A look at English

A LOOK AT ENGLISH

English is currently one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. Yet foreign students who study it frequently find it baffling. Philip Brand believes that an understanding of grammatical terms can be of real assistance.In this basic A - Z guide to grammar, he sets out to explain the meaning of basic terms, giving examples, frequently from literature. The terms are grouped under subjects for easier reference. Though not comprehensive, the guide covers many basic points, including a useful section on common grammatical and spelling errors. Although this book is designed primarily for foreign students, it might well help English students understand the workings of their language. The decline in the teaching of grammar in schools has been paralleled by a general deterioration in the standard of written English. A recent Government enquiry into the teaching of language in schools reflects the widespread concern with this subject. This book may help English students also towards better usage and a clearer understanding of their language.

P.B.

The Book Guild Ltd., 25 High Street, Lewes, Sussex

ISBN 086332 363 4

Philip Brand is a government official with a B . A . from the Open University. He has spent four years at a theological college, and has a keen interest in grammar, stimulated by his frequent contact in London with foreign students attempting to learn English. His other interests include languages, serious music and horology. He lives in London.

A Look at English

A Look at English

Philip Brand

IBBThe Book Guild Ltd

Sussex, England

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, photocopied or held in any retrieval system, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which this is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

The Book Guild Limited Temple House 25 High Street Lewes, Sussex

First published 1989 © P hilip Brand 1989

Set in Linotron Bembo

Typeset by Book Economy Services

Printed in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd

Chippenham, Wilts

ISBN 0 86332 363 4

CONTENTS

Preface 71 PARTS OF SPEECH 9

Between, But, For2 N O U N S 13

Nouns, Abstract nouns, Noun clauses, Noun phrases, Apposition, nouns in, Gender,Number, Gerund, Subject o f a sentence

3 VERBS 21Verbs, Auxiliary verbs, Finite verbs,Impersonal verbs, Notional verbs, Future tense, Future-in-the-past-tense, Imperfect tense, Perfect tense, Pluperfect tense, Present tense, Present perfect tense, Imperative mood,Indicative mood, Infinitive mood, Accusative and infinitive constructions, Cognate object,Complement, Concord, Mood of the verb,Voice

4 SUBJUNCTIVE 36Subjunctive mood, Jussive subjunctive,Optative subjunctive

5 ADJECTIVES 39Adjectives, Adjective clauses, Adjective phrases, Comparison o f adjectives/adverbs, Predicative use of adjectives, Participles

6 ADVERBS 45Adverbs, Adverbial phrases, Condition, adverbial clauses of, Manner, adverbial clauses of, Place, adverbial clauses of, Reason, adverbial clauses of, Comparison of adjectives/adverbs: (see section on Adjectives)

7 PREPOSITIONS 49Prepositions

8 P R O N O U N S 51Pronouns, Reflexive pronouns, Relative pronouns, Restrictive use o f relative pronouns

9 C O N JU N C T IO N S 55Co-ordinating conjunctions, Subordinating conjunctions

10 SENTENCES 57Simple sentence, Complex sentence, Double sentence, Predicate o f a sentence

11 CLAUSES 60Clauses o f concession, Consecutive clauses,Final clauses, Principal clauses, Subordinate clauses, Temporal clauses,

see also: Adverbial clauses in Adverbs Adjective clauses in Adjectives

12 PHRASES 65Phrase, Absolute phrase

see also: Adverbial phrases13 CASE 67

Case, Nominative case, Vocative case,Accusative case, Genitive case, Dative case

14 PU N C T U A T IO N 71Apostrophe, Question mark, Semi-colon

15 POETIC TERMS 73Alliteration, Metaphor, Simile, Iambic,Trochaic

16 FIGURES OF SPEECH 76Euphemisms, Metonymy, Pathetic fallacy,Spoonerism

17 SOME C O M M O N PITFALLS 78Affect/affect, Benefit, spelling of, Century and decade, Credible/credulous, Different to/from,Due to/owing to, Owing to, Esquire, use of,Fulfil, spelling of, Infer, use of, Its/itrs,Like/as, Mutual, meaning of, Only, place in sentence, Prevent, meanings of, Unrelated gerund and participles, Who/whom

PREFACE

For some years the teaching o f grammar in schools has been out of fashion and decried as being outdated and boring. The result is generally agreed to have been a deterioration in standards o f literacy, observed by educationists and employers alike. N ow the tide seemed to have turned, with the recent government enquiry into the teaching o f language in schools.

This A to Z o f grammar is designed to help two groups o f people. Firstly it should help foreign students struggling to learn English, by explaining basic grammatical terms and giving examples o f correct usage. In the process they will, incidentally, come across many o f the masters o f English prose. Secondly it may help English students towards a better understanding o f their own language, by elucidating points o f common usage. Particularly helpful is the section on Some Common Pitfalls, based on frequently observed errors.

This book does not claim to be a comprehensive compendium of grammar and is not intended to be exhaustive. Its size makes it a handy pocket reference book and it should find a place on every student’s bookshelf.

1Parts of Speech

These are eight in number:-

(i) adjective; adverb; conjunction; interjection; noun; preposition; pronoun; verb

The only sure way o f telling the part o f speech a particular word plays in a sentence is to ask questions such as: what function is this word performing? Is it a naming word, for example, or does it serve merely to join words or phrases? Is the word capable o f taking an object? and so on.

Examples

(i) When I see a friend in need, I cannot pass him by. (here by is used as an adverb)

(ii) This treatise was written by a celebrated author.(by is a preposition in this sentence)

(iii) I do not think that my friend has m uch money.(here m uch is an adjective)

(iv) His chief talent was an acuteness in dispute; a talent not usually m uch exercised by kings.

HENRY HALLAM

(In this sentence, the word m uch is an adverb)

(v) There is no love but love at first sight.BENJAMIN DISRAELI

(here we have an example o f but used as a preposition)

(vi) Without changing a muscle, but with the same smiling face with which he had previously taunted

9

10 A LOOK AT ENGLISH

my host, did the gladiator brave the painful grasp he had undergone.

LORD LYTTON

(here but is a conjunction)

N ote that it is possible for a word to fulfil the role o f t wo parts o f speech at the same time. Thus in the sentence:

(vii) I shall call out your name when I see you. the word w hen is both an adverb o f time and a conjunction (it joins together two clauses, one principal and one subordinate).

BETW EEN. This word can be used both as a preposition and as an adverb:-

(i) That is a secret betw een John and me. (preposition)

(ii) Draw the lines so that there is plenty o f space between, (adverb).

Note that when betw een functions as a preposition, all the words which stand as object to it must be in the Accusative case:-

(iii) A barrier seems to exist between him and them.

(iv) Between you and m e and the bed-post, young master has quarrelled with old master.

LORD BULWER-LYTTON

BU T. This word can be used:-

a. As an adverb:

(i) I have but one son.

(ii) The paths o f glory lead but to the grave.THOMAS GRAY

b. As a conjunction:

(iii) She is tired but happy.

(iv) I boasted o f a calm indeed, but it was comparative only.

CHARLES LAMB

PARTS OF SPEECH 11

c. As a preposition: and when it is so used, care must be taken to ensure that all object-words are in the Accusative case:

(v) All were punished but him and me.

(vi) N o one but her was allowed to leave.

(vii) I feel like one Who treads alone,Some banquet-hall deserted,Whose lights are fled,Whose garlands dead,And all but he departed.

THOMAS MOORE

In the last example, the pronoun in line 6 is clearly in the wrong case, and it is difficult to justify the error on the grounds of poetic licence.

(viii) We cannot but love him (present infinitive as object).

FOR. This word can be used both as a preposition and as a co-ordinating conjunction:-

(i) A passion for this kind may be salutary, if we will learn the lessons for us with which is it charged. (Preposition)

MATTHEW ARNOLD

(ii) The common people have the use o f their limbs; for they live by their labour or skill. (Co-ordinating conj.)

WILLIAM HAZLITT

(iii) Let me rest awhile: for I am weary. (Co-ordinating conjunction).

Note that when for is used as a conjunction, either a colon or a semi-colon is often required after the previous word.

Note also that when the word is so used, it can join only entire clauses, and never, as in the case o f most conjunctions, words and phrases as well.


ANALYTICAL LANGUAGE. An Analytical Language is one, such as English, that conveys meaning by the use o f prepositions, conjunctions, etc., rather than, as in the case o f Latin and Greek, by inflexions. In such a language, the order o f words in a sentence is most important.

2Nouns

These are nam ing words (Latin, nomen), and it must be remembered that a noun or noun-equivalent forms the subject o f every finite verb.

Nouns are often classified as:-

(i) Com m on: table, house, machine

(ii) Proper: James, France, Vaseline

(iii) Abstract: Mercy, Temperance, Wickedness

(iv) Collective: a flock of sheep; a crow d of footballsupporters; a pride of lions

The gerund and the infinitives (qq.v) must also be considered nouns:-

(v) Walking is a good form o f exercise. (Gerund)

(vi) ’Tis better to have loved and lostThan never to have loved at all (Perfect infinitive)

LORD TENNYSON

In the following examples, the nouns and other naming words have been printed in bold:-

(vii) T om orrow is the first day of spring

(viii) By reading books we learn many things.

(ix) My spirit is too weak; m ortality Weighs heavily on me like unwilling sleep And each imagined pinnacle and steep o f Godlike hardship tells me I must die.

JOHN KEATS

13


(x) When the wind is blowing and the sleet or rain is driving against the dark windows, I love to sit by the fire, thinking o f what I have read in books of voyage and travel.

CHARLES DICKENS

ABSTRACT NOUNS name things that are not tactile - that cannot, in other words, be touched. Examples are:~

(i) beauty; envy; mercy; quality; valour

(ii) Rid o f the w orld’s injustice, and his pain He rests at last beneath God’s veil o f blue.

OSCAR WILDE

(The poet is speaking of John Keats, whose grave he visited in Rome).

NOUN CLAUSES are Subordinate clauses (that is, clauses dependent upon other clauses) that perform the chief function o f a noun - that is, they name. They can perform all the functions o f a noun, as these examples show:

(i) How he came here is not known, (subject o f a verb).

(ii) I saw (that) he did not understand me. (object o f a verb)

MRS CRAIK

(iii) Tell me by what means you were educated.(object o f a preposition - a very common construction in English).

(iv) In whatever we say to you, we can have no interest but yours.(object o f preposition).

LORD CHESTERFIELD

(v) The result is what we expected (complement o f verb)

N O U N S 15

(vi) U pon his first rising the court was hushed, and a general whisper ran among the country people that Sir R oger was up. (noun clause in apposition to the word whisper).

RICHARD ADDISON

N O U N PHRASES. A Noun-phrase is a nam ing phrase - a group o f words lacking a finite verb and so not having a subject. Such a phrase has all the functions o f a noun. e.g.

(i) The m an in the crow d suddenly fell forward. (Subject o f a sentence).

(ii) One great misfortune in life is to be w ithout friends. (Complement)

(iii) He entered the classroom without any o f his textbooks,(Object o f a preposition)

A PPO SITIO N , nouns in. Two nouns are said to be in A pposition when they both refer to the same thing; for example:-

(i) T om , T om the Piper’s son Stole a pig and away he ran.

NURSERY RHYME

(ii) I have here some work for your son Alexander.

(iii) M r Tibbs, the second-rate beau, I have formerly described, together with his lady.

OLIVER GOLDSMITH

Observe that nouns in apposition to each other must always be in the same case:-

(iv) I gave the message to his father, the baker. (Accusative case).

Observe also that a Noun-clause can be in apposition to a noun previously stated:-


(v) The fact that he had a criminal record was held against him.

GENDER. It is not always realized that there are two kinds of gender, namely grammatical gender, and gender according to sex.

Grammatical gender, in those languages that possess it, means in effect the agreement between a noun and the adjective that describes it; for example:-

(i) French: un petit garqon - a little boyune petite ecole - a small school

(ii) Latin: deus dirus - a terrible godbellum dirum - a terrible war

Note that when learning such a language, the student needs to learn both a noun and its gender. This is never the case in English, which has only gender according to sex.

NUMBER. Most nouns in English indicate the plural form by the addition o f -s or -es; thus

(i) book books branch branches

leg legs brush brushes

table tables fox foxes

The following words and their plural forms should be noted:-

analysis analysesaxis axescourt-martial courts-martialcriterion criteriadatum datadilettante dilettantiforum forumsmemorandum memorandaphenomenon phenomenaradius radiispecies speciesvirtuoso virtuosi

G E R U N D . A gerund is a naming-word, and so it is a noun; but it is a noun formed from verbs, both transitive and intransitive. Like the present participle, the gerund has the ending -ing:-

(i) cooking; eating; fishing; laughing; reading

Unlike the Latin gerund, the one in English can be freely used as the subject o f a sentence:-

(ii) S w im m in g is a healthy pastime.

(iii) L earn ing is the knowledge o f that which is not generally known to others.

WILLIAM HAZLITT

The gerund can take a direct object, provided that it has been formed from a transitive verb:-

(iv) E a ting unripe apples is unwise.

(v) R ead ing good books will help to improve the mind.

It can also stand as object o f a preposition (this is a very common construction in English):-

(vi) We shall catch our train only by leaving early.

(vii) She devoted much o f her time to kn itting .

Occasionally, the gerund can be used in the plural:-

(viii) I do not like the appearance o f those buildings.

(ix) The endings o f the various words are called inflexions.

See also: -ING, WORDS EN D IN G IN

-IN G , W O R D S E N D IN G IN . In English, most words ending in the suffix -ing are either gerunds (q v.) or present participles, Active voice:-

(i) The metaphysical poets were men o f learning, and to show their learn ing was their whole endeavour. (Gerund).

DR SAMUEL JOHNSON

N O U N S 17


(ii) All Saturday morning I could perceive, in consequence o f this, my wife and daughters in close conference together, and now and then glancing at me with looks that betrayed a latent plot. (Present participle)

OLIVER GOLDSMITH

There are however a few words o f this type that, though they began life as present participles, can now be used only as prepositions, governing a direct object in the Accusative case. Examples are:-

(iii) concerning; considering; notwithstanding; regarding; saving

(iv) I know o f Disraeli, and have heard much concerning him.

(v) Notwithstanding the young man’s honesty, I do not recommend him for the position.

It is possible to confuse the gerund and the present participle: both, after all, end in -ing, and both are capable of taking a direct object. Remember therefore that a gerund is always a naming word - it names an action or state; and this is something that a participle, which is a describing word, can never do. Consider these examples:-

(vi) As a single man, I have spent a good deal of my time in noting down the infirmities o f Married People.

CHARLES LAMB

In this sentence, the w ord noting names an action, and is therefore a gerund (in fact, it is in the Accusative case, object o f the preposition in).

(vii) Seeing afterwards Orestes in his raving fit, he grew more than ordinary serious, and took occasion to moralise (in his way) upon an evil conscience.

JOSEPH ADDISON

In this last example, seeing is a describing word, a participle, qualifying the pronoun he.

N O U N S 19

SUBJECT OF A SENTENC E. The subject o f a clause or sentence is a naming word and so must always be a noun or noun equivalent.Thus is can be:-

a. A noun:

(i) This w ork is interesting.

(ii) Helen, thy beauty is to me Like those Nicean barks o f yore.

E.A. POE

b. A pronoun:

(iii) It is snowing.

(iv) I thus rambled from pocket to pocket till the beginning of the civil wars.

JOSEPH ADDISON

c. A Noun-clause:

(v) What he to ld m e is a secret.

(vi) Why the fam ily left the house will soon be known.

d. A Noun-phrase:

(vii) What to do next is a problem.

(viii) T o spend too m uch tim e in studies is sloth.FRANCIS BACON

e. A verb in the Infinitive mood:

(ix) T o love others is a Christian duty.

f. A gerund:

(x) Seeing is believing.

(xi) Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and w riting an exact man.

FRANCIS BACON

g. Certain adjectives can also stand as subject:

(xiii) The w ise will always listen to counsel.

(xiv) The rich have become richer and the poor have become poorer.

P.B. SHELLEY

Thus we see that the noun and the verb are the most important parts o f speech, since every grammatical sentence must contain at least one o f each.


3Verbs

The verb (Latin, verbum, a word) is the most important o f the eight parts o f speech since every grammatical sentence must contain one, expressed or understood. Verbs can express a state, or more usually, an action:-

(i) to be; to become; to remain; to seem

These verbs express a state.

(ii) to grow; to leave; to move; to release

These verbs express an action.

O r we may simply say that the verb in a sentence tells us what the subject is or does.

In these sentences, the verb has been put into italics

(iii) Her husband d ied last week.

(iv) M ind what you say

(v) She w alks in beauty, like the night O f cloudless climes and starry skies.

LORD BYRON

(vi) Speech is the only benefit man hath to express his excellency o f mind above other creatures.

BEN JONSON

When one verb follows another, as in the last example, the second verb is in the Infinitive mood.

21

A verb can have a mood, a tense, and a voice (see under these headings).

A finite verb is one having its own subject, thus:-

(vii) I run; he lives; they are moving

AUXILIARY VERBS are verbs that do not possess a meaning o f their own, but are used simply to help another verb to indicate a mood, tense or voice. The Auxiliary verbs in English - there are only six - are:-

(i) be; do; have; may; shall; will

Examples in sentences:-

(ii) It seemed to Catherine that if she were his sister, she would disprove this axiom.

HENRY JAMES

(helping to indicate the Subjunctive mood)

(iii) He has lived in N ew York for several months,

(helping to indicate the Present-perfect tense)

(iv) In this letter, I am warned to leave the area at once,

(helping to indicate the Passive voice)

See also: Notional verbs.

FINITE VERB. This is the name given to a verb having its own subject; thus:-

(i) he smiles; you abandon; they deliver

Note that the subject o f a verb in the Imperative mood is nearly always understood:-

(ii) Leave the room and come back later!

It is however sometimes inserted to create emphasis — though


this is somewhat colloquial:-

(iii) D on’t you talk to me like that!

VERBS 23

IM PERSONAL V ERBS. There are a few verbs that, because o f their meaning, can be used only in the third person singular, with the pronoun it as subject. The chief verbs are:-

(i) to hail; to rain; to snow; to thunder


(ii) It is snow ing outside.

(iii) A foolish thing was but a toy,For the rain it raineth every day.

W . SHAKESPEARE

N O T IO N A L VERBS are verbs that have a full meaning o f their own, as distinct from Auxiliary verbs (q.v.) that do not. Here are some examples:-

(i) to bring; to consider; to dislike; to run

Needless to say, most English verbs come into this category. Some verbs may be Notional at one time and Auxiliary at

another, as these examples show:-

(ii) I have a present for my friend. (Notional)

(iii) I have seen this play before. (Auxiliary)

(iv) What I have heard o f her schooldays from other sources confirms the accuracy o f the details in this remarkable letter. (Auxiliary)

MRS GASKELL


FUTURE TENSE. This tense, as the name tells us, relates to events that are about to take place; thus:-

(i) to love, indicative mood, Active voice I shall loveyou will love he/she will love we shall love you will love they will love

(ii) to love, indicative mood, Passive voice I shall be lovedyou will be loved he/she will be loved we shall be loved you will be loved they will be loved

Note that if will is used for the First Person singular and plural, and shall for the Second and Third Persons, then the notion o f determination is introduced; for example:-

(iii) I will not be spoken to like that!

(iv) He shall answer for his misdeeds - every one of them!

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. This tense refers to actions regarded as complete at some future time; in English, the auxiliary verb used is have.

Example: to see, Indicative Mood, Active Voice I shall have seen You will have seen He/She/It will have seen We shall have seen You will have seen They will have seen

So also with the Passive voice:-

I shall have been seen You will have been seen

and so on

Examples in Sentences:

(i) I shall have loved her for thirty years.

(ii) H e w ill have been fo u n d by tom orrow morning.

(iii) She w ill have read my letter by this time.

F U T U R E IN T H E P A S T T E N S E . Sometimes a speaker refers to an event in the future, and his words are subsequently reported; when this happens the tense used is called the fu tu re in the past. Examples o f this tense are:-

(i) I told him that I w o u ld not allow the games to take place.

(ii) We mentioned that we shou ld be visiting Italy in the spring.

IM P E R F E C T T E N S E . This tense is used to describe an event that is not yet completed; usually the term is confined to events o f past time:-

(i) I was speaking; I was giving

So also in Latin and French:-

(ii) Latin: loquebar; dabam

(iii) French: Je parlais; je donnais


(iv) I was speak ing to him when he became ill.

VERBS 25


(v) When we were leaving the lecture-hall, we saw an accident occur.

(vi) I was walking about my chamber this morning in a very gay humour, when I saw a coach stop at my door.

RICHARD STEELE

PERFECT TENSE. This tense is used to describe a completed action in the past (perfectus in Latin means completed).

(i) Active voice:I ruledyou ruled he/she ruled w e/you/they ruled

(ii) Passive voice:I was ruled you were ruled he/she was ruled w e/you/they were ruled

(iii) I entered my office somewhat later than usual.

(iv) They inspected the new Tow n Hall in the High Street.

(v) To preserve and to rear so frail a being, the most tender assiduity was scarcely sufficient.

EDWARD GIBBON

See also: Present Perfect Tense.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. This tense is usually used to tell us that an action occurred prior to some other past action; thus:-

(i) I told the judge that I had been waiting for payment for nearly tw o years.

(ii) We had passed for some time along the wall o f a park, and at length the chaise stopped at the gates.

W ASHINGTON IRVING

VERBS 27

Note that the pluperfect tense o f the verb to have is had had, as in the following example:-

(iii) They had been married ten years, and until this present day on which M r Dombey sat jingling and jingling his heavy gold watch-chain in the great arm-chair by the side o f the bed, had had no issue.

CHARLES DICKENS

PR ESENT TENSE. The following is an example o f a verb conjugated in the present tense, indicative mood:-

(i) Active voice:I loveyou love he/she loves we/you/they love

(ii) Passive voice:I am loved you are loved he/she is loved w e/you/they are loved

Examples o f this tense in sentences:-

(iii) The young lady loves a sailor.

(iv) I dislike all forms o f sport.

(v) N ow sleeps the crimson petal, now the white;N or waves the cypress in the palace walk

ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON

The present tense is also used in a subordinate clause, irrespective o f the tense o f the verb in the Principal clause, in order to assert something that is necessarily true at all times:-

(vi) I told him that the earth travels around the sun, and that the sun appears to rise in the east.


PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. This form o f the Perfect tense is used to show that an event occurred in recent past time; in English the auxiliary verb have is used:-

(i) I have given; he has left; we have received.

(ii) You have recently written to my aunt.

(iii) We have bathed, where none have seen us,In the lake and in the fountain

T.L. BEDDOES

An example o f the Passive voice may also be given:

(iv) He has been known to destroy letters sent to him.

IMPERATIVE MOOD. This mood o f the verb is used in making requests, and also in giving commands; thus:-

(i) Please pass the salt.

(ii) Stand to attention!

(iii) ‘Drink,’ I said, presenting him the wine.E. A. POE

(iv) Think for a little while o f that scene, and the meaning o f all its small formalisms, mixed with its serene sublimity.

JOHN RUSKIN

Notice that the subject o f a verb in the Imperative mood is usually understood: (You) please pass the salt: (you) stand to attention and so on. However in colloquial language, the subject is sometimes stated:

(v) D on’t you talk to me like that!

INDICATIVE MOOD. O f the four moods (q.v.) found in English, the Indicative is the most common, since it is used to

VERBS 29

give information, real or supposed, to ask a question, and also in making an exclamation; thus:-

(i) I shall spend the evening at home.

(ii) Where are my text-books?

(iii) H ow tedious those lectures are!

(iv) Fair daffodils, we w eep to see You haste away so soon

ROBERT HERRICK

(v) Yet each man kills the thing he loves,By each let this be heardSome do it with a bitter look,Some with a flattering word.

OSCAR WILDE

(Note: be heard in line 2 is in the Infinitive mood).

INFINITIVE M O O D. This mood o f the verb is the one that names an action or state without reference to a subject:-

(i) to be; to give; to love; to stand

Because the Infinitive is a naming mood, it is really a noun, and so can stand as subject o f a sentence or clause:-

(ii) T o err is human: to forgive, divine.ALEXANDER POPE

(iii) T o be sick is to enjoy monarchal prerogatives.CHARLES LAMB

The Infinitive mood is often used in English to denote purpose (i.e. its use is adverbial):-

(iv) I shall go to tow n to do some shopping.

(v) But since it pleased a vanish’d eye,I go to plant it on his tomb.



These examples show that the Infinitive is usually found with the preposition to, but this is not invariably the case. Thus the preposition is omitted after the auxiliary verbs shall, w ill, m ay, and do, and also after a few other verbs such as hear, see, dare.

A verbal infinitive can stand as object to a transitive verb (exactly like an ordinary noun):-

(vi) I do not wish to leave.

It can stand as complement:-

(vii) His one desire is to visit Rome.

In the following example, the Infinitive stands as object to a preposition:-

(viii) My son is about to sit his final examination.

If the Infinitive can take a direct object, it can also be used in the Passive voice:-

(ix) Active voice: to grow; to love; to warn

(x)Passive voice: to be grown; to be loved; to be warned

N ote that in English we often use a noun as an adjective; thus:

(xi) a w inter sun; a harvest festival; a storm warning

This practice applies equally well to the Infmitive:-

(xii) Bring me a book to read.

(xiii) The former belongs to this life; the latter to that which is to com e.

LORD MACAULAY

(In this sentence, the Infinitive to com e qualifies the pronoun that).

A C C U SA T IV E A N D IN F IN IT IV E C O N S T R U C T IO N .This construction is more commonly found in Latin than in English; for example:-

(i) Scimus eum esse regem.

In translating this into English, we need to use a N oun clause:-

(ii) We know that he is king.

However we do on occasion use the Accusative and Infinitive construction in our own language, and here are two examples:-

(iii) I consider h im to be guilty.(iv) I believe you know m e to be somewhat positive.

ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON

VERBS 31

C O G N A T E O B JE C T . There are a few verbs which, though they are intransitive, are capable o f taking an object whose meaning is in some way related to the verb itself (cognatus is a Latin adjective meaning ‘related’). Some examples are:-

(i) Let him die the dea th o f a slave.

(ii) His ancient, dreamless, uninvaded sleep,The Kraken sleepeth,

ALFRED, LORD T E N N Y SO N

C O M PL E M E N T . Sometimes a verb, whether transitive or intransitive, requires some additional words to make the sense complete; and to these words is given the name co m plem en t.

Consider the verb to be.This verb is sometimes used with the meaning to exist, as in

the sentence:

(i) God is (Latin, Deus est).

Far more frequently, however, it is used to make sentences with the aid o f a complement:-

(ii) She is a good mother.

(iii) The priest was a member o f the Society of Jesus.

So also with the verb to become:-

(iv) The young man became a thief.

Some transitive verbs need a complement in order to complete the sense (these are sometimes called ‘Transitive Verbs o f Incomplete Predication’). Here are some examples

(v) They declared him the victor.

(vi) I dislike eating such sweet dishes.

Remember that the verbs to be and to become take the same case after them as before:-

(vii) I am he.

(viii) Are those the essential books? Yes, those are they.

(ix) Richard I became king in the year 1189.

CONCORD in grammar refers to the agreement that ought to exist, in number and person, between a verb and its subject; thus:-

(i) He is a lucky man.

(ii) My son, whom I spoke to you about, is coming today.

(iii) Mr Yeats is the only one among the younger English poets who has the whole poetical temperament, and nothing but the poetical temperament.

ARTHUR SYMONS


(Observe that when the subject o f a clause is a Relative pronoun, the verb must agree with its antecedent, as in the last example).

VERBS 33

Sometimes for the sake o f euphony, a verb is made to agree with a word other than its subject:-

(iv) A number o f boys w ere seen running from the shop.

(v) The m ajority o f men are not always to be relied on.

In a sentence such as:-

(vi) The public are requested not to walk on the grass. The singular, is, would also be possible: but the two should not be mixed in the one passage.

Particular care must be taken when a verb and its subject are separated by a good many words, as in the following sentence:-

(vii) It is w orth noticing that the most important defences o f the belief in witchcraft, against the growing scepticism in the latter part o f the sixteenth century and in the seventeenth, w ere the productions o f men who in some departments were among the foremost thinkers o f their time.

GEORGE ELIOT

M O O D OF THE VERB. In this expression, the term m ood means mode, or way o f acting. A verb can act in one o f four different ways:-

a. To state a fact, real or supposed, to ask for information, or to make an exclamation (Indicative mood):-

(i) You m ust accept my answer.

(ii) Is that the road to London?

(iii) Her brother understood immediately the nature and intention o f the peace-offering.

ANTHONY TROLLOPE

(iv) H ow generous (it is) of you!

b. To give a command or make a request (Imperativemood):-

(v) Sit up straight!

(vi) Give us this day our daily bread.

(vii) Tell me, where is fancy bred,O r in the heart or in the head?

SHAKESPEARE

c. To express a notion without reference to person ornumber (Infinitive mood):-

(viii) To love others is a duty.

(ix) To err is human.A. POPE

d. To express a wish, supposition or contingency (Subjunctive mood):-

(x) I wish that I were rich.

(xi) God save the Queen.

(xii) I triumph still, if thou abide with me.H.F. LYTE

The Subjunctive m ood is, on the whole, a literary one.The student should consult the articles under these headings.


VOICE. M ost verbs indicate, by means o f inflection and/or the use o f an auxiliary verb, whether the subject o f the verb is acting (Active voice) or being acted upon (Passive voice).

Here is the verb to love, Indicative mood, Present tense, conjugated in both the Active and the Passive voice:-

(i) Active VoiceI love you love he lovesw e/you/they love

VERBS 35

(ii) Passive V oiceI am loved you are loved he is lovedwe/you/they are loved

Note that, in English, the Passive voice is always constructed with the verb to be.

When a sentence whose verb is in the Active voice is changed to one whose verb is passive, the direct object o f the former becomes the subject o f the latter: thus:-

(iii) A sword killed the sailor. (Active voice)

(iv) The sailor was killed by a sword. (Passive voice)

Only verbs that are transitive, taking a direct object in the Accusative case, can be used in the Passive voice.

In some old books o f English Grammar, the term Neuter verb was used to denote those intransitive verbs that are incapable o f taking even a Cognate object (q.v.); for example, to be and to becom e.

4Subjunctive

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. This mood o f the verb is used to indicate wishes, conditions, suppositions, and so on - anything except facts, for which the Indicative mood is required.

In former times, the Subjunctive mood was in much more frequent use. It is often found, for example, in the Bible:-

(i) Until the day breakAnd the shadows flee away.

SONG OF SOLOMON, II, 1 7

(Here we have the Subjunctive mood used in an Adverbial Clause o f Time: nowadays we should the Indicative (until the day breaks).).

(ii) Blessed be the name o f the Lord from this time forth and for evermore.

p s a l m c x m , 2

(this is an example o f the Optative subjunctive).

It is a fact however that many languages, including English, tend to use the Subjunctive mood less and less.

In formal, written English, the main uses o f the mood are these:-

(a) To express a wish:

(iii) God grant your request.

(iv) I wish I were dead: and it is all through you I am driven to wish it.

ANTHONY TROLLOPE

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(b) In some clauses o f Comparison:

(v) He looked as if he w ere unwilling to act in the matter.

Sometimes verbs such as should or m ay are used as substitutes for the pure Subjunctive:-

(vi) I shall travel by rail, that I m ay have a faster journey.

Here are one or two further examples o f the Subjunctive Mood:-

(vii) O that I once past changing were,Fast in thy Paradise, where no flower can wither.

GEORGE HERBERT

(viii) O be thou blest with all that Heav’n can send,Long Health, long Youth, long Pleasure, and a Friend.

ALEXANDER POPE

(ix) Where’er she lie,Locked up from mortal eye,In shady leaves o f destiny

RICHARD CRASHAW

These examples are all taken from poetry: but even there we find the Indicative mood far more common.

Here is the verb to praise conjugated in the Active voice, Subjunctive mood:-

Present tense: I praiseyou praise he/she praise w e/you/they praise

Perfect tense (rare): I praisedyou praised he/she praised w e/you/they praised

The Passive voice o f this mood - (if) I be praised, etc., is also quite rare.

SU BJUNC TIVE 37

JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. This construction is found in Classical Latin: it is used to express a command (inhere, to command): thus:-

(i) Oremus.Let us pray.

(ii) Ne hie maneamus.Do not let us remain here.

N ote that the corresponding English construction requires the use o f the verb let followed by the present infinitive; as these examples show, all object words must therefore be in the Accusative case:-

(iii) Let him answer for this deed.

(iv) Let you and me do the task ourselves.

(v) Cheer us when we recover: but let us pass on - for G od’s sake, let us pass on!

EDM UND BURKE


OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. This is the name given to the Subjunctive mood when it is used to express a wish or desire:-

(i) Heaven grant your wish!

(ii) ‘Ruin seize thee, ruthless King!’THOMAS GRAY

(iii) Ahou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase!)Awoke one night from a deep dream o f peace.

LEIGH HUNT

Examples (i) and (ii) show that it is possible for the verb in the Principal clause o f a sentence to be in the Subjunctive mood.

5Adjectives

Adjectives are words used to qualify nouns and pronouns. In the following examples, the adjectives have been put into bold:-

(i) I know that she is a k ind lady.

(ii) The prisoner considered the sentence to be harsh.

(iii) Being weary, I went to bed early,

(iv) With great deference to the old lady’s judgement in these matters, I think I have experienced som e moments in m y life whey playing at cards for nothing has even been very agreeable.

CHARLES LAMB

Adjectives are usually divided by grammarians into eight types:-

a. Proper: English; Spanish; Greek

b. Possessive: my; his; her; our; your; their

c. N um era l: fourteen; nineteen; fifty-seven

d. Quantitative: some; much; little; enough

e. D em onstrative: this; that; the; a or an; such

f. Descriptive: lonely; quiet; plausible; reliable

g. Interrogative: which? what?

h. Distributive: each; every; either; neither

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Some adjectives are formed from verbs, both transitive and intransitive, and when this happens they are called participles:-

(v) a speaking clock; a smiling boy; a broken window

If a verb comes between an adjective and the noun it qualifies: the adjective is said to be used predicatively:-

(vi) The Head Teacher was angry.

(vii) Children, you are very little,And your bones are very brittle.

R.L. STEVENSON

Sometimes in English idiom requires the use o f an adjective when from the grammatical point o f view we should expect an adverb; e.g.

(vii) This tea tastes too sweet.

(viii) Do you always take your whisky neat?

N ote that the demonstrative adjectives this and that are unique in that they have a plural form: this book becomes these books and that clock becomes those clocks.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. These, like adjectives, qualify a noun or noun-equivalent in another clause; e.g.

(i) The students whom you saw just now are resident at this College.

The noun so qualified - in the example above it is the word students - is known as the antecedent.

Adjective clauses are introduced by either a Relative pronoun (who, whom, that, which) or a Relative adverb (why, when, where).

(ii) The place where he is buried is known to very few.

(iii) The lady who arrived yesterday is my aunt.

ADJECTIVES 41

(iv) The profession o f a medical man in a small provincialtown is not often one w hich gives to its ow ner in early life a large incom e.

ANTHONY TROLLOPE

Notice that the Relative pronoun is often omitted in English, though this cannot be done in either Latin or French; e.g.

(v) The student I spoke to has given up his course o f studies.

ADJECTIVE PH RASES qualify nouns exactly like adjectives; often they contain a participle or preposition:-

(i) He is a surgeon noted for his skill.

(ii) Nobody likes a wind from the east.

(iii) Six weeks the guardsman walked the yard,In the suit o f shabby grey

OSCAR WILDE

(In this example, the adjectival phrase qualifies the noun ‘guardsman’)

COM PARISO N OF ADJECTIVES A N D ADVERBS.Many adjectives o f Quality have three forms - the positive, the comparative, and the superlative - and these are used for purposes o f comparison. The positive form is simply the adjective itself: the comparative is used when two things are compared, and the superlative, when more than two things are compared. Thus we have:-

Positive form Com parative Superlative

able abler ablest

quick quicker quickest

small smaller smallest

These adjectives contain only one syllable, and they are compared by means o f inflexion.

However, most adjectives o f two or more syllables are compared by the use o f the words more for the comparative, and most for the superlative; thus:-

curious more curious most curious

desirable more desirable most desirable

zealous more zealous most zealous

Examples in sentences

(i) John is an abler pupil than Tom.

(ii) That book is more interesting than this.

(iii) I declare my lady turned a shade paler at the sight o f him.

WILKIE COLLINS

(iv) He was the man who, o f all modern and perhaps ancient poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul.

j o h n d r y d e n : h e i s s p e a k i n g o f s h a k e s p e a r e

A few adjectives have an irregular form o f comparison.The only ones at all commonly used are:-

Positive form Comparative Superlative

bad worse worst

good better best

little less least

much more most

some more most

There are some adjectives o f Quality that, because o f their meaning, can be used only in an absolute sense: for example:-

(v) everlasting; perfect; total; unique


It follows therefore that such a sentence as:-

(vi) My copy o f ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress’ is much more unique than yours

is quite inadmissible.

What has been said here about adjectives, applies to the comparison o f adverbs:-

ADJECTIVES 43

Positive form Comparative Superlative

fast faster fastest

gracefully more gracefully most gracefully

usefully more usefully most usefully

Exceptions to the general rule are:-

badly worse worst

little less least

well better best

PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES. An adjective is said to be used predicatively when it is separated from the noun it is describing by a verb; thus:-

(i) His father is kind.

(ii) His artistic skill is great, and his ideality high.

A very few adjectives can be used only predicatively: e.g.

(iii) alone asleep loath unable


(iv) Why is that man alone?

(v) Sand-strewn caverns, cool and deep,Where the winds are all asleep.

MATTHEW ARNOLD

(In this last example, three adjectives are used predicatively).

(vi) The doctor is unable to see you at this time.

(vii) I am loath to remain in this house on my own.

PARTICIPLES are adjectives; but they differ from ordinary adjectives in that they are formed from verbs, both transitive and intransitive.

a. Participles formed from transitive verbs:

(i) fishing; giving; loving; warning

b. Participles formed from intransitive verbs:

(ii) becoming; being; dying; sleeping

A participle formed from a transitive verb can take a direct object, thus:-

(iii) Seeing his friend, the young man crossed the street.

Here are some examples o f sentences containing participles:-

(iv) He is a loving father.

(v) Becoming weary, we returned home before the appointed time.

(vi) Thy voice is on the rolling air;I hear thee where the waters run Thou standest in the rising sun,And in the setting thou are fair


Note that the word setting in the last o f these lines is not a participle but a gerund.

There is no future participle in English, as there is in Latin. Instead we must use the term about to>

(vii) This boy is about to start his lessons for the day.


6Adverbs

Adverbs are words that qualify, in the main, verbs, adjectives and other adverbs; e.g:-

(i) Tom ran quickly down the hill.

(the adverb qualifies the verb ran).

(ii) There are some laws in this empire very peculiar.JONATHAN SWIFT

(here the adverb qualifies the adjective peculiar).

(iii) Why do you read so slowly?(the adverb qualifies the adverb slowly).

In the sentence:

(iv) The young man swam h alf over the lake.

it appears that the adverb qualifies the preposition over; but some grammarians would say that it qualifies instead the whole o f the following adverbial phrase.

Adverbs are usually classified as follows:-

a. Time: now; then; tomorrow; yesterday

b. Place: here; there; everywhere; inside; around

c. Manner: slowly; silently; morbidly; quietly

d. Degree: so; rather; somewhat; slightly; almost

e. Reason: because; since (these words are also used as conjunctions, and for this reason some grammarians refer to them as conjunctive adverbs).

45

N ote that an adverb can qualify a whole sentence; whenever this occurs, the adverb must stand first, e.g:-

(v) Perhaps he will arrive early enough to attend class.


ADVERBIAL PHRASES are very common indeed: like adverbs, they tell us about time, place, manner, degree, comparison, etc.

Examples in phrases

(i) in a moment or two (time)

(ii) at the end o f next week (time)

(iii) in the middle o f an island (place)

(iv) in difficult circumstances (place)

(v) as meek as a lamb (manner)

(vi) as fast as a hare (manner)

(vii) up to a certain point (degree)

Examples in sentences

(viii) I shall see my mother in a few weeks’ time.

(ix) To the last point o f vision, and beyond,M ount, daring warbler!

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH

(x) Time, like an ever-rolling stream,Bears all its sons away.

REVD. ISAAC WATTS

(xi) Unhappily a few months after the appearance o f the‘Journey to the Hebrides’, Johnson did what none o fhis envious assailants could have done, and to a certain extent succeeded in writing himself down.

LORD MACAULAY

C O N D IT IO N , A D V ER BIA L CLAUSES OF. The only conjunctions that are at all commonly used in modern English to introduce these clauses are i f and unless.

(i) I f you do not arrive on tim e, you will be penalised.

(ii) I f this th en be success, ’tis dismaller than any failure.ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING

(iii) I will not enter for the race unless a prize is offered.

(iv) You have furnished me now with arguments to convince my brother, i f he should ever enter upon the dispute again.

DOROTHY OSBORNE

ADVERBS 47

M A N N ER , A D V ER BIA L CLAUSES OF. These clauses are introduced by the words as, as if, or as though:-

Examples

(i) Do as I tell you.

(ii) Men fear death, as children fear to go in the dark.FRANCIS BACON

(iii) The fire glows brightly, crackling with a sharp and cheerful sound, as i f it loves to burn.

CHARLES DICKENS

PLACE, A DV ER BIA L CLAUSES OF. In modern English, these clauses are introduced by where or wherever:-

(i) You will find him where the sun meets the sea.

(ii) We must contact our friend, wherever she is now .

Let us however look at two further complex sentences:-

(iii) I cannot find the place where the poet is buried.

(iv) Where our relative is now liv ing is a mystery.


In sentence (iii) the ‘where’ clause qualifies the noun ‘place’ and is therefore adjectival. In sentence (iv) the ‘where’ clause names a fact (it is really the subject o f the sentence) and so is nominal - a N oun clause.

These examples tell us therefore that the kind o f clause is determined solely by the work it is doing in a sentence.

R E A SO N , A D V E R B IA L GLAUSES OF. These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions because or since, as in these examples:-

(i) The pupil was punished because he arrived late.

(ii) I will not accuse you since you have suffered enough already.

(iii) M r Slope had predetermined to hate the man, because he foresaw the necessity of fighting him.

ANTHONY TROLLOPE

The Indicative mood is used in these clauses.

7Prepositions

In an analytical language (q.v.) such as English, prepositions play a most important part.

A preposition is a word showing the relationship between a noun or noun-equivalent (called the object) and another word or series o f words; for example:-

(i) I struck him across the face.

In this simple sentence, the preposition across shows the relationship that exists between the personal pronoun him and the words the face, the word face being the object o f the preposition, and therefore in the Accusative case.

Prepositions and transitive verbs (including gerunds and participles formed from such verbs) are the only parts o f speech that can govern an object in this way.

In English, nouns in the Accusative case do not undergo a change o f form, but many pronouns do; and it follows that when a series o f pronouns (or nouns and pronouns) is dependent upon a preposition, care must be taken to ensure that they are all in the same case; for example:-

(ii) That is a secret between him and them.

(iii) You have been very kind to her.

(iv) Will you be able to do much for us?

(v) The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

THOMAS GRAY

(vi) They used the rake with a measured action, drawing the scanty rake towards them.

CHARLES DICKENS

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It should be noted that in a sentence such as:

(vii) We have been talking about who is to become the chairman o f the committee.

the object o f the preposition about is the N oun clause that follows.

A preposition can sometimes be placed at the end o f a sentence, whenever this follows naturally:-

(viii) N o student likes to be laughed at.

(ix) Your inquiry is being dealt with.

8Pronouns

Pronouns are words used to avoid undue repetition: they designate things, instead of, like nouns, naming them.

Pronouns are divided into seven groups:

a. Personal: You; him; they; it

b. Possessive: his; hers; yours; mine

c. Reflexive: myself; himself; themselves

d. Emphatic: myself; herself; ourselves

e. Demonstrative: this; that; such

f. Relative: who; whom; which; that

g. Interrogative: who? whom? which? what?

In the following sentences, the pronouns have been put into italics :-

(i) I asked my mother to open the letter, and then I asked h er to read if aloud.

(ii) W hom were yo u talking to in church today?

(iii) I t was now that I regretted the early years which had been wasted in sickness or idleness, or mere idle reading.

EDWARD GIBBON

(iv) That watch is not m in e ; is i t you rs?

(Note: the word that in the last example is a possessive adjective).

51

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. The Reflexive pronouns are:-

(i) myself yourselfhimself/herself/itself ourselves yourselves themselves

As the name suggests, these pronouns refer back to the subject o f the sentence.

Reflexive pronouns are always the object, direct or indirect, o f a transitive verb or preposition (in other words, such pronouns can never stand as subject).

Examples

(ii) The king killed himself, (object o f verb)

(iii) Why are you talking to yourself? (object o f preposition)

(iv) This would occur were those great reformers to allow themselves to stroll by moonlight round the towers o f some o f our ancient churches, (object o f present infinitive)

ANTHONY TROLLOPE

English has very few verbs that must always be followed by a Reflexive pronoun. Two examples are to betake and to pride (the former is somewhat archaic).

(v) The visitors betook themselves to bed at an early hour.

(vi) The author prided himself on his knowledge of English literature.

A Reflexive pronoun can sometimes be in the Dative case, as in the following example:-

(vii) The young lady bought herself a Christmas present.


RELATIVE P R O N O U N S are so called because they relate back to some previous noun, or noun-equivalent, in the sentence; and this noun or noun-equivalent is called the antecedent.

In English the Relative pronouns are these:-

(i) who which; that (Nominate case) whose; o f which or wrhose (Genitive case) whom; which; that (Accusative case)

Examples

(ii) The boys w ho are responsible are to remain in class.

(iii) The singer w hose place you have taken is unwell.

(iv) The difficulty that I spoke to you about last week has now been resolved.(here, the Relative pronoun is in the Accusative case)

(v) Caged in old woods, w hose reverent echoes wake, When the heron screams along the distant lake.

SAMUEL ROGERS

Note that the case o f a Relative pronoun is governed solely by the work it does in its own clause:-

(vi) The doctor w h om he consulted is a close friend. (Accusative case)

RESTRICTIVE USE OF RELATIVE P R O N O U N SWhen a Relative pronoun is used to introduce an Adjective- clause, it is said to be used in a restrictive sense; thus:-

(i) This is the house that Jack built.

(ii) For sixteen years - from 1831 to 1847 - Heine lived that rapid concentrated life w hich is known only in Paris.

GEORGE ELIOT

P R O N O U N S 53

When, on the other hand, such a pronoun introduces a Principal clause, it is said to be used in a continuous or non- restrictive sense:-

(iii) The doctor, who is a friend o f mine, is coming to see you.

This last sentence really consists o f two Principal clauses: what we are saying is:-

(iv) The doctor - he is a friend o f mine - is coming to see you.


9Conjunctions

CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. These are conjunctions that join words, as well as sentences and clauses, of equal value (that is, two Principal clauses or two that are Subordinate). The most common o f these are:-

(i) and; and so; but; ei ther . . . or; for; neither . . . nor; nevertheless; therefore; yet

Examples used in sentences:-

(ii) I entered the room and picked up a newspaper.(here two Principal clauses are joined)

(iii) Neither the headmaster nor his staff have completed the annual reports.

(an example o f a Double sentence, q.v.)

(iv) He told me that he felt unwell but would still attend the meeting.

(in this Complex sentence, but joins two Noun clauses)

(v) Let me rest awhile: for I am weary.EPITAPH

(another example o f a Double sentence)

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. When a conjunction joins a Principal clause to one that is Subordinate, it is

55

known as a Subordinating conjunction.Examples are:-

(i) although; because; if; since; that; when

Examples in sentences:

(ii) I shall call out your name if I see you.

(conjunction introduces an Adverb clause).

(iii) The world o f the diocese declared that Mrs Proudie was at work.

ANTHONY TROLLOPE

(conjunction introduces a N oun clause).

(iv) The book that you have in your hand was written by a famous scholar.

(conjunction introduces an Adjective clause).


10Sentences

SIMPLE SENTENCE. A simple sentence is one containing only one finite verb (that is, a verb limited by having a subject, personal or impersonal). Thus we have:-

(i) Every boy must answer his name.

(ii) It is raining heavily, (impersonal subject).

(iii) To the w orld’s business, he is dead.CHARLES LAMB

(iv) The swallow leaves her nest.THOMAS L. BEDDOES

(v) We spend our days, each one o f us, in looking for thesecret o f life.

OSCAR WILDE

Note that sentence (i) contains two verbs, must and answer. Must is finite, while answer is in the Infinitive mood.

COMPLEX SENTENCES. A complex sentence is a sentence containing at least one subordinate clause (that is, a clause dependent upon another clause). Let us take, as an example, the following sentence which comes from a story by Charles Dickens:-

(i) One w inter’s evening, towards the close of the year 1800, or within a year or two o f that time, a young medical practitioner, recently established in business, was seated by a cheerful fire in his little parlour, listening to the wind which was beating the rain in

57


pattering drops against the window or rumbling dismally in the chimney.

This sentence, long as it is, contains only two clauses, one principal, and one subordinate. The principal clause is ‘One winter’s evening . . . to the wind’ and the subordinate clause is ‘which was beating . . . in the chimney’ (in fact it is an Adjective clause).

Here, by contrast, is a very short complex sentence - again one containing two clauses:-

(ii) Leave when you can.

In this sentence the principal clause is ‘(y°u) leave’; and the subordinate clause - an Adverb clause o f Time - is, ‘when you can.’

DOUBLE SENTENCE. A Double sentence in grammar is one that contains two - and two only - Principal clauses; thus:-

(i) He entered the room and (he) sat down.

(ii) He is at home in the external, the polemical, thehistorical, the circumstantial, and (he) is only episodically devout and practical.

GEORGE ELIOT

Such a sentence may however contain one or more Subordinate clauses:-

(iii) I love old ways, and the path I was walking feltkindly to the feet it had known for almost fifty years.

J.R. LOWELL

(This last example contains four clauses in all - two Principal and two Subordinate).

PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE. In every grammatical sentence, something is said about something else; the ‘something else’ is called the subject, and what is stated about the

subject is called the predicate. The predicate always contains the finite verb.

In each o f the following sentences, the predicate has been printed in italics:-

(i) A famous scholar lives in th a t house.

(ii) Clive was in a pa in fu lly anxious situation.LORD MACAULAY

(iii) His dear old head was ben t d o w n o ver his p ra yer- book,

W .M . THACKERAY

(iv) I do n o t lo v e thee9 D r Fell,The reason w h y I cannot tell.

THOMAS BROWN

(v) The results o f the late battle are exh ib ited ev e ry w here abou t here in thousands o f cases.

WALT WHITMAN

SENTENCES 59

11Clauses

CLAUSES OF CONCESSION. These Adverbial clauses are introduced by such words as:-

(i) although; though; even though; even if; however

Examples are:-

(ii) I will trust the Lord, though He punish me.

(iii) Even though you are my friend, I must condemn your conduct.

(iv) However tired you may be, you must finish your work tonight.

(v) These securities, though it would be easy to provethat they were all recognized in law, differed much in the degree o f their effective operation.

HENRY HALLAM

This last example shows that it is possible for one Subordinate clause to be dependent upon another.

The Indicative m ood is usually employed in such clauses, especially in modern English. Note however the use o f the Subjunctive mood in examples (ii) and (iv).

CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES are subordinate clauses that indicate the result o f the action described in the Principal clause on which they depend. Thus:-

(i) He ran so fast that he fell.

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CLAUSES 61

(ii) The clock was so dirty that it stopped.

(iii) The idea seemed so ludicrous that I could not help sm iling at it.

MRS CRAIK

It is an interesting point that in Classical Latin, the verb in a Consecutive clause must be in the Subjunctive mood, even though what is stated is represented as a fact; e.g.

(iv) Tam celeriter cucurrit ut c e c id e r it .He ran so fast that he fell.

FIN A L C LA U SE S in grammar, are adverbial clauses that show the purpose o f the action described in the Principal clause:-

(i) You must wear spectacles, in order that you m ay im prove your sight.

(ii) Stand still, ye ever moving spheres o f heaven That tim e m ay cease and m idnight never com e.

CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE

In modern English, however, it is far commoner to use a phrase with the prsent infinitive to express purpose, as these examples show:-

(iii) You must wear spectacles to im prove your sight.

(iv) T o save herself from useless remonstrance, MrsPrice never wrote to her family on the subject till actually married.

JANE AUSTEN

(v) I digress to Soho, to explore a bookstall.CHARLES LAMB

PRINCIPAL C LAUSE of a sentence. This clause is one capable o f standing on its own: in other words, it is a kind o f simple sentence, but one having another clause dependent upon it (it is really illogical to speak o f the Principal clause, since the

term implies dependency upon another clause: but the term is retained for convenience).

Let us take an example o f a simple sentence:

(i) He sent for the Doctor.

N ow let us add a dependent clause:

(ii) He sent for the Doctor because his wife felt unwell.O ur simple sentence has become complex, with a Principal

clause, and one that is Subordinate (in this case, an Adverbial clause o f Reason) dependent on it.

In the following examples, the Principal clause has been printed in bold (of course, there may be more than one):

(iii) I wrote him a letter, in order that I might gain a friend.

(iv) Such is the use which has been made o f human learning.

HAZLITT

(v) The presence that thus rose so strongly beside the waters, is expressive of what in the ways o f a thousand years men had come to desire.

WALTER PATER

(vi) When Lord A rthur woke it was twelve o’clock, and the midday sun was streaming through the ivory- silk curtains of his room.

OSCAR WILDE

The Principal clause o f a sentence usually has its verb in the Indicative mood e.g.

(vii) However, I was curious to see what an author o f that country could say upon such a subject.

JONATHAN SWIFT

The verb may be in the Imperative mood:

(viii) Take back the hope (that) you gave - I claim only a memory of the same.

ROBERT BROWNING

Sometimes, though only rarely, the verb is in the Subjunctive mood:


CLAUSES 63

(ix) God grant my eyes may never behold the like, now seeing above ten thousand houses all in one flame.

JOHN EVELYN

Note that in the case o f an Adverbial clause o f Condition, the Principal clause is known as the Apodosis; thus

(x) If you give me sufficient money, I shall buy a meal.

SU B O R D IN A T E CLAUSE. A Subordinate clause is one that is dependent upon another clause - that is, it cannot stand on its own. Such a clause may do the work of a noun, adjective or adverb:-

(i) W hat I asked h im was a reasonable question.(Noun Clause)

(ii) Sentiments w h ich are m ere ly na tu ra l affect not the mind with any pleasure.

(Adjective Clause)DAVID HUME

(iii) T h o u g h I have n o w travelled the Sussex downs upw ards o f th ir ty years, yet I still investigate that chain o f majestic mountains with fresh admiration year by year.

(Adverb Clause o f Concession)GILBERT WHITE

(iv) Find out w h a t he was do ing w hen you spoke to h im .

(Noun Clause and Adverb Clause)

The last example shows that it is possible for one Subordinate clause to be dependent upon another.

T E M P O R A L CLAUSES, or Adverbial clauses o f Time are very common; they are introduced by these conjunctions:-

(i) after; as soon as; before; since; till; until; when; whenever; while


Examples

(ii) I shall tell you a secret when I see you.

(iii) You may read your book while I remain here.

(iv) Until the day break,And the shadows flee away,Turn, my beloved, and be thou like a roe or a young hart upon the mountains o f Bather

SONG OF SOLOMON

(The student should observe the use o f the Subjunctive mood in the last example; in M odern English, the Indicative mood would be used).

(v) In sleep she seemed to walk forlorn,Till cold winds woke the gray-eyed morn


(v) Some kill their love when they are young And some when they are old. . . .

OSCAR WILDE

12Phrases

PHRASE. A Phrase in grammar is a series o f words not having a Finite verb - that is, not having a verb with its own subject. Phrases are usually classified as Noun, Adjective or Adverb, according to the kind o f work they do in a sentence (see under these headings). Examples o f each kind folio w:-

(i) We shall assist our cause by being m ore agreeable.(Noun Phrase)

(ii) Carrying a black umbrella, the suspect was easily recognizable.

(Adjective Phrase)

(iii) Early on the following morning he reached Portsmouth.

(Adverb Phrase)ROBERT SOUTHEY

ABSOLUTE PHRASES are phrases that, from the grammatical point o f view, stand outside the structure o f the sentence in which they appear; for example:-

(i) The sun having set, we all returned home.

(ii) The king being slain, the soldiers retreated.

fvfote that a comma is required between an absolute phrase and the rest o f the sentence.

Absolute phrases are much commoner in Classical Latin than

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6 6 A LOOK AT ENGLISH

in English. In Latin, the Ablative case is used in such a construction but in English nouns and pronouns are in the Nominative case:-

(iv) R ege in terfecte, milites se receperunt (Latin)(The king being slain, the soldiers retreated).

13Case

CASE in grammar refers to the form a word undergoes in order to show its relationship to another word. In a highly inflected language such as Latin, the case o f a noun, adjective or pronoun is o f the utmost importance in determining the meaning o f a phrase or sentence.

In our own language however, only the Genitive case is indicated by a change o f form; e.g. in sentence (iv) below:

(i) John is now attending school. (Nominative case).

(ii) John, are you listening? (Vocative case).

(iii) I saw John last Sunday. (Accusative case).

(iv) John’s books are in the hall. (Genitive case).

(v) We gave John some fruit. (Dative case).

The two other Latin cases, namely the Ablative and the Locative, are not found in English.

NOMINATIVE CASE. This is the most important o f the five cases (q.v.) found in English since it is the case o f the subject- word, and therefore every grammatical clause and sentence must contain a noun or noun-equivalent which is in this case. Here are some examples:-

(i) The sun shines.

(ii) Many attempts have been made by writers on art and poetry to define beauty in the abstract.

WALTER PATER

67

(This sentence contains seven nouns, but only one o f these is in the Nominative case).

(iii) Droop, herbs and flowers,Fall, grief, in showers.

BEN JONSON

(In this example, the two verbs are in the Imperative mood, and the subject-words are therefore understood: (you) droop; (You) fall).

Nouns and pronouns used in absolute phrases (q.v.) are also in the Nominative case; thus

(iv) The day being fine, we went out walking.

(Cf. the use o f the Ablative case in Latin in such phrases)

VOCATIVE CASE. Nouns are said to be in the Vocative case when they are used in addressing someone:-

(i) John, open your book

(ii) M y son, obey the laws o f the land.

(iii) Milton, thou should be living at this hourWILLIAM WORDSWORTH

Note that when a noun is in the Vocative case, it is usually followed by a comma.


ACCUSATIVE CASE. A noun or pronoun is said to be in the Accusative case when it is the direct object o f a transitive verb or a preposition. In the following sentences, words in the Accusative case have been put into bold:-

(i) I have seen your son.

(ii) Has he eaten his supper?

(iii) We shall learn many things by reading books.

(iv) They made the boy Emperor.

(In this example, the two nouns are said to be in Apposition).

(v) If we wish to know the force of human genius we should read Shakespeare.

WILLIAM HAZLITT

(vi) My leisure time was spent, not in the dissipations common to such a w ay of life, but in reading and study.

WILLIAM COBBETT

CASE 69

GENITIVE CASE. The Genitive case is adjectival by nature, and it is the only case o f the English noun which is indicated by means o f inflexion; for example:-

(i) John’s shoes; my aunt’s house; a man’s honour

(ii) For G od’s sake let us sit upon the ground And tell sad stories o f the death o f kings.

SHAKESPEARE

In formal, written English, the use o f the Genitive case is confined to nouns denoting living things, and to some abstractnouns, especially those relating to time and distance:-

(iii) His uncle’s garden; two days’journey; ten weeks’ notice

The ’s is usually added even when a noun ends in -s:-

(iv) Henry James’s novels; Thom as’s books

N ote the following examples o f the Genitive case:-

(v) for conscience’ sake; for goodness’ sake; for justice’ sake.

Grammarians often speak o f the subjective Genitive and the objective Genitive. These examples show what the terms mean:-

(vi) God’s mercy is something we all need.

(Subjective: mercy coming from God)

(vii) The cathedral was filled with the sound o f God’s praise.

(Objective: praise going towards God)

N ote that the subjective Genitive is the commoner o f the two.


DATIVE CASE. There are a few verbs in English that are capable o f taking tw o objects - one, the direct object, will be in the Accusative case; the other, called the indirect object, is said to be in the Dative case. Some examples follow.

(i) I gave him some money.

In this sentence, money is the direct object, and him the indirect.

(ii) He showed his mother his homework.

Here, the noun mother is the indirect object, in the Dative case.

(iii) He that gives thee a capon, give him the leg and the wing.

GEORGE HERBERT

(Capon is an old name for a cock)N ow let us look at this sentence:

(iv) I teach my son Latin.

In this sentence, the noun son may be considered the indirect object, and the noun Latin the direct, or both nouns may be considered direct objects and so in the Accusative case (this would apply in Classical Latin; thus:

(v) Filium meum linguam latinam doceo.)

14Punctuation

APOSTROPHE. The Apostrophe or raised comma has two main functions: first to indicate the Genitive case (q.v.) and secondly to show that one or more letters have been omitted from a word:-

a. Indicating the Genitive case:

(i) John’s book; the poets’ houses; the w omen’s hats

Nowadays there is a tendency to omit the Apostrophe where the notion o f possession is not prominent:-

(ii) Chambers Encyclopaedia; a young ladies public school

b. Indicating the omission o f a letter or letters:

(iii) altho’; he’s; it’s (that is, it is); w e’re

N ote in particular the following examples o f the Apostrophe:

(iv) For conscience’ sake; for justice’ sake; Tom the grocer’s wife.

QUESTION MARK. This mark o f punctuation (?) should be used only at the end o f a direct question:-

(i) Have you seen your son recently?

(ii) Who is Sylvia? What is she,That all our swains commend her?

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

71

(iii) I asked him why he was visiting London. (Indirect question).

Sometimes, o f course, words in the form o f a statement really indicate a question, and therefore do need a question mark:-

(iv) She is not your mother?

(v) You are interested in the offer?

SEMICOLON. N ote that a semicolon is usually required when two Principal clauses follow one another without a conjunction; thus:-

(i) I asked him to leave the room; I really cannot tolerate his ill-manners.

(ii) It is at once the centre and circumference o f all knowledge; it is that which comprehends all science, and that to which all science must be referred.

P.B. SHELLEY

(In this passage, Shelley is speaking of Poetry).


15Poetic terms

ALLITERATION. This figure o f speech occurs when two or more words in a line start with the same sound (this may, or may not, be the same letter): e.g.

(i) You have made a bad blunder.

(ii) It was a sad, subdued ceremony.

(iii) She sent the gentle sleep from Heaven,That slid into my soul

SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE

METAPHOR. When this figure o f speech is used, something is spoken o f as if it were something else with which it has a common characteristic; and o f course Metaphors apply both to persons and to things. Here are some examples:-

(i) Your young daughter is a vixen.

(i.e. she often displays the bad temper associated with that animal).

(ii) That man is a w olf in sheep’s clothing.

(i.e. He is cunning and evil but looks both meek and gentle).

(iii) Be near me when the sensuous frame Is rack’d with pangs that conquer trust,And Time, a maniac scattering dust And Life, a Fury slinging flame.


73

(iv) Gone too, his Court and yet The stars his Courtiers are

LIONEL JOHNSON

(The poet is speaking o f King Charles I)The idioms o f everyday speech are full o f Metaphors:-

(v) All was going well until you let the cat out o f the bag.

(vi) The proof o f the pudding is in the eating.

(vii) Em pty vessels make most sound.

SIMILE. This figure o f speech occurs when two things, alike in a point o f resemblance but otherwise totally different, are compared. The words like or as are often used.Examples are:-

(i) I am as ravenous as a wolf.

(ii) He ran as fast as the wind.

(iii) Helen, thy beauty is to meLike those Nicean barks of yore. . . .

E. A. POE

(iv) I saw that the coal-fires in barges on the river werebeing carried away before the wind like red-hotsplashes in the rain.

CHARLES DICKENS


IAMBIC. This foot is by far the most commonly used in English prosody. It consists o f two syllables, the second of which is stressed (w~). An example is found in these lines by Tennyson:-

The seasons bring the flower again,And bring the firstling to the flock,And in the dusk o f thee the clock Beats out the little lives o f men.

(In Memoriam)(Iambic tetrameter)

POETIC TERMS 75

TROCHAIC. This foot in prosody is the reverse o f the Iambic: in other words it consists o f two syllables, the first o f which is stressed. The following example is taken from Blake’s ‘Songs o f Innocence and Experience’:-

Piping dowrn the valleys wild,Piping songs o f pleasant glee,O n a cloud I saw a child,And he laughing said to me. . . .

WILLIAM BLAKE

16Figures of speech

EUPHEM ISM is a figure o f speech by which we replace a harsh expression (e.g. a lie) by one that is milder (e.g. a fib). So also, he passed away instead o f he died.

(i) So be my passing!My task accomplished and the long day done.

W .E . HENLEY

(ii) Remember me when I am gone away,Gone far away into the silent land.

CHRISTINA ROSSETTI

M ETONYM Y. When this figure o f speech is used, we denote one thing by referring to something else closely connected with it.Examples are:-

(i) The legislation has now been approved by Whitehall, (i.e. the British Government).

(ii) That famous criminal trial took place at the Old B ailey in the year 1910.(i.e. the Central Criminal Court situated there).

(iii) He was all for love and a little for the bottle.CHARLES DICKENS

PATHETIC FALLACY. This term was first used by John Ruskin (1819-1900) in his work, ‘M odem Painters’ (1856). It occurs when we attribute human feelings and emotions to some

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FIGURES OF SPEECH 77

part o f inanimate nature. An example is to be found in Shakespeare’s play, ‘Romeo and Juliet’:-

Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,Who is already sick and pale with grief,That thou her maid art far more fair than she,Be not her maid, since she is envious.

(Act ii, Scene 2)

SPOONERISM . This is the name given to the accidental transposition o f the initial sounds o f various words o f phrases - for example, town drain for down train. The name comes from the Revd. William Spooner (1844-1930), a fellow o f New College Oxford, who is said to have been prone to the practice.

17Some common pitfalls

AFFECT/EFFECT. Distinguish between these words.To affect (in everyday language, the w ord is always used as a

verb) means to have an effect on something or someone:-

(i) This decision will affect the number o f people taking the examination.

(ii) How will your husband’s unemployment affect your way o f life?

Effect can be used both as a noun and as a verb:-

(iii) The effect o f his arrival was startling, (nominal use).

(iv) H ow can we effect the entry o f this country into the E.E.C? (verbal use).

Affect is used as a noun in psychology, where it denotes any emotion or feeling connected with behaviour.

BENEFIT, spelling of. We have in this word a spelling trap for the unwary.

Present Infinitive: to benefitPresent Participle and Gerund: benefitingPast Participle: benefited

(i) Is your son benefiting from his lessons in Classical Greek?

(ii) She had two sisters to be benefited by her elevation.JANE AUSTEN

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SOME C O M M O N PITFALLS 79

CENTURY AND DECADE. Note that the first year o f every decade, and therefore o f every century, must start in 1 and end in 0 (1971-80, 1981-90, and so on). The first day o f the twentieth century was therefore Tuesday 1st January 1901.

CREDIBLE/CREDULOUS. Do not confuse the meaning of these two adjectives. These sentences may help to show the difference between them:-

(i) I find my son’s story a credible one. (i.e. believable)

(ii) That kind o f excuse will be accepted only by credulous people, (i.e. those who are too ready to believe)

(iii) The most positive men are the most credulous.ALEXANDER POPE

DIFFERENT/to/from. In modern English, this adjective should be followed by the preposition from:-

(i) This event is different from what I expected.

(ii) Your example is different from hers.

It is a fact however that many great writers o f the past have used different to. An example is to be found in Charlotte Bronte’s famous novel ‘Jane Eyre’, first published in 1847:—

(iii) ‘It is an old saying that “all is not gold that glitters” and in this case I do fear there will be something found to be different to what either you or I expect.’

Nevertheless, present-day students are advised to use different from.

DUE TO. In this well-known phrase, the word due is an adjective, and must therefore have a noun to qualify:-

(i) The late arrival o f the train was due to signal failure. (Correct usage: here due qualifies the noun arrival).


(ii) His bad driving was due to his being under the influence o f alcohol. (Correct usage: here due qualifies the gerund driving).

(iii) Due to staff sickness, this shop must remain closed. (This sentence is not correct since the word due has no noun to qualify). Say instead:-

(iv) Owing to staff sickness, this shop must remain closed.

OWING TO. This phrase, unlike due to, is a compound preposition; and it should be used in place o f due to when there is no noun for the adjective due to describe. Here are some examples o f the correct use o f the phrase:-

(i) Owing to sudden illness, the shop is temporarily closed.

(ii) The meeting was poorly attended, owing to inclement weather.

(iii) The project was abandoned, owing to lack o f funds.

ESQUIRE, use of. This term is, strictly speaking, a title given to gentlemen below the rank o f knight. For this reason it should not be used in conjunction with such titles and designations as Mr, Dr, the Honourable, or the Revd.

Note these examples:-

(i) James Guthrie, Esq.

(ii) M r Thomas Hope

(iii) The Hon. Edward Shaw

(iv) The Revd. Adrian Wilde, M.A.

FULFIL, spelling of. This word is a spelling trap for the unwary. The various relevant parts o f the verb are:-


Present infinitive: to fulfilPresent participle and gerund: fulfillingPast participle: fulfilled

N ote also the spelling o f the Abstract noun: fulfilment.

INFER, use of. This word means, at any rate in modern English, to make an inference, and it should not be used with the meaning to im ply:-

(i) These facts infer that the man is a rogue.

A fact cannot make an inference; therefore let us change this sentence to read:-

(ii) These facts im p ly that the man is a rogue.

(iii)From the information you have given me, I infer that your son is now sixteen years old.(Correct use o f word)

(iv) He inferred from hearing it, that the window was at the back o f the house.

WILKIE COLLINS

IT S/IT ’S.

Do not confuse these two words.Its is simply the genitive case o f the pronoun it, as in the

sentence:-

(i) That dog does not yet know its master.

It’s means it is; thus:-

(ii) It’s time the children went to bed.

(iii) It’s an ill wind that blows nobody any good.Old Proverb


LIKE/

(i) Such a way o f acting is not at all like him.

In this sentence, the word like is an adjective, and yet it appears to govern a case. The real explanation is that a preposition, to, is understood after like: ‘like (to) him. ’

In formal written English, like should not be used as a conjunction, as in this sentence:-

(ii) He does not love you like I do.

This should read:-

(iii) He does not love you as I do.

Here is another example o f the use o f the word:-

(iv) Behold me, for I cannot sleep,And like a guilty thing I creep At earliest morning to the door.


MUTUAL, meaning of. Mutual is an adjective meaning going from one to the other, and it should not, at any rate in formal, written English, be used with the meaning common or shared. The following sentence shows the word in its correct usage:-

(i) John dislikes Tom , and the dislike is mutual.(that is, John dislikes Tom, and Tom dislikes John).

The novelist Charles Dickens uses the w ord incorrectly in the title o f his well-known novel, ‘O ur Mutual Friend’ (1864/5).

ONLY, place in sentence.

(i) I only attend classes on Tuesdays.

(ii) Smoking is only allowed in the tea-room.

(iii) Children are only admitted when accompanied by an adult.

(iv) You are only allowed to borrow four books.

In each o f these sentences, even though the meaning is more or less clear, the word only has been misplaced. When writing formal English, we should therefore take care to ensure that this word comes as near as possible to the phrase it qualifies: thus:-

(v) I attend classes only on Tuesdays.

(vi) Smoking is allowed only in the tea-room.

(vii) Children are admitted only when accompanied by an adult.

(viii) You are allowed to borrow only four books.

PR EV EN T, m eanings of. In old English, this verb had one or two meanings, such as to precede and to anticipate; thus Shakespeare uses the word with this latter meaning in Julius Caesar:

(i) I know not howBut I do find it cowardly and vileFor fear o f what might fall, so to preventThe time o f life.

(that is, Death)

However in Modern English the only acceptable meaning is to stop (someone or something) from an action:-

(ii) I cannot prevent your leaving the meeting early.

Note that the adjective from the verb prevent is preventive.

U N R E L A T E D G E R U N D A N D PARTICIPLE

(i) Travelling to the office, an accident occurred before my eyes.


The sentence printed above does not make sense, since an accident cannot possibly travel. Remember that a participle is an adjective and so must be correctly related to the noun or pronoun it is intended to qualify. Therefore this sentence should read:-

(ii) When I was travelling to the office, an accident occurred before my eyes.

In the following sentence, the participle is correctly related:-

(iii) Walking the other day in Cheapside, I saw some turtles in M r Sweeting’s window.

SAMUEL BUTLER

N ow take another example:-

(iv) O n entering the amphitheatre, new objects o f wonder presented themselves.

W ASHINGTON IRVING

This is an example o f an unrelated gerund - an example that comes from the pen o f a distinguished author. Let this sentence be changed to>

(v) When he entered the amphitheatre, new objects o f wonder presented themselves.(This sentence comes from a passage describing the adventures o f Rip Van Winkle).

The student should note that the past participle can also be incorrectly related; thus:-

(vi) Tired by his journey, bed seemed an inviting prospect

This should read:-

(vii) He was tired by his journey, and therefore bed seemed an inviting prospect.



Finally, here is another example o f an unrelated gerund:-

(viii) O n forcing the door o f the room, the deceased gentleman was discovered, dead, with the pillow of the bed over his face,

WILKIE COLLINS

This sentence is taken from the famous novel, ‘The M oonstone’ (1861). The gerund forcing apparently refers to the noun gentleman, but should o f course refer to a pronoun such as we or they:-

(ix) O n forcing the door o f the room, we discovered the gentleman dead, with the pillow of the bed over his face.

WHO/WHOM.

(i) ‘For instance, there was Miss Verney, whom everybody thought was just a cross old maid’.

This sentence was written by a distinguished author, Sir Compton Mackenzie (1883-1972), but it is a fact that the relative pronoun is in the wrong case (change whom to who).

From this we see that these relative and interrogative pronouns, one in the Nominative, and other in the Accusative case, can cause trouble to even the most careful o f writers.

Who can stand only as the subject o f a verb, as these examplesshow:-

(ii) Who is here?

(iii) I know a man who has won a large sum of money

(iv) Who was your father?OSCAR WILDE

(v) For thy slaves unlace thee.And he, who shall embrace theeWaits to try thy beauty’s spell

T.L. BEDDOES


Whom, on the other hand, can be object o f (a) a transitive verb (including one in the Infinitive mood): or (b) a preposition. Thus we have:-

(vi) Whom have we here? (object o f transitive verb)

(vii) The lady whom we passed on Monday is my aunt, (object o f transitive verb ‘we passed’)

(viii) There were already some half-score o f men assembled in the waiting-room, among whom I saw the man who cleans our clocks, and a young apothecary o f Cheyne Walk, (object o f preposition ‘among’)

JANE WELSH CARLYLE

(ix) There are some acquaintances whom it is no easy matter to shake off. (object o f present infinitive ‘to shake’)

OLIVER GOLDSMITH

(x) The character o f his influence is best seen in the fact that many o f the men who have the least agreement with his opinions are those to whom the reading o f ‘Sartor Resartus’ was an epoch in the history o f their minds, (object o f preposition ‘to ’)

GEORGE ELIOT, W r i t in g o f THOMAS CARLYLE

(xi) We cannot know whom we would; and those whom we know, we cannot have at our side when we most need them, (objects o f transitive verbs ‘we would’ and ‘we know ’)

JOHN RUSKIN

(xii) It is a Lucretian pleasure to behold the poor drudges whom I have left behind in the world, carking and caring, (object o f transitive verb ‘I have left’)

CHARLES LAMB

(xiii) I cannot tell whether I am to account him whom I am next to speak of, as one o f our company, (object o f preposition ‘of).

SIR RICHARD STEELE


(xiv) I have protracted my work till most o f those w hom 1 wished to please have sunk into the grave, (object o f present infinitive ‘to please’).

DR JOHNSON

(xv) ‘I look upon this young man whom I have sacrificed, M r Scuddamore, and feel how small a thing it is to be a Prince.’ (object o f transitive verb ‘I have sacrificed’)

R.L. STEVENSON

A good rule for the student to follow is this: never use the word whom without being able to show the transitive verb or preposition o f which it is the object.

Remember however that whom is generally considered too formal for everyday conversation, and therefore who often takes its place as both subject and object-word.

s tr in g : pi sweet e, K e a ts . 3, The K*v rnenis. . established m the Ei Law L ocke. Ab e. ol dem erit

E a f o r e i b l e , v a r , of E nfob tEiif©'reive, a, 1606. (I

-iv jl ) T t

ards *ad for cement dimipltne

2EA.BLK. EkFO.EC!

forcible.H e m *

t E n f o ' r e s t ,tE n f o - r c iv e lv o d t ,*. 1619, r - n fed .L .

Of,

«$ by the enem:

enfi'ier; see E s tr in g o r ib ra ,

tSe* quot.) }$} S' bC&S i :.

E n f o r m , e t c , ; E n f o r t ; sec £2 t E n f o r t i r a e , t

a. qua lity .. Cmavi l E n f o u 'M e r ,

fouldre {mod, fa fo u ld re d ppL « S e e n k ik ,

E n f r a m e

Fore- m 2 .

>ee I k joe/.

O F r.E n ~

a-b ■f Fmi_te . -1 65?. 1b in-., 1546,lake ii5 to fiesllupon. c« To pTo mve a Ion

'AXW'* V T£v 3 ?v; 3 ••■ p.- 5 v,,,V£ $*,, r , j*,, ,, f?: UK? *>«. &.*/*$<

IS P M r r e ^ y j ? n ^ o f ^ ^ b s |

164$, 6, «rfr. fo r rf.fi. 4 T o e m b a rk in a n b u E in ess* {J - ) 1040. ? , t ra m . Of c o m b a tan t* T o In te r lo c k (w e a p o n s b A.1m abm l. MW S. a . T o b r in g io to oon& iot im ik th e extern 1668, b . I n in fo r re/l> T o e n te r In to eosnb* ivn th ); a lso/io> 1647, 9 . « ‘e n g a g e w i t h ' (m &); a lso (now ta r d y } fig. 1698.

I, »< Hand. m« Ul, 69. 4> B er l o r n , engaged it -. u-* o? n>“ whole ixtwrsfthtiUh in an in&tax " i t t n % h u ftk itx i K ith my p d t a? IM 7, 4 ,1 e< in p o l i t ic J< a w n . tb »> He bad taken care »c to e. the whole of hi* troop# 1881. *♦ The* monsters. Critics * with your <1 arte e, Pojpk.

E ngaged Cenge^dsdh |>î. a. 1615. |: p ree . 4 I , t E n ta n g le d . f b , Oblige*€ . L o c k e d in tig h t . d , B e tro th e d , 2* (S« q uo ta , >

I, b. Not as an e. person, b u t indifferentl W a lto k . 2- M. mlumn> one partly let in to wall ir the rear, i? wked* (Meeh.) wheefe 5?* ge*

E n g s 'g e d a e a s , i$ m e a tb A lso tm -

engagtwi.t.ni> L engager 1 m W m V L M * -M s s 'L l J - X i^ Jin ilo B of enga$dn*

i&m t,). 2, Th s ta te , ooodltioi;;., o r fac t of be in g e»ga$reti

>42. 3, A fo rm a) p m m im ‘ta k in g , c o T eâo t 1624;

e m 1606; riilary l ia b i l i ik

Also /ip , -165

0 i :>n It, E.k wra;i>

believes that an understandin g ofiw t r

c o e o a ii te r ; .t , Ab ioduefc

assistance.i l ;r i

1 he

.on; a ti biii« (ran t » slo^j

m x m A , m.i

e, BiCKXJH ngagemeot^ JiJ. >.. Ix

tween the Svs E n g a g e r

t, -4- ~ml.i ie n te rs in to

[Vin?:kglet ?-?• EftltvMei

kilnit; thj

;S. If, E:

K m |f . £ koa<5 ig ag e g ; u p . cn e wh

a g rc e m e o t ; f wh

tgsgreniei;' " ' ^ ^ ^ f v Z a u i a e t o a r a m m a r i h e

sets out to explain the meaning of basic terms, giving examples, frequently from' J a pr ’ A*'\f - ' ' i . *'* O *-* it-r* t-*<f '■ .'■-■■■'< taôn)i£iiSt 'a , ' attractive

literature.

fcetweenoseioiier

p r . imp. m i he - iec to ra j f ra n c 3, T h e convers io i ind» In to tn

Enfree, "freedom , “freeze, < E n tr$nz \ ienfn m i r 185<

T o t t ro% int< n fn 1 2}.E n l r o w a r c l im i t ¥.s * t .

itm c* gtwmv *n#c

e E* E x

' force n p o o

: honê;. T o ex<

> or /corn il*« Mu.: T o over- . 4. T o

tE nfu me.

E ngage <es Bargah ,

m e e t In w ine E ngage (e?

iws

IfsOI

• ; T he r tb a tao t

'<•'?. . B-u>' 0ng~ly nr! .¥;Z%%tzllb.n*>., * g a o l . - g a r b o i ! , eie .

F?e.f. ;EB.garIa.nd ceng'H. il&Bd}, e, 1.561..,

4 <;,-,rJAV V' *f >- r*i!' ir:,ut\xr m w i t t a ^ a r la o d

r:r.m oo, r. 1612. If, E n-s 4 *05 Mk} Ta s e rv e m a g-aerinon i « ; t< I.'* i g& rrls to # t a t ion as a ga,r.r^

tE nga

niigiag

h.): thi or *ep?

r

,».ee E s

ff. E*>-w j T

CiAEaproto?

0 ;F r . E n •

. Enfo rcer, En ~

G ao i; s t . ;, WaoE.)1. t t . To pledge or paw »; to roortâge-jW .

2, /?fi To pledge (ooe^ uf*, bo»our, etc ) ; alaof. to e ?>o«.e to risk. Now rare, 1566, f3„ To make (a person) security for |a debt, o tc j ■ 165], 4. To bind by promise, or by legal or moral o b l ig a tio n spec- to betroth .1606. b.

To have made an appointment, etc.6. To bespeak 1753 6, «<!r. fe>r

To pledge oneself 16KL t7. tram. To lay under oidigatiori; in pom. to be eotomitted in -I6f>7. S, To urge:, iod’aoe. Now rare, 1647. 9, To gain, %in over, as an adherent or helper (arcft • > 1667, 10, To a ttract, ebarxo > fascinate. Also abml.- Now rare. 171L.2, Thi« to Ik- true, I do e, my life J , 17 L, v. H.

172, S. Mrrch i III ii. 264 4, { &»> <■ ; P>r,-r ,, J , , , K<dti.at <«■ *uha

oall. r > .?<<’" lxxx*»eaijs et< fe. Moo thsn1 e. for J ank a r.KTEN, 6. O. .example high: in- g a ^ ^ tru to ernuiab Mill /', IX, P68, ^.T<*n pueiry in the cause of virtue 1776.

IL 1. a. To entangle. ?05*v 1602. h.Arch, To fa«teto »tta<>b. In paa,s. of: a pillar: To be partly let i«t<? a wall in the rear. 1766.. e.

568, 4 h- Ft, engaxtn >?, f. #>» EN •4 A

speech,! A ves E n g a s tr im j tfeic «

. rare, 1.6m ”[f. I f . ■th, or ,« witbf genm

tE n g a 'S tr im y th ,m/i/thr - Gr. ^v>wr^.sdat of ; bell> -

E ngem '^roUe m?, e Oim ,«d,i To set 4

to be towel,. fg a g ^ iK is r , 1526, I- OFr, en&endn

next* | The action of engendering; <xma offspring, produce ■•"164?,

E ngender (endê od=un r. M l, - -0;Fs engmdrer j - b. ingmemre, i, in- <nmrwrt H k ie a ts r ,| t fraw. Of the male To begetr J Ht, ->^5 Now r>%ei., <<r t.l, Of the female: To conceive, bear "466;] J, To produce, give existence to ME, M '.W , To <"on!oate 1 onst ?nlA, vi«o fts ..«„*% 'S, :p it. To b ^ -d , i'>« prodwned

develop. Also /I#, -1666, b Wbea a man. .âgendm bis like J t Is n-

M *-*( t > « ,jfi- I > , pt ^ >/ r< ’ r i a h;ror'4 I"77 j><Pi#f,rv5 s r j t «'na»*n‘Wred b,

I? *,>} I S. thi k loodssmd »u>rtw e, there l)lY»l3f. Hence Ea4a>»4er er, fc»g«-a<l«r.m«at,

E n g en d rn re Ceodse ndriaj;). areA, ME i— O Fr enfjenîr(e}ute f engendttr tr^^1

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