A National Equivalency Programme Framework for

Promoting Lifelong Learning in Nepal

2072

Nepal GovernmentMinistry of Education

Non-formal Education CentreSanothimi, Bhaktapur

Disclaimer

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Table of Content

Chapter 1Introduction 1. 1 Background ............................................................................................2 1. 2 Department of Education (DoE) ...........................................................4 1. 3 Non-formal education status .................................................................5 1. 3. 1 Major programmes ........................................................................6 Adult literacy .................................................................................6 Post Literacy Programme ................................................................6 Women Literacy I and II .................................................................7 Educational programmes for children .............................................7 School outreach programmes .........................................................7 Alternative Schooling Programme (ASP) ....................................8 Programme for school dropout children .........................................9 Income generating programme .......................................................9 1. 4 Community Learning Centres (CLCs) .................................................10

Chapter 2Context Analysis 2. 1 Policies relevant to equivalency measures of non-formal education ...12 2. 1. 1 National documents ..........................................................................12 2. 1. 2 NFE Policy, 2063 (2007 AD) ..........................................................14 2. 2 Status of literacy/ NFE programmes ....................................................15 2. 3 Problems, issues and challenges of the existing EPs in Nepal .............18 2. 3. 1 Review of the existing EPs in Nepal ...........................................18 2. 3. 2 Problems, issues and challenges of EPs ......................................20 2. 4 Consideration in planning and implementation of EPs .......................22

Chapter 3A National EP Framework 3. 1 Key components of EP development ..................................................26 3. 1. 1 EP concepts ..................................................................................26 3. 1. 2 Vision, mission, goal and objectives ............................................27 3. 1. 3 Target groups ...............................................................................28 3. 1. 4 Curriculum and learning materials .............................................29 Curriculum development .............................................................29 Steps in curriculum development .................................................30 Levels of EP curricula ...................................................................30 3. 1. 5 Capacity building ........................................................................37 The Four Ds - Steps in EP capacity building ..............................38 3. 1. 6 Delivery mechanisms .................................................................38 3.1.7Resourcemobilisationandfinancialmanagement.......................40 Types of resources ........................................................................40 Mobilising resources .....................................................................40 Financial management ...................................................................41 3.1.8Accreditation,certification,learningassessmentandevaluation ....43 Accreditation ..................................................................................43 Certification....................................................................................45 Learning assessment and evaluation ..............................................46 3. 1. 9 Community participation, networking and partnership ..............51 Community participation and its importance ................................52 Types of community participation ..................................................53 Enabling and disabling factors for community participation .......53 Community participation and EPs ................................................54 Achieving community support ..................................................55 Networking and partnership building ...........................................55 Networkingtipsforfieldworkers..................................................56 Areas of networking and partnership building ..............................56 3. 1. 10 Monitoring, evaluation and accreditation ..................................57 Monitoring and evaluation in the context of EPs .........................57

Target groups ................................................................................59 Scope .............................................................................................60 Models ..........................................................................................60 Methods .........................................................................................61 Indicators of an EP monitoring system ..........................................62 3. 2 The EPs implementation processes ......................................................62 3. 2. 1 National level ............................................................................62 3. 2. 2 Provincial level ............................................................................64 3. 3 EP roles and responsibilities ...............................................................66

Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 69References ..................................................................................................71ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................72

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Introduction

Education is a fundamental human right, as well as the key to enable a person to access other rights, irrespective of race, colour and culture. On the World Education Forum on Education for All (EFA) (Dakar, Senegal, 2000) it was stated that “All children, young people and adults have the human right from an education that will meet their basic learning needs, in the best and fullest sense of the term, an education that includes learning to know, to do, to be and learning to live together”. Education is an important component of development for any country focusing on the creation of sustainable development and peace in order to promote socio-economic growth and the ultimate empowerment of society. Governments worldwide are constantly concerned with the quality and decentralisation of governance, which poses many challenges to communities and local leaders. One of the most pressing issues is how tobestdeliverservices to thepeopleaswellashowtofindout if theprovided services are having the desired impact on the lives of the target communities and population. The quest to achieve progress has made governments realise that building their strengths and capabilities is essential in order to achieve success. Governments need to focus on technology while doing so, and the approach that will enable them to accomplish the intended results will be to involve the people into the process of development and empowerment of their respective communities. Comprehensive education of a society plays a pivotal role in development and progress of countries. Already in 1976, UNESCO stated in one of its global recommendations that “the most educationally underprivileged groups should be given the highestpriority”.Equity isdefinedas theaccessibilityandavailabilityof learning opportunities for all citizens of nations around the world. However, recommending the provision of equal opportunities for all is considerably easier than attaining it.

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Illiteracy rates are highest in countries with large populations and high levels of poverty, especially among those belonging to indigenous groups living in remote areas, to lower castes or those with disabilities, as they suffer from reduced access to formal education and literacy programmes. The acquisition of literacy skills always involves as well a certain degree of change of attitudes and behaviour for the learners at any level of their learning process. Non-Formal Education (NFE) caters to learners who have “long-term” life goals with “short- term” timelines for attending adult education classes. This is due to their numerous family duties and other responsibilities. The need for immediately available offers and applicability of the learned contents is essential in order to motivate people to attend NFE activities and learning. It is therefore important to provide them with opportunities to develop into “learning-oriented adults” who will be keen to achieve progress. Non-formal learning activities always need to aim at providing“transformative” literacy skills, in order to awaken the interest and passion for (life-long) learning of the participants. In essence, this is the real meaning of education. The 2000 World Education Forum, held in Dakar, Senegal, resulted in a global commitment to expand education opportunities for children, youth and adults by 2015 under the slogan EFA. It was emphasised that it is crucial to reach out to the poorest, most vulnerable and most disadvantaged groups in society. While there have been major developments and achievements since 2000, there are worldwide still 774 million adults lacking basic literacy skills, 64% being women. The fact that globally, for 89 literate women there are 100 literate men shows that gender disparities remain.

1. 1 BackgroundNepal is a landlocked country between India and China. It has a total land area of 147, 181 square kilometres (52, 819 sq. miles) . According to the latest census of 2011, the country has a population of approximately 30, 430, 267 million (CBS, 2011) . Nepal has been ruled under a purely monarchical system for centuries. In 1957 however, a cabinet system of governance was established by the Nepal monarchy. In 1990, late King Birenda Bir Bikram Shah Dev adopted a new constitution and established a multi-party parliamentary democratic system. After massive pro-

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democracy protests by large parts of the population, former King Gyanendra (new monarch after Birendra) gave up his direct rule and reinstated the parliament. Monarchy was abolished all in all in 2007 and Nepal became a Federal Democratic Republic. Nepal is a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society where traditional laws still have abig influence.Theyoccupyan integralpartofdaily livesofpeopleandshapeexpected behaviours. Despite its diversity, the country is nevertheless a very peaceful country where communities live in harmony and peace. It belongs to the group of countries with a low development index with an economy that is largely based on agricultural production. As a result, about a third of its population, mostly from rural and semi-urban communities, lives in absolute poverty with limited access to basic facilities and services, livelihood and educational opportunities. The high rate of illiteracy in the country, particularly among socially disadvantaged groups such as women, ethnic minorities (Janajatis) and low caste groups (Dalits) is largely attributed to a combination of socio-economic factors including poverty, socio-cultural practices which discriminate against women, minorities and low caste groups and the general lack of development in remote rural areas which prevents rural communities from accessing quality education. Access to good quality formal education for the poor majority is further hindered by thescarcityofeducationalresources,poorinfrastructureandashortageofqualifiedteachers. It was in response to these challenges that the Ministry of Education (MoE) (through the Non-Formal Education Centre (NFEC), with support from UNESCO) introduced the Community Learning Centres (CLCs) Programme in the 1990s in an effort to make education more accessible to all. Illiteracy rates are highest in countries with large populations and high levels of poverty, especially among those belonging to indigenous groups living in remote communities, to lower castes or those with disabilities, as they suffer from reduced access to formal education and literacy programmes. Nepal is no exception in this regard. According to the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) 2011, the literacy rate of Nepal stands at 65. 9 % (males 75. 1 %, females 57. 4 %) and 8. 7 % of the school age population (6-24 years) who never attended school (CBS, 2011) . The facts presented above call for collective and collaborative critical action to address the problem of illiteracy and its impact on educational development goals of the country, both on governmental and socio-economic level.

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In order to support the efforts of the Government of Nepal to ensure literacy for all, theUNESCOOfficeinKathmanduhasbeencollaboratingwiththeNFECoftheMoE and CLCs for many years. The support aims to contribute to the Government of Nepal’s endeavours to achieve the national goals in literacy, thereby realising, in particular, EFA Goals 3, 4, and 5, which are as follows:

• Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes.

• Achieving a 50 % improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.

• Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.

However, in order to meet the goals of EFA, it is necessary to provide education not only through schools, but also through NFE programmes for children, youth and adults who have not completed their basic education. Since it is at this point not possible to provide education through schools to all children and youth in Nepal, one alternative is to offer NFE opportunities to those who do not have access to or cannot continue formal education.

1. 2 Department of Education (DoE) The Department of Education (DoE) was established on 23 May 1999. It is the executive department of the MoE, Government of Nepal, and is responsible for the management and maintenance of the Nepalese system of education, including the formulation of the country’s educational policy. The DoE, under the MoE of Nepal, is structuring its task of designing and implementing the country’s education sector in accordance with the global commitment to UNESCO’s EFA movement. The framework is designed, among others, to attain the national goal of universal primary education, with specificattention to the poorest and educationally disadvantaged districts of the country. Moreover, it is aiming at achieving increasing access to and quality of primary

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education through strengthening educational management on the district, community andschoollevelsinidentifieddistrictsofthecountry.

1. 3 Non-formal education statusThe NFEC, established in 1999 under the MoE, is one of the central technical and professional agencies, responsible primarily for literacy and NFE. NFEprogrammesinNepalwereestablishedfirstin1951whenactivitiesforliteracyenhancement became part of the national development aspirations. These efforts were regularised in the First Five-Year Plan (1956-1961) . With the increasing influxofforeignaidthroughinternationalorganisationsandsubsequentgrowthofnon-governmental organisations (NGOs) between the 1970s and 1990s, the NFE movement picked up momentum. The NFEC has been delivering NFE services for various target groups, including illiterate people living in remote areas, those living below the poverty line and wage labourers working in factories and farms. The focus of the NFEC lies on the conduction of literacy, post-literacy and awareness raising programmes. It implements furthermore programmes related to lifelong and continuous education, skill development and income generation. It has been providing alternative schooling opportunities to out-of-school children and youth through an open education mode. This specific targetgroup is supportedby theNFECbyproviding technicalandvocational skills training which is useful for fostering livelihoods at the local level. The institution has made efforts to pay special attention to people who have faced exclusion based on their ethnicity, language, gender and physical disabilities and to make NFE programmes more inclusive. The different NFE programmes of the NFEC were targeting following groups in society:

• Illiterate people living in remote areas who are often neglected and hard to reach, poor people, factory workers and labourers. They are the target groups of the awareness raising, literacy, post literacy, and continuing education programmes,

• Second chance education offers target out-of-school children and youth with its open school and vocational/technical education programmes as a career education programme,

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• People who might be already working but need further support such ascounselling services, career training, and academic support. As a knowledge generation system, NFE is a programme to produce and maintain indigenous and traditional knowledge as well as skill systems with its exploratory programmes,

• As a means of social inclusion, NFE is fostering gender, caste, ethnic,

topographical, and linguistic justice due to its varieties of programmes.

1. 3. 1 Major programmesThe NFE programmes that have been developed and executed by NFEC are as follows:Adult literacyThe adult literacy programme is conducted for illiterate adult women and men between 14 and 45 years who, due to several reasons, were not able to attend formal education. The classes consist of at least 20 adults and take place at accessible places and convenient times. Courses run for six months with a minimum of two hours a day for six days a week. The programme’s main focus is to raise the literacy level of the participants as well as awareness around general issues of their daily life. Naya Goreto I and II are the textbooks for this level of literacy programmes. As discussed with NFE experts, the curriculum and textbooks are based on the theory of adult learning. The programme has been launched at the same point of time as democracy has been established in Nepal in the year of 2007. The goal is to raise the level of literacy among the Nepalese population as well as to create awareness and consciousness for the values and norms of democracy and development. The class content does not only comprise literacy exercises but also different awareness raising messages, aiming at encouraging people to pursue socio-economic development and to sensitize them for various issues of their life as well as to reach positive behavioural change. Post Literacy ProgrammeThe Post Literacy Programme is a three-month course, conducted after the completion of the adult literacy classes as the advanced course. Only participants who completed successfully the adult literacy course are eligible for this programme. The programme does not aim primarily on literacy anymore but rather focuses on

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deepening the awareness of participants around issues of life and development. The main objective of the programme is to provide opportunities of continuous learning to the participants after having acquired basic literacy so that they can transform their knowledge and utilise their skills of literacy in their daily life practices. Women Literacy I and IIThe literacy rate of women is lower than the one of men. Due to this, NFE has designed and implemented women literacy programmes throughout the country in order to empower women. Women in the age group of 15-45 years who were due to several reasons not able to attend formal education programmes are eligible to enrol in this programme. However, according to NFE experts there is no rigidity with regard to age to attend the classes. Therefore there are also women of advanced age participating in the classes if they are interested. The women literacy courses run for six months, and are followed by another six months’ course on advanced level. In the first course,more emphasis is put onproviding women with sufficient literacy skills. However, on the second level,the main focus is put on awareness raising and communication of life skills along with advanced teaching of literacy skills. The programme has been implemented nationwide based on the demand and request of the communities, and is managed by thedifferentDistrictEducationOffices(DEOs).ForthisprogrammeNayaphadko I and II are used as textbooks. Educational programmes for children who never went to school or school dropoutsThe EFA Framework for Action for Nepal emphasises the importance to ensure that all children have access to quality basic education, implemented in a caring and joyful environment. It is the goal to provide primary education in the learners’ mother tongue, inorder tofightprejudices in termsofcultural,ethnicandcastediscrimination.Yet,stillasignificantnumberofchildrenneverwenttoschoolordrop out from school without completing primary education in Nepal. Children from ethnic minorities as well as from poor and other marginalised groups are especially deprived from education. To address these issues and meet the objectives of EFA, a number of NFE programmes have been executed in connection to formal primary education, targeting children of 6 to 14 years of geographically remote, economically poor and marginalised, socially disadvantaged groups. School outreach programmesThe NFEC has designed and launched school outreach programmes targeting

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children of Grade 1-3(6-8 years) who failed to attend school due to physical and/or socio-economic reasons. The children are taught according to NFE techniques based on the curriculum and text books of the formal primary education format. The programme has been launched in remote areas of the country where children do not have access to school education due to geographical reasons, such as far distances between home and school or dangers while crossing rivers and forests. School outreach programmes target at the same time socially and economically disadvantaged communities as well as communities of ethnic minorities to improve their education status by providing educational opportunities on community level. The children that dropped out from Grade 1 or 2 are also encouraged to enrol in this programme. The classes are provided as per the demand communicated by the communities themselves. Time and venue for classes are decided upon on local level, taking into consideration the needs and interests of the participants. Classes run at least four hours a day and six days per week. There are not more than 20 learners in each class. The participants are provided with all necessary textbooks by the NFEC. These are distributed every year through the DEO free of cost. The facilitator performs periodically an evaluation of the performance of the learners. Final examinations at the end of each course are conducted with the help of partnering schools and theDEO.The latter also provides theGrade 3 certificate to learnerswho havecompleted successfully the final examinations.After completing the three yearscourse, learners are eligible for admission into Grade 4 within the formal education system, such as a nearby local school. Alternative Schooling Programme (ASP) The NFEC has designed and launched the Alternative Schooling Programme in the urban and semi-urban areas for children of 8 to 14 years who were not able to attend school at the right age due to various reasons. It is a three years course and targets children who have to work, support their parents, or look after their siblings. Theprogrammespecificallyfocusesonsociallyandeconomicallydisadvantagedcommunities and communities of ethnic minorities to provide educational opportunities at the local level. Also children who dropped out from primary school are encouraged to enrol to ensure the continuation of their studies. The course is designed in line with the curriculum of primary education, but condenses the content to three years. After the successful completion of the course the learners are eligible to enrol in Grade 6 in the formal school system. The NFEC provides free textbooks to each learner through the DEO.

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Programme for school dropout childrenThe main objective of the six-month programme is to reintegrate out-of-school children into a school of their respective community in order to facilitate the continuation of their studies, as well as to increase the retention of children in school. The implementation units of the programme are corresponding to the coverage areas of the schools. Education facilitators are recruited from the respective communities. They need to hold a SLC as well as profound knowledge about the socio-economic situation and languages of the community. The facilitator is responsible for the identificationofproblemsandreasonsfordrop-outs,aswellasforthereintegrationof school dropout children into a suiting school of their community, together with head teachers, teachers and members of the school management committee. Besides the activities mentioned above, the programme furthermore aims at sensitizing the guardians of the children about the importance of education through counselling, home visits, awareness raising campaigns and interactions organized at the community level by the education facilitator. In order to ensure that children remain in school, the education facilitator works closely with the teachers and members of school management committee for creating a child-friendly environment in school. Income generating programmeThe main objective of the income generating programme is to provide learning opportunities for enhancing reading, writing and comprehension skills in the mother language of the participants, as well as to support the low income group of neo-literates by offering government supported literacy programmes. These opportunities are provided, as neo-literate persons have to continuously practice reading and writing in order not to forget the knowledge acquired. In this programme, people of different groups of neo-literates are organised in new groups and mobilised for income generating programmes by the facilitators. The income generating programmes are conducted according to the knowledge and experiences of the group members, as well as according to the geographical, cultural and social context. The NFEC provides skills training on income generation and social mobilising programmes for the group members. Like this, it is possible to increase the income status of the people who are enrolled in the programme. In addition, the participants have an opportunity to further practice their reading and writing skills through the activities related to the programme.

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1. 4 Community Learning Centres (CLCs) One of the weaknesses of Literacy and NFE programmes in Nepal is that they are often ad hoc and unsustainable. In many cases, literacy classes are conducted only once for six or nine months. It is a similar case with out-of-school education classes. Due to the lack of a permanently responsible institution at the village level, Literacy and NFE (NFE) programmes are not able to provide functional education based on the needs and problems of the inhabitants, even though this is one of the most important factors. It is furthermore essential to help the people to identify core problems of their daily lives and to assist them in solving these by conveying knowledge and skills related to health, hygiene, nutrition, family planning, environment etc. Similarly, the functional literacy programme should provide new skills and technologies which will support the people of the communities to improve their professional chances and income. In order to tackle these problems, the concept of CLC was designed. CLCs are multipurpose institutions of the people, by the people, and for the people to promote learning of new knowledge, skills and behaviours to improve quality of life and living standard. At present many countries in Asia have set up such CLCs. The CLCs, which have been established in Nepal, are good examples of what can be achieved through such institutions. Therefore, both on national and international level, agencies pay close attention to the promotion of CLCs in order to foster a sustainable learning process in the society. According to UNESCO, a CLC is a community-based NFE institution or organisation which provides a range of services and learning opportunities to out-of-school children, youth and illiterate or semi-literate adults from socially disadvantaged rural and urban communities. The CLCs operate outside the formal education system and are intended to address primarily the learners’ basic literacy and educational needs and therefore support the holistic development of citizens and communities. As NFE institutions, CLCs are usually established and managed by localcommunitieswithfinancialandtechnicalsupportfromvariousgovernmentaland non-governmental agencies. Furthermore, their activities are tailored according to the local context in order to address the communities’ problems as well as to satisfy their basic needs. The National Resource Centre for Non-Formal Education (NRC-NFE) has developed a concept of CLCs as a local level educational institution, managed and operated by the community members. It is a multipurpose organisation looking after the educational needs of children, youth and adults combined with income generating, health, and environment programmes, information/resource centres, awareness

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raising campaigns, community development, women empowerment activities etc. Plans and programmes are prepared based on local needs and implemented by mobilising local resources. TheNFEChasestablishedmorethan2100CLCsacrossthecountrywithfinancialand technical support from UNESCO, through theAsia-Pacific Programme ofEducation for All (APPEAL) programme, the National Federation of UNESCO Associations of Japan (NFUAJ) and Rotary Matching Grant Fund. In its Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002–2007) the Government of Nepal formulated its aim at establishing one CLC in every village development committee and municipality in Nepal. As in other countries, nearly all CLCs in Nepal are established and managed by local people. Similarly, the CLC programme in Nepal also targets out-of-school children, youth and adults from marginalised rural and urban communities. The implementation of the CLC programme is guided by the basic principle that the main purpose of education is not only to enable people to read and write, but also to provide them with knowledge, skills and attitudes to enable self-sustainability and to improve their living standards (NRC-NFE) .

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Context Analysis

2. 1 Policies relevant to equivalency measures of non-formal education2. 1. 1 National documentsIn following the existing national documents, which are concerned with the Equivalency Programme (EP) of NFE in Nepal will be presented and discussed. National Education Commission (1992) The National Education Commission (1992) recommended the government “to confer literacy on out-of-school children and school drop outs of the 8-14 age group through the medium of children’s education programmes and to encourage them to go in for formal education” (p. 133) . In regards to equivalency of non-formal and formal school levels, the report suggests that“Adefinitionofdifferent levelsof literacy—basiclevel, middle level and self-study level – should be prepared, and the equivalence of each of them with formal education should be laid down. Similarly, the curriculum for the first and second stage of children’seducation should be worked out, and the equivalence of each of them with formal education should be determined. While deciding on the equivalence of different levels of literacy, the basic level should be equated with class 3 of primary education, and the middle level with class5.Likewise, thefirststageofchildren’seducation,conductedbythe children’s home or other social organisations should be equated with class 3 of primary education, and the second stage with class 5” (p. 134) . Moreover, it suggests open admission from lower secondary to secondary level through self-studies.

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The Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) Although equivalency of formal and non-formal education is not addressed directly in the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) document, there can be found an emphasis on NFE. The policy paper emphasised the relationship between literacy and basic primary education. It further envisaged providing literate children access to formal education. The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007) The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007) focused on literacy, post-literacy, income generating and life relevant NFE. The policy paper aimed at providing opportunities of basic primary education to 200000 children through NFE. It also emphasised education for out-of-school children. High Level National Education Commission (1999) The High Level National Education Commission (1999) recommends Siksha Sadan as school extension programme for out-of-school children using the same textbooks as in the formal primary education as well as the creation of bridges from non-formal to formal education. Moreover the report recommends non-formal primary and secondary education offers leading to open education up to the higher education level. EFA National Plan of Action (2001-15) Goal 3 of the EFA National Plan of Action (2001-2015) emphasises the need to “ensuring that the learning needs of young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skill programmes”. The current provision of the government in this regard is the NFE programme for children who missed normal schooling. In Goal 4 it is stated that “achieving a 50% improvement in the level of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all” should be a priority. The government’s strategy in this regard has been to provide NFE for out-of-school children and youths for mainstreaming formal education. The plan envisages a 100 % enrolment in primary education by 2015. To achieve this goal, the plan mentions integrating out-of-school children through certain strategies such as:

• Bringing disadvantaged and deprived children into formal education;

• Compensating opportunity costs through linkages to INGOs/NGOs;

• Provision of alternative schooling and school extensions;

• Residential schools in sparsely populated areas.

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Education Regulation (2062) In the Education Regulation (2062) the need to provide alternative school programmes for children in the age of 6-14 years and integrating out-of-school children in formal schooling through NFE is emphasised. In sum, looking at the documents mentioned above, it becomes apparent that the attention of the educationists and of policy makers has been directed to a certain extent towards NFE. There seems to be a certain level of awareness with regards to the value of NFE as an alternate approach to formal education so that out-of-school children will get an opportunity to access education. Although there is not much literature about the formal-non-formal equivalency in education, the intent of the researchers, educationists and policy makers are found to be positive in this regard.

2. 1. 2 NFE Policy, 2063 (2007 AD) In order to meet the goal of EFA, it was necessary to provide education not only through schools, but also through NFE programmes for children, youth and adults who have not completed their basic education. Schools are not able to cover the needs of all children and youth. In such situation, NFE is a way to compensate the lack of comprehensive formal schooling by giving opportunities to those who cannot continue their formal education (UNESCO, 2006) . As a result, NFE became part of the international discourse on education policy in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It can be seen related to the concepts of recurrent and lifelong learning. Tight (1996: 68) suggested that whereas the concepts of lifelong learning have to do with the extension of education and learning throughout life, NFE is about ‘acknowledging the importance of education, learning and training which takes place outside recognised educational institutions’. Fordham (1993) suggests that in the 1970s, four characteristics came to be associated with NFE:

• Relevance to the needs of disadvantaged groups;

• Concernwithspecificcategoriesofpersons;

• Afocusonclearlydefinedpurposes;

• Flexibility in organisation and methods. It was realised in many countries including Nepal that conventional school systems alone cannot meet the learning needs of all learners. Flexibility, alternative modes of learning and learners’ choices are essential elements for ensuring access to education to all. Realising this fact, The Government of Nepal has recently approved the NFE Policy2006 which clarifies the broad concepts of NFEwithclearly formulated policies and strategies of the country. It is hoped that they will

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enhance the education sector as guidelines for the concerned government as well as non-government agencies involved in conducting NFE programmes.

Among the 16 policy statements, policy statement 2 strengthens the quest for equivalency of NFE:

Policy 2: Non-formal education equivalent to formal education will be provided to those who are deprived of educational opportunity or who dropped out of education

The following policy actions will be adopted for the implementation of the above policy:

• Alternative schooling programme will be made equivalent to primary level;

• Adult and women’s literacy programme will gradually be made equivalent to primary level;

• Alternative school programme will be gradually upgraded to Grade 12 of the formal system and its equivalency will be ensured;

• Lower secondary, secondary and higher secondary level education will also be provided through open mode;

• The degrees obtained by Open University will be made equivalent to the degrees of other universities;

• Occupational and vocational courses including skill training programmes will be considered as non-credit courses;

• The formal and non-formal educationstreams will be made equivalent to each other with the support of condensed courses;

• CLCs will be expanded as a venue for different types of NFE programmes.

2. 2 Status of literacy/ NFE programmesDespite the progress made over recent years, Nepal still faces challenges in achieving the EFA goals by 2015. The literacy rate stands at 65. 9 % (males 75. 1, females 57.

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4 %) with 8. 7 % of school age population (6-24 years), who never attended school (CBS, 2011) . According to the most recent Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS-III 2010-2011), Nepal has an adult literacy rate of 56. 6 %, with a huge variation between males and females. Based on the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2011, out of 7. 6 million adult illiterates in Nepal, 67 % are female. A high number of children are still out of school. While the Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) has reached 93%, the participation of marginalised girls, Janjatis, Dalits and children with disabilities is lower than average, which shows that the educational opportunities for members of marginalised groups and ethnic minorities is still limited. Looking at the data, it becomes apparent that there is a need for collective, collaborative and critical action to address the problem of illiteracy and its impact on educational goals of the DoE of Nepal in particular and Nepal in general. At present, efforts are made to improve the educational access and quality at basic and secondary level through interventions such as EFA and the School Sector Reform Programme (SSRP) in the country. The SSRP introduced new sets of quality-led interventions for improving governance management and resourcing functions in schooleducation,improvingefficiencyandensuringameaningfullearningprocessof the learners through restructuring the school from Grade 1 to 12 which includes 1-8 basic and 9-12 secondary education. The formal education sector, under the responsibility of the DoE and the NFEC, is responsible as well for NFE in the country. The supreme committee of the literacy campaign is headed by the prime minister. The director of the NFEC has the overall responsibility of implementing various programmes such as:

• Literacy Campaign (LC)

• Adult Literacy Programme (ALP)

• Post Literacy Programme (PLP)

• Women Literacy Programme (WLP) I and II

• Alternative Schooling Programme (ASP)

• School Outreach Programme (SOP)

• Flexible Schooling (FSP)

• Programme for School Dropout Children

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• CLCBesides literacy programmes, there are open school programmes, adult women education and open learning opportunities on primary, lower secondary and secondary level. The participants complete the different levels in three, two and oneyear(s)respectively.TheSchoolLeavingCertificate(SLC)canbetakenaftersix years. The non-formal approach to learning has big potential to play both complimentary and supplementary roles to create sufficient and strengthenedlearning opportunities. The major challenge of the NFEC is to maintain, strengthen, and improve the delivery of quality basic NFE services in pursuance of its mandated responsibilities, functions and authorities by the DoE. The NFEC must adhere to the principles of coordination and team building, for and amongst its various units, from the central level down to village level where actual NFE activities are being implemented. Further, intersectoral and intra-unit coordination is necessary for managing the diversified service activities of the institution. The NFEC initiates and ensuresthis requirement for collaboration at all levels. Similarly, coordination within the department, linkages and networking with other divisions, and sub-units of the DoE, other government agencies, as well as development partners are pursued continuously to focus on the responsibility of strengthening and improving the quality of delivered numerous NFE services, serving the diverse groups of learners in the context of Nepal.

The recognition of non-formal and informal learning is an important means for making the ‘lifelong learning for all’ agenda a reality and, subsequently, for reshaping learning in order for it to better comply to the needs of the 21st century knowledge economies and open societies. In the past, the different educational plans and policies in Nepal focused more on formal learning than on non-formal and informal learning. Recognising and emphasizing the knowledge and skills acquired from non-formal or informal learning raises the visibility as well as the considered worth of Nepalese youth within the society at large. Policies, which recognise the importance of non-formal and informal learning as rich sources of human capital, can play a significantrole in an articulated lifelong learning framework, and the present practices can be improved to make the knowledge and competencies people acquire outside of formal schooling more visible. Thus, the challenge for policy makers is to develop processesforrecognisingsuchlearning-aprocessthatwillgeneratenetbenefitsboth for individuals and for the society at large.

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2. 3 Problems, issues and challenges of the existing EPs in Nepal2. 3. 1 Review of the existing EPs in NepalIneducation,anEPisdefinedasanalternativeeducationalprogrammeequivalentto existing formal general or vocational education (UNESCO, 1993) . In some countries, the concept of education outside the formal system is still unacceptable. To most parents, teachers, and learners with regard to their status and social participation,thepossessionofformaleducationcredentialsorcertificates/diplomasmatters the most. These prevailing social bias against NFE in comparison to formal education can be addressed and adjusted through an EP in continuing education. The NFEC takes on the leading role to manage NFE in Nepal. The institution has beenconductinganumberofNFEprogrammes for the targetbeneficiaries.TheLiteracy Nepal Mission (LINEM) 2012-2015 is one of the crucial programmes beingimplementedatthemoment.TofulfiltheobjectivesofLINEM,theNFEChas adopted an integrated approach to conduct the activities of the mission (LINEM, 2012) . The NFEC is getting support from the different ministries, development partners, financial institutions, industries, NGOs, CBOs, journalists, teachers,learners as well as the civil society at large. The goal of the NFEC is to make the Nepalese society literate by 2015. In the LINEM concept paper, the NFEC elaborates on learning evaluation mechanisms but misses out on providing any equivalency measurements of the programme. Furthermore, the NFEC has developed the curriculum of NFE. According to the latter, there are three levels of NFE: Basic (Level-1), medium (Level-2) and self-study (Level -3) (NFEC, 2012) . The basic level curriculum focuses on adults of the age of 15-45 years who did not get the opportunity to obtain primary education and adults who dropped out from school without getting any literacy skills. The objective of the basic level is to develop listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. Similarly, this level focuses on developing the knowledge and skills of basic mathematics as well as functional messages and skills. The medium level curriculum is based on the knowledge of adults who completed the basic level or who have obtained the necessary knowledge and skills for admission elsewhere. After completing the medium level, the participants can read easy booklets, magazines and have gained the ability to write simple letters and

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applications. In addition to these skills, participants also gain the skill of simple mathematics needed for the daily life and obtain information and awareness about their health, environment, human rights as well as about the services provided by the government and non-government organisations. The third level is the self-study level. On this level the adult participants obtain knowledge and skills related among others to agriculture, health, nutrition, environment, population through self-study methods such as posters, booklets, brushers etc. By completing this level they develop the competency of writing letters,applicationsandareabletofilloutofficialformssuchasbankbouchers,loan forms etc. Furthermore, addition and subtraction up to six digits and simple multiplication is taught within the self-study level.

Though there are three levels defined in the NFE curriculum, no equivalencymeasurements are provided in the curriculum. Another programme of NFEC is the Flexible Schooling Programme (FSP) for the primary education level. This programme targets children of the age of 8-14 years, who are unlikely to enter the formal education system due to various reasons such as domestic responsibilities and other socio-economic problems (NFEC, 2012) . Through the FSP, the primary education level (up to Grade 5) can be completed in three years. Course schedules are designed according to the times suitable for the learners in order to increase attendance rates. The formal primary education curriculumoffiveyearsiscondensedintothreeyears,dividinglevelI,levelIIandlevel III respectively. The learners who complete level III are considered to possess equal knowledge and skills than learners of Grade 5 within the formal education system. The NFEC has been conducting open school programmes for Grade 6, 7 and 8 since 2007 in 37 districts of the country. The lower secondary school’s three years curriculum is condensed into two years, subdivided into two levels. After completing level II, learners are recognised as equivalent of having completed Grade 8 of the formal school (NFEC, 2013) . Similarly, the National Centre for Educational Development (NCED) has prepared a one year open school curriculum condensing the content of Grade 9 and 10 of formal education. Since 2007, the NCED has opened 85 schools in 75 districts where learners are taught according to this condensed curriculum. After completing this course the learners are eligible for participating in the SLC examination. Like this, the equivalency of non- formal and

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formal education has been practiced in Nepal.

2. 3. 2 Problems, issues and challenges of EPsAccording to NFEC personnel, the institution has been facing a number of problems while implementing non-formal to formal education EPs. As elaborated above the centre is implementing the FSP for primary level, which iscondensingfiveyearsofformaleducationcourseintothreeyearsofNFE.Thecourse is divided into three levels. After completing level III, learners are at the same level of grade 5 learners within the formal education system. Problems arise when learners only complete level II, as there is no possibility to compare their competencytoformaleducationlearnersanditisdifficulttodefineforwhichgradeshe/he is eligible. Similarly, the three-year curriculum of the formal lower secondary level is condensed into a non-formal two-year course. After completing the two-year course the learners will take the equivalency test of grade 8 of the formal school. However,iftheyonlycompleteLevelI,itisequallydifficulttodetermineforwhichgrade/class the learners are eligible, as there is no proper framework for measuring equivalency.Thereforethereisaneedforascientificlogicalframeworkdefiningequivalency measurements. In such a situation, the validation of NFE poses a methodological challenge, as there areonly insufficientguidelinesavailable,howtomeasure,validateandcompareformal and non-formal programmes and courses. Anotherchallengewithregards toequivalencyofNFEis thatbeneficiarieshavedifferent interests and reasons why they are entering the different courses. Some take up again the learning process in order to continue their education through non-formal means and to thereby improve knowledge and skills. These learners will expect a valid certificate after completing the respectivenon-formalprogrammecycle. Other learners on the other hand may just wish to learn in order to make their life easier and potentially more comfortable. Obtaining knowledge and skills in their case is meant to ease the conduction of their everyday activities. That is the reasonwhyforthelattergroupscertificatesarenotasimportantasforthegroupoflearners mentioned before. Considering these differences in interests, the question arises how to manage NFE and its equivalency problems. There are adults who have already acquired the knowledge incorporated in the condensed curriculum through other means and different learning experience in

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life.AlsointhesecasesNepallacksanequivalencydefiningmechanismwithintheNFE mode to measure their knowledge and skills. Another issue is that the condensed curricula for primary, lower secondary and secondary school level are developed on the basis of the respective formal school curriculum. However, these do not match the knowledge level of the NFE learners; therefore it would be necessary to develop separate curricula for a non-formal EP. In spite of the notable progress in providing EPs for the out-of-school population, theon-goingoffersinthecountryarestillunsatisfactory.Thescopeanddefinitionof EPs will need to be continuously re-examined in order to meet new challenges. Partnerships among government, non-government and community groups need to be strengthened and expanded to mobilise available resources to a maximum. There are several issues which are currently creating considerable concern. These include the following:

1. How to increase the access for disadvantaged groups, particularly out-of school youth and adults, handicapped people, the population living in remote areas and minority groups?

2. How to improve the programme’s flexibility and responsiveness to thevarious target groups as well as to maintain quality and standards?

3. How to continue achieving transferability to formal education but at the same time resist the increasing pressure to formalise NFE?

4. How to integrate more effectively work-oriented curricula in general EPs?

Some directions for the future may include the following:

1. Upgrade the levels of educational attainment of the working population to at least the level of lower secondary education through EPs;

2. Expand information systems by establishing nation-wide networks of public libraries and learning resource centres and utilise mass media for more effective implementation of EPs;

3. Expand and improve vocational EPs with an emphasis on closer relationships to the labour market and its demands as well as to local earning opportunities;

4. DevelopEPsforspecifictargetgroupswithspecialneedsandproblems;

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5. Create closer integration and linkages between formal and non-formal education, especially EPs;

6. Improve the quality of EP curricula;

7. Decentralise planning and administration of EPs to operational levels and promote greater participation of target group representatives in the programmes.

2. 4 Consideration in planning and implementation of EPsThere are several issues that need to be thoroughly considered in planning and implementation of EPs (UNESCO, 2006) . 1. The importance of political commitment and appropriate legal provisionsIt is not possible to deny that a strong political commitment to educating disadvantaged groups in society is an essential pre-condition in planning EPs. The experiences of Thailand and Indonesia show that over the years national governments have formulated policies and even made legal provisions that have facilitated to a great extent the process of planning as well as implementation of such programmes. In the case of Thailand, EPs have had a long history, which has enabled experimentation, innovation and further improvement of these programmes. An important constitutional commitment made in the case of both countries is that of the “right to education” of all citizens (unlike in India, which only has a constitutional commitment for ensuring free and compulsory education to children of 6-14 years) . The rights perspective is an enabling factor in envisioning systems of education, whether formal or non-formal, of comparable quality. 2. The need for clear articulation of varied client groupsDisadvantaged and educationally marginalised groups are an extremely diverse category. In NFE programmes, it is common to refer to overly generalised categories suchasthe“ruralpoor,”the“urbanpoor”orthose“difficulttoreach”whiledesigningeducation programmes. Experiences show the need to further disaggregate these broad categories by identifying diverse subgroups so that the educational content, methods and materials can be carefully worked out around their needs. The studies from Thailand and Indonesia have highlighted the importance of clearly identifying

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more detailed target groups, both among children as well as among adults, so that appropriate programmes can be designed for each group.

3. The need for a variety of NFE programmes, implemented through involving governmental bodies and NGOs, civil society groups, experts and personnel of various kinds as well as strong political commitmentTo provide educational opportunities to disadvantaged groups has to be translated into a wide range of NFE programmes, with institutional and manpower support. The advantage of having a range of programmes is that it ispossible to respond to thespecificandimmediateneedsofvarioustargetgroups,aswellastoservetheirlong-term interests, as a wider range of curricula and delivery approaches can be offered. EPs are one option out of a wide variety of options available. Experiences from the Philippines and Thailand show the importance of having a wider range ofeducationprogrammesfordifferenttargetgroupswithspecificlearningneeds.The involvement of organisations and EPs for promoting lifelong learning agencies would signal society’s commitment to the cause of NFE. In Thailand, for example, the number of institutions that are involved in NFE has risen and thereby improved the education sector of the entire country. 4. The importance of understanding contextual factors while planning and designing EPsThefourcountrystudiesreflectvaryingcultural,social,educational,economicandlinguistic contexts. Indonesia, in particular, has shown how important it is to take note of social and cultural factors while designing EPs. Contextual factors therefore become an important variable in the design of such programmes. No “blueprints” canbeprescribedasEPshavetoevolveaccordingtothespecificlocalcontexts.5. The importance of convergence and synergies between education and various development departmentsThis is a need that has been repeated frequently. Considering the fact that EPs must be planned for members of marginalised groups, it is essential to establish collaboration and coordination at the grassroots level. The country studies have shown that poverty still is the main reason for learners failing to participate in or dropping out of both formal and non-formal systems of education. It is obvious that livelihood issues need to be addressed. The responsible department of NFE should, therefore, not be the sole agency handling EPs. Thailand has shown how

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EPs have been an integral part of socio-economic development over the past sixty years. Furthermore it is notable how Thailand’s Ministry of Education has secured participation in NFE at provincial, district and school levels.

6. Curricular framework: centralised, decentralised or a combination of both?Indonesia offers a case where educational reforms have taken place in recent years that have resulted in the decentralisation of responsibilities down to the province and district levels. One major development is that teachers in formal education arebeingencouragedtodeveloplocallyrelevantmaterials,basedonthespecificcontext and the needs of varied groups of learners. Gradually, this process is also being replicated in the NFE sector. On the other hand, the Government of Thailand has approved a National Curriculum Framework (2001) . The curricula for EPs thus have to follow the national curricular framework, resulting in less diversity and fewer choices for different target groups. Indeed, it is necessary to consider whether EPs should have a national curriculum framework in the interest of maintaining quality and ensuring standards, or whether curriculum development should be decentralised in order to ensure the relevance of curricula to the needs and interests of various target groups. The experience of the Philippines seems to indicate that, while following the NFE A&E Curriculum Framework, it is still possible to develop learning materials that draw upon the life experiences of typical NFE learners in order to offer them EPs for promoting lifelong learning knowledge and skills useful for solving the problems of daily life. The NFE A&E Curriculum Framework emphasises “functionality” and does not conform to the traditional subject approach of the formal system. It aims at developing the basic skills that adult learners need to function effectively as parents, workers and members of the community. Thus, the tension between the demands of the formal system to make the curriculum subject-based and the pressureon thenon-formalsystem tomake thecurriculumflexible,needs-basedand problem-oriented must be reconciled when designing EPs.

7. Issues related to the language used as medium of instruction in EPsIn multi-lingual societies, the medium of instruction in any educational programmes can determine the extent to which it fails or succeeds. Yet, language issues never get the attention they deserve at the planning stage. The studies on the Philippines andIndonesiarefertothelanguageproblemofEPs,howeveronlytoaninsufficientextent. The issue of mother tongue literacy and the transition to the standard regional/

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national language has received the attention of education planners. With regard to EPs, language issues in development of materials as well as in the teaching/learning process, assessment and evaluation, need to be given greater attention.

8. The need for developing a professional cadre of functionaries at the grassroots levelThe research studies seem to indicate that in most cases no separate personnel was appointed for the EPs. As in other NFE programmes, however, it is the stakeholders at grassroots level who play an important role in the implementation of programme activities. Therefore it is important to ask what kind of professional support is provided to these individuals or organisations. The Indonesian study has shown that a large percentage of EP workers were not even provided with any training. Considering the complex roles they are taking over, the number of responsibilities they have to shoulder and the skills and competencies to be developed by learners, the creation of a professional cadre of local-level EP staff would seem to be an absolute necessity. Just as teachers need professional training, those who work for EPs at the grassroots level will also need professional high quality development programmes.

9. The need for a national education act that equates non-formal with formal educationTheIndonesianexperiencehighlights theimportanceof legislationthatconfirmsthe equivalency of the two education systems, as well as the importance of a decree thatidentifiestheagencyconductingexaminationsatthenationallevel.Anationaleducation act provides the legitimacy not only for EPs but also for accreditation andcertification.TheotherthreestudiesdealwiththecomplexEPsforpromotinglifelong learning technicalities of conducting the assessment and evaluation of learning outcomes. Thailand’s concern with quality issues and maintenance of standards is notable.

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A National EP Framework

The framework consists of two main aspects: Key components of EP development and the EP implementation process.

3. 1 Key components of EP development3. 1. 1 EP conceptsCountries inAsia have their own definition of EPs ofwhich themainmessage and purpose is similar. UNESCO defines EPs as alternativeeducational programmes equivalent to existing formal general or vocational education (UNESCO, 1993) . Theoretically all levels and subsectors of education can include both formal and non-formal EPs. In many member states, also in the Asia-Pacificregion,whichhavenotyetattaineduniversalprimaryeducation,EPs exist at the primary level. EPs also exist at advanced levels such as university or college, and Open Education programmes leading to awards equivalent to the ones of formal university and college institutions are becoming more and more popular. Some member states have already established EPs on secondary level. Their experiencemightbebeneficialforothercountries.SecondaryEPsbecomenecessary to meet the needs of learners who, for one reason or another, are not able to begin or continue their formal secondary education. Under these programmes learning may take place at home, school, or within the community with various in-school and out-of-school mechanisms and delivery systems. Both in-school and out-of-school education programmes aim at the development of the participating person as a whole. However, in-school programmes most often prepare the learners for their further studies before entering the labour market while out-of-school programmes immediately prepare learners for the labour market while not closing the door for further studies.

Chap

ter 3

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Ineducation,anEPisdefinedasanalternativeeducationalprogrammeequivalentto existing formal general or vocational education, not only in terms of curriculum and certification, but also in regard to policy support mechanisms, mode ofdelivery, staff training, and support activities such as monitoring, evaluation and the assessment of learning. The system of EP includes the accreditation and/or certification of learningachievements of individuals, which are comparable to the formal education system; basedonclearlydefinedproceduresandmethodsofassessment,measurementandevaluation of learning; in reference to national education standards. In Nepal, an equivalency education (EE) or an EP is defined as an alternativeeducational support system enabling the learner to acquire equivalent education to existing formal general and vocational education through non-formal or distance education.

3. 1. 2 Vision, mission, goal and objectivesVision

To contribute to the creation of a learning society through the development of educated, skilled and self-reliant human resources.

MissionTo provide equivalent, qualified and relevant education that would widen theaccessandprovidecertificationsothatthegoalsofEFAaremetwithintheNationalFramework for Action of the country. GoalOur goal is to raise the level of adult literacy, particularly among women and people belonging to marginalised groups such as Dalits, Madhesis and other disadvantaged ethnic groups through the provision of appropriate learning life experience programmes for all groups within society. This will in turn contribute to reduce poverty and equitable social-economic and human development, which is the overall goal of literacy, NFE, continuing education, and lifelong learning in Nepal. Learners will be equipped with the moral, ethical, and intellectual capabilities to enjoy a good quality of life, the ability to undertake a career and to engage in continuous learning.

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ObjectivesInorder to fulfil theabovevisionandmission, eachcountry formulates itsownneed-based objectives. Some common objectives are as follows:

• To achieve and promote individual socio-economic and human development benefitsthroughcomparableacademicandvocationaleducationandtohelplearners to become productive citizens;

• To establish sustainable dynamics of the national NFE system, which will create a system of Life Long Learning (LLL), that supports national development efforts;

• To promote innovative, indigenous national literacy NFE programmes as a meansofbenefittingfromcommunitysupportfortheprogrammes;

• To strengthen national and international partnerships in order to support literacy and NFE;

• To promote and support human resource development by raising the educational levels of the total population;

• To widen access to education for disadvantaged communities and to support the completion of basic education and secondary schooling;

• To provide an alternative educational programme that is equivalent to existing formal general/basic and vocational education;

• To empower learners through capacity building and skills development so that they can become learning persons, who know how and where to acquire knowledge, to assess diverse learning sources, and integrate knowledge for development of oneself, family, community, society and the country;

• To improve life skills in order to enable learners to acquire a higher personal standard of living and quality of life within communities.

3. 1. 3 Target groupsEPs in Nepal target the out-of-school population. Participants are from various backgrounds and include, among others, industrial workers, people involved in the business and service sector, members of hill tribes, homeless children and teenagers, conscripts, prisoners, people with physical disabilities, and Nepali people living

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overseas.Considering the specificcontextofNepal, theprimary targetgroupofequivalency education should be divided into two groups:

1. Children between 6-14 years who dropped out of the formal school system and are re-entering education or who have never gone to school;

2. Youths and adults between 15-59 (60) years who are school dropouts, illiterate or have become literate under a national literacy programme and want to continue/strengthen their education and/or enhance their livelihoods opportunities.

The out-of-school population can continue their studies to obtain education certificates anddiplomas equivalent to those awardedby formal schools.At thecommunity level, coordination between formal schools and learning centres has taken place to share buildings, teachers and other resources.

3. 1. 4 Curriculum and learning materialsEP curricula should aim at supporting individuals to become productive, contributing members within their respective society. Besides enhancing the learners’ knowledge, EPs must provide skills necessary to be able to learn and to acquire knowledge, and must foster positive attitudes so that learners are well equipped to deal with the rapidly changing world. Curricula should provide skills for critical thinking and problem-solving to deal with real life situations. EP curricula should open opportunities for higher education as well as prepare learners for creating meaningful livelihoods for themselves. Curriculum developmentAnEPcurriculumcanbedefinedastheplannededucationalexperiencesofferedto all citizens by an educational institution. An effective EP curriculum must be relevant to the national socio-economic situation and has to meet the needs of the learners and the overall society. The main purpose of a curriculum is to achieve the goals set out in the national education plan. The design and layout of the EP curricula vary from country to country, but all should begin with the consideration of the following components: objectives, learning experiences (contents), learning and teaching process, and evaluation. EP curricula can be organised and developed at central or local level. Decentralisation and participation are now regarded as highly desired general principles. For the design of the EPs, this means including stakeholders such as, among others, teachers or facilitators, experts, learners, school/CLC Committee members, local leaders and authorities. While a “core curriculum” can be developed at central level, a “school-

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based/community-based curriculum” must be developed at operational/grass-root level in order to meet the real needs of learners and to promote contextualisation and local relevance. The ratio of the core curriculum versus school-based/community-based curriculum varies from country to country. In Thailand, the ratio is 70 to 30.

Steps in curriculum development

Curriculum developers may consider the following steps:

• Identify target groups – who they are and their locality;

• Identify the needs of learners and the overall society;

• Study national education laws, the national education framework, national education standards and socio-economic trends to make a comparative matrix for outcomes of formal education and the EP curriculum;

• Identify learning and teaching contexts, i. e. infrastructure and existing learning-teaching materials;

• Review pedagogy and andragogy;

• Set goals and objectives;

• Organise contents;

• Select appropriate learning and teaching activities;

• Develop a comparability matrix between EP and formal education curriculum;

• Develop an evaluation scheme;

• Test curriculum;

• Review and revise the curriculum;

• Publish and disseminate the curriculum;

• Follow up to get feedback for improvement.

Levels of EP curriculaUpon national educational policy, the formal schooling pattern and other factors, count most. However, EPs generally correspond to formal schooling levels as far as secondary level, i. e. until a learner completes his/her academic and vocational education subjects.

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• Literacy/Post-Literacy

• Primary Education

• Secondary Education

• Vocational EducationEPs comparable to the formal education channel with equivalent achievement in terms of human development provide opportunities for learners to continue their education. The curriculum framework and materials design for EPs should be consistent with the delivery mechanisms earlier discussed which are: a) contact session; b) distance education; and c) self-study (chapter 4) . The curriculum of a secondary EP should be comparable to existing general or vocational formal secondary education to serve the needs of target groups, such as those who have completed primary education or its equivalency, or secondary school drop-outs. Since EPs are intended to prepare learners to enter the labour market or for further study,thecurriculumshouldbebasedonneedsthathavebeenidentified.Derivingfrom this, goals and objectives to be achieved need to be formulated. Relevant goals and objectives may be shown as follows:

1. Goals

• To enable learners through EPs to acquire occupational knowledge, attitudes and skills (KAS) in order to enhance their quality of life;

• To enable learners through EPs to adjust to present and future changes in the societyasinfluencedbythedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;

• To enable learners through EPs to acquire KAS relevant to nation-building and the unity of the nation and at the same time to prepare them for further studies.

2. Objectives

• To utilize problem-solving methods in real-life situations;

• To utilize functional and relevant KAS for self-improvement and to become productive workers;

• To acquire positive values, appropriate attitudes, and mastery of the national language and functional foreign language to enhance community participation, good citizenship, and international understanding;

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• To attain essential KAS to be able to adjust to societal changes;

• To gain KAS to be able to continue studying.

3. Content of EPsSince EPs are alternatives to formal education and crossovers between the alternative systems should be possible at every level/grade, it is clear that the content should be appropriate for and acceptable to both systems. If this is not the case, cross-accreditation and mutually recognised awards would not be possible. Nevertheless, programmes provided by an equivalency system as an alternative to formal education should recognise that its focus should be on the needs of its special target group. It should focus on achieving not only the goals and objectives of the formal system, but special goals and objectives of its own as set out above. Content should be added or adapted to meet the special goals and objectives and considerable attention should be given to the special needs of adult learners. The contents which could be emphasised are listed below:

a. Daily life

1) Problems in real-life situations

a) Health and sanitation

b) Nutrition

c) Family life and family planning

d) Unemployment

e) Environmental degradation

f)Others,asidentifiedaccordingtospecificlocalcontexts

2) Problem-solving methods

b. Self-improvement

1) Various existing occupations/job opportunities

2) Relevant skills to be mastered and how these are applied

3) Work ethics and values

4) Constructive labour and industrial relations

c. Community participation and civic consciousness

1) Rights and duties of a citizen

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2) Leadership qualities

3) Mastery and proper utilisation of the national language and/or functional foreign language(s)

4) Positive values, i. e. integrity, honesty, patience, industriousness, cultural and national identity

d. Science and technology

• Natural and physical sciences

• Social and human sciences

• Technological innovations/changes and impact on the environment andlife-style of the people

• Functions and dysfunctions of science and technology

In addition, it is essential for each programme/activity to apply these following EP’s principles:

• Equity and access: EPs must provide equity and access to all target groups; • Relevance and responsiveness: EPs must be relevant and responsive to

national goals and policies, and local and individual needs; • Inclusion and participation: EPs must be based on appropriate teaching and

learning strategies, and must promote a participatory approach; • Culture and gender sensitivity: EPs need to be sensitive to culture and

gender; • Good citizenship: Similar to all other educational programmes, EPs must

promote national values and good citizenship; • Comparability: EPs must be comparable to formal education in all aspects

including curricula, certification, policy support, delivery mechanisms,educational standards and quality assurance, capacity building, learning assessment, and monitoring and evaluation;

• Credit transfer: Credits from EPs must be transferable to formal education and vice versa;

• Flexibility:EPsmustbeflexibleintermsofcurriculumcontent,thelearning-teaching process, study time and evaluation;

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• Lifelong learning (LLL) : EPs must promote the principles of lifelong learning,inordertofulfiltheneedsofindividualsbyincludingtheprovisionof income generating programmes, education for life skills development and education for social and community development.

Figure 1: General Model for EPs

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Level of NFE and its equivalency In the present context of Nepal, NFE can provide education on following levels:

Figure 2: Nepal Model for EPs

Learning resources

Besides the learning materials (textbooks, reading books etc. ) developed and produced in the form of self-instructional or do-it-yourself materials (with or without kits), there is a need for additional learning resources. These are reviewed below:

1. Teachers, tutors, and facilitatorsThe principle to be applied in out-of-school educational programmes in general, and in EPs in particular, is the effective incorporation of any available and willing educated personnel, i. e. teachers (with teaching certificates), secondaryeducation graduates and university graduates as tutors (to be trained in relevant teaching methods), and learning facilitators or organizers. They must be trained in motivational techniques, programme management and teaching techniques. The

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goal should be to not only approaching the learner’s needs in a holistic way- taking into account cognitive, affective and psychomotoric abilities - but also to teach functional knowledge, relevant skills, and to foster the development of important mental attitudes. NGOs could have an important role in providing suitable personnel.

2. Facilities and equipmentThe principle to be applied here is the utilisation of any available facility, such as private homes, schools, mosques or churches, learning centres, commercial centres, learning group sites, etc. for the implementation of the EPs. The same principle applies to the provision of learning equipment, both traditional and modern, such as audio-visualaids,traditionalgamesandplays,laboratoryequipmentforscientificexperimentation and so on.

3. Testing instrumentsBecause there is the possibility of free entry and re-entry from in-school into out-of-school secondary education programmes and vice versa, there is a need to have some kind of tests for placement purposes. Besides that, there is a need for an assessment system to be used in order to identify the most appropriate learning processesforthelearners,bothintermsofthedifficultiesfacedandalsotheaspectsthat facilitate learning. For levels I and II of the EPs there should be standards equal to formal secondary education (grades 9 and 12) with the competencies they entail, and for this purpose the development and provision of standardised tests is highly important.

4. Individualised recordsAsmentionedabove,EPsshouldbeimplementedinaflexibleway.Thismeansontheonehandthateitherfinalexaminationmaybeheldforonesubjectatatime,orthat all subjects are tested at once. Therefore, there is a need to keep individualised records on learners’ progress. Such records are also important because the secondary education EPs may last from three to six years and cumulative records should be maintained.

5. Acceptance certificatesLevelIandLevelIIcertificatesofequivalencyshouldbeaccepted,eitherforenteringrelevant levels of secondary formal education, both general and vocational, or for entering the labour market. This aspect is necessary in boosting EPs in the country and in the movement towards the evolution of a learning society, and the concept of education for all and all for education.

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6. Learning centresLearning centres are an especially important resource in all types of continuing education but especially for EPs. They provide alternative venues for education, which make the offers more attractive for adult learners. As they are detached from the formal school system they can offer different activities and extended hours of teaching(includingschoolhours), therefore the learnersareable tobenefitfromflexible and innovativemethods.They provide focal points for awide range ofcommunity activities of which EPs may be one among many. Learning Centres may be sponsored by the government or NGOs.

3. 1. 5 Capacity buildingEPs provide a parallel system of education that requires a high level of competency fromallimplementingparties.TherequirementofflexibilityofEPsmakesmorespecific trainings and skills than those needed in formal education necessary.Achieving conformity between job requirements and staff capabilities is critical at all levels of EP management and for all types of jobs within a programme. Thus capacity building is vital for the success of any EP. Capacity building is a long-term process of enabling an individual or groups to develop, improve and strengthen knowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes in the performance of their roles, duties and responsibilities in their assigned work.Ithastobeacontinuingcollectiveeffort,participatory,regularandflexiblefor all EP practitioners involved. In addition to pre-service capacity building, opportunities to continuously enhance their knowledge, skills and competencies are to be systematically provided. The delivery and implementation of EPs call for the highest degree of quality assurance from both government programme holders and community-based implementing partners. The complexity of EP implementation, the diverse requirements for accreditation and equivalency, and the higher learning goals of learners are just a few of the major challenges that need to be considered when developing a strong capacity building programme. Initiating a new EP requires providing training that will equip the personnel with following skills:

• Education planners who will design and develop policy frameworks and delivery modalities of the EP;

• Curriculum developers whose orientation is focused on NFE, and who understand the goals of an EP;

• Instructional material developers who will produce learning materials that

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are practical, simple, easy to understand and responsive to the learning needs of diverse groups of learners;

• Government and implementing partners who will understand and accept thesignificanceoftheEPinrespondingtotheeducationalneedsofthosewho have traditionally been excluded and marginalised because of poverty, disability, gender and isolation;

• Implementing partners, from the government and the private sector, including staff and members of NGOs, Community Service Organisations (CSOs) and CLCs whose members will understand, internalise and implement quality delivery mechanisms;

• Adult facilitators/instructors who will be aware of their roles, functions and responsibilities in effectively discharging their diverse functions.

The Four Ds - Steps in EP capacity buildingThefirststepincapacitybuildinganddevelopmentistodeterminecapacityneeds.This starts with asking questions such as: “What is the current level of skills and competencies?” and “What ought to be done to ensure these are developed, improved and strengthened?” A four-step general approach to capacity building processes includes

1) Diagnose and determine capacity gaps and needs; 2) Designing Capacity Building and Development (CBD) programmes; 3) Delivery and conduct of capacity building activities;4) Discern and evaluate results.

3. 1. 6 Delivery mechanismsAs far as possible, efforts should be undertaken to integrate the motivating factors in the learning materials. One aspect is the way learning materials are written, for example in the form of modules, self-instructional, or the provision of do-it-yourself materials with or without kits, which facilitate the self-learning or autonomous learning progress of the learners. Another aspect, among others, might be the relevance of illustrations or (traditional) national songs that are used. Both the software and the management of EPs must be relevant and attractive. Like any other out-of-schooleducationalprogrammeEPsmustbeflexibleinnature,andshouldhelp the learners in employment and income-generation. As mentioned above, EPs

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should be a preparation for the labour market without closing the door for future studies.Therefore,thedeliverysystemsmustalsobeflexible,andthepossibilityofusing a combination of two to three delivery systems simultaneously should not be overlooked. 1. Thefirstandmostobvioustypeofadeliverysystemistheclassroomtype

setting or learning group approach, using various face-to-face teaching methods, including modern and traditional audio-visual aids. The contact sessions would not be as regular as in formal secondary education and would depend on the nature of the courses or subject matter taken and the available time of the learners. The classroom type or learning group delivery systemshouldbedesignedinaflexiblewayinordertosuittheneedsofboththe learners and the ‘volunteer’ teachers or tutors. This system should use methods relevant and appropriate to both the target group and to the purpose of the programmes.

2. The second type of delivery system is distance or correspondence learning, which should be combined with the learning group and the self-learning or autonomous learning approach. The software prepared for distance learning, either through basic textbooks, newspapers, magazines, or radio and television should encourage discussions in learning groups. The idea of learning together fosters mutual encouragement and mutual learning processes making learning moreeffective,efficientandproductive.

3. The third type of delivery system is the self-learning or autonomous learning delivery system. Even very highly motivated learners will not use this delivery system alone. Thus, as already elaborated above, this should be combined with learning groups or classroom type settings. Some of the learning materials may be studied individually, followed by tests in the learning groups or classroom-typesettingbeforeproceedingtothefinalexaminations(LevelI,thenLevelII of EPs, either general or vocational NFE) . Other curriculum contents may be studied directly in a learning group or class, followed by discussion after for instance listening to a radio or television broadcast. Curriculum contents related to relevant livelihood skills can be practised together in small learning groups.

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3. 1. 7 Resource mobilisation and financial managementThe successful implementation of a programme depends upon the allocated resources. Policy makers must ensure that there are no resource gaps in the conduct ofaprogrammeandthatresourcesaremaximisedforgreatestefficiency.

Types of resourcesResources can be of different types, including human, material, infrastructural and financialresources.Humanresourcesareamongthemostimportantresources.Theseinclude all those who undertake project activities, including teachers, facilitators, volunteers, assistants, auxiliary staff, CLC staff, management committees and others. Materials are another vital resource. It is essential that EP materials are of equal standard to those in formal schooling. Learners must be provided with high quality resources such as books, readers, workbooks, library books, and project work materials. Audio and video materials can enrich the learning process and its outcomes. The infrastructure of EPs includes buildings, rooms, furniture, and other physical aspects necessary for their implementation. It must be of comparable standard to formal schools. Financial resources are the backbone of any programme throughout the initiation and implementationstages.Withoutadequatefinances, it isdifficult to initiateaprogrammeandalackoffinancesforitsimplementationwillaffectthecontinuityand quality of the programme. Another important aspect for the success of programmes is intangible resources. These include the time contributed by persons associated with the programme who are not necessarily employed. In many countries, volunteers such as unemployed youth, retired persons and community persons willingly perform duties for the success of such educational programmes. These are valuable resources, which help to keep the programme running and close to the community.

Mobilising resourcesThe conduct of EPs may require the generation of additional resources. This can be achieved through undertaking collaborative and innovative activities that can lead to new projects and mobilise funding from donors. Resource generation could start with the creation of a possible list of donors. These may include trusts, charitable organisations, religious organisations, individuals and private sector companies. The process should begin with a concrete proposal and plan of action. A proposal

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needs to state the overall goal, objectives, activities to be carried out, target groups for which the activity is being undertaken, methodology of the activity, materials required, outcomes, and funds required for the completion of the activity. It is important that the person or organisation addressed should be able to clearly see the necessity and usefulness of the project from their own perspective in order to win them as a partner. The element of sincerity and honesty needs to be stressed. Transparency in the use of funds will raise the credibility of the project.

In addition, EP activities and/or fundraising events could take place around celebrations such as the National Day or on international days such as the International Literacy Day.

Resources can be generated through:

• Theincreaseoffinancialsupportwithinthenationalbudget;

• Theimprovementoffinancialsupportonprovince,districtandvillagelevel;

• TheraisingofthelevelofsocialparticipationinEPfinancing;

• Theincreaseoffinancialsupportfromtheprivatesector;

• The design of programmes for individuals charging tuition fee from learners.

Managing resourcesThe management of resources means the efficient and effective deploymentof resources for the achievement of set objectives. This requires planning and knowledge about which material and human resources are needed, how much money is required and what time is available for carrying out activities. The resources have to be organised, directed and used judiciously to ensure there is no wastage. In EPs there is often a considerable sharing of resources with other systems of education. In India, formal school buildings are utilised. Therefore, programmes must be planned to ensure there are no clashes in schedules and that both sectors can use the same resource effectively. Furthermore, planning actors of EPs should pay attention to resource leveling. This technique aims at identifying people and/or resources, which are not operating to their full capacities within an organisation and to place them strategicallyin order to make the programme more effective.

Financial management Basic EP funds are usually allocated for: Providing teaching materials and tools, writing modules and providing stationery including development and printing of

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materials, providing materials for practice and tools for skills education, paying the honorariums/fees of tutors, administrators and other implementing actors, training of tutors and administrators, evaluation and testing, the provision of scholarships to exceptional learners, financial aid for economically disadvantaged learners,vocational and life skills training, maintenance of facilities and data management. EPs are run by the government but most of them have a strong community basis, and the implementation of the programmes is closely observed by the community. Finances need careful management. In most countries, budgets are allocated by the government and may be smaller than the budget for formal education. Thus, EPmanagershavetotakecarefuldecisionswithregardstofinancialmanagement.It involves on the one hand the planning of income and expenditure related to the activities, on the other hand the responsibility to ensure the sustainability of the programmesothatthesetgoalscanbefulfilled.Financialmattersincludeplanningand budget design, accounting, analysis and decision-making. Accountability is an important aspect of financial management. It has to bedemonstrated that funds are spent appropriately and that all transactions are transparent and legal. Financial analysis should be carried out on a continuous basis at village, district and state level and information should be accessible across levels. Like this it becomes possible to create a monitoring cycle to check if the programme develops according to plan and funds are being used judiciously.

Sectorswithresponsibilityforimprovementanddevelopmentoffinancialresourcescan include:

• Directorate General/EP Directorate

• Regional centre of Non-Formal Education

• Provincial centre of Non-Formal Education

• District Centre of Non-Formal Education

• Block level

• Village levelFinancialanalysisisapre-requisitetofinancialdecision-makingasitwillrevealpotential under- or over-spendings, leading to corrective measures or new decisions. ManyEPsintheAsia-Pacificregionareconductedwithfundsfromthenationalbudget and supplemented with funds from state budgets. After decentralisation

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legislation was passed in Indonesia, EP budgets were shared by central and provincial governments. Decisions about the use of funds are on the side of the state government.AnothersignificantsourceforEPfundsisthecommunity,especiallyparents and learners.

3. 1. 8 Accreditation, certification, learning assessment and evaluationAccreditationAccreditation is at the core of EPs. Accreditation is a system of certifying or crediting competencies (KAS) gained in different educational channels, thus facilitating flexibleentryandre-entrytoallrespectivechannels.Memberstateshavevaryingsystems of accreditation. Competencies are awarded with corresponding credit(s) in a particular educational stream. The decision, which competencies or experiences to award with credit(s), and with howmany,may be taken based onthe finding of variousmethods such astesting/examination and the assessment of completed projects. There is usually an accrediting body, which sets the standards for the recognition of skills and bridges learning systems to the labour market. However, in some countries the accreditation system may have to be expanded to include various alternative learning systems. AccreditationundertheNFEA&Esystemisoftwotypes:1)certificationofthelearning outcomes of an individual and 2) accreditation of learning programmes. Thecertificationofalearner’slearningoutcomesconsistsofin-programmepost-learning assessment of the skills acquired, as well as equivalency testing and certification.Post-learningassessmentincludestheuseofnon-formalassessmentmethodologies such EPs for promoting lifelong learning as portfolio assessment as well as pre- and post-module and other forms of assessment. Equivalency testing uses testing instruments based on the A&E curriculum framework and learning materials for two levels of certification, which are considered as qualificationcomparable to the formal education system. Equivalency testing should be administered by the NFEC and be designed in accordance to the test administration guidelines. Successful NFE A&E candidates willbeissuedcertificatessignedbytheNFEC.Learners can select from three types of study methods: distance learning, classroom type learning, and self-study. The credits earned through one type of study method

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can be transferred to the others. However, the evaluations for each type of learning may be different, which in turn may affect standardisation in measuring learners’ achievements. The NFEC should develop evaluation tools to ensure the maintenance of quality and standards of the NFE programmes. Through the accreditation of learning programmes, institutions/agencies/organisations offering NFE programmes are formally recognised and authorised to conduct the latter. It involves institutional collaboration with partnering NFE agencies to facilitate the implementation of programmes, the formulation of national standards and summative evaluation to ensure quality control of A&E-related NFE programmes, which are offered by independent NFE service providers. Before a learner reaches the accreditation stage, she/he has to pass the NFE A&E system’s multiple levels to achieve the set learning goals:

STEP 1: Enrolment, screening and orientation

STEP 2: Learning process

STEP 3: Assessment, equivalency and graduation

Guidelines for developing accreditation tests should take into consideration the following main ideas:1. In EPs, emphasis is put on preparation for the labour market, by relating it with

income-generating and employment-generating schemes, instead of on the so-called academic or intellectual aspects. Nevertheless, the learners who want to continue for further study must be given the chance to do so.

2. An optimistic view of education should guide the preparation of accreditation tests. A motivated learner should be given the chance to catch up after lagging behind thus tests must aim at assessing not only the learners’knowledge, but also their motivation to learn. While accreditation has its value in terms of providing wider access to recognised education by crediting competencies gained outside the formal system, there are issues that may have to be addressed such as:

• What are the limits of accreditation, if any? What proportion of accreditation should be allowed?

• How can achievements, accomplished in various settings, be compared

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and credited?

• Should there be just one national accrediting body, should accreditation be institution-based or should it be a mixed approach?

• Who will set the standards and how should the standards be set for accreditingEPs?

• What measures have to be taken to protect the system from abuse?The ideal situation to aim for is to award maximum credits for all types of achievements: For cross accreditation between formal and non-formal courses, for life experience, between government and non-government programmes, as well as for individualised project work and for work experience. CertificationBycertificationismeanttheawardwhichcertifiesthat therespectiveholderhasattainedacertainstandardorlevelofeducation.Tobeofvalue,suchcertificatesmust be widely recognised and accepted by educational agencies and individuals. In that context, certification may be carried out according to the specific typeof completedEP. It can be categorised into at least four types of certificates asdescribed below:Formal secondary certificateIn this category, the learners of NFE programmes use the curriculum of formal education for studying and take the school examination set by the formal school system together with learners from formal education at the end of the term or year. National examination certificationIn this category, the non-formal secondary education may or may not use the curriculum of the formal secondary education. The examination will be conducted by an independent National Education Examination Centre. Anyone who passes theexaminationwillbeawardedwiththecertificateaccordingtodefinedcriteria.Candidates from both the formal or non-formal education system are allowed to take the examinations. NFE curriculum—formal examination certificateIn this category, learners follow a NFE curriculum, but will still sit at the end of the term or year for the examinations of the formal education system. Under this category, it should be made sure that the curricula of both non-formal and formal education are not too different, as otherwise it will be unlikely for the non-formal candidates to succeed.

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NFE Curriculum—NFE examination certificateIn this category, the NFEC develops its own curriculum and learners will sit for tests/examinationdevelopedbytheNFECitself.However,thecertificatesshouldbe equivalent to the formal education system at certain levels, thus that they are recognised beyond the NFE sector. Learning assessment and evaluationAs in any education programme, the system of evaluation is based on the objectives set in the curriculum. For EPs evaluation and teachers may evaluate according to the following scheme:

Figure 3: A scheme for evaluation of non-formal equivalency

Philosophy of Education E P Curriculum

Objectives--------------------------------------- Curriculum objectives- Group of subject objectives- Subject objectives- Behavioural objectives

Preparation for the labour market and

for further study.

Tobeabletoworkefficiently,effectively

and productively

Setting up Lesson plan---------------------------------------- Expected behaviour- Teaching methods- Teaching materials- Teaching services

Cognitive, affective and psycho – motordomains - - the whole person. Practical down-to-earth methods of teaching. Do - it – yourself learning materials andPersonal, individual guidance

Checking of behaviorBefore enrolment

Entrance examination - - the will to learn

Evaluation in accordancewith the objectives

Summative and formative evaluationrelevant to real-life situation,

self-evaluation

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Theschemelaidoutinfigure6.1focusesmainlyonshort–termissues–particularlyon the achievement of course objectives. While this is the main role of day-to-day evaluation, broader longer-term aspects such as the continued functionality of the programme as a whole and its relationship with the programmes for which it is an alternative need to be addressed as well. The process of evaluating such aspects is complex and involves an analysis of policiesas well as an investigation of national educational aspirations and needs. Assessment and evaluation is vital to ensure that EPs, with regards to their quality, are seen as equal to formal education by government, institutions of higher learning, the market, industry and society at large.

Learning assessmentLearning assessment is a process and a tool to obtain learner achievement. Its main purposeistoassessoutcomesachievedagainststatedobjectives,whichwillbenefitboth learners and teachers. On a daily basis, facilitators measure learners’ status in terms of knowledge, attitude and skills after a lesson or series of lessons. They can conduct such assessments through quizzes, tests, exercises, demonstrations, performances or assignments such as project work or report writing. There are two types of assessment: formative assessment and summative assessment. Formative assessment is the process of giving feedback to the learner. It is carried out during the course of studying and the frequency is prescribed by the curriculum. The assessments may take place in the form of tests on a weekly, monthly, term or yearly basis. Formative assessment may furthermore be conducted in the form of an individual assessment, as for example self-check exercises within modules. Learners may also be assigned with project work or portfolio development so that their individual capabilities can be easily assessed. In some countries, facilitators conduct a formal test after each lesson. At the end of asemesterorterm,thelearnershavetopassafinalexamination.Scoresfromthecontinuousandfinaltestsarethencombinedintooverallresultsoftheassessment.In other countries, facilitators provide a formal test after each lesson, a midterm test andafinalexam.Thefinalscoreisthecombinationoftheresults.Summative assessment takes place at the end of a course and it assesses the learners’ performance against set criteria. In some countries, a public examination takes place todetermine thefinalgrades.Learnersare required topassanational testbefore being admitted to a higher level. In most cases the assessment is conducted byanauthorisedbodyandcertificateswillbeawardedtolearnerswhocompletedsuccessfully the examination.

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Learning evaluationEvaluation is a broader concept and refers to the worth of a performance. It is the process of determining the merit, or value of something or the product of that process. It is a means for obtaining information and using it to form judgments of value, which in turn can be used for decision-making. In the educational system, a teacher evaluates learners with the aim of helping them to improve their performance. Formal evaluation refers to conventional methods of evaluation carried out under rigid conditions. It is a planned and highly structured process, in which all aspects of conducting the evaluation are pre-determined. Timing, mode of conduct and tools of measurement are planned and communicated well in advance. This mode of evaluation is usually applied in the formal education system in the form of standardised tests conducted in the classroom at pre-decided frequencies or through a public examination. Informalevaluationismoreflexibleandcontextualandcanbeappliedwheneverneeded. It ismore suitable toNFE andEPs as it allowsmore flexibility in theevaluation process, methods and frequency. Informal evaluation is based upon judgments that are not pre-decided, planned or deliberate. The evaluation is generallybaseduponobservation,reflectionorexperiences.It isanunstructuredform with varying patterns that are based upon the situation and the content that is supposed to be tested. Informal evaluation is a means to get feedback without causing examination stress and anxiety forlearners. Such an evaluation can be used in combination with formal evaluations.

Instruments of learning assessment and evaluationLearning achievements can be assessed and evaluated either internally or externally. Internal evaluation implies that it is the teacher who evaluates the learners. In an internal evaluation, the teacher is familiar with the teaching-learning experiences that the learners have undergone and will design the questions as well as evaluate the answers of the learners. An internal evaluation may be a class test, a portfolio assignment, project work, etc. External evaluation is an evaluation carried out by a person or agency other than the teacher. This may be in the form of a public examination or an external teacher designing and conducting examinations. Internal and external evaluation may be combined. For example, a questionnaire may be designed by an external agency and the evaluation carried out internally by a teacher. In the formal education system of India, this combined assessment is carried out as part of Continuous and

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Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) . For both forms of evaluations, the following forms of learning assessments and evaluations can be employed. Especially in formal education, in both compulsory and elective courses, it is mostly the teacher determining the behavioural objectives, materials, and the methods of teaching. She/he then will assess the learning outcomes measured against the set objectives. This is shown in the following scheme:

Behavioural Objectives

Lesson Plan

Method of Teaching and

Teaching action

Evaluation Instruments

Teacher

In EPs, however, it is more common to use non-formal approaches. In case it is an educational programme for an adult target group, all aspects of the learning process should be jointly decided by the teacher/tutor and the learners. The method of self-evaluation by the learners should be included. Broader aspects of evaluation, such as evaluating the role, purpose and effectiveness of the course as a whole require more complex procedures such as document analysis, observation, checklists, interviews and social surveys.

Pen and paper assessmentThe most common system of assessment at all levels is the standardised pen and paper test. The types of questions will either be multiple-choice or require short answers, or free responses/the composition of an essay text.

Alternative and authentic assessment/performance-based assessmentThis form of assessment is based on the philosophy that evaluation should not be limitedtofinaloutcomesbutshouldalsofocusonprecedingprocesses,asthiswillproducequalitativefindingsconcernedwiththelearners’performanceinagiven

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situation. This type of assessment is valuable in the formative/constructive phase of the teaching-learning process. Thus, in alternative assessments, learners are evaluated based upon their active performance which could be in the form of oral presentations, open-ended or hands-on problem solving, real-world simulations and other authentic tasks. A performance-based assessment may be in the form of performances, portfolios, and conduction of projects. Performances demand the demonstration of the ability to use particular skills while solving a given task. This includes technical skills as well as artistic accomplishments. Examples of such skills are design, drawing, artwork, dance, music, sculpture, carpentry, repair-work, photography and others. A portfolio is a collection of documents that allows a learner to narrate the story of her/his work. It could comprise artwork, reports, case studies, photographs, external or peer reviews, letters, observations, etc. A project, such as a detailed study on a particular topic – potentially including models, collections and inventions, is another means of demonstrating one’s performance. The importance of performance-based evaluationsliesinthefactthattheyallowlearnerstoreflectupontheirachievements.They can discuss and explain their work with their teachers and peers, creating thereby a dialogue and active participation in the process of development and evaluation. This type of evaluation allows space for individual expression and broadening of the learner’s mind-set.

ExaminationsExaminations can be described as the process of collecting evidence about a learner’s improvement. It is a technique or data gathering device. It involves planning, construction of tools, conduct administration, scoring of scripts, processingofscorestoreceiveafinalresult,etc.TheconductofexaminationsforEPs is based on cooperation between formal and non-formal education systems. In many countries, EPs utilise the infrastructure of the formal school system, in order to avoid duplication of state resources. It is common to share human resources by involving formal school teachers with regards to on-going evaluations, minor tests and the monitoring of EP examinations.

Criteria for examinationsThe credibility of the certifying agency is very important for the overall credibility andimageofEPs.Therefore,itisalwaysthegovernmentconductingthecertification.InIndonesia,certificationisprovidedbytheNationalAssessmentCentre,OfficeofResearch and Development, Department of National Education. The same agency

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develops the tests for both formal and non-formal education (Packet) courses. In Thailand,itistheOfficeofNon-FormalandInformalEducation(ONIE);inthePhilippines, the DoE. In India, the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) is therecognisednationallevelexaminationboard,thoughsomepartsofcertificationis also carried out by state governments. Equivalency of the certificates to allow credit transfers both to formal schoolsand the labour market is one of the most important aspects of EPs. It ensures that EPlearnerspossessaqualificationofthesamerankaslearnerswithintheformaleducation system. Only when the equivalency of the two systems is accepted socially, especially by stakeholders of the labour market, the chances of the graduates of both systems will becomecomparable. At present, EP learners are not treated equally even though according to the law formal education and EPs have the same status. Countries have to ensure that there is a change not just in legal provisions but also in the mind-set of citizens. Linkageswiththelabourmarketinordertoensuretherecognitionofcertificatesareanother critical aspect. EPs are offered in vocational education in many countries and are essential for the improvement of livelihoods. For the industry sector and employmentbodiesitisvitalthatcurriculaareequivalentandthatthereissufficienthands-ontraininginordertoaccepttheEPcertification.Testsshouldincludenotjust theoretical knowledge but also psycho-motor skills and attitudes. Thus, NFEC will determine examination schedules. The evaluation process will have twocomponents,writtenandoral.Gradeswillbeawardedandcertificateswill be given only when the learner completes the required number of subjects. The examination may be conducted in Nepali, English or the respective local language. The administration of the examination will be conducted in close collaboration with the formalschoolsystemand theNFEprogrammecertificatewillbe recognisedbytheMoEofNepal.Asaresultofthiscertificate,youngerlearnerswillgetthechance to be admitted to the formal school system or obtain income-generating employment.

3. 1. 9 Community participation, networking and partnershipThe English Dictionary tells us that to “govern” means to rule, to control or to manage. NGOs are institutions that aim at improving the living conditions of the population. They are obliged to follow the rules and to accept the control of the government of the country they are operating in, but are not managed by these. Governmental organisations and NGOs must cooperate while implementing

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national, provincial, and local development projects in all spheres of life, in order to achieve an improvement of living standards. It is counterproductive if governmental and non-governmental actors perceive each other as competitors. The goal should be to work towards a common goal or ideal, i. e. a prosperous and just society. EPs in continuing education are the concern of both government and NGOs. Therefore, both parties should be actively involved in planning and designing the programmes in order to achieve a successful implementation. In EPs the relationship is especially important because of the need to include “on the job” training and other aspects of experiential learning. The success of EPs at the grass-root level will depend on the participation of communities and on whether communities feel a sense of ownership of the programme. Community participation and its importanceCommunity participation allows local people to take part in decisions that will have an effect on their lives. These decisions could relate to education, health, environment, livelihoods or other aspects of life. Community participation ensures that social and economic interventions are based upon the real needs of the community and its development challenges. The community can encourage the active participation of various agencies and the full participation of community members. Furthermore, it caninfluencetheoutcomesofaprogrammeaswellasmonitorandevaluatethem.The community has a vital role to play in implementing EPs. It is essential to advocate for EPs so that children, out-of-school youth, people with disabilities, adultsandotherswhowanttocontinuetheireducationwillbeabletobenefitfromthe programmes. In many cases, girls and women make up the majority of EP participants.Incasesocialandreligiousrestrictionsmakeitdifficultforwomentojoin education programmes, social motivation and advocacy by the community is one of the core tools to grant them an easier access. Community participation also contributes to the creation of a bridge between parents who may lack skills, knowledge and resources to interact effectively with teachers and facilitators. Community coordination councils, parents associations, and mothers clubs are all potential important supporters of education for out-of-school youths. Through cooperative organising, parents can become effective advocates for improved standards and provisions. They can work to support EPs, monitor learning progress and achievements. Finally, community participation recognises that local people are able to provide insights and knowledge that are not available to external decision makers.

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Types of community participationCommunity participation can take place in different forms:

a) Passive participation: People participate by observing what is going to happen or has already happened.

b) Participation in providing information: People participate by answering questions to researchers who use methods such as questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. However, such participation can be useful only if the communityislaterprovidedanopportunitytoreflectuponthefindingsoftheresearch.

c) Participation by consultation: People participate by being consulted by external people who will listen to and document their views. These external professionalsdefineboththeproblemsandsolutionsandmaymodifythemin the light of people’sresponses.

d) Participation for material incentives: People participate by providing resources, for example, labour in return for food, cash or other material incentives.

e) Functional participation: People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project that can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organisation.

f) Interactive participation: People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of new ones. Different methodologies are often used to elicit multiple perspectives and make use of systematic and structured learning processes.

g) Self-mobilisation: People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Community participation recognises that local people are able to provide insights and knowledge that are not available to external decision makers.

Enabling and disabling factors for community participationThere are a number of factors that can enable active community participation. Main enabling factors are:

• Openness and cordial relations among sectors;

• Positive cultural environment;

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• Establishment of appropriate structures;

• Willingness of the NGOs to cooperate with governments.

On the other hand, communities could be demotivated through the following factors:

• Mutual suspicion and mistrust;

• Traditional politics;

• Rivalry between sectors;

• Non-institutionalisation of programmes and projects. Community participation and EPsEPs are sometimes implemented through CLCs, which are focal points for activities such as:

• Providing EPs, vocational skill training, early childhood education and functional literacy programmes;

• Providing a space for community activities like festivals, awareness and health promotion programmes;

• Providing consultants to solve community problems. CLC activists and volunteers can help the community in community problems by providing understanding, training and consultation.

Community contributions in the operation of CLC activities relating to EPs can include:

• Providing support for development of local learning materials in the form of printed, audio and visual materials;

• Identifying and providing facilitators/tutors as volunteers, being involved in monitoring and supervision;

• Recommending local representatives to be a part of the CLC committee, and facilitating CLCs with locations and funds/grants to support the CLC’s operational activities.

EPs rely on a healthy working relationship between the government and the community. This is achieved when community members are in regular contact with government representatives and are constantly involved in decision-making related to their village. For EPs, such involvement includes decision-making on

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identificationofcourses,implementationandmonitoring.It is vital for government to understand that the success of an EP lies in making use of local insights and the willingness of the community to run the programme. The sharing of responsibilities between government and community is essential for a sustainable programme. The community can be encouraged to become an equal partner of the programme and both parties share responsibilities to obtain better outcomes. Achieving community support

Community support for EPs can be achieved through the following approaches:

• Advocacy and social mobilisation before the start of the programme;

• Selflessmotivation,strongconvincingpowerandpatience;

• Ability to accept suggestions, recognition of the efforts of persons whose efforts increase community participation;

• Identificationandpresentationofprevioussuccessfulexamples;

• Transparencyofbudgetaryrequirementsandfinancialaccountability.Networking and partnership buildingNetworking means developing linkages among stakeholders: the community, government agencies, non-government organisations, local government units, donor agencies and others. Networking facilitates the interaction between experts in different areas and promotes the sharing of ideas, information and resources. In many countries the EP model is based upon networking and partnerships to ensure the effective sharing of resources and reduction of infrastructural costs. Networking begins with identifying relevant stakeholders, organisations and agencies for collaboration. It is important to be familiar with the programmes and activities of other organisations and agencies working on related issues in communities. In India, the OBE programme is run with the help of NGOs working in basic education. The NGOs have their own infrastructure as well as teachers and have a close relationship with the local community. Learners are taught by localteachersbutarecertifiedthroughajointmechanismestablishedbetweentheNGOs and the National Institute of Open Schooling. In Indonesia, the Equivalency Education Programme tries to leverage the capability of different communities to provide education services to disadvantaged groups in society. Communities are empowered to carry out grassroots NFE services, while the government acts as facilitator.

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Key aspects to strengthen any networks and partnerships include:

• Take note of the goals and objectives of the possible partner agencies and relate them to the goals and objectives of the communities;

• Clarify the roles and functions of each agency/person involved;

• Set a common purpose/goal that all the agencies/persons can understand and relate to;

• Maintain the network through regular formal/non-formal communication and meetings;

• Be ready to participate in the agencies’ other activities when necessary in order to create mutual support instead of solely expecting the partner’s involvement in your own projects/activities.

Networking tips for field workersIfaCLCisthevenueforEPactivities,volunteersandfieldworkersmustinteractnotjust with learners but also NGO representatives, partner organisations, members of various committees etc. Some actions for successful introductions and networking are as below:

• Prepare the necessary documents as well as yourself for presentation to stakeholders;

• Stakeholders are always potentially your co-partners, therefore it is important to show courtesy and respect;

• Present your case self-confidently to the stakeholders and speak briefly andclearly;

• Accept other people’s opinions and ideas open-mindedly;

• Be attentive to issues and concerns;

• Record all agreements made. Areas of networking and partnership buildingTheflexibilityofEPmakesitpossibletoofferarangeofcoursesfordiversegroupsof society. A strong EP can be built at the local level through consultations with partners and by making use of available expertise in the area. Partnerships can be fostered through:

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• Development of courses, especially skills development courses based on local needs, possibly involving local business people for internship programmes;

• Engagement of relevant stakeholders for developing special programmes: Experts from industry, education, other sectors can be invited to interact with learners;

• Training programmes;

• Sharing of infrastructure such as community halls and playgrounds;

• Monitoring: The involvement of village elders and community leaders in overseeing the programme;

• Examination and certification: Approaching government agencies for thecertificationofthecourses;

• Sponsorships and awards: Enhancing and maintaining learner motivation through competitions and games, which can be judged and awarded through prices by sponsors;

• Advocacy: Updating local media about development of programme;

• Research: Feedback studies conducted by external agencies in order to receive an independent review of the programme.

3. 1. 10 Monitoring, evaluation and accreditationMonitoring and evaluation is vital to ensure that EP goals and objectives are being met. EPs comprise many different components, including organisational structure, delivery systems, curriculum planning, materials development, examination and certification. Other aspects include the role of the government and communityleaders, budget allocations, human resources, and infrastructure. Monitoring and evaluation provides data and information that helps to determine the achievement level of all these aspects, and to identify any problems or obstacles. Every country must design its own monitoring and evaluation systems based upon the goals of its EP. Monitoring and evaluation in the context of EPsMonitoring is the process of systematic observing, collecting, processing and analysing data, as well as examining the condition of a programme from beginning to end. The monitoring of EPs involves:

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• Collecting data and information about different aspects of the EP to identify problems in the design and implementation of the programme;

• Making suggestions for improvement and successful completion of the programme.

Evaluation is the measurement of an activity’s impact against its goals and objectives with regard to determining whether and how these have been achieved. The evaluation of EPs involves:

• Measuring the level of achievement in implementation against the EP goals;

• Measuring learners’ competency level with regard to achieving equivalent education;

• Providing technical guidance, supervision and administration to institutions conducting EPs;

• Providing feedback to the government in order to achieve the set programme targets;

• Assessing the benefit of instruments, infrastructure, equipment, learningmaterials and human resources involved in the conduct of EPs;

• Studyingthefinancialaspectsandtheirimpactupontheprogramme.Evaluation should also give appropriate guidance to the individual learner in order to assist her/him in improving the outcomes of learning. In NFE, evaluation should also take into consideration broader outcomes such as general vocational skills, societal knowledge and values, and the capacity to participate in community issues. As in all types of evaluation, attention should be given to both short-and long-term issues. In EPs short-term evaluation has to focus mainly on achieving immediate objectives while long-term evaluation should concentrate on matters such as the success of the programme to increase educational opportunities. A key concern of long-term evaluationshouldbe tofindout ifcertainEPsshouldbediscontinuedascoursealternativesorratherstrengthenedanddiversified.Another aspect that an evaluator has to take into accountis the specific need ofdecentralisation of EPs. While it is desirable, as in all types of education, to transfer responsibility for evaluation, such assignments must be carried out paying particular

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attentionto local responses not only within the programme itself, but also in the programme for which it is an alternative. In EPs it is especially important that the evaluation is in line with regulations and accreditation procedures. Organisers have to provide all necessary information to learners in order for them to understand what the evaluation is aiming to achieve andhowthefindingswillhelptoimproveindividuallearningoutcomes.“Lackofsuccess” will not be communicated as a failure anymore but rather as a learning experience. In the context of EPs, self-evaluation is essential, as most non-formal EPs stress self-paced autonomous learning.

The Management Information System (MIS) has the following purposes:

• To collect, store, analyse and disseminate information;

• To provide educational planners with an information basis for decision-making;

• To integrate databases into a system;

• To provide feedback to teachers, facilitators and teacher educators at different levels;

• To set norms for performance and achievement indicators;

• To set criteria for success and failure.

Target groups In order to ensure that EPs are successful it is necessary to obtain reports from different stakeholders including local people, grass-root organisations, the project team,partnersandothers.Eachgrouphasaspecificroletoperform,andtheoverallperformance of the EP depends on the quality of their work individually, as well as their cooperation and collaboration among each other. The key stakeholders are:

• The responsible government agency for EP policy making, implementation and funding;

• Department/Bureau/Directorate that supervises the EP;

• OfficialsinstudycentresthatconducttheEP;

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• Tutors, facilitators, instructional managers, supervisors at the study centre;

• Learners;

• Local community.

Scope

The scope of monitoring and evaluation for EPs is:

• To design a monitoring and evaluation mechanism;

• To develop a monitoring and evaluation guide;

• To monitor different aspects of the EPs and conduct regular evaluations;

• To develop instruments of monitoring and evaluation;

• To decide on place and time for monitoring and evaluation;

• To arrange the schedule of monitoring and evaluation;

• To analyse the results of the monitoring and evaluation undertaken;

• To report the impact of the monitoring and evaluation undertaken.

ModelsThere are various models for monitoring and evaluation that may be deployed as appropriate:

• Objective oriented model: Examination of the extent to which objectives havebeenachievedfocusingonspecifiedgoalsandobjectives;

• Management oriented model: Focus on identifying and meeting the needs of decision makers;

• Process oriented model: Aim to improve procedures in the classroom, the teaching-learning process, use of teaching-learning materials, classroom management, etc. ;

• Expertise oriented model: Focus on the professional development of teachers and facilitators;

• Participant oriented model: Focus on the involvement and participation of the respective target groups.

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MethodsMonitoring is a regular and continuous process. A baseline study should be established at the beginning, to which updated data can be compared. Monitoring methods may include:

• Sampling methods;

• Discussion methods;

• Time and place-based pattern of change;

• Analysing linkages and relationships;

• Ranking and prioritising. Each method has its own purpose, steps and application strategies. Sometimes two or more methods may be integrated, according to needs.

Here is a sample series of steps for monitoring and evaluation of an EP in a district:

1. Form a team for monitoring and evaluation;

2. Create a mandate letter for monitoring and evaluation;

3. Create a mission letter;

4. Check and contact the target district;

5. Prepare a set of tools;

6. Report to theeducationofficeabout the targetdistrictbeforestarting theexercise;

7. Meet with the EP stakeholders and seek the facilitation of the DEO;

8. Conductafieldtripandholddiscussionswithgroupsoflearners;

9. Collect data about academic and non-academic aspects of the EP;

10. Analyse the result of monitoring and evaluation activities;

11. Write a report on the implementation of the monitoring and evaluation activity.

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Indicators of an EP monitoring system

The indicators for monitoring an EP may include:

• Basic infrastructure and other facilities;

• Management and community support;

• Classroom environment;

• Curriculum and teaching-learning materials;

• Facilitator preparation;

• Classroom practices and process;

• Opportunity time (teaching-learning time) ;

• Learners assessment, monitoring and supervision;

• Involvement of government and non-government partners;

• Budgets stemming from national budget, local budget or individual funding.

3. 2 The EPs implementation processesThe implementation of the EPs should be carried out with the support of the government on national as well as district level, non-governmental organisations and communities. Separate organisational structures are necessary for the EPs. The tasks of the three levels of the overall infrastructure of EPs in continuing education are described below:

3. 2. 1 National level

The tasks at this level are:

a) Policy makingFor proper programme implementation, there should be governing policies and clear guidelinesregardingEPs,especiallywithregardstocertificationandaccreditation,financing, curriculum, linkages between formal and non-formal education andtraining of personnel. As mentioned earlier, the institution in charge of EPs at the national level should work in close co-ordination with existing accreditation, examination or testing boards or centres. This is because certification and

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accreditationareatthecoreofEPs.LearnersviewcertificationandaccreditationofNFE as an enabling means for social mobility and acceptance by the labour market. Formulation of policies on certification and accreditationmaybe guided by thefollowing aims of accreditation and equivalency:

• Maximising the socio-economic benefits for learners who have gainedknowledge from informal sources of knowledge such as their home, community, media, and other important aspects of life;

• According recognition of out-of-school education to make it equivalent to formal education in order to remove the social bias of NFE;

• Reducing the demand for formal education at least as it is presently constituted;

• Promotingflexibleentrytovariousalternativechannelsofeducation.The present system of accreditation and equivalency in some countries may have to be expanded, specifically at the secondary level, to include the potentiallyproductive age groups who will be contributors to the aspect of nation-building. Nationalpoliciesoncertificationandaccreditationshould:

• Define the standard of competencies appropriate for entering definedlevels and grades of education;

• Provide guidelines for the recognition of various alternative programmes;

• Establish appropriate accrediting bodies for EPs;• Establish an organisational infrastructure for EPs.

Some countries have a clearly stated policy “that education should be a lifelong process and should be implemented within as well as outside the school system”. With this as legal basis, a relatively strong non-formal (out-of school) education EPhasemergedinthesecountries.Afinalachievementtestisgiventothosewhocompletethecoursesandcertificatesareawarded.Insomecountries,thiscertificateis equal to that granted by the regular full-time formal education. This has yet to be realised in other countries. Clearer guidelines should also be formulated regarding curriculum development, personnel recruitment, selection and training and the linkage between formal and non-formal education channels.

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b) Planning

National level planning tasks include the following:

• Identificationofthetargetgroupsandsettingofannualenrolmentswithregards to their locality: Target groups are those who completed primary schooling but were unable to continue or who have dropped-out from the secondary level. It is necessary to assess their number, their place of living and their needs.

• Annual budget for target groups by programme and by locality: Financial resources have always been insufficient for EPs; hence there is theneed to include adequate provisions in the annual budget. The budget needed will depend on the teaching methods adopted, the length of the programme and the number of participants involved.

• Staff recruitment, assignment, training and support. These are subsumed under the management of the programme. Criteria for selection and assignment have to be made, and training and support provided.

c) Monitoring and evaluation

Atnational level,monitoring should be undertaken in order tofindout if plansare being implemented as scheduled while the main purpose of evaluation is to determine whether the programme has been successful in achieving its objectives. It is useful to carry out formative and summative forms of evaluation. Feedback from monitoring and evaluation should guide policy makers and implementing stakeholders in their decisions which next step to take, i. e. to improve, continue, or terminate the programme.

3. 2. 2 Provincial level

The regional or provincial level committee for EP should have the following functions:

• Interpreting and applying policies on EPs at provincial or regional level;

• Identifying categories of target groups and attend to their needs;

• Promoting, facilitating, accrediting, and coordinating delivery systems, programmes, activities and agencies for EPs throughout the province or

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region;

• Establishing and/or strengthening provincial or regional networks for EPs;

• Developing, adapting and distributing high quality teaching-learning materials;

• Monitoring and evaluating the impact of EPs at provincial/regional, district and local level;

• Conducting research and development in EPs;

• Preparing and submitting reports as needed.

Staff in charge of EPs at this level needs to be trained to be able to do the above mentioned tasks effectively.

3. 2. 3 District/local levelTasks at the district and local levels are:

a) Offering and providing access to EPs for target group

b) Establishing linkages/accreditation with other providers of EPson the ground

c) Coordination of work with stakeholders responsible for EPs on regional/provincial level

d) Evaluating local EPs

Training for staff at the district/local level is specifically important as EPs areimplemented at this level.

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3. 3 EP roles and responsibilitiesEquivalency Programme

Stakeholders Roles and Responsibilities

Government:* National

Highest level in the EP structure which reviews and approves policies, guidelines and framework in the operationalisation of the EP- Policy formulation and approval- EP management and development approval- Annual budgetary approval- Resource generation and allocation- Programme development implementation plans- Resolution of major problems and concerns- others

EP administration:* National* Regional* Provincial* Local

DirectlyundertheofficeoftheMinistryofEducation and within the NFE Department- EP development and management- Curriculum and instructional materials development- Prepare EP standards and policy guidelines- EP service contracting of implementing partners- Technical assistance to partners- Programme planning and implementation- Monitoring and evaluation- Financial management, audit and controls- Advocacy and social mobilisation- Technical reports and documentation-- Technical review and approval of project proposals- Capacity building for national EP personnel andimplementing partners

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EP implementing bodies

National and local governmental actors, private sector, CLCs, NGOs, CSOs, whose funding may be covered through grant agreements from government and ministries, international donor agencies, corporate grants, endowments, etc. - Project implementation: planning, organising, directing, monitoring and evaluation- Project proposal and technical writing- Development of project systems and procedures- Recruitment, selection, and training of project staff and facilitators- Capacity building of personnel and staff- Monitoring and evaluation- Reports and documentation- Instructional materials development, reproduction and distribution- Financial management and control- Resource generation and mobilisation- Partnership building and linkages- Advocacy and social mobilisation

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EP adult facilitators

Employed by public or private service providers in order to provide holistic support to learners in their respective groups / communities-Advocacy and social mobilisation-Recruitment and motivation of potential learners- Enrolment interview and assessment of prior learning-Identificationoflearner’slearninggoals- Conduction of learning group sessions- Supervision of self-learning activities- One-on-one tutorials- Conduct of guidance and counselling sessions- Class sessions/lesson planning- Learners’ assessment- Learners’ portfolio preparation and assessment- Home visits-Groupactivitiesandfieldtrips- Resource generation and mobilisation- Conduction of community-based assembly with parents and community leaders

In each country, EPs are based upon learner needs and existing available resources. Taking into account the importance of the implementation structure, decisions regarding the type of the structure must be taken at the highest level. The government has to decide how the entire programme will be implemented and delivered as well as agencies that will be involved in the delivery. In most countries with EPs, national, state and district/local levels of the respective government are actively involved. There is a close partnership between NGOs and community-based organisations in the delivery of programmes.

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Conclusion

The challenges arising from globalisation do not have the same impact in all countries, and appropriate counter measurements differ accordingly. Thus the focus of EPs for ensuring equivalency of NFE learning needs to respond to these challenges faced by the country and the local communities. People and systems must be fully prepared to adapt to future changes and trytobenefitbykeepingupwithglobalisation,buildingresilience,anddeveloping proper EPs to enhance the well-being of individuals and the society at large. It is therefore necessary for communities to examine their contexts and develop the appropriate planning and implementation of EPs, based on the above mentioned knowledge at various levels from organisations, communities, cities, regions, and at the country level. Besides that it is important for educators in the formal and non-formal sectors to cooperate and work closely to ensure standardisation and quality. The NFEC has gained the recognition and appreciation of the DoE and those of other agencies within the country of Nepal, as an equal partner of formal education. At this point of time, strong advocacy for awareness and consciousness raising, understanding, acceptance and concrete action has beenmade possible through the leadership of themost influentialgovernment unit responsible for education, the DoE through the NFEC. Some strategies for improving the quality of EPs are suggested below:Ensuring quality improvementIt is important to constantly aim for the improvement of the quality of existing and newprogrammes.An efficientmonitoring system thatis formative and process-oriented will help to improve the content and the teaching/learning methodology of such programmes, as well as the outcomes of learning.

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Ensuring quality assuranceIn order to improve the overall quality of EPs, standards have to be established in ordertoimprovetheprofessionalcapacitiesofeducationpersonnel,andanefficientand transparent assessment system has to be set up. Ensuring that livelihood issues are addressedAs EPs are meant to address the needs of marginalised communities and groups, it is essential to include and focus on livelihood issues in order to enhance the quality of life of individuals and communities. Ensuring community participationCommunity participation is key for triggering an overall improvement in the quality of the EPs. It is furthermore necessary for ensuring the continuity and sustainability of these programmes aswell as in order to set up an efficientMIS for greateraccountability and transparency.

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References

Non- Formal Education Center [NFEC] (2012) . Non – formal education curriculum, SanothimiBhaktapur: Author

NFEC (2012) . Literate Nepal Mission 2012-2015, SanothimiBhaktapur: AuthorNFEC (2011) . Flexible Schooling Programme, SanothimiBhaktapur: AuthorNFEC (2013) . Informal Open Education curriculum: Lower secondary level,

SanothimiBhaktapur: AuthorOECD (2010) . Recognising non– formal and informal learning: outcomes, policies

and practices, Author. UNESCO (2002) . Open and distance learning: Trends, policy, strategy

considerations. Paris: UNESCO, Division of Higher EducationUNESCO Kathmandu, (2008) . Consolidating National policies on equivalency

towards accomplishing universal primary education (UPE) . Series of monographs and working paper No 16.

UNESCO (2006) . Equivalency Programmes (EPs) for promoting lifelong learning, Asia-PacificProgrammeofEducationforAll:Bangkok.

Ministry of Education (MoE), (2007) . Nonformal education policy, BhaktpurThe Role of National Qualifications Systems in Promoting Lifelong Learning:

An OECD activity. Report from Thematic Group 1. The development and useof‘QualificationFrameworks’asameansofreformingandmanagingqualificationssystems(2005)

International Labour Organisation (2007) . An Introductory Guide to National Qualifications Frameworks: Conceptual and Practical Issues for PolicyMakers.InternationalLabourOffice:Geneva22,Switzerland

UNESCO (1993), A P P E A L training materials for continuing education personnel (ATLP-CE)Vol.III-EPs.UNESCORegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific:Bangkok

Dr. Mana Prasad Wagley and Dr. Shreeram Prasad Lamichhane (2008) . Consolidating National Policies on Equivalency towards Accomplishing UniversalPrimaryEducation(UPE).UNESCO:KathmanduOffice

CBS (2011), Statistic

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ACRONYMS

AAs accredited agenciesA&E Accreditation and Equivalency ALP Adult Literacy ProgrammeAPPEAL Asia-PacificProgrammeofEducationforAllASP Alternative Schooling ProgrammeASP Associated School Project BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee BS Bikram SambatCapEFA Capacity Development for Education for All CBOs Community Based OrganisationsCBS Central Bureau of StatisticsCAS Continuous Assessment System CDC Curriculum Development CentreCEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational TrainingCECs Continuing Education CentresCLC Community Learning CentreCTEVT Council for Technical Education and Vocational TrainingDEO DistrictEducationOfficeEFA Education for AllEP EPsFSP Flexible Schooling ProgrammeGON Government of NepalGRE Graduate Record ExaminationLCC Literacy Coordinating Council LINEM Literacy Nepal Mission MoE Ministry of EducationNCED National Centre for Education Development NFEC Non-Formal Education CentreNFE Non-Formal Education

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NFUAJ National Federation of UNESCO Associations of JapanNGO Non-GovernmentalOrganisationNIOS National Institute of Open SchoolingNQF NationalQualificationFrameworkNRC National Resource CenterOBE Open Basic Education ProgrammeOECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development ONFEC NFE Commission PLP Post Literacy ProgrammeRED Regional Education DirectorateSAT Scholastic Assessment TestSLC SchoolLeavingCertificateSOP School Outreach ProgrammeUNESCO UnitedNationEducational,Scientific,CulturalOrganisationVET Vocational Education and TrainingVET Vocational Education and TrainingWLP Women Literacy Programme

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Annex- 2Samples of the Equivalency Programmes Integrated Curriculum

1. The Basic Education EPs Content AreasTarget groups/Learners Structure

Curriculum/Content Areas

Children of 6-14 years age

Adult pf 15-60 years age HigherEducation

(University)

(Upper) Secondary Education

Lower Secondary Education

PrimaryEducation

UpperVocationalEducation

Work

Learning skills

Core Subjects

Vocational Subjects

Life skills

Social Development

Quality of life DevelopmentActivites (VoluntaryWorks)

---------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------

55

5 5

55

555

55

5

---------------------------------------------2. The NFE Vocational Education EPsTarget groups/Learners Structure

Curriculum/Content Areas

For workers in factories/companies to upgrade theirknowledge and skills

For learners who drop-out from

formal schools and vocationaland technical colleges

HigherEducation

(University)

An Upper Vocational Education(Certificate)

An Lower Vocational Education(Certificate)

(=Secondary education level)

Work

General subjectsVocational subjects

Elective subjects

ApprenticeshipEnrichment activites

---------------------------------------------

55

55555

55

5

5

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