In

addition, Owerri houses a lot of banks and other financial institutions that support shopping mall

businesses. Owerri experiences high influx of population from within and outside the State. Of course,

shopping expectations have grown larger, while conveniences have expanded to include service and

entertainment with its associated competitions. Therefore, an investigation into the nature and strength

of relationship between shopping mall attractiveness and customer allegiance in Owerri is considered

useful and desirable hence this study.

The primary data for this study was collected through questionnaire survey. The questionnaire was

divided into two parts. Part 1 contained general demographic questions of the participants designed to

know their background information. Whereas part 2 comprised a set of questions that were intended

to shed light on participants‘ awareness of the indicators of shopping mall attractiveness and customer

allegiance. Based on the literature review six constructs and fifteen indicators of shopping mall

attractiveness were identified while one construct and three indicators were identified for customer

allegiance as shown in Table 1. The items were presented in 5-point likert scale (1= strongly disagree,

5 strongly agree). The coefficients of the cronbach‘s Alpha reliability of the items ranged from 0.742

to 0.852.

Regressional Analysis of Shopping Mall Attractiveness and Customer Allegiance: The Case Study of…

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Table 1 Representative Constructs and Variables Factors Variables

Factor 1: Physical Factors (PF)

Location (PF1)

Cleanliness(PF2)

Architecture &design(PF3)

Factor 2: Quality of services (QOS) Qualities of information from the customer service staff (QOS1).

Sociability of the customer service staff (QOS2)

Factor 3: Accessibility Elements(AE) Access Roads (AE1)

Access Bus and taxi station(AE2)

Factor 4: Price and Verity (PAV) Variety of choices(PAV1)

Cheaper price(PAV2)

Factor 5: Entertainment Factors (EF) Food court(EF1)

Gaming centre(EF2)

Cinema(EF3)

Factor 6: Quality of Building

Facilities (QBF)

Banks/ ATMs(QBF1)

Washrooms(QBF2)

Car Park(QBF3)

Customer allegiance Get friends, acquaintances and family members initiated allegiance

Receive prize and reward with free gift initiated customer allegiance

Keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance

The study was based on self-administered questionnaire and the participants were randomly selected

from shoppers (customers) and managers of business outfits aged 18 years and above that come, work

or have shops at Shoprite Owerri. A total of 320 questionnaires were distributed. Out of this number,

10 were not returned. Out of 310 returned, 10 were removed because they were not properly

completed. The remaining 300 representing 93.75% of the total questionnaires were used. Out of the

300 valid questionnaire received 88% were females ((N = 264) and 12% were males (N = 36). The

implication is that more females shop and manage business outfits at Shoprite more than males. The

number is reflection of the different age groups of the participants from 18 years and above.

Multiple regression method was used to analyse the data for this study. This is because the study

involves multiple predicators of variance in dependent variables. To realize the objectives of this

study three dependent variables for customer allegiance (get friends, acquaintances and family

members initiated allegiance (CA1); receive prize and reward with free gift promo initiated customer

allegiance (CA2);, and keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance (CA3) were regressed on

fifteen independent variables of shopping mall attractiveness. The multiple regressions thus provided

the means to objectively assess the degree and the character of the relationship between customer

allegiance to Shoprite and its attractiveness. The equation for multiple regression analysis is expressed

as:

Y= a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + … bnXn

Where Y= dependent variable; a= intercept; Bn = regression coefficient for the independent variables

Xn= independent variables.

In order to accurately interpret the data, the regression relied on the following: [1] the R2 for strength

of relationship and variance in each of the dependent variables of customer allegiance are explained

by the set of variable for shopping mall attractiveness; and [2] beta (β) values for assessing relative

impact size of each of the independent variable on customer allegiance variables.

Literature Review Past studies (Golden and Zimmerman1986; Aliagha et al, 2015) have shown that physical factors such

as location, architectural designs and cleanliness as determinants of shopping mall attractiveness.

Specifically, Aliagha et al (2015) argued that for a shopping mall to survive and make progress both

in short and long term periods such mall must be properly located and sited. It is the opinion of the

authors that a well located and well managed shopping mall will continue to withstand and survive

any business shock. The authors‘ opinion may be based on the understanding that location has

significant influence on customer decisions when choosing shopping malls to patronize. For example,

location determines accessibility which in turn has a hypothetical effect on the profitability of a

shopping complex. The implication is that a shopping mall complex may be unable to survive any


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business misfortune if such shopping complex is not located in a good site where customers can easily

access it. Perhaps, this is why shopping malls located in rural areas attract less patronage from the

public. Thus, there is general apathy to purchase goods among shoppers‘ when a shopping complex is

remotely located in rural community (Aliagha et al, 2015). On the other hand, there are documented

evidences linking accessibility and convenience as key factors that influence preference of shopping

malls. Accessibility underscores the ease of entry to access shopping complexes. According to Levy,

and Weitz, (1998) it underlines the ease by which customers and other users move in and out of the

shopping centre. Accessibility determines demand and consequently profitability. Maybe it is on this

premise that Aliagha et al (2015) posit that accessibility significantly determines the success or failure

of a shopping centre.

Another feature that could attract customers to a shopping mall is design features. Loudon and Bitta

(2003) had observed that present-day shopping centres are now archetype and model of architectural

master piece and designs that are often reflected in their internal and exterior image. Investigations

show that these days design features such as doors, ceiling, lighting fittings, paintings, other internal

views and landscaping are given enough attention while designing and building any shopping

complex. Wakefield and Baker (1998) in their study of the effects of architectural design on

customers patronising a shopping mall found evidence linking excellent and high-quality interior

decoration to shopping mall attractiveness and customer loyalty. Besides design features, one more

attribute that affects the choice and patronage of shopping mall is the quality of facilities put in place

by a shopping complex. Studies show that the quality of facilities within a shopping mall has the

potentials of influencing customer‘s choice, patronage and visit to a shopping complex. For example,

in Owerri, new generation shopping centres like Shoprite has facilities like POS machine, ATM,

parking lot, sanitary facility, food court, and walkway for the physically challenged, bureau de

change, praying room, public telephone booth, internet facility and banks located in it. The

availability and ease of use of these facilities make the shopping malls attractive.

Furthermore, there is strong evidence linking entertainment as a motivation for shopping in a mall

(White, 2008). Perhaps this could be that entertainment has in recent times become an integral part of

the shopping mall experience. For example, customers and shoppers are no longer looking for only

shopping centres that offer only shopping, but also places that entertain them, so real estate developers

are taking their time to develop places that shoppers and visitors can enjoy, not just a place to buy

things. For instance, Kang et al, (1999) in their study on the impact of entertainment as motivation for

shopping, in San Diego USA, found that more shoppers agreed that what motivates them for shopping

is the high level of entertainment offered by shopping malls. The study also found that those with low

level of education tend to have a high level of entertainment inspiration for shopping and shoppers

who perceived a high level of enjoyment usually spend more time on shopping than those that

experienced a low level of enjoyment. In addition, the increasing threats of terrorism and kidnapping

around the world have made security a major issue in shopping mall management and design

(Coleman, 2006). Thus, security has become a major factor that affects shopping mall attractiveness

and customer loyalty. Investigation shows that customers may not feel secured visiting the shopping

centre when there are reports of insecurity. Customers always have preference visiting shopping malls

that provide good security system via the use of security guards, close circuit television (CCTV) and

other electronically and computer-controlled security devices. Providing all these, helps in making

customers feel secured while within and around a shopping centre.

In any case, customer allegiance to shopping mall has been described as incentive and inspiration

driven. It is the motivation and willingness of a customer to stay with the current service provider

(Aliagha et al, 2015). It is the readiness and eagerness of a buyer or purchaser to continue to patronize

a business company. The enthusiasm to stay has been proved to be based on certain factors and

reasons. For example, consumer‘s satisfaction has been found to have strong influence on shoppers‘

ability to remain loyal to a business company (Cronin, et al, 2000; Kotler, and Cunningham, 2002;

Yiu and Yau, 2006; Khairul, and Juliana, 2010; Wong, et al, 2012). Furthermore, those

knowledgeable with consumer behaviour and retention have argued that customers‘ and buyers‘

happiness may perhaps make them develop perpetual and long-lasting relationship with their service


158


providers (Kotler, and Cunningham, 2002; Yiu and Yau, 2006; Rust et al, 2000). Thus, customers‘

satisfaction and happiness encourages consistency. As Aliagha et al, (2012] posit customers

consistency is a foundation of competitive advantage and has persuasive effect on business

performance. Perhaps, this is why experts believe that customer‘s fidelity and consistency to a

shopping mall arises because of the services provided by such mall (Cronin, et al, 2000; Kotler, and

Cunningham, 2000). The inference is that purchaser‘s view and acknowledgement about how he or

she is valued by the service provider could motivate him or her to patronize the provider again and

again (Ishaq, 2012).

Besides, factors such as social contact, participation, and financial resources and time could have

significant relationship with customer loyalty and allegiance (Zhang and Peng, 2010; Aliagha et al,

2015). For example, scenarios where customer‘s time is appropriately managed by a shopping mall

could greatly motivate him to stay with the mall. As noted by Aliagha et al, (2015) when customers

are rightly served within a fixed time, they are happy and motivated to come again while in some

cases they come with a pool of new shoppers. On the other hand, dealer/seller factor could have

strong influence on customer loyalty. According to experts, the dealer factor entails the choice, price,

market environment and salesmen (hang and Peng, 2010). For instance, customers‘ allegiance and

fidelity maybe retained where the seller‘s goods are affordable and cheap. In addition to retail and

consumer factors (Machirori and Fatoki, 2011) noted that another factor - traffic is also vital when

customer fidelity is involved. Thus, a positive relationship exist between service quality and customer

behavioural intentions and that strong customer service leads to customer satisfaction which will

always lead to faithful behaviour (Aliagha et al, 2015). For instance, when a customer is faithful to a

shopping mall, there is the likelihood such customer could repeat purchase at the same mall.

Therefore, it is in the opinion of this study that allegiance results to repeat purchase tendencies and

customer‘s propensity and penchant to patronize business enterprises.

As observed by Brink and Berndt (2004) and Hollensen (2003) when true loyalty exists, consumers

will on a regular basis perform repeat purchase transactions because of the strong preference they

have for the business enterprise. While recognizing customers‘ repeat visiting behaviour as important

to the survival of a shopping mall, East et al, (1995) argues that experience that may account for the

occurrence of certain behaviour should not be ignored. This is because customer‘s allegiance is not

only based on price/affordable goods, physical facilities or satisfaction, quality of goods and services

but is based more on customer feelings and perceptions about the enterprise (Aliagha et al, 2015;

Brink and Berndt, 2004). The implication of this is that the provision and availability of physical

elements alone cannot be the prerequisite for customers‘ continued allegiance. Thus, incentives and

gifts have been found to have had strong effect on customers‘ loyalty and fidelity. For example, Wirtz

and Chew (2002) found that incentives like free gifts promo, gift vouchers, coupons, free items and

accumulation of reward points improved customers‘ chances of involving in word-of–mouth

behaviour that can translate into image promotion. Again, those who received benefits such as gifts

were more devoted than those that were given a complimentary note Kendrick, (1998).

Apart from this, rising evidences show that the quality of service provided by a shopping mall could

as well determine customer loyalty. Investigations show that quality of services has a long term effect

on company‘s successes and performance. Thus, long-term overall qualitative appraisal or judgment

on the excellence of service shows that customer allegiance could be a function of service quality

(Aliagha et al, 2015). Perhaps this may have prompted Wirtz and Chew (2002) to posit that there is a

relationship between repeat purchase and customer allegiance. Furthermore, Gowda (2011) in a study

on the impact of shopping experience in retaining customer loyalty in India observed that shopping

experience and customer allegiance are directly connected and that if the shopping experience is

pleasing, customer‘s allegiance towards retail store is high and vice versa. Going further, the authors

found that the range of activities of retailers, such as service quality, environment and pricing plans,

aid customer allegiance. As noted by Aliagha et al, (2015) a CEO of Customer Think Corporation

observed that as emotion plays a key role in customers‘ decision to stop patronizing a business,

emotion can be used to keep customers from leaving if he is satisfied. The inference is that the very

basic act of re-communicating with people, without any kind of official program, attracts returns to


159


malls. The conclusion is that customers want to be engaged, not only on useful or logical levels, but

they want to be familiar with you, hear you and know that you care for them. This increases their

allegiance and confidence in any business enterprise (Aliagha et al, 2015).


This study seeks to analyse the relationship that exists between customer allegiance and shopping

mall (Shoprite) attractiveness. Customer allegiance in this study is measured by (get friends,

acquaintances and family members initiated allegiance; receive prize and reward with free gift promo

initiated customer allegiance, and keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance). Thus, a regression

analysis was performed to test three models on customer allegiance using Shoprite in Owerri Imo

State as case study.

Model 1 Get friends, acquaintances and family members initiated allegiance vs. Shoprite Attractiveness

The first model above assesses whether any relationship exists between ―get friends, acquaintances

and family members for shopping initiated allegiance and Shoprite attractiveness. To establish this,

the study regress twelve independent variables against customer allegiance (get friends, acquaintances

and family members for shopping). A look at Model 1 shows that there was significant relationship

between ―get friends, acquaintances and family members for shopping initiated allegiance‘‘ and

Shoprite attractiveness‘‘ (R2 = 0.82, P< 0.05). The inference is that this model accounted for 82.1% of

variance in getting friends, acquaintances and family members for shopping initiated customer

allegiance. Thus, the model could be described as a good model. Though, with an error of 27.8%,

which could be as a result of other factors that were not taking into consideration or included in this

study; it is however clear from the result that the model to a large extent predicted getting friends,

acquaintances and family members for shopping initiated allegiance to be significantly in relationship

with Shoprite attractiveness.

For example, a look at the contributions of the variables in the model indicates significant relationship

between the variables architecture and design (β =0.353, P<0.05), cleanliness (β = 0.364, P<0.05);

variety of choices (β = 0.430, P<0.05), cheaper prices (β =0.533, P<0.05); access road (β =0.141, P<

0.05), access bus/taxi station (β = 0.265, P,0.05), quality of information (β =0.255, P<0.05),

ATM/banks (β = 0.659, P<0.05),washroom (β = 0.248, P< 0.05), and customer allegiance. On the

other hand, a look at the table indicates that location (β = 0.0430, P>0.05), sociability of staff (β =

0.00852) and car park (0.0188, P> 0.05) were not significant in this model. For the variables that

individually demonstrated significant relationship with customer allegiance in this model, their

contributions were checked. Thus, ATM/banks contributed most with (β = 0.659). This is followed

by cheaper prices (β =0.533), variety of choices (β = 0.430), cleanliness (β = 0.364); architecture &

design (β =0.353), access bus/taxi station (β = 0.265), quality of information (β =0.255). What this

implies is that a unit increase in ATM/banks within the shopping mall assuming other independent

variables are constant brings about 0.659 or 65.9% variation in bringing friends, acquaintances and

family members for shopping initiated customer allegiance.

CL_ BFREN

=Stand err t-values

P-values

β 0.0430*PF_LOCTN

(0.0325) 0.740

0.522

+Β0.353*PF_ARCH

(0.0520) 8.858

0.000

+β 0.364*PF_CLEAN

(0.0505) 9.550

0.000

+Β0.00852*QOS_SOCIA

(0.0315) 0.168

0.965

+β 0.430*PAV_VARTY

(0.0544) 8.768

0.000

+β 0.533*PAV_CHEAP

(0.0324) 5.550

0.000

β +0.141*AE_ROAD (0.0424)

3.562

0.000

+β 0.265*AE_BUSTX (0.0366)

6.756

0.000

+β 0.255*QOS_QINFO (0.0440)

6.452

0.000

+β0.659*QBF_ATMBK

(0.0558)

14.697 0.000

+Β0.248*QBF_WASHR

(0.0457)

11.870 0.000

+β0.0188*QBF_CARPK

(0.0659)

0.460 0.823

R2 = 0.821,

Error Variance

= 0.278


160


Furthermore, one unit increase in the reduction of prices of goods and services at Shoprite when other

independent variables are held constant brings about 0.533 or 53.3% variation in getting friends,

acquaintances and family members for shopping whereas a unit increase in the level of variety of

choices in the shopping mall gets about 0.430 or 43.0% variation in getting friends, acquaintances,

and family members for shopping. The findings are in agreement with Aliagha et al, (2015) earlier

observation that quick access to money from ATM/Bank at shopping centres attract customers and

reduce the risk of carrying cash. The result is also in conformity with the authors‘ findings that

cheaper price and sale of verities of goods and services attracts customers to shopping malls. For

example, customers‘ ability to make choices among the various goods and items displayed in

shopping malls lure them to Shoprite. Furthermore, one critical and important finding from the model

is the significant impact quality of building facilities (washroom) and physical element (cleanliness)

has on customer allegiance to Shoprite. This shows that customers are regularly at peace with the

clean and neat environment at Shoprite and this had influenced their decision to visit the mall.

Model 2: Receive prize and reward with free gift promo initiated customer allegiance and Shoprite Attractiveness

CL_ REWAD

=Stand err

t-values

P-values

β 0.104*PF_LOCTN

(0.0580)

1.428

0.144

+β 0.00377*PF_ARCH

(0.0556)

0.0635

0.862

+β 0.0355*PF_CLEAN

(0.0532)

0.122

0.586

+β 0.0694*QBF_ATMBK

(0.0752)

1.175

0.285

+β 0.125*QBF_WASHR

(0.0575)

1.750

0.139

+β 0.368*QBF_CARPK

(0.0802)

4.002

0.000

+β 0.556*AE_ROAD

(0.0548)

6.86

0.000

+β 0.359*AE_BUSTX

(0.0495)

2.683

0.003

+β 0.212*QOS_QINFO

(0.0872)

1.905

0.066

+β0.0442*QOS_SOCIA

(0.0720)

0.851

0.392

+β 0.00833*PAV_VARTY

(0.0661)

0.139

0.955

+β .0220*PAV_CHEAP

(0.0721)

0.511

0.741

R2 = 0.658, Error Variance = 0.258

The relationship that exists between ‗‘receive prize and reward with free gift promo initiated customer

allegiance and Shoprite attractiveness is examined in model 2 above. In the model, twelve

independent variables were regressed against reward/free gift promo. Result from the model indicates

that significant relationship exists between ‘receive prize and reward with free gift promo initiated

customer allegiance and Shoprite attractiveness (R2 = 0.658, P <0.05). Thus, the model explained

25.8% of customer allegiance with regard to receiving prize, reward and free gift promo from

Shoprite. Again, the model accounted for 65.8% of variance in receiving prize and reward with free

gift promo. Consequently, the model could be depicted as a good model. However, a look at the

breakdown of the results shows that only three variables in the model were significant: quality of

building facilities - car park (β =0.368, P< 0.05), accessibility - bus/taxi station (β = 0.359, P<0.05),

road (β =0.556, P< 0.05). Whereas a closer look at the model shows that the following variables had

very little contribution in the model. The variables include: location (β =0.104), architectural design

(β =0.00377), cleanliness, (β =0.0355), ATM/bank (β =0.0694), washroom (β =0.125), quality of

information (β=0.212), sociability (β=0.0442), variety of choices (β =0.00833), cheaper prices

(β=0.0220 P>0.05). The findings is also in accord with previous studies (Aliagha et al, 2015; Ahmed,

et al, 2007 and Cronin et al, 2000) results that location, architectural design, friendliness of customers

services staff, variety of choices and cheaper prices could have modest connection with receiving

prize and reward with free gift promo initiated customer allegiance. Nevertheless, the result shows

that the respondents (shoppers and managers of business outfits) in Shoprite were of the view that

overall, there is significant relationship between giving prize and reward with free gift promo to

customers and shopping mall attractiveness and allegiance.


161


Model 3: Keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance and Shoprite Attractiveness

Model three above shows a regression analysis conducted to establish if relationship exists between

keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance and Shoprite attractiveness. Thus, keep on shopping

initiated customer allegiance was regressed against fifteen independent variables (location,

architecture, cleanliness, qualities of information from the customer service staff, sociability of the

customer service staff, ATM/banks, washroom, car park, food court, gaming, cinema, road network,

bus/taxi stations variety of items and cheaper price). For easy analysis, all the variables in the

multiple regression analysis were entered at once. Evidence from the model reveals that there is

strong significant relationship between keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance and Shoprite

attractiveness (R2 =0.557). This implies that the model explains 55.7% variance in keep on shopping

initiated customer allegiance. Based on this result, the model could be considered a good one. Again,

with significant error variance at 51.3 suggesting that there were 51.3% of unreported variance or

other factors that could affect keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance which the model did not

explain for. Assuming other variables remain constant in the model, the standardized beta coefficient

value (regression weight) in the model indicates the contribution of each variable to the model. On

this basis, findings from the model reveal that there is significant relationship between keep on

shopping initiated customer allegiance and location (β = 0.551), cleanliness (β = 0.522), washroom

(β= 0.510), car park(β=0.335), food court(β = 0.320), bus/taxi station (β = 0.315), variety of choices

(β =0.312), ATM/banks (β = 0 .284), cheaper price(β = 0.241), games (β = 0.235), road (β = 0.151),

quality of information (β = 0.148), and sociability of staff (β = 0.138),

On the other hand, a look at model three indicates that two variables were not significant. They are

cinema. (β = 0.0301) and architecture (β = 0.0302). This implies that there contribution to the model

was extremely small. . The reason for this may not be mind-boggling; Shoprite though was built

newly but it may not be architecturally and aesthetically or visually outstanding in the eyes of some

customers especially when weighed with other shopping malls in developed countries of the world

like the United States of America and United Kingdom. As such a number of customers may not

really be bothered about its architectural design. However, among the fifteen independent variables

that was regressed against keep on shopping initiated customer allegiance, location (β = 0.551),

cleanliness (β = 0.522), washroom (β= 0.510), car park (β=0.335), food court (β = 0.320), bus/taxi

station (β = 0.315), variety of choices (β =0.312), were unique in their contribution to model three. As

observed in the model, when other variables are held constant location (β = 0.551), had the major

overall effect on keep on shopping imitative program of Shoprite Owerri. This implies that extra

effort at improving the location and accessibility of the mall would bring about 0.551 or 55%

variation on continues shopping in the mall by customers. In the same way, a unit boost in the level of

cleanliness in Shoprite could result to 0.522 or 52.2% variations on keep on shopping by prospective

CL_REPET

Stand err

t-values

P-values

+β 0.551*PF_LOCTN

(0.0566)

5.402

0.000

+β0.0302*PF_ARCH

(0.0416)

0.780

0.423

+β 0.522*PF_CLEAN

(0.0524)

6.845

0.000

+β 0.284*QBF_ATMBK

(0.0655)

4.661

0.000

+β 0.510*QBF_WASHR

(0.0577)

7.122

0.000

+β 0.335*QBF_CARPK

(0.0568)

5.704

0.000

+β 0.320*EF_FOODC

(0.0549)

4.428

0.000

+β 0.235*EF_GAMING

(0.0638)

5.386

0.000

+β0 .0301*EF_CENIMA

(0.0611)

1.025

0.405

+β 0.151*AE_ROAD

(0.0420)

2.145

0.020

+β 0.315*AE_BUSTX

(0.0544)

5.457

0.000

+β 0.148*QOS_QINFO

(0.0524)

3.510

0.000

+β 0.138*QOS_SOCIA

(0.0470)

2.958

0.002

+β 0.312*PAV_VARTY

(0.0531)

3.644

0.000

+ β 0.241*PAV_CHEAP

(0.0533)

5.641

0.000

R² = 0.557,

Error Variance

= 0.513


162


customers whereas adding extra unit of washroom at Shoprite will bring 0.510 or 51.0% variations on

continues shopping by potential customers. A major implication of the contributions of these three

major variables in the model is that shoppers and buyers place high priority on the location (physical

element) and accessibility in terms of nearness and access to bus/taxi stations as strong factor on

customer allegiance. Furthermore, customers put and rate the hygienic conditions (building facilities)

of the shopping mall they patronize within Owerri.


Customer attraction and retention as well as allegiance are critical to the survival of shopping malls

and other superstores. It is also crucial for competitive advantage in retail industry like shopping mall

business. Shoprite has taking advantage of the allegiance influencers discussed in this study to top

other shopping malls and superstores within Owerri in the retail business. In less than three years of

its establishment Shoprite has attracted and recorded unprecedented number of shoppers. Put side by

side with other malls, the number of shoppers that visit Shoprite on a daily basis has remained

unmatched. For example, as noted earlier, the mall had over 7,000 shoppers visit on the first day of

its opening. Thus, the three models developed in this study represent effective policy strategies and

approach put in place by Shoprite to attract and retain customers and improve her business successes.

Put differently, the models have revealed the strength of Shoprite in attracting and retaining

customers. It has also assessed the basis why customers move in large numbers to purchase at

Shoprite. Therefore, what attracts shoppers at Shoprite has been revealed. However, in line with the

objective of this study, the three models have empirically helped to reveal the influence of shopping

mall factors on customers and buyers fidelity and loyalty to Shoprite. A verification of the model

indicated that significant number of variables were outstanding with regard to their contributions in

the model fit. For example, washrooms, ATM/banks, cleanliness, variety of choice cheaper price,

access to bus/taxi stations contributed significantly in models one and two whereas architecture and

design and location contributed to a great extent in models one and three respectively. Also car park

contributed appreciably in models two and three in that order. With regard to the model fit and the

ability to demonstrating and predicting power, model one which showed 82.1% of the variance of gets

friends, acquaintances and family members initiated allegiance is the finest model followed by the

second model which indicated 65.8% of variance in receiving prize and reward with free gift promo

initiated customer allegiance. Finally, the third model which accounted for 55.7% is also a good

model that could be used to predict buyers continues shopping initiated customer allegiance and

Shoprite attractiveness. As the findings revealed Shoprite attractiveness in terms of its physical factors

(cleanliness and location), accessibility (roads, bus/taxi stations) and quality of building facilities

(ATMs/banks, washroom, car park) contributed and added exceedingly in explaining customer

allegiance and attraction to Shoprite. The implication is that if Shoprite continues to maintain and

improve on its current services, it would remain a centre that continues to catch the attention of

customers in Owerri, Imo State and beyond.

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165


PATTERN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN

KATSINA METROPOLIS, KATSINA STATE, NIGERIA

Ashiru Bello1 and Aminu Muhammad Garba

2

1 & 2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

[email protected]

Abstract

Urban agriculture has been promoted as a sustainable response to food security issues in urban areas as well

as the quest for reservation of urban green landscape. This study established the pattern and characteristics of

urban agricultural practices in Katsina metropolis by using multi-stage sampling technique in the selection of

participants across the five clusters in the metropolis. This was followed with the selection of 296 respondents

across the five clusters for surveys and further analyses. Four major types of Urban Agriculture (UA) were

identified. They are rain-fed, irrigation, poultry and aquaculture. With respect to spatial location, rain fed is the

major form of UA practiced at the city fringe (66%). Poultry and fish farming were found largely within the

core areas. Accessibility to recycled water and production close to consumers influence the vegetable farming

practiced mainly at Wakilin Gabas. The size of urban farms was found to vary with agricultural practices.

Demographically, the age groups of 44-51 years are engaged more in rain-fed agriculture as compared to other

forms of practice. In all the four types of UA identified, the age group of 28-35 years is relevant but with

relatively higher proportion in irrigation faming. Findings also showed that rain-fed farming and irrigation

farming are the main practices within the non-formal education farmers. Certain restraints facing the

enterprises were identified which include diminishing of land patches available for UA practices, limited space

for production and lack of legal bye-laws for the practices of UA. Recommendations were made to promote the

practice of urban agriculture owing to its contribution to the urban economic well-being through integrating

urban agriculture in to the city‟s management framework.

Keywords: Urban Agriculture, livelihood, urban economy, green landscape, sustainability, Katsina State

Introduction

The limited disposable income among the urban dwellers, corresponding increases in food

expenditure as well as the persistence of urban poverty has increased the need for food production in

towns and cities. In this regard, Mireri et.al (2006) posits that, Urban Agriculture (UA) responds to

these issues through some kinds of crops, livestock production, agro-forestry or wood production that

is practiced within and outskirt of cities. This takes place in the urban backyards, rooftops, road side,

and vacant public land and around ponds, lakes and rivers (Hovorka et.al, 2009). In many instances

however, urban agriculture is marginalized, because of the little government support and lack of its

recognition as a commercial activity in towns and cities (Hollaran and Magid, 2013).

Although the practice of urban agriculture is increasingly becoming an important activity in urban

economy owing to its significant contribution to the well-being of the urban residents, the processes

of urban development in Katsina metropolis poses threats to urban agriculture. At present, the patches

of UA practices are apparently diminishing without corresponding alternatives as a result of the

development pattern. Thus, meeting the demand of urban consumers from marginalized practice will

be difficult. It is therefore imperative to determine the pattern and characteristics of urban agriculture

for informed planning and urban management in Katsina metropolis. This study addresses three

specific objectives of determining farming characteristics among the urban agricultural practitioners;

establishing the spatial distribution of urban agricultural activities in the study area; and identifying

the factors that influence the practice in Katsina metropolis of Katsina State.

Urban Agriculture has received considerable attention from scholars. This is particularly the case with

its characteristics alongside urban land uses (Taiwo 2016), characteristics of the practice and spatial

nature of production system (Makundi et.al, 2014) and urban agriculture in urban landscapes (Toth

and Feriancova, 2015). Review of these and other studies revealed that, the prospect of urban

agriculture is influenced by characteristic types of land use within which UA is situated. Furthermore,

rental cost, profit, accessibility to road network and community distance to farm influence the choice

of agricultural practice. Mireri et.al (2006) noted that, the choice of what to produce and how to

produce is determined by culture, tradition, markets, water supply, rainfall, climate, exposure to sun,


166



soil condition, plot size and distance to home, family and individual resources, land availability and

location. Additionally, the study of Taiwo (2016) and Makundi et.al (2014) have also revealed that,

urban environmental landscapes influences the diverse forms of agriculture and characteristics of

farming practices as well as the spatial nature of production system in both urban and peri-urban

areas. Community gardens, farmers‘ retails market, are usually located within the urban area while

large scale agriculture specifically cereals and livestock rearing where found in peri-urban areas.

It is important to understand the pattern and characteristics of urban agriculture amidst local

circumstances for proper planning and urban management. As established from the literature, the

pattern and characteristics of urban agriculture is shaped by the location of activities, typology of the

practice, size of farms, land access, retail market and farming character of the farmers. As these

indices are context specific, they formed the basis upon which Urban Agriculture is examined in

Katsina Metropolis.

The study area and Methodology

The study area is Katsina metropolis which is located at the extreme northern margin of Nigeria. The

city covers a total land area of about 3370 square kilometers and it is the capital city of Katsina State,

which lies between 11°00‘ N, 6°45' E and 13° 25‘N, 9°05‘E. It is defined by 20km radius from the

emirate council at Kofar Soro and is well connected by roads and with other regions, with an

approximate distance of 155 km from Kano and 47km from Niger Republic. It has a projected

population of 395,690 by 2016.

Fig 1: Map of Katsina Metropolis

Source Field work, (2018)

The target population for this study constitutes the urban farmers within the five wards of Katsina

metropolis. Farmers were purposively sampled following a pilot study. Data was collected using

questionnaire and supplemented with field observations. A total of 296 farmers were taken from the

five wards of Katsina metropolis using cluster sampling and snowballing was used for the

administration of questionnaire. Targeted information includes urban farmers‘ socio-economic

characteristics, urban farming practices, spatial location of agricultural activities both within the built

up and urban fringes.

Ashiru Bello and Aminu Muhammad Garba

167


Result and Discussion

Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Urban Farmers in Katsina Metropolis

Age of farmers, education, occupation non-farm income, farming experience, and cooperative

membership are the elements examined under the socio-economic characteristics of urban farmers in

the metropolis. In terms of age of the farmers, 27.7% of the urban farmers were between the ages of

36-43 years (table 1). This implies that farmers within the metropolis were relatively young people.

This agrees with the findings of Aminu (2014) and Olaniyi (2012) that people who engaged in UA are

largely in the productive ages.

In terms of Educational level, the findings have established that 32% and 30% of the actors acquired

secondary and tertiary levels of education respectively while 13.5% had only primary education and

23.6% had no formal education. These concords with Arene and Mbata‘s (2008) assertion that

educational status influences the tendency for adoption of new innovative ways for practicing urban

agriculture (table 1). In terms of occupation, the result shows that about one fourth (25.7%) of the

urban farmers were civil servants, 33.1% were traders, whereas 11.5% had no other occupation. This

implies that majority of urban farmers were engaged elsewhere. This finding agrees with Salau and

Attah (2012) that urban agricultural activities were practiced largely by the people who are engaged in

other occupation. This is also depicted in table 1.

Non-farm income data revealed that 33.1% of the urban farmers earned below ₦10, 000 as non-farm

income per month while 25.7% earned between ₦49, 000 to ₦68, 000 per month with about 11.5%

earning more than ₦68, 000 per month. This implies low (non-farm) income earning among the urban

farmers as shown in table 1. In terms of urban farming experience, the result shows that majority of

the urban farmers had considerable experience in urban agricultural practice. Only few of the farmers

(13.5%) were discovered to have had less than 8years of experience. This implies that farmers had

relatively long experience in UA. Cooperative membership of the respondents shows that about four

fifth (80.7%) of the urban farmers did not belong to farmer‘s cooperative groups. This means that

only 19.3% belong to some farming related cooperative groups. The reasons for not being a

cooperative member were investigated and the result shows that about 18.9% of the urban farmers

lack interest in any cooperative group while 3.7% respond to absence of cooperative association in

their neighborhood and 74.7% of the practitioners did not respond to any reasons for not belonging to

cooperative groups. This clearly indicates that, the majority of the urban farmers can source farm

input even without the support from cooperatives. This notion disagrees with the finding of Salau and

Attah (2012) who stated that, low cooperative participation poses a serious disadvantage to urban

farmer.

Table 1: socio-economic characteristics of urban farmers in Katsina metropolis Age (Years) Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

20 – 27 16 5.4 5.4

28 – 35 53 17.9 23.3

36 – 43 82 27.7 51.0

44 – 51 66 22.3 73.3

52 – 59 55 18.6 91.9

60 + 24 8.1 100.0

Literacy status

No Formal Education 70 23.6 23.6

Primary 40 13.5 37.2

Secondary 96 32.4 69.6

Tertiary 90 30.4 100.0

Occupation of farmers

No Occupation 34 11.5 11.5

Trading 98 33.1 44.6

Formal Private Sector 35 11.8 56.4

Other Farming Practice 53 17.9 74.3

Civil Servant 76 25.7 100.0

Non-farm income

Pattern and Characteristics of Urban Agricultural Practices in Katsina Metropolis, Katsina State, Nigeria

168


<= 10000.00 98 33.1 44.6

10001.00 - 30000.00 35 11.8 56.4

30001.00 - 49000.00 53 17.9 74.3

49001.00 - 68000.00 76 25.7 11.5

68001.00+ 34 11.5 100.0

Farming experience

1.00 - 4.66 10 3.4 3.4

4.67 - 8.32 30 10.1 13.5

8.33 - 11.99 58 19.6 33.1

12.00 - 15.66 24 8.1 41.2

15.67 - 19.33 61 20.6 61.8

19.34+ 113 38.2

Reason for Cooperative membership

Not in Cooperative 239 80.7 80.7

Project Farmers Interest 3 1.0 81.8

Production Advise 13 4.4 86.1

Ease In Sourcing Farm Input 30 10.1 96.

No Benefit 11 3.7 100.0

Reasons for not belonging to any

association

No Response 221 74.7 74.7

Not Interested 56 18.9 93.6

Do not exist in my Area 11 3.7 97.3

No Transparent 8 2.7 100.0

Source: Field survey, 2018

Typology and Spatial Character of Urban Agriculture in Katsina metropolis

This section discusses the typology, location, and retails market, size of urban farms and nature of

land access in Katsina metropolis. Figure 2 shows the types of urban agricultural practice in Katsina

metropolis. Findings revealed that, 66.0 % of the urban farmers are engaged in rain-fed agriculture, 21

% are irrigation farmers, 9 % are poultry farmers while only 4% of the urban agricultural farmers are

in fish farming. This implies that the dominant UA practice is in rain-fed agriculture.

Fig 2 Types of agriculture practices in the metropolis


Location of Urban agricultural Activities by types in Katsina Metropolis

The practice of Poultry farming has been found both within the built up and urban fringes. This

practice is dominated in the south east of the metropolis coupled with dispersed practices in and

around the metropolitan wards. Fish farming is being practiced by the few urban farmers and this is

only observed at Kofar Durbi axis (see figure 3). This is perhaps because of capital restraint since the

practice requires high initial investment. Plate 1 and 2 shows some exemplified locations of urban

agriculture practices.


169


Fig: 3 Poultry and fish farming sites in Katsina metropolis

Source: Field survey, 2018.

Plate 1: Fish farming at Wakilin Gabas neighborhood


Plate 2: Backyard Poultry farming in Dandagoro neighborhoods


Figure 4 further ascertains the spatial location of rain-fed farming in Katsina metropolis. Majority of

the rain-fed farming practices were located at the outskirt of the city. This could be due to the

presence of open space at the city fringes.


170


Figure 4: Rain-fed agricultural sites in Katsina metropolis


Figure 5 shows the spatial location as well as water source for irrigation farming in Katsina

metropolis. Vegetable production was found to be practiced along the Ginzo stream and this is

attributed to the presence grey water which is coming from the neighboring residents. However, this

practice was found to be diminishing within Kofar Durbi axis due to the scarcity of water and

increasing urban development in the area. Plate 3 shows vegetables production sites within the built-

up area.

Fig: 5 Irrigation and vegetable producing sites in Katsina metropolis



171


Plate 3: Vegetable production within the built up area at Wakilin Gabas


Table 2 shows that, about one third of the urban famers 32.4% used rented land for urban agriculture,

24.7% were using their own land, 15.2% uses inherited land while 27.7% use barrowed land. This

indicates that, most of the urban farmers do not own the land that is being used for urban agriculture.

This finding support that of Holloran and Magid (2013) that, insecurity of land tenure and ownership

push large group of urban farmers to operate urban agriculture on marginal land.

Table 2: Accesses to Land for Urban Farming Source of land Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Inherited 45 15.2 15.2 15.2

Rented 96 32.4 32.4 47.6

Bought 73 24.7 24.7 72.3

Barrow 82 27.7 27.7 100.0

Total 296 100.0 100.0


Table 3 shows that, about half of the urban farmers 46.6% were facing limited land constraints. Two

fourth (41.9%) face no apparent constraints regarding access to land; only a negligible proportion of

the urban farmers (2.4%) sees buying or renting of land as a constraint. This is a response to the fact

that most of the land used for urban agriculture is not owned by the farmers. However, this finding

disagrees with the assertion of Ayele et.al (2012) who stated that, hydroponic industry‘s growth is

responding specifically to the poor soil condition rather than difficulty in accessing land.

Table 3: Constraints in Accessing Land for Urban Agriculture Type of constraint Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

No Response 124 41.9 41.9 41.9

Renting of Land 7 2.4 2.4 44.3

Title acquisition 20 6.8 6.8 51.0

Limited Land 138 46.6 46.6 97.6

Land price 7 2.4 2.4 100.0

Total 296 100.0 100.0


Regarding farm sizes, about half of the urban farmers 45.9% used more than 6000 m2 for urban

farming. This is usually in the outskirt. 22.9% used less than 2000 m2 for urban farming and 22.2%

used between 2000 - 4000 m2 for

urban farming (see table 4). This clearly showed that, urban farms in


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the metropolis are predominantly for small scale farming. This agrees with Salau and Attah (2012)

who state that most of the urban farmers were operating on subsistence scale.

Table 4: Size of Urban farms Farm size (M

2) Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

less than 2023.5 68 22.9 22.9 22.9

2024.5- 4048 63 22.2 22.2 44.1

4049 – 6072.5 29 9.7 9.7 53..8

More than 6073.5 136 45.9 45.9 100.0

Total 296 100.0 100.0


Table 5 indicates that, 57.8 % of the urban farmers‘ sell their produce to direct buyers. 15.5% sell

through delivery to consumers, 5.1% sell their produce at the farm site while 21.6% did not respond to

sale of farm produce. This means that most of the farmers targeted no specific buyer and some

proportions of the farmers are producing for personal consumption. Plate (4) shows how farm produce

are sold along Sarki Muktar road.

Table 5: Sales outlets for Urban Agricultural Produce

Sales category Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Farm site 15 5.1 5.1 5.1

Delivery 46 15.5 15.5 20.6

Direct purchase 171 57.8 57.8 78.4

Others 64 21.6 21.6 100.0

Total 296 100.0 100.0


Plate 4: Sales of farm produce along Sarki Muktar road.


Relationship between Urban Agricultural practices and Farmers Characteristics

Socio-economic variables were cross tabulated with the characteristic features of urban agriculture.

This would help to better understand the relationship between the practices and the practitioners‘

characteristics. Figure 6 shows that, within the age group of 44- 51years, there are high proportion of

rain-fed farmers and a small proportion of irrigation farmers. Within the age group 28-35 years, there

is involvement in all the four urban agricultural practices, but with higher proportion in rain-fed and


173


irrigation farming. Irrigation and poultry farming are the predominant practices within the age group

20-27 years while rain-fed farming is predominant within the age groups 44-60 years. This implies

that, not all the urban farmers are within the productive age groups as indicated cumulatively. This

scenario thus disagrees with the findings of Olaniyi (2012) who posits that all farmers are within the

productive working age group. Farmers‘ literacy against the typology of urban agriculture would aid

in establishing the type of urban agriculture been practiced by the farmers with different literacy status

in the metropolis. This is measured in terms of educational attainment.

Fig 6 Age of urban farmers by different types of Urban Agriculture


Figure 7 shows that, there are more rain-fed farmers with tertiary level of education. This is the case

with poultry farmers and a negligible proportion of irrigation farmers. Within the secondary school

leavers, there is involvement in all of the four practices, but higher proportion of the practitioners in

rain-fed and irrigation farming. Rain-fed and irrigation farming are the principal practices within the

non-formal education farmers. This implies that, level of education varies with the types of UA

practices in Katsina metropolis.

Fig 7 Educational qualifications and types of urban agricultural practice


Non-farm income was cross tabulated with farmers‘ occupation, to establish the occupational

association with agricultural practices in the metropolis. Result shows that, farmers earning ₦11, 000

to ₦30, 000 as nonfarm income were mainly traders. ₦49, 000 to ₦60, 000 are earned by those in

other farming practices while N68, 000 and above are earned by civil servant and those in formal

private sector respectively (see table 6). This implies that, civil servants and those in formal private

sectors have more income from nonfarm activity compared to traders and those in other farming

practices in the metropolis. This signifies low income earning of traders and those in other farming

practices. Considering the fact that 50%-70% of the income earned by urban poor end up in

purchasing food stuffs (RUAF, 2007), the income earned by urban poor might not be enough to


174


purchase food stuffs as well as for other expenses. Hence, the practice of urban agriculture could

enable the urban poor to reduce his expenses on food. These finding agrees with Adedeji and

Ademiluyi (2009) who stated that urban agriculture is a response to food crises and a coping strategy

of the urban poor.

Table 6: Occupation of respondents and non-farm income Income earned per

month

Trading Formal

private sector

Other farming

practice

Civil

servant

Total

< ₦11000.00 11 (17.1%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 11(100.0%)

₦11001.00 - ₦30000.00 46(71.8%) 10(62.5%) 5(45.4%) 18(78.2%) 79(100.0%)

₦30001.00 - ₦49000.00 5(7.8%) 1(6.2%) 3(27.2%) 3(13.0%) 12(100.0%)

₦49001.00 - ₦68000.00 2(.3.1%) 1(6.2%) 3(27.2%) 0(0.0%) 6(100.0%)

₦68001.00+ 0 (0.0%) 4 (25.0%) 0(0.0%) 2(8.6%) 6(100.0%)

Total 64(100.0%) 16(100.0%) 11(100.0%) 23(100.0 %) 114(100.0%)


Urban agricultural activities by location in Katsina metropolis

Figure 8 shows the location of urban agricultural activities by types in Katsina metropolis. Rain-fed

agriculture has been found to be the dominant practice within the urban fringes with fewer practices

of poultry farming. However, there are patches of poultry farming practiced within the built up areas,

but this practice is mainly well pronounced in the south east of the metropolis. On the other hand,

irrigation farming is primarily being practiced along Ginzo stream.

Figure: 8 Location of urban agricultural activity by types in Katsina metropolis

Source: Source: Field survey, 2018


This study looks at the pattern and characteristics of urban agricultural practices in Katsina

metropolis. It has been affirmed that, location of activity, land access, size of farms, retails market,

farming experience, education attainment and age determine the practices of UA. In fact the spatial

location of farming practices in Katsina metropolis appeared to be responding to these. Also, within

the age groups of 44-45 years rain-fed agriculture was found to be the dominant activity. Within such

farmers with no formal education, rain-fed and irrigation farming is the main form of UA. This

signifies that level of educational varies with the category of UA practices. Vegetable production was

found to be attracted by the presence of grey water along Ginzo stream. On the other hand,

diminishing patches of UA practices and increasing unemployment could be addressed following the

recommendations such as, formation of farmers‘ cooperative association. Training farmers on other


175


ways of growing crops apart from land based. Implementing best practices to boost production and

supporting the urban agricultural practice through enabling laws and integrating it into our urban

management framework.

References

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synthesis in metropolitan Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning Vol. 2(3), pp.

043-050

Aminu, M.G. (2014). Technical change and sustainability of small-holder irrigation farming in

Nasarawa bugaje, jibia. Under graduate project submitted to the Department of Geography. Umaru

Musa Yar‘adua University Katsina.

Arene, J.1 and Mbata, I. O. (2008). Determinants of profitability and willingness to pay for

metropolitan waste-use in urban agriculture of the federal capital territory, Abuja, Nigeria. Agro-

Science, 7(1): 41-46.

Ayele, S., Duncan, A., Larbi, A., & Khanh, T. T. (2012). Enhancing innovation in livestock value

chains through networks: Lessons from fodder innovation case studies in developing countries.

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Halloran, A., & Magid, J. (2013). The role of local government in promoting sustainable urban

agriculture in Dares Salaam and Copenhagen. Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography,

113(2): 121-132

Hovorka, A., Zeeuw, H.,and Njenga, M. (2009). Women Feeding Cities: Mainstreaming Gender in

Urban Agriculture and Food Security. Practical Action Publishing Ltd. U.K. Pp 5-20.

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Agricultural Farming Practices and Spatial Nature of Production System in the City of Nairobi,

Kenya. Fourth RUFORUM Biennial Regional Conference, Pg 361-364

Mireri, C., Kyessi, A., Mushi, N., and Atekyereza, A., (2006). ―Urban Agriculture in East Africa:

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Agriculture in Oyo State, Nigeria: Implication for Sustainable Food Production‘‘. Asian Journal of

Agricultural Research, 6: 1-11.

RUAF (2007). Foundation, Resources Centers on Urban Agriculture and Food Security. Retrieved

from http://www.ruaf.org on 16th June 2018.

Salau, E. S. and Attah, A. J. (2012). A Socio-Economic Analysis of Urban Agriculture in Nasarawa

State, Nigeria. Production Agriculture and Technology Journal 8(1), pp 17-29.

Taiwo, O.J (2016). Analysis of Urban Agricultural Characteristics along the Land Use Gradient in

Lagos state, Nigeria. Ife Research Publications in Geography 14(1): 1 - 16

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Christchurch New Zealand. Acta Sci. Pol. Formatio Circumiectus 14 (2), 217–229


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http://www.ruaf.org/


AN X-RAY OF 2012 NATIONAL HOUSING POLICY OF NIGERIA

Abuh, Paul Ojochenemi1 and Atser Jacob

2

1Ph D Candidate, Department of Geography, Benue State University, Makurdi, Benue State

2Department of Urban & Regional Planning, University of Uyo,

[email protected]; [email protected] 08060019170

Abstract

The paper x-rays the 2012 national housing policy with a view to highlighting the rationale behind the policy

document, identify the effort made by previous administrations in Nigeria since the colonial time and assess the

levels of successes or failures seven years after implementation. The paper among others identifies inadequate

government funding, interdisciplinary composition of the ministry, poor infrastructure and government

bureaucracy as the bane of success to policy implementation. The study recommends increased government

financing of the housing sector, improved and sustained infrastructural development as well as political will on

the part of the government.

Keywords: housing policy, government programmes, implementation, urban centers, review

Introduction

Housing is generally seen from different perspectives by various authors. Housing to some is the basic

necessity of life which determines the healthy, productivity and welfare of a man (Akintunde, 2008;

Agbola and Kassim. 2007; World Bank, 1990; Abram, 1966).Others see housing as having the

attributes of economic good, status symbol, social artifacts and physical entity(Onibokun, 1985) .

However, Kehinde (2010) asserted that housing is essentially synonymous to shelter. It consists of

access to the land that allow for convenience and functionality. Housing can therefore be said to be

the bedrock of human existence and it is of a great concern.

A policy is a roadmap to achieving a well-defined programme put in place by an individual, group or

government. A policy is usually a statement on paper by government meant to solve identified

problem (Sulyman, 2000; Ibimilua and Ibitoye, 2015). It is important to note that the Nigerian

government in an attempt to solve the identified housing problems made available a document that

state its policy towards achieving mass housing. The key focus of the Nigerian government in the

2012 national housing policy was provision of decent and affordable housing, provision of adequate

infrastructure, social services, and amenities in an environment that is liveable on permanent and

continuous process. This is because housing is expected to reflect preferences, economic status,

culture and special needs of the citizenry (FGN, 2012)

Several literatures indicate the deplorable state and condition of housing in most urban areas in

Nigeria. One of the major reasons for this situation is increase in population as a result of rural- urban

migration which is caused by socio-economic and political factors. This has affected the quality of

dwelling units (Bello and Bello (2006). Equally, increased population has encouraged the emergence

of slums in most urban areas in Nigeria. The characteristics of these slums includes inaccessible and

inadequate sanitation, inhabitable accommodation, overcrowding, unregulated and unplanned

housing, environment degradation and inadequate infrastructural provision among others (Jagun,

2005; Awake, 2005; Onibukun, 1985; Bello,2006). This situation is an indication that Nigerian urban

centres cannot be seen as meeting the sustainable development goal number 11 which aims at making

cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and

sustainable(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org). It is on record that past Nigerian government has

made concerted efforts in improving the housing situation in Nigeria. However, 2012 national housing

policy document came into existence as a result of the flaw observed in the 1991 national housing

policy. Therefore, the paper tries to x-ray the 2012 Nigerian Housing Policy seven years after its

implementation.


177



https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/


The Need for National Housing Policy

The desire of the government to make housing available for the less privilege in the society prompted

the appointment of a committee to look into the housing situation in Nigeria. On the 26th of April

1985 the committee was set up. The effort of the committee led to the launching of the 1991 housing

policy which was the first of its kind in Nigeria. The goal of the policy was basically that of providing

for Nigerians housing accommodation that is safe and decent with good sanitary condition at

affordable cost by the year 2000(FGN, 2012). The 1991 national housing policy document contains

(8) content areas, however, the 2012 national housing policy was an improvement on the 1991

national housing policy because the documents contains thirteen(13) content areas. The improved

areas of the 2012 document over the 1991 document were data and statistics on housing, housing

supply and demand, infrastructural and estate development financing, sustainable construction work

and construction cost.

Chronicles of Housing interventions by various Governments in Nigeria

Several attempts and interventions have been made with respect to housing in the past by the Nigeria

government. These interventions are grouped into seven (7) periods. These periods are before 1960,

1960-1979, 1979-1983, and 1984-1999. Other periods includes 1999-2007, 2007-2010 and 2010 till

date. These periods are peculiar to the prevailing political and socio-economic development of the

nation. The period before 1960 is usually referred to the colonial period. The reason for government

interventions then was due to challenges of public housing, railway strike of 1945 and preparation for

independence. Thus several interventions were made. Notable among them were establishment of

Lagos executive development board (LEDB) in 1928, establishment of schemes by the (LEDB) like

free housing schemes, workers housing estate(phase II), workers housing estate and re-housing estate,

Surulere, sites and services estate at Apapa, South West and South East Ikoyi, Ilupeju and Isolo. Also,

the establishments of the Nigerian Building Society and African Staff Housing Scheme in 1956 were

made during this period.

The period 1960-1979 was termed the post-independence period. The interventions were in the form

of panels, decree, and establishment/formation of regulatory bodies and change of status of existing

bodies. Some of the panels set up were rent panel of 1976 and land use panel of 1977, establishment

of land use decree No 6 of 1978 and establishment of national housing council and national housing

programme in 1971 and 1972 respectively. The Association of housing corporations of Nigeria and

Federal housing authority were also created in 1964 and 1973 respectively. In 1975 the committee on

standardization of house types and the federal ministry of housing, urban development and

environment were set up. This period concluded with the establishment of Federal Mortgage Bank of

Nigeria which was formerly known as Nigerian Building Society in 1975.

The third period of intervention by government was the period 1979-1983. This period was seen as

the civilian government administration. The period saw World Bank assistance to Nigerian states in

terms of urban development programmes. It was at this period that the National housing programme

of 1980 was initiated. The fourth period (1984- May, 28 1999) was referred to as the military era. The

era was characterized by the promulgation of laws and acts in order to improve the housing sector.

The major interventions identified include merging of Federal ministry of works and housing and

Federal ministry of housing and environment in 1984. More so, seven programmes and projects were

embarked upon between1994-1999. These programmes include urban renewal and slum upgrading

scheme, prototype housing programme, infrastructure development fund, national sites and service

programmes and formation of Urban Development Bank of Nigeria. Others include launching of the

1991 national housing policy and the Gwarinpa II housing scheme. Furthermore, in other to achieve

the success of 1991 national housing policy, ten (10) Acts were promulgated. These Acts are

Mortgage institution Act of 1989, Federal Housing Authority Act of 1990, National construction

policy Act of 1991, National Housing Fund, Urban Development Bank of Nigeria, Urban and

Regional Development Planning Acts all of 1992, Nigerian Social Insurance Trust Fund and Federal

Mortgage Bank of Nigeria Acts of 1993 and National Urban Development Policy of 1997.

Abuh, Paul Ojochenemi and Atser Jacob

178


The fifth, sixth and seventh periods were generally known as the civilian administration. Those

periods are referred to as the return to democracy in Nigeria. The periods were characterized by

establishment, formations and creation of regulatory bodies necessary to improve the housing sector

in Nigeria. Some of the efforts are highlighted thus; federal staff housing, secondary market and bond

market transactions, improvement on various white paper on housing, creation of real estate

development association of Nigeria and building material and production association of Nigeria.

Equally several review committees were constituted. These committee are but not limited to the

following; presidential committee on land reform (2000), land use act committee (2007) and

presidential committee on the implementation of policy on affordable housing delivery in 2007. It is

interesting to note that this period saw the renaming of the Ministry of Housing as the Federal

Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development.

The 2012 national housing policy was meant to assist Nigerians own decent houses which are safe

and provided with all necessary infrastructure within the environment (FGN, 2012). To achieve this

goal, several policy objectives were outlined which could be classified into land administration,

finance, man power development and implementation. The policy an objective with respect to land

administration includes among others; to ensure secure, transferable, accessible and available land at

affordable cost. The finance objective includes developing mortgage markets that will finance

Nigerians interest in making funds available for housing development. Furthermore, man power

development is a critical step in achieving success in the 2012 housing policy. Therefore the policy

seeks to use Nigerian professional in housing delivery and ensure that professionals are registered

with relevant regulatory authorities. It equally seeks the training and skill acquisition of professional

with encouraging cooperation and synergy among the various professionals. Also, the objectives

identify key areas of implementation. These includes control and monitoring of housing delivery via

legal, administrative and regulatory framework, increasing housing stock by additional 10 million

new homes, ensuring housing delivery that is environmentally friendly and advancement as well as

coordination of the housing sector through the formation of the national housing and urban

development commission. Above all, ensuring sustainable maintenance and facilities management

process by creating institutional frame work, employment opportunities in the construction sectors,

improve the quantity and quality of housing for special groups, cooperative housing and rural housing

(FGN, 2012)

Strategies for Nigerian National Housing Policy 2012

Several strategies were put in place in order to achieve the success of the 2012 Nigerian national

housing policy. These strategies are summarized thus; ensuring the National Housing Funds (NHF)

contributions from both public and private sectors for housing delivery, empowering and

reorganization of institutions such as Federal Housing Authority (FHA), Federal Mortgage Banks

(FMB), and National Housing Funds (NHF). Also, the enacting of laws that will avoid fire accidents

and building collapse. Other institutions are Mortgage institutions, Federal Mortgage Bank Nigeria,

Federal Government Staff Housing Board, Trustee Investment and Employers Scheme (special

provisions) among others.

Another strategy is to ensure the registration of all professional in the housing sector and the

decentralization of the national land information status to states and local government area in order to

strengthen the existing capacity. It is expected that the National Pension Commission (PENCOM)

should invest substantial amount of its resources into the housing sector. Also, the government will

make available funds for mortgage institutions in order to improve liquidity for housing development.

More importantly, it aims at establishing social and cooperative scheme for low, middle, and non-

income individuals. This will enhance their ability to acquire houses. This is to encourage the building

and re-habitation of all levels of training institutions connected to the building and housing sector and

registration and certification of skill manpower via the trade test. It is also expected that Nigerian

professionals in the building sector will make available certificate for buildings that are insured.

Likewise, the strategy is to insist on the appointment of qualified professional in the built environment

to be in charge of housing institution and related agencies; provide funds for research and

development in order to improve the affordability and availability of building materials and

An X-Ray of 2012 National Housing Policy of Nigeria

179


technologies; as well as insist on enforcement and enactment of the national building code.

Furthermore, organizations such as Real Estate Developers Association of Nigeria (REDAN),

Building Material Producers Association of Nigeria (BUMPAN) will be encourage with incentives

such as tax holidays, grants of fiscal incentives among others. It is expected that private sectors will

be encouraged to finance researches in terms of design, local materials and their application. The

private sector will be mobilized to provide infrastructure relating to housing in the rural areas. The

government is expected to ensure the training of artisans in order to maintain rural infrastructure

particularly housing. Also, the upgrading and modernization of traditional housing designs and

building materials is a top priority in the strategy.

Mass housing that enhances ecological balance by making available gardens, green areas, and parks,

general landscaping and implementation of environmental policy that regulates housing activities in

the federal, state and local government is a major component of the strategy. This implies that the

strategy will ensures employment opportunities in the housing sector and discourage the influx of

artisans from other countries into Nigeria. The conversion of unused land to housing construction

areas and making available funds for outstanding compensation on land acquisition will be promoted.

Above all, attracting public-private partnership (PPP) and public-public partnership (pb-pb-p) in mass

housing development via supply of land, take-off grants, credit support and subsidizing consumption

and supply will be promoted(FGN,2012).


It is important to note that the policy focuses majorly on mass housing, social housing, job creation,

revenue generation, income generation, and welfare of the people. It also focuses on, public-private

partnership and establishment of skill acquisition centers. However, several challenges have affected

the implementation of the policy. These challenges are identified as lack of budgetary provision, lack

of constitutional provision, inconsistency in policy formulation, and inadequate funding. Others

challenges are infrastructural deficit, non-involvement of stakeholders in its implementation,

fraud/corruption, bureaucracy, political instability, multidisciplinary diverse nature of the ministry,

lack of political will, government nomenclature of the ministry, unclear focus in the pursuit of the

mandate of the ministry. Despite various effort made by the successive government in the

implementation of the 2012 Nigerian National Housing Policy, the following recommendations are

made. These includes; improving housing financing , establishment of cooperative, increase private

participation, encouraging use of local building materials, increase budgetary allocation, and

development of basic infrastructures. Others include policy implementation, adequate constitution

provision/backing, and elimination/control of corruption, improve professionalism in the housing

sector, and review of the housing policy to meet the current realities.

References

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Faber and Faber Ltd, London

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Policies and Programmes. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 12(6), 153-161, Clarion

University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, Pennsylvania.

Aero, T. (2006). Residential Choice from a life style Perspective. Housing, Theory and Society, 23(2),

109-130.

Agbola, T. &Kassim, F. (2007). Conceptual and theoretical issues in Housing. In TundeAgbola,

LayiEgunjobi& C.O. Olatubara (eds.), Housing Development and Management. A book of readings

(PP.15-69), Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Social sciences, University of

Ibadan

Akintunde, K. O. (2008). Housing Needs and Land Administration in Nigeria: Problems and

Prospects. Social Research Network. In Smith, I.O. (Ed.). Land and Real Property Rights in Nigeria.

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Institutional Approach. Centre for Housing Policy, University of York, Heslington, York, February.

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Amina G.W &Ruhizal.R. (2013). A Review of the Housing Policies and Programme in Nigeria: A

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2013,pp 60-68 Retrieved 4th, January 2018 www.bmdynamics.com ISSN:2047-7031

Awake,(2005); The Global Housing Crises, September 22,pp 3-12

Bashiru, A. R. (2008). Public and Private Developers as Agents in Urban Housing Delivery in Sub-

Saharan Africa: the Situation in Lagos state. Humanity and Social Sciences Journal, 3(2), 143-150.

Beever, R. (1999). The Challenge of Challenging Housing Markets: A New Approach. Leeds,

Northern Housing Consortium and Housing Corporation.

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Okewole I.A (Editors). The Built Environment: Innovation Policy and Sustainable Development.

Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria.pp 356-364

Bourne,L.S.(1981) The Geography of Housing. London: Edward Arnold

Ibimilua A.F. (2018).The Nigerian Housing Policy in Perspective. A critical Analysis. Journal of

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Ibimilua .A.F and Ibitoye .O.A (2015). Housing Policy in Nigeria: An Overview, American

International Journal of Contemporary Research. Vol.5,No.2.

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Journal of Business and Social Studies. Vol.4, No.2

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Thesis). University of Birmingham, Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, School of Public policy,

The University of Birmingham, January.

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and Challenges. World Congress on Housing Transforming Housing Environments Through the

design, September 27-30, Pretoria South Africa, Vol. XXXIII IAHSBritish Journal of Arts and Social

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(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org)

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http://www.bjournal.co.uk/.../BJASS_18_02_0

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https://www.9jo1.info/index.php/...75633

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/


A SEMIOTICS ANALYSIS OF TIV CULTURAL SYMBOLS

Johnson Ekanem and Abraham Ver Bai

Department of Fine and Industrial Arts, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo

[email protected] Abstract

Cultural symbols and the meanings attached to them are not fixed in time. Symbols are fundamental to every

culture‟s communication. They were developed over time as a vehicle to communicate folklore, politics, history,

status, religious and cultural beliefs, kinship and other messages within the environment they are evolved and

used. Cultural symbols as both material and non-material are subject to changes and modifications and as

shared patterns of socially transmitted, norms, beliefs, values, from one generation to another generation. Tiv

symbols are so vast that, it is difficult to present their meanings and communicativeness in a single writing of

this nature. Therefore, this study attempts to present only a select number of the Tiv symbols with their

meanings and communicativeness, in a simple manner as possible, to be comprehended by the reader, adopting

the semiotic method of analysis. The Tiv material and non-material culture especially the symbols are evidenced

in their history, their concepts and experiences, in rituals, ceremonies and festivals; shrines, sacred places,

music and dances; proverbs, riddles and wise sayings, names of people and places, myths and legends, beliefs

and customs. Symbols such as the kiavi I civin, Oo man Iyo, and Ityu meanings and communicativeness are

discussed. This study therefore, recommends that visual artists and non-visual artists should learn to adopt

these symbols as much as possible in their communication situations, as this will help in propagating and

popularizing them within and outside their conventional environments.

Introduction

Cultural symbols and their meanings vary over time and space. Symbols are fundamental to every

culture‘s communication. They were developed over time as a vehicle to communicate folklore,

politics, history, status, religious beliefs, cultural beliefs, kinship and other messages within the socio-

cultural environment they are evolved and used. In the field of sociology and anthropology and other

related fields, there is no single agreed definition or reference to culture as being static, but dynamic.

This implies that the definition varies, one from another, depending on the angle from which it is

viewed. Cultural symbols as both material and non-material culture are subject to changes and

modifications and as shared patterns of socially transmitted, norms, beliefs, values, from one

generation to another generation.

All Tiv symbols, like all other cultural symbols, are physical manifestations or concepts that

communicate meaning. It can be a name of a person, place, thing or a phenomenon having a meaning

or meanings in a particular society, because, a good portion of the members agreed on the meaning.

Though these symbols stand for something else with no natural relationship or bearing that is socio-

culturally defined, their meanings are often enforced by the communities or institutions who adopted

them, via the use of codes. The meanings of these symbols may change as soon as the cultural context

changes. Because every function carried out, throughout the Tiv people‘s socio-cultural and religious

lives and environments, are based or organized through cultural symbolism, and are so

communicated, there was no much attempt made at textually and visually elaborating on all the

cultural symbols, this is as a result of their vast numbers. Therefore, these researchers have adopted

the semiotics method of analysis to also present select Tiv symbols, in order to inform and educate the

readers on their cultural and general meanings and communicativeness. The study is delimited to only

the Tiv social, cultural and religious symbols as seen and used by the Tiv people within their social,

cultural and religious contexts.

Different persons have developed and employed various communication models to explain the

process of communication. From the Saussure‘s (1983) circular model of the communication process

of transmitting verbal/nonverbal coded information from the sender to the receiver to Shannon and

Weaver‘s [1949] linear model of communication process which suggests that, communication moves

only in one direction. The sender encodes a message, then uses a certain channel (verbal/nonverbal

communication) to send it to a receiver who receives decodes (interprets) the message and replies to

the sender. The conventions of codes represent a social dimension in semiotics. According to

Chandler (2013), ―Code‖ is defined as ―a set of practices familiar to users of the medium operating


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within a broad cultural framework‖. Fiske (1982) defines codes as ―the system into which signs are

organized. These systems are governed by rules which are consented to by all the communities using

the code‖ Hall (1980) observed rightly when he states that ―there is no intelligible discourse without

the operation of a code‖.

Codes are, therefore, frameworks that help both producers and interpreters of artworks or symbols in

creating and understanding artworks or symbols as in texts. Selection and combination of signs are

made relative to the codes with which we are familiar. This, according to Turner (1992), is ―in order

to limit the range of possibilities of meanings they are likely to generate when read by others.‖ This is

because, some symbols are aphoristic in nature and by convention A ―code in an artwork/

sign/symbol is like salt to food, without which there is no meaningful interpretation or

communication‖ (Bai, 2016).

To interpret a cultural art piece as a sign or symbol appropriately, the sign or symbol

receiver/interpreter has to read the signs or symbol with reference to appropriate codes which are

usually determined by various contextual cues provided in the sign or symbol and the environment in

which they operate. The medium and channel employed influence the choice of codes for

interpretation. The persons involved in the communication situation will alternative take on the roles

of the sender or the receiver of the information or message. Feedback plays an important role in the

control of the communication situation and if the feedback is attenuated by the quality of the channel

or media, the conversation will become degraded. Freese& Burke (1994) state that, ―symbolic

communication can be extremely rewarding, depending on the ability of others to interpret or to

decipher the symbols used in the communication situation.‖

Tiv and their Symbols

The Tiv might have developed and learnt the meanings of the symbols used within their socio-cultural

environment over time and might have employed and interpreted them in their socio-cultural

communication situation or events as well. When the Tiv started using their cultural symbols to

communicate among them is uncertain, nevertheless, they are known to have employed symbols to

communicate their traditional wisdom, lore and morals, as well as a reflection of their innate socio-

cultural beliefs, life and global views. The Tiv are an ethnic-linguistic group in West Africa. They

constitute approximately 2.5% of the total population of Nigeria, numbering over six million persons,

both in Nigeria and the Cameroon, but mainly in Benue, Taraba, Nasarawa, Plateau and Northern

Cross River State in Nigeria. They are numbered more than 2.2 million based on 1991 census. The

Tiv language is a part of the Southern BantoidTivoid family, a branch of Benue-Congo and basically

of the Niger-Congo phylum.

The origin of the Tiv early history is covered by three theories. These are: creation theory, Bantu and

Family theories. According to the creation theory, Aondo (God) created the Tar (world) and decided

to settle very close to Tar and humans and have a close relationship with them until he was hit with a

Pestle by a woman who was pounding food, as a resulted Aondo decided to move higher into

KwavAondo (the heavens) where he is presently living (Bai, 2016). The second version is the Bantu

version, mentioned above and supported by Chia (2013) who gave evidence of sixty-seven (67) word

list indicating the similarities between Tiv language and the ‗Bantu Nyanza‘ language, dances and

worship in present day Malawi and other central African races. The third version traced the origin of

the Tiv people to one man or a single family. Tukuruku is identified in one version while in others is

Tiv, Anyamazenga, Shon, Gbe, Karagbe, Awange or Akem. Whoever the founding father of the Tiv

race was, the genealogy or the race rests on two of his male offspring. These are Ipusu and Ichongo.

Ichongo the older begot Gondo, Ikyura, Nongo, Ihar, Mase and Turan. Ipusu the second son begot

Shitire, Kum, Kpar and Tongo. All the Tiv people globally today are descended from these ten

children, through whom they are connected to the Tiv family tree.

This study pursues the semiotics method for analyzing the structure of ten Tiv cultural symbols or

material culture as presented by Saussure (1983) and Cirlot (1962) which states when using this

framework, a symbol can be classified into both its real and its symbolic components. In doing so, we


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first seek out the object which the symbol represents in itself, in isolation. Secondly, we seek the

association between the object and its utilitarian function, to its concrete or factual reality in the three

dimensional (3D) world - directly or indirectly, and thirdly, we seek what enables the object to be

considered as a symbol, that is, that the structure which is termed symbolic function. In this symbolic

function, the symbolic meanings and the general meaning can be adduced or distinguished.

Semiotics is concerned with the meaning(s); how that which is represented, such as a language, an

image, an object or a phenomena in an ambiguous sense generates meanings. It is the process by

which we comprehend and ascribe meaning to an object or a phenomena which is quite distinct from

the original object or the phenomena. When analysing visual images, forms and material culture

(symbols), semiotics as a science of inquiry that is not limited to the study of symbolism, challenges

concepts such as, realism and naturalism, which indicates that, images or objects fashioned by a

person can objectively indicate something as well as have meaning or meanings ascribed to it by the

fashioner for the purpose of communication.

It, therefore, means that, a symbol is a communicative visual image, form or phenomena, which

possesses a distinct tripartite qualities or features liken to a spirit, soul and body. The body being the

real, physical, tactile object itself, with its physical attributes, the soul, which is the second aspect of

the symbol, possesses the stored history of the functions of the object, and the spirit, is the third aspect

of the symbol which possesses the intangible, mental functions associated with the physical object

with its attributes. It is this third dimension of the visual object or thing that is termed the symbol, as

enforced and enlivened by its users. It is said that a picture speaks more than a thousand words, but a

visual message accompanied with a few texts or words has far greater force or impact to inform,

educate and persuade an individual or a group of audience than only texts or words would. Since there

are no globally accepted principles to ascertain which visual image is communicatively beautiful or

ugly, the evaluation of a good visual image or object can be based on measuring the interest of the

audience or the persons involved in the communication situation, their perception, comprehension and

the continual use of the visual over time and not on its artistic preference or aesthetic functions and

appeal.

Saussure (1983) writes on semiotics thus: If is… possible to conceive of a science which studies the

role of signs as part of social life. It would form part of social psychology, and hence of general

psychology. We shall call it semiology (from the Greek semeion, ‗sign‘). It would investigate the

nature of signs and the laws governing them. Since it does not yet exist, one cannot say for certain that

it will exist. But it has a right to exist, a place ready for it in advance. Linguistics is only one branch of

this general science. The law which semiology will discover will be laws applicable in linguistics, and

linguistics will thus be assigned to a clearly defined place in the field of human knowledge.

Semiotics however, is said to belong to a particular period of history that is universal. It can be traced

to the later part of the Paleolithic period. It can be seen from the art of the early human beingsto

whom nature was both aschool and a teacher. Even if semiotics has its beginning way back from the

Paleolithic period, yet it has undergone some intensely exciting broad transformation.

According to De Lauretis (1984), in the last decade or so, semiotics has undergone a shift of its

theoretical gears: a shift away from the classification of sign systems – their basic units, their levels of

structural organization – and towards the exploration of the modes of production of signs and

meanings, the ways in which systems and codes are used, transformed or transgressed in social

practice. While formerly the emphasis was on studying sign systems (Language, literature, cinema,

architecture, music), conceived of as mechanism that generate messages, what is now being examined

is the work performed through them. It is this work or activity which constitutes and/or transforms the

codes, at the same time as it constitutes and transforms the individuals using the codes, performing the

work, the individual who are, therefore, the subjects of semiosis. ‗Semiosis‘, a term borrowed from

Charles Sanders Peirce, is expanded by Eco to designate the process by which a culture produces a

sign and/or attributes meaning to signs.

A Semiotics Analysis of TIV Cultural Symbols

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Fig.1: kiavi I Civin

Extracted from Bai (2016)

Analysis of Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of KiaviCivin (singular dot),

AkavaAcivin (plural: dots): These marking are evidenced on Tiv art objects like the pottery,

calabashes, and metal works and borings objects. They are usually of various sizes and are made

with perforated or drilling objects or bare hands depending on the object worked on, it could be sticks,

knives, nails or a suitable device. These dots also were seen on human scarified body among the Tiv.

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of KiaviCivin: The symbolism of the dot in Tiv

socio-cultural concept varies depending on the shape they take. Where circular they take up the

symbolism of the circle, if in a straight line it takes up the quality and symbolism of the Hwange or

Nongo (line), in this case though the line symbolises lineage butbecause they lack in continuity but

broken, symbolises individual ancestors congregating.

Fig. 2: Ayakpa (Stool)


Analysis of the Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of the Ayakpa: Ayakpa means stool

and they vary one from another in shape and sizes. Some are simply shaped like a letter ‗V‘ joined

together in an inverse form with a circular top and base while another is shaped with a circular top and

base with supporting rectangular shapes in between showing their aesthetic quality. The former

Ayakpa with the inversed ‗V‘ shapes looks like the shape of a woman‘s figure, eight (8) with a slim

waist at the middle where the upper and lower trunks conjoined showing the hip and a broad burst of

the woman. The stool is used for sitting. Some are small while some are big and mostly seen in the

Iyough-I-Wusu (kitchen).

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of Ayakpa: A big stool found in Iyough-I-Wusu

(kitchen) and used only by the elderly woman of the house symbolises the elderly woman of the

house, grandeur, wisdom and authority. Connotatively, the Ayakpa stands for fertility and secured

place in a husband‘s house in Tiv cultural society and it is immediately sculpted for a woman who has

given birth to a child. This Ayakpa symbolism is akin to the one in Igbo society referred to as

“OmuwubumyeremocheSarambaramu‖ meaning fertility has given me a wide stool. The symbolism


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of the stool is lost when it is seen outside the lyough-i-wusu, especially in the ―tembeya” (compound)

or ―Ate‖ the general sitting hut.

Fig. 3:Ikyalem (Phyton/whorl)


Analysis of the Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of Ikyalem: Ikyalem is the name of a

python in Tiv. It is a variant of the symbol of the cylinder. The Ikyalem can be both centrifugal and

centripetal in appearance. In Tiv symbolism it is represented with or without a head. Tiv mythology

accepts the Ikyalem as being friendly beast as it is said to have aided them in crossing the Congo

River on their migration journey.

Analysis of the Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of Ikyalem: The Ikyalem like the python or

whorl has the tendency to expand and contract, thus meaning that the Tiv can reach out to others

being hospitable and friendly but withdrawn and ready to strike if danger is perceived, they can be

gentle as well as swift when the situation arises. Therefore, the Tiv concept of the Ikyalem symbolism

communicates, peace, assistance, cycle of life and completion, expansion and contraction.

Fig. 4: Yesi(Scorpion)


Analysis of the Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of the Yesi: The Yesi (Scorpion) is a

predator Animal which has eight legs and is easily known by the pair of grasping pedipalps and a

narrow segmented tail often carried in a characteristic forward curve over its back, ending with a

venomous stinger. This one is representational and found on the arms, chest, neck, faces and walls of

houses in Tiv land. This symbol is exclusively preserved for the men.

Analysis of the Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of the Yesi (Scorpion): The Yesi symbol in

Tiv socio-cultural environment communicates danger and cunning. People who bear the symbol of the

Yesi on their body are believed to be insured or immune against danger, especially psychic or negative

witchcraft, while if seen in the interior of the house it connotes protection of the members of the

family against evil, cunning men, malevolent spirit and the scorpion sting.


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Fig. 5: Imborivungu Belly Button Design

Extracted from Egharevba (2013)

Analysis of Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of Imborivungu Belly Button Design:

This is a circular dark symbol from which lines radiate outwards to the sides like the sun rays. It is

mostly found on the female stomach specifically round the navel. Imborivungu is the Tiv great

Akombo (medicine), it is a small object originally made from a human tibia but in modern times it is

composed of brass. It is regarded as Akombo, and is put in good condition regularly to be employed in

repairing cleansing the land and for female fertility. These designs are mostly found transferred onto

the woman‘s body by scarification ritual. It is a Tiv traditional religious symbol.

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of Imborivungu Belly Button Design: The

Imborivungu belly button design symbol communicates the concept of eternity, continuity, fertility,

growth unity, expansion, purity and life.

Fig. 6: Ishe I Po’or


Analysis of Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of Ishe I Po’or: Ishe I Po‟or means eye

of Po‟or(malevolent power), an evil eye. The Ishe I Po‟or is a clay head made up of a cowry in the

middle to serve as the eye ball and the assange a chir (medicine tablets) botanically called

Abrusprecatorius and commonly called rosary pea or jequirity bean, serving as a fence or protection

round the cowry. The cowry in the centre is like the all-seeing eye and used in divination. The circular

arrangement of the assange a chir gives this object the attributes of the circle. It is a traditional

religious symbol.

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of Ishe I Po’or: Ishe I Po‟or is symbolic of the

all-seeing eye. It connotes vision and clairvoyance or the ability to see the past, present and into the

future, as well as power to destroy. It is symbolic of evil or malevolent power for wealth and

affluence.


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Fig. 7: Atir (Swallow) Extract from Egharevba (2013)

Analysis of Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of the Atir: Atir is the Tiv name for the

bird called swallow. It is one of the most admired birds among the Tiv people. The cultural believe

among the Tiv is that, this bird because it detest evil it cannot live where an evil person (Or Mbatsav)

lives. This symbol was evidence on virtually every Tiv artwork. The Atir bird likes building its nest in

people‘s homes, especially passages that are open without doors and mostly during the rainy season.

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of the Atir: The Atir symbolizes freedom, speed,

agility, good heart, hope, success and victory, love, loyalty or faithfulness, and care towards the

family as the birds mate for life. It also symbolizes renewal and fertility with it black and white

colours symbolizing firmness, wisdom, aggressiveness and grace.

Fig. 8: Ityu Symbol

Extract from Egharevba (2013)

Analysis of Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of Ityu Symbol: Ityu means both the

tobacco pipe and tobacco itself, but the tobacco alone is called taav in Tiv language while the Ityu is

the tobacco pipe or anything which is used to hold the tobacco before fire is set to it for the smoker to

smoke. This symbol is not drawn on the tobacco itself, but on the tobacco pipes. It is composed of

circular, linear, rectangular and dotted motifs along the long conduit part of the pipe. The tobacco pipe

is used by Tiv tobacco smokers to smoke their raw dried unrefined tobacco. The pipe is seen as a

sacred object used in communicating with the deities. Tobacco smoking is mostly associated with the

male gender among the Tiv but the women also do smoke it.

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of Ityu Symbol: The Ityu is a symbol of

hospitality among the Tiv. The drawing-in is like the inbreathing of the air, the breath of life, the

smoke ascending upward as prayers of the faithful ascends up to the deity, as the smoker draws the

smoke into his mouth and expels it into the air. The tobacco leaves is like a sacrifice object subjected

to fire and the pipe liken to an altar, while the smoker becomes the priest at the altar making the

sacrifice.


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Fig. 9:Atsuku Symbol


Analysis of Manifest Meaning/Description/Interpretation of Atsuku: Atsuku is a malevolent

sculptural figurine used in inflicting evil or bad luck against a person. This design is depicted as a rib

cage or the human chest cavity, which houses the human heart, the seat of good or evil thought and

action. As the Bible says out of it a man brings out what is good and what is evil – Matt. 12:35, as

also stated in Tiv myth.

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of Atsuku: Atsuku is a symbol of negative or

malevolent power, Atsuku is an anathema, an evil power that does not allow the person it is used

against to prosper or succeed in life no matter how hard the effort made, except it is neutralized.

Fig. 10: Oo Man Iyo


Analysis of Manifest Meaning/Description/ Interpretation of Oo Man Iyo: Oo man Iyo means Sun

and Snake. This symbol is depicted showing the sun with its series of interconnected, unbroken

chevrons forming a band around a whorl symbolically referred to as Iyo (snake). It is mostly used or

attached to the pinnacle of a thatched house roof structure made from grasses.

Analysis of Latent Meaning/Communicativeness of Oo man Iyo: Despite the symbolic meanings

attributed to the individual symbols of the sun and the python or the snake or the whorl, this symbol

simply means or communicates the concept of a covering and protection from natural elements like

the rain and the scorching sun as well as danger from unwanted intruders like thieves and wild beasts.

Conclusion

It is evidenced, as seen above that, the Tiv material and non-material culture, especially their symbols,

play vital roles in their concepts and experiences, their history, in rituals, ceremonies and shrines,


189


sacred places, proverbs, riddles and wise sayings, names of people and places, myths and legends,

beliefs and customs and that they all have their connotations and communicativeness. A semiotics

study of these symbols is imperative, because, those who have the need of them in communication

situations and for their meanings, whether visually or non-visually, can adopt them for their aesthetics

and functional purposes. The symbols can equally be useful to the Tiv people who are not aware of

their cultural symbols and their relevance. These cultural symbols though have been used by the Tiv

people for a long period now, yet they are subject to changes and modifications and are shared

patterns of socially transmitted norms, beliefs, values, from one generation to another generation.

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http://www.univie.ac.at/


THE RELIGIOUS RELEVANCE OF TIV TRADITIONAL CLOTHING

Abraham Ver Bai

Department of Fine and Industrial Arts, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo

[email protected] Abstract

The use of textiles by man over time has gained prominence because of their satisfaction of human aesthetic and

functional needs for body adornment. This explains why elegant orthodox and traditional religious priestly

clothing and vestments are always venerated and admired by most people, whether they are the adherents or

not. It is observed for many centuries that, clothing‟s importance whether industrial or hand-made, is not

employed only as a process of disseminating vital information about ourselves, society and the groups we

belong to but, in the course of doing so certain socio-cultural and religious norms that offers both structure and

shape to our society are established. This study set out to determine the religious influence and

communicativeness of Tiv traditional clothing among the Tiv traditional and orthodox religious priests,

employing the visual and textual methods. It was observed that, the religious influence of Tiv traditional

clothing can be seen at various strata within and outside the Tiv society as exhibited by them at many of their

various events like Amar a mirin, tembe u duen, Biamegh, priestly ordinations, while conducting mass, burial

rites and marriages. It was observed that Tiv traditional clothing communicates and influences the decisions of

their users based on the occasions they are to be used. It was also observed that there are over sixty-six

different types of Tiv traditional clothing with their various meanings based on colours, names and usage for

specific events. Tiv traditional clothing possesses aphoristic meanings suitable for different communicative

needs of its religious adherents and priests.

Introduction

The use of clothing by man over time has gained prominence because of their satisfaction of his

aesthetic and functional need for body adornment. This explains why elegant orthodox religion priests

and traditional religion priests‘ clothing and vestments are always venerated and admired by most

people, whether they are the adherents or not. It has been observed that, most Tiv people using the Tiv

traditional clothing with their symbols, did not perceive that their clothing can serve other purposes,

apart from being a mark of ethnic identity, neither are the symbols‘ influence, meanings and

communicativeness fully comprehended, when they are removed from their conventional surface of

the Tiv traditional clothing and adopted on another surface, to serve other purposes. It is also observed

that, those who remove the symbols from their conventional surfaces and married them onto other

surfaces do not realize that, they can enhance the aesthetic value, meaning and communicativeness of

the new surface, as well as retain their distinct symbolic meanings and communicativeness, without

doing any damage to the adopted surfaces and their original meanings.

The black and white coloured Tiv traditional clothing, the Anger, which is prominently used by Tiv

traditional religious and orthodox priests especially, the catholic priests, are a veritable source of

cultural and ethnic identity. It is, therefore, not surprising that the Tiv local cottage textile industries

have invented a vast array of clothing items not just for covering the body, but also for their suitability

for particular events, time and occasions. It is imperative to know that, the beautifully coloured Tiv

cloths designed for body adornment and cultural identity tend to communicate certain basic cultural

and religious traits and meanings, when used within the right context. This study therefore, sought to

determine the suitability of the adoption of the various Tiv traditional clothing symbols and their

religious relevance on Tiv traditional religion priests and orthodox Christian religion priests‘

vestments, like the Catholic Church priest vestments. This study is delimited to the religious relevance

of Tiv traditional clothing to Tiv traditional religion and orthodox Christian religion.

Bai (2016) opines that Mule U Tiv cloth aphoristic meanings based on its colours and name include:

The black colour communicates firmness, fertility, resoluteness, power, authority and prestige. The

yellow or cream colour connotes pure knowledge, understanding, stimulating personality, active life

and an interesting mind. It also connotes or communicates a vitality and royalty. The Anger Tiv cloth,

according to Kunde (2011) ―The cloth as a whole communicates status symbol when offered to people


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who have made a land mark achievement or distinguished themselves.‖ Bai (2011) further states that,

the lines when they are vertical connote activity, firmness and authority while if horizontal connotes a

peaceful and relaxed condition. The small rectangles called Gondo among the Tiv like the square

communicates the concept of forces of individuality, discontinuity and masculinity, mode of existing

and potential evil, potential evil when viewed from astrological point of squared planets in one‘s birth

chart. The cloth when adorn or conferred on a person symbolizes or communicates that the wearer is a

man of means. This cloth was used in adorning the former Vice President of Nigeria, Abubakar Atiku

by the Late Tor Tiv Alfred Akawe Torkula when the former, was conferred with the title of Zege

Mule U Tiv, meaning the big shade of the Tiv people.

The Anger means stripes. The black coloured stripes evident on the cloth connote the Tiv people as a

black race in the African continent and are of a resolute character, spiritually and physically. The

vertical lines symbolically have very significant meanings, as they denote: strength, firmness,

stability, as well as an active and dynamic principle. The black colour also symbolises the colour of

the fertilized Tiv land. It is also associated with firmness and initial germination processes at all

stages. It relates to the initial wisdom which originates from concealed source, for God who is hidden

in darkness, thick darkness is all powerful. Among the Tiv, reference made to the fertility of the soil is

expressed as ‗nya ne yile‟ meaning this soil is black or the soil is fertile.

The symbolic meaning of the white stripes is purity, peace and hospitality and pure wisdom. It also

represents ecstasy and eternity. The black and white alternatively symbolises the unceasing nature of

man, that of good and evil or appearance and disappearance, life and death, darkness and light which

make possible the eternalising of the existence of all human events or phenomena. The cloth as a

whole connotes the Tiv person as one who has power, confidence, and authority and the tendency to

protect his own aims. It also connotes wealth, equality and prestige, movement from one point to

another and a positive and well-balanced personality who would not mind to start all over in life, with

all the possibilities available at his disposal. It is worn for celebration, burial and commemoration.

Most Tiv clothing types produced tend to tilt towards the male or female gender, although there are

some that are not assigned particularly to either the male or the female gender. According to Igirgi

(2007) and Agber (2009), the earliest known Tiv clothing is the Nyagba and Fiesegh Ki-Bar and these

were especially made for male uses, because structurally, especially the Fiesegh Ki-Bar, was designed

with a pouch to house the male private part, while the Icha on the other hand was designed for the

female folk. Although most Tiv traditional clothing can be used by both sexes, Igirgi (2007) asserts

that, there are no strict prohibitions regarding which cloth should be used by the male or the female

gender, but the most important Tiv clothing such as: Tugudu, Godo, Swem-Karagbe, Abam-a-

Ikyondo, Mule-U-Tiv, Ichaver Ikyondo Chado-Gbagir are the exclusive preserve of the men while

those used exclusively by women are Iyuwan, Ashira, Kumaashe. Ivav-Tyo, Pendaityo, Igbogo,

Derem. Shima Orya, Tyo-Akpem and Achika. Those that are not assigned to either the male or the

female gender include among others, the Anger, Achubu, Gbevwar, Ishundan, Agergbila, Ngurgbev,

Menga Anzagher and Agberazenga In Tiv traditional religious and socio-cultural life situations which

are consociated and inseparable, when circumstances arose requiring the commemoration of events

such as celebration of achievements, covenant of marriages, observation of cultural phenomena and

enthronement to the place of ruler ship, Tiv textile always plays important and significant role.

Mbiti (1991) observes that, African traditional religion is very pragmatic and realistic. In his opinion,

it can be applied to various situation as the need arises. He adds that in each African society, religion

is inherent in the local language, so that to understand the religious life of the people properly, one

needs to know and understand the working of the language. He asserts, ―To be an African in the

traditional setting is to be truly religious.‖ Some of the five aspects he posits that religion can be

viewed from are: religious beliefs; practices, ceremonies and festivals as well as religious objects and

places. It is in line with these views that Mbiti defined African traditional religion as: The product of

the thinking and experiences of our forefathers and mothers that is men… former generations. They

formed religious ideas, they formulated religious beliefs, they observed religious ceremonies and

rituals, and they told proverbs and myths which safeguarded the life of the individual and his

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community. Therefore, when both the Tiv traditional religion priest and the orthodox Christian

religion priest are seen to adorn themselves in any Tiv traditional clothing, they are forming religious

ideas, formulating religious beliefs and observing religious ceremonies and rituals, thus, conveying

the harmonious symbolic meanings of the Tiv traditional clothing with their different religious

clothing symbol and ethnic identity or markers at the same time popularizing them by their continuous

usage and adoption

Celebration of Achievement

Celebration of achievement by an individual or group of persons has always been an integral part of

the Tiv socio-cultural event. This researcher has observed that the Tiv, celebrate achievements

elaborately, sometimes getting the entire community members engaged it. Amar a Mirin (feast

convention), Biamegh (inauguration ceremony) and Poor, traditional religious rites are very good

examples. Amar a Mirin is in most cases organized for a Shagbaor (a man of wealth or means) and is

heralded by ushers called Tembe duen who wear Iyuwan, a Tiv traditional cloth designed specifically

for such purpose. While the celebrator could be garbed in a Tiv traditional apparel such, as Tugudu,

Mule-U-Tiv, Gbagir or Anger. In a ceremony such as this, the traditional religion priest can wear the

same Tiv cloth adorned by the celebrator while the orthodox Christian religion priest such as a

catholic priest can wear harmonized Tiv traditional clothing with the same colours of the original

priestly vestments. Biamegh (Inauguration ceremony) is a celebration of achievement or

accomplishment in the area of traditional healing and mysticism, it calls for the employment of cloths

such as Swem-Karagbe. Ichaver-lkyondo or Tugudu and a cap to match for traditional religious

priests, while the orthodox religious priests can here have a mixture of these clothing, forming a part

of their priestly attire when they are celebrating mass or service for these sets of persons.

Enthronement to Leadership Positions

The occasion for the enthronement of a Bishop and the ordination of priests are ceremonies that calls

for a unique clothing wear too, with participants dressed in mostly Tugudu, Gbaigir, Mule-U-Tiv,

Gburugu, Swem Karagbe, Godo and Anger. Initiation ceremonies which are similar to the ordination

ceremony in Christianity

Burial Rites

Burial and burial rites or rituals among the Tiv also call for the adaptation and utilization of Tiv

traditional clothing. According to Dzurgba (2011) the significance of textiles in burial among the Tiv

need not be overemphasized, because they are used to symbolize the loss of a beloved one. Some

types of clothing are used to indicate the status of a departed one, and in some cases, to administer or

exhibit his possessions after burial. When an individual dies, his family members and close relations

would strap their bellies, especially around the waist with a piece of cloth generally referred to as

Nyagba, connoting dejection, sorrow and mourning of deceased beloved one. Nyagba which can be

any type of Tiv traditional clothing can also be employed on the body to indicate empathy and

solidarity with the bereaved person and his family. During the funeral and the rites of passage, the

bereaved person‘s friends as well as others relations, would bring additional Nyagba and strap them

around his or her belly to strengthen his or her spirit. Therefore, any deceased distinguished persons

like, chiefs, wealthy men, title holders, and other celebrities are usually buried with high calibre cloths

such as: Swem-Karagbe, Mule-U-Tiv, Tugudu, Gbagir, Godo and Anger, among others. Gundu (1989)

explains that, the use of cloths for burial also had significance for the fulfillment of certain marital

obligations. The Tiv traditional cloth had very high cultural value because of the great variety of

purposes for which it could be used. If one chose not to use it as personal attire, he could keep it for

later use, sometimes as an exchange item in a marriage arrangement or for the burial of a relative.

Religious clothing like our common everyday clothing are worn in accordance with religious

practices, tradition or significance to a particular religion. It includes priestly clothing such as the alb,

cassocks, religious habit, robes, and other vestments. Since wearing of clothing is one of our everyday

life rituals which, whether we like it or not, demand our attention every day, it facilitates ―decisions

and prompting cultural know-how.‖ states Bohn (2004). Civilization and modern technology coupled

with moral decency have, to a certain extent made it mandatory that any sane human being be

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bedecked in religious and socio-culturally accepted clothing befitting the norms and moral structure of

the society in which they find themselves. ―Cloth‖ according to Schneider (2002) ―Span many

categories of human want and needs. Modern machine-manufacturers distinguish apparel for the body

from the coverings of walls and furniture, and from such ―industrial‖ products as storage bags and

filters‖. Clothing serves a lot of functions in various societies of the world, depending on the area in

which the need and application is required. Holman (1980), the assumption that clothing use is

systematic only within one social system and for one usage situation, it was deemed essential to hold

these factors constant for an initial study of the communications code for clothing.

It was observed for many centuries that, the clothing‘s importance whether industrial or hand-made,

was not employed only as a process of disseminating vital information about ourselves, society and

the groups we belong to but, in the course of doing so certain socio-cultural norms that offers both

structure and shape to our society were established. ―Hand-made cloth‖ Schneider (2002) further

submits ―supplies equally varied domains. Within each domain, moreover, some fabrics meet

practical exigencies while others, communicate meanings or express artistic taste‖. Bay (2016) states

―Different clothing can… be indicative of ethnic, residence or kinship group. A culturally dressed

Yoruba man can easily be distinguished from a culturally dressed Hausa man by the type of clothing

akin to their culture.‖

Generally, human beings impute a broad range of religious and socio-cultural meanings to clothing,

even though an attempt at interpreting clothing as a written or verbal text is often complex, difficult

and challenging, especially when the sanitation or the interpreter is compelled to depend largely on

personal experience, oral or socio-cultural and religious reconstruction of their abstracted visual

elements or motifs. Despite the ambiguity of the meanings and names of some of the traditional Tiv

clothing used on orthodox priests‘ conventional dresses and in traditional religion, the hesitation of

some Tiv Catholic adherents and traditional Tiv clothing producers and users to divulge the symbolic

meanings of the cultural cloth they make or employ, may to some extent be as a result of their naivety

of the meanings or oath of secrecy taken not to divulge them to people, especially, non tribe and

initiates of the Tiv clothing craft, as the case maybe. Where in certain circumstances the meanings or

the messages the clothing communicate, are over-stressed or freely used by the makers and the

employers of the cloths, it is indicates that, they both belong to that culture or have acquire the

knowledge by association and residency and therefore, share in their codes as well as their meanings,

importance and communicativeness.

Communication, according to Webster (2014) is the process by which information is exchanged

between individuals, through a common system of symbols, signs or behavior. Communication is a

fundamental process in every facet of human activity and the society, because, in social living,

humans must share, at least to some degree, their desires, knowledge, experiences and thoughts.

According to MacBride (1981), ―throughout history, human beings have sought to improve their

ability to receive and assimilate information about their surroundings and at the same time increase

the speed, clarity and variety of their methods for transmission of information‖. Religious beliefs

surrounding clothing impel their uses and interpretation in various religious practices and rituals.

Some religious clothing whether sewn or not, transmit the aura of spiritual and temporal authority and

power of the wearer, its user or sacred human phenomena it was immersed in, in so doing popularise

and eternalise the wearer‘s group identity and kinship with the past, present and the future. This of

course is as a result of the emotive response of the user and the provenance practices and usage

overtime at different levels. According to Geertz (1993) ―A religion is a system of symbols which acts

to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods in men by formulating conceptions of a

general order of existence and clothing those conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the

moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic‖. More so symbols allow people to discover, explore

and develop their natural and cultural personalities. Samuel Beckett, Watt (1984) states ―No symbols

where none intended‖.

The Tiv people as an ethnic group have used their language (spoken and written), proverbs, dances,

music, kwagh-hir (Tiv puppet theartre) and other non-material cultural or traditional artifacts as

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means of communication among themselves, with other ethnic groups, and the metaphysical world.

The Tiv mythology like in many societies of the world is a domain for the interaction and exhibition

of powers, wisdom of the old time religion and a dynamic world of course and effect. The Tiv people

have several types of religious practices and clothing which has socio-cultural and religious control

over the lives of its people. Yina (2014) in his analysis of what constitutes Tiv cult discourse,

fundamentally incorporates all verbal expressions and visual artifacts as symbolising the urbane, the

metaphorical, the surreal, the corporeal and incorporeal. Dzurgba (2011) in support of visual artifacts

as being symbolic or representational notes that, ―art means the use of painting, drawings, sculpture,

carvings, designing to represent various things which are either tangible or intangible, corporeal or

incorporeal as well as material or spiritual in characteristics… other objects that are produced by art

or artists include traditional Tiv cloths….‖ On the uses of artifacts as a medium of communication

with the metaphysical, Yina (2014) further submits, ―The supernatural is iconographed by visual

relics, objects and artifacts relating to divination, therapy and propitiation rites and rituals‖.

Everywhere you turn to in Tiv land, visual images and ordinary objects are employed symbolically to

transmit knowledge, values and feelings. Since traditional symbols like the ones onTiv clothing play

vital roles in the Tiv conception of reality, a sound perception and understanding of Tiv patterns of

thought and emotion needs an appreciation of the nature and role of clothing symbolism as a medium

of communication in Tiv culture. With this perception one would have thought that the Tiv traditional

cloth weavers would be able to interpret the latent meanings of the symbols on Tiv clothing, but not

all of them know all their meanings. It is also expected that the Tiv cloths weavers while teaching

their wards and children the art of weaving could also be telling them the meaning of the symbols

woven into the cloths, so that the meanings do not get lost with the passage of time.

The art of weaving among the Tiv traditional cloth weavers is a ritual that is carried out or conducted

almost on daily basis. Ushe (2011) states, ―ritual is a stereotype sequence of activities, including

gesture, words, objects performed in sequestered place and designed to influence or force the actor‘s

goals and interest in the society. It is all rites and forms connected with ceremony or way of

performing ritual act. It is a sign, mark or object representing something unknown to convey a

religious idea or meaning‖. Tiv clothing at all the level or situations they are used convey meaning.

Plate I: Gbeleve Tiv Cloth Plate II: Kasee Ikundu Tiv Cloth Plate III: Chado Gbagir Tiv Cloth

Plate IV: Anger Tiv Cloth Plate V:Ishundan Tiv Cloth Plate VI: Mule U Tiv Cloth

Yina (2014) states ―…analysis of discourse essentially explores the communicative features of

language in the flux of daily interactive activities‖. A linguistics symbology naturally focuses on the

cultural perspective of the semantic elements of communication as significant systematic pegs with


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philosophical, ideological, psychological, moral and social values. The daily weaving activities of Tiv

people are in agreement with Ushe and Yina‘s views as being a ritual stereotype sequence of activities

and flux of daily interactive activities respectively. With these daily activities, communication takes

place, as the Tiv weavers communicate their emotions, ideas, beliefs and the history of their ancestors

onto the traditional cloth as they are woven. This daily activities are not limited to weaving but, are

replicated in their communication with the metaphysical world, in proverbs, kwagh-hir, dances, songs,

farming activities as well as other daily chores where symbols are the vehicles. Cloth production and

its uses have a spiritual dimension not only as an art, but as a social and emotional significance. Bai

(2016) asserts that, The Tiv traditional dress like any textile worn regularly onto the human body in

rituals and everyday activities takes on or retains the psychic as well as physical emission or

magnetism of the wearer thus becoming a symbolic extension of its owner (effigy) and employed

metaphorically as a powerful ingredient in many psychic or spiritual attacks or medicines

(sympathetic magic). The Tiv traditional dress, especially during the lifetime of the late Governor of

Benue State, Mr. Aper Aku was used by him to make a fashion statement as well as popularise the

identity of the Tiv people wherever he went, a trend which the current Tiv politicians of Tiv

extraction have imbibed.

Yankah (2014) observes that a distinctive feature of traditional African dress is its use of festive

colours, intricate patterns and figurative symbols to communicate meaning. These are much more than

mere adornment, they are used not just to praise heroes, to commemorate historical events and to

assert social identities, but as a form of rhetoric, a channel for the silent projection of argument. The

above statement is in consonance with the Tiv traditional clothing symbols/ features. They

communicate on diverse strata, through their motifs, bold designs and colours. Tiv traditional cloths

with their diverse symbols are numerous and should not be seen to be limited to the popular

traditional Anger (the black and white) cloth alone, as the exact number cannot be ascertained, as the

last I know there were over 65. Even in this digital age, the Tiv still evolve, new clothing symbols that

are based on inanimate and animate concepts. It is very possible to conclude that for everything that

existed in Tiv traditional society, exists in duality, an archetype or symbolic equivalent. The Tiv

traditional cloth symbols are a veritable vehicle for the translation and transmutation of concepts,

beliefs, behaviours and traditional tenets, as well as Tiv peoples‘ philosophies as a legacy transferred

from one generation to another. Even if they are modified, their essence is never lost in the labyrinth

of time.

Eze (1995) states that the traditional art of Nigeria has been integrated into our everyday life,

functioning as indicators for social, poetical, religious and economic beliefs and concerns and has

been woven into the philosophical and spiritual matrix of traditional culture that has survived to date.

Culture and development are only adequate to the needs of a people in so far as the speakers of a

certain language can communicate with one another, the ideas, and feelings, which their culture

makes possible. The development of symbols of a people moulds their thought patterns and concepts

of the nature of the world in which they find themselves. This agrees with the thinking that, the Tiv

traditional clothing symbols are a system of communication known, written and can be accurately

interpreted by the Tiv themselves even though they have other ways of communication.

Catholic Priest Clothing Symbolism

A person versed in Tsav or witchcraft practice not the misconstrued one (evil), as tsav in Tiv

traditional religious society is the practical application of supernatural power for good or for

regulating the world (Tar soron) affairs. Among the Tiv witchcraft society, an individual who

emerges as the grand master of the Mbatsav or Or Tombon is distinguished symbolically by wearing

the Tiv traditional cloth known as Ichaver Ikyondo a cloth that is said to be rarely produced, except on

demand or commissioned.

The uses of Tiv traditional cloth in religious practices enables the Tiv preserve their relationship with

the cosmic (celestial) realm. Some Tiv traditional cloths perform religious functions and are

repositories of supernatural powers. The Gbeleve cloth used by the Or Tombon of the Biamegh Tiv

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cult and Mbatsav cult do not only serve as a status symbol, but is imbued with supernatural power

capable of protecting the wearer and facilitating supernatural religious activities which find

expression in all their rites and rituals associated with rites of passage, birth, marriages, puberty,

traditional religious coronations, healing and life after death. It is during these religious activities that

cosmic powers are evoked to bear on the rites and rituals. Sometimes during divination and evocation

for good or malevolent purposes, a person‘s cloth is employed, as it serves as an effigy, since the cloth

is said to be impregnated by the aura of the owner, it serves as a magnetism in psychic activity like

healing and psychic attack respectively (sympathetic magic). It can be said to be metaphorical, a

symbolic extension of its owner.

The uses of Tiv traditional cloth in Tiv religious practices are not limited to Tiv traditional religion

alone, but has transcended over to Christianity as well. The Catholic priests of Tiv extraction are in

recent times observed by the researcher to have a portion of a Tiv traditional clothing form a part of

their priestly vestments. In this manner, both the Tiv clothing symbols and the original Catholic

priestly clothing symbols are harmonized to serve, not only the specific communicative operation but

are visible and accessible for everyone who comprehend their communicativeness. These

combinations do enable the conjoining of communicativeness of the meanings of both Tiv traditional

cloth and the Catholic priestly vestments. The Catholic Stole symbolises the clerical office,

immortality and the yoke of Christ. The Stole is the long scarf-like vestment worn over the alb and

under the chasuble. The stole was originally a towel worn around the neck of slaves who used it to

wipe the feet of their masters when bending down to attend to them. To the priest the stole is a symbol

of a servant to the people of God. Jesus had a towel round his waist while washing his disciples‘ feet

at the last supper. It is also a symbol of priestly authority. When a Mule-U-Tiv cloth is used as a stole,

the stole takes up the symbolic meanings and communicativeness of the original stole as well as that

of the Mule-U-Tiv which is employed as a stole. The chasuble, a catholic priest‘s outer garment also

takes on the symbol of Tiv traditional cloth when employed in sewing it, as well as its original

symbolic meaning. The chasuble without the Tiv traditional cloth forming part of it symbolises

charity and the yoke of Christ. It is a long ornate, sleeveless poncho-like garment worn during the

sacrifice of mass over the alb and stole. The alb is a white robe-like vestment worn by Catholic priests

also at liturgical celebrations. The white robe symbolises purity. See Plates VII to IX below:

Plate VII: Mule-U-Tiv Plate VIII: Agbende Akurugh Plate IX: Alb (Mule-U-Tiv cloth)

The priestly clothing of the priest of Tiv extraction in this respect possesses the communicativeness of

the orthodox priestly vestimentary operation as well as those typified by the various Tiv traditional

clothing symbol employed on them. If we comprehend or perceive clothing as a human event-based

communication, the externalization and replication of the cloths and their symbols may tend to play

the same role if and when one chooses to wear different clothing like Tugudu, Gbagir, Mule-U-Tiv.

Gburugu, Swem Karagbe,Godo and Anger for different events. The chasuble is an outermost liturgical

vestment worn by the clergy for the celebration of the Eucharist in Western-tradition Christian

Churches that use full vestments for such occasions, primarily in the Roman Catholic, Anglican,

Lutheran churches, as well as in some parts of the United Methodist Churches. During the Byzantine

Eastern Churches‘ Rite, the use of the phelonion vestment is a typical example. The appropriate

vestments for the priest celebrant at Mass and other sacred actions directly consociated with Mass

unless otherwise indicated, should be the chasuble, worn over the alb and the stole. The stole, which

is normally of the liturgical colour of the Mass being celebrated, should have patches of the Tugudu,

Gbagir, Mule-U-Tiv. Gburugu, Swem Karagbe, Godo and Anger present to them.


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Colours of Catholic Priestly Vestmets:

The color of vestments gives expression to the mysteries of faith and is like a calendar of the church

year.

White - Masses of Easter, Christmas season, Feasts and Memorials of Jesus, Mary, the Angels, the

Saints who were not martyrs, Weddings, and Funerals, symbolises Purity, Holiness, Joy, Triumph,

and the Resurrection.

Red - Used on Passion Sunday as called Palm Sunday, Good Friday, Pentecost, feasts of the Apostles,

Evangelists and Martyrs. Red symbolises the Holy Spirit and the blood of martyrs.

Green - Used during Ordinary time, symbolising Life, Growth and Hope.

Violet - Used during Lent and Advent, symbolising Penance, Atonement and Expiation.

Gold - More festive than white, which may be used on more solemn days such as Easter and

Christmas, and also symbolises Joy, Triumph and the enthronement to the place of leadership

Conclusion

The Tiv traditional clothing and their symbols from the indications above, can be adopted and used on

any suitable surface, retaining its original meanings and at the same time enhancing the aesthetic

value of the new surface as well its meaning and communicativeness, without damaging the new

surface nor altering the original meaning of the new surface. It is also indicative that both the Tiv

traditional religion priests and orthodox Christian religion priests can wear any of the Tiv traditional

clothing suitable for various events, time and occasions and by so doing add value to the African

heritage and pride of place among other races, ethnic groups and nation.

References

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Association of Nigeria

Atoato, D. I. (2007). A history of the Tiv Textile Industry c.1850-2000 A.D. Makurdi: Aboki

Publishers.

Bai, A. V. (2016). Studio Production and Communicativeness of Tiv Traditional Clothing.

Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Uyo, Uyo. Nigeria.

Bai, A. V. (2016). Communicativeness of Tiv Traditional Clothing. In The Artist Journal (TAJ). A

Journal of the Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria.Vol. 1 (3), October,

2016

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