A New Tradition of Neopagan Druidism1984 P. E. I. BonewitsReprinted from "The Druids' Progress" #1

As many of you may know (perhaps from reading my book "RealMagic" or Margot Adler's "Drawing Down the Moon"), I've been apriest of the Reformed Druids of North America ("RDNA") since1969. I've led groves (congregations) in Berkeley and Minneapo-lis, and founded others elsewhere; published newsletters (bothDruidic and general Neopagan); and wrote most of, edited andproduced "The Druid Chronicles Evolved", (the closest thing toofficial scriptures the RDNA has). I'm also a priest and elder ofthe Craft, and I've been a Neopagan magician and occultist fornearly twenty years.I've studied, practiced and written about many different formsof magic and religion over the years, yet always I find myselfgoing back to Druidism. Many people have written to me to tell ofsimilar spiritual histories, of their knowledge that they aremeant to walk a Druid path. Yet what can we, who wish to worshipand to grow as Neopagan Druids, do for fellowship? The MasonicDruids have much to teach us, yet they are not Neopagan. The"Druidic" traditions of Wicca are interesting, but they're notreally very Druidic. The members of the RDNA have no interest atall in being organized by anyone, nor in recruiting and trainingwould-be Neopagan Druids. There doesn't seem to be any organizedgroup of people trying to reconstruct what the Paleopagan Druidsactually believed and did, nor trying to apply such knowledge tocreating a Neopagan religion fit for the Space Age.What can we do? We can do it ourselves! Thanks to the work ofsuch scholars as Dumezil, Ross, Piggott, Duran and others, we nowhave a sizable amount of realistic data about Indo-EuropeanPaleopaganism and its clergy. But how do we apply this knowledgeto creating a modern Neopagan religion? What does it mean to be aDruid in the 1980's? Using accurate information as a startingpoint, how do we create rituals and fellowship, art and music,polytheologies and lifestyles that will give meaning to our livesand those of others?Well, of course, I have my own vision of Neopagan Druidism. Isee Druids as artists and intellectuals, magicians and clergy,holders of the highest wisdom their cultures (or subcultures)have to offer. This is what they used to be, and what (withsufficient hard work and dedication) they could be again. Anumber of people have told me that they share my vision andapprove of the ways in which I think it could be accomplished.So, after a great deal of soul-searching, I've decided to tryonce again to see what I can do to create a form of "reconstruc-tionist" Neopagan Druidism.

Theis is an announcement of, and an invitation for your parti-cipation in, the creation of: Ar nDraiocht Fein. The Irish words(pronounced "arn ree-ocht fane") mean "Our own Druidism," andthat's what I have in mind -- a brand new form of Druidism, notjust Pan-Celtic, but Pan-European. By this latter term, I mean toinclude all of the European branches of the Indo-European cultureand language tree -- Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Baltic, even thepre-Classical Greek & Roman. Paradoxically, this would resemblethe original Paleopagan Druidism far more than any efforts of thelast thousand years. It would be based on the best scholarlyresearch available, combined with what has been learned (aboutart, psychology, small group politics and economics) through thetheory and practice of modern Neopaganism, and my own knowledgeof the polytheological and practical details of magical andreligious phenomena.I've already started this project, through the organizing ofmy notes and the beginning of a new book. The purpose of "TheDruid Handbook" will be to enable anyone who has a copy to startup their own Druidic grove, or to practice as a solitary Druid.Everything necessary will be included: history, polytheology,liturgy, legal structures, art and music, calendars and customs,etc.ADF is an idea I have been wrestling with for years: a Neopa-gan Druid Order whose members would not be ashamed to honestlycompare themselves with the original Druids. This requires ma-ture, dedicated and talented people who are willing to investboth time and energy over a long period (remember, the originalDruids took up to twenty years each to be fully trained, and theyhad an intact tradition).At this point in the birthing process, details are in shortsupply, but the general outlines are becoming increasingly clear.I can at least give you some specific ideas as to what ArnDraiocht Fein will and won't be:ADF will be a Neopagan religion based on solid (but imagina-tive) scholarship in the fields of linguistics, Indo-Europeanstudies, comparative religion, archeology, anthropology, Celtic &Norse & Baltic & Slavic studies, history, musicology and polythe-ology. The scholars we will be basing our research on includeGeorges Dumezil, Mircea Eliade, Anne Ross, Stuart Piggott, G. S.Littleton, Marie-Louise Sjoestedt, Proinsias MacCana, MylesDillon, Nora Chadwick, etc. We will not be accepting LewisSpence, Margaret Murray, Robert Graves, Merlin Stone, H. P.Blavatsky or Iolo Morganwg as scholarly authorities (althoughsome of them may provide poetic inspiration now and then). If wehave to fill in gaps in our knowledge with our own imagination,spiritual visions and/or borrowings from non-IE sources, we willgo ahead and do so, but always in full awareness of what we are

doing (and with full documentation of the process).ADF will be developing a slow, careful and steady system oftraining for Druidic clergy, equivalent to that gone through byprofessional clergy in other religions. We will not be in anyhurry to initiate people (though we may create and publish self-dedication rituals for the first level of participation), sincean obsession with rank and titles is usually counterproductive toactual spiritual, artistic and scholarly growth. A correspondancecourse has been suggested and I'm willing to give it seriousconsideration, once we have the basics figured out.Although our primary focus will be on the beliefs and prac-tices of our Indo-European ancestors, and on how these can beadapted to modern circumstances, we will not tolerate racism ornonsense about "Aryan blood." The Indo-Europeans were a motleyassortment of tribes speaking related languages -- not a "race."All of our ancestors are of mixed blood, and most of the blackpeople in America have (however involuntarily) some Europeangenes. So anybody, regardless of their race or color, who issincerely interested in participating in ADF will be made wel-come. Similarly, the IE peoples are known to have had both maleand female clergy, and those tribes influenced by shamanisticpractices frequently had clergy who were ambiguous in theirgender identification. For these historical reasons, as well asthe fact that ADF is a Neopagan religion, we will not toleratesexism nor restrict membership or rank on the basis of gender oraffectional preferences. Having said all that, let me add that Ihave no intentions of letting extremists of any persuasion useADF for purposes not in keeping with our original goals.We will have a carefully structured hierarchy, based on actualskills and knowledge obtained and demonstrated, with both upwardand downward mobility. The training system will involve thesetting of specific standards in all the areas necessary forfunctioning at the different levels, and these standards will bepublished in the Handbook and widely disseminated throughout theNeopagan media, in order to prevent false claims of rank. Ourprimary approach is going to be the attainment not just of compe-tency, but of excellence. Democratic safeguards will be built in,but we do not expect everyone in ADF to be qualified for (or eveninterested in) attaining the rank of clergy. After all, theoriginal Druids were only a small percentage of their Paleopagancommunities, and not everyone has (or needs) a clerical vocation.Nor will rank in other Neopagan organizations guarantee equiva-lent rank in ADF, since we have no way of knowing what standardsother groups are using, nor how strictly enforced they are.The Ancient Druids were polytheists rather than mono- or duo-theists; so our main approach will be a pluralistic one. We arenot going to promote any One True Right and Only Way of Druidism,

merely whatever happens to work for us. This means, among otherthings, that we intend to maintain friendly relations with asmany other Druid organizations as possible, and will encourageour members to investigate these alternate Druid paths.We are going to take our time putting the whole system toget-her. Based on solid research and a knowledge of the mistakes madeby other Neopagan groups in the past, we can create somethingmagnificent. But like an oak tree, it will take time to becomestrong, and we have no intentions of trying to force its growth.Within two to three years we should get the primary seeds plant-ed. Then the results will be up to the individuals who have heardthe trees whispering in their ears, and who know that they aremeant to walk a Druid way.

CELTIC DRUIDISMHistory:Modern Druidism is one of the Neo-Pagan family of religions, which includes Wicca and recreations of Egyptian, Greek, Norse, Roman and other ancient Pagan religions. Druidism is a reconstruction of the beliefs and practices of the ancient Celtic priesthood-professional class. The ancient Druids performed the functions of modern day priests, teachers, ambassadors, astronomers, genealogists, musicians, theologians, poets and judges; they also were specialists in healing and divination. They underwent lengthy training: some sources say 20 years. Druids led all public rituals, which were normally held within fenced groves of sacred trees. Most appear to have been male; it is not known whether female Druids were considered equal to their male counterparts, or whether they were restricted to special responsibilities. Druidism and other Neo-Pagan religions are currently experiencing a rapid growth. Many people are attempting to rediscover their roots, their ancestral heritage. For many people in North America, their ancestors can be traced back to Celtic countries.Many academics believe that the ancestors of the Celts were the Proto-Indo European culture who lived near the Black Sea circa 4000 BCE. Some migrated in a South-Westerly direction to create the cultures of Thrace and Greece; others moved North-West to form the Baltic, Celtic, Germanic and Slavic cultures. Evidence of a Proto-Celtic Unetice or Urnfield culture has been found in what is now Slovakia circa 1000 BCE. This evolved into a group of loosely linked tribes which formed the Celtic culture circa 800 BCE. By 450 BCE they had expanded into Spain; by 400 BCE they were in Northern Italy, and by 270 BCE, they had migrated into Galatia (central Turkey). By 200 BCE, they had occupied the British Isles, Brittany, much of modern France, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland, North West Spain, and their isolated Galatia settlement in Turkey.Although the Celts had a written language, it was rarely used. Their religious and philosophical beliefs were preserved in an oral tradition. Little of their

early history remains. Most of our information comes from Greek and Roman writers, who may well have been heavily biased (the Celts invaded Rome in 390 BCE and Greece in 279 BCE). Other data comes from the codification (and modification) of Celtic myth cycles by Christian monks. The latter included the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle, the Cycle of Kings, the Invasion Races Cycle from Ireland, and The Mabinogion from Wales. Unfortunately, much Celtic history and religion has been lost or distorted by an overlay of Christianity.After the invasions by Rome, the Druids were converted to Christianity, through persuasion or genocide. The descendants of the Druids maintained Christian and ancient Roman and Greek knowledge intact while the rest of Europe descended into the Dark Ages. The Christian Church adsorbed much of Celtic religion: Pagan Gods and Goddesses became Christian saints; sacred springs and wells were preserved and associated with saints; many temple sites became the location of cathedrals. By the 7th Century CE, Druidism itself was destroyed or continued deeply underground throughout most of the formerly Celtic lands. There is some evidence that Pagan religion did survive in isolated areas of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania into the 20th Century.Myths about DruidsRitual Killing: Many historians believed that the ancient Druids performed human sacrifices. All of these references can be traced back to the writings of one individual, Julius Caesar. He may well have been prejudiced against the Celts because of their continual warfare with the Romans (in warfare, the enemy is routinely demonized). Some remains of executions have been found in the archeological record, but it is not obvious whether the victims were killed during religious rituals or to carry out the sentence of a court. There is one reference to human sacrifice in Celtic literature, but it appears to be a Christian forgery. The ancient Celts might have engaged in ritual killing; certainly other contemporary societies did. Modern Druids, of course, do not.Stonehenge, etc: Many people believe that the Druids constructed Stonehenge, the complex of standing stones in South Central England. Stonehenge I ("Old Stonehenge), which was composed of the 56 "Aubrey" holes, was constructed circa 3500 BCE. The current formation was completed circa 1500 BCE. This was almost a millennium before the start of Celtic civilization. It can be safely concluded that the Druids did not construct Stonehenge. However, they may well have performed rituals there, and understood its astronomical meanings and uses. But Celtic sacred spaces were normally associated with groves and streams; Stonehenge is in the middle of a plain.In Ireland and Great Britain, there are many ancient "Druid" altars, beds, rings, stones, stone circles and temples. However, radio-carbon analyses assign dates such as 1380 BCE (Wilsford Shaft) to 3330 BCE (Hembury). Again, ancient Druids may have used these megalithic monuments, but they did not build them.Ireland has countless wells and springs dedicated to the Christian Saint Bridget. She was obviously descendent from the Celtic Goddess Brigid; and

the sacred ownership of the site simply translated from Goddess Brigid to St. Bridget. Recently, St. Bridget has been de-canonized; it was determined that no such woman existed in Christendom. She was simply a copy of the Pagan Goddess.Celtic God Samhain: This non-existent God is often mentioned at Halloween time. He is supposed to be the Celtic God of the Dead. No such God existed. Samhain is, in reality, the name of a Druidic fire festival. It can be loosely translated as "end of the warm season".Monotheistic Druids: Some writers have promoted the concept that Druids were basically monotheistic, following a sort of pre-Christian belief system. There is essentially no evidence of this. Druids worshipped a pantheon of Gods and Goddesses.Beliefs and Practices:Beliefs and practices of the ancient Celts are being pieced together by modern Druids. Because so much information has been lost, this is not an easy task. Some findings are:Goddesses and Gods: The Celts did not form a single religious or political unity. They were organized into tribes spread across what is now several countries. As a result, of the 374 Celtic deities which have been found, over 300 occur only once in the archeological record; they are believed to be local deities. There is some evidence that their main pantheon of Gods and Goddesses might have totaled about 3 dozen - perhaps precisely 33 (a frequently occurring magical number in Celtic literature). Some of the more famous are: Arawn, Brigid, Cernunnos, Cerridwen, Danu, Herne, Lugh, Rhiannon and Taranis. Many Celtic deities were worshipped in triune (triple aspect) form. Triple Goddesses were often sisters.Afterlife: The dead were transported to the Otherworld by the God Bile (AKA Bel, Belenus). Life continued in this location much as it had before death. The Druids believed that the soul was immortal. After the person died in the Otherworld, their soul lives again in another human body. At every birth, the Celts mourned the death of a person in the Otherworld which made the new birth possible.Creation Myth: No Druidic creation story appears to have survived, although there are numerous accounts of the supernatural creation of islands, mountains, etc.Baptism: There is some evidence that the Celts had a baptism initiation ceremony similar to those found in Buddhist, Christian, Essene, Hindu, Islamic, and Jainist sacred texts. Other researchers dismiss baptism as a forgery by Christian scribes as they transferred Celtic material to written form.Divination: Druids used many techniques to foretell the future: meditation, study of the flight of birds, interpreting dreams, and interpreting the pattern of sticks thrown to the ground.Awen symbol: This is a symbol drawn in the form of three pillars, in which the outer two are sloped towards the center pillar, as in /|\. The symbol has been in use since the 17th century; it recalls the Druidic fascination with the number three.

Triskele symbol: This is an ancient Druidic symbol consisting of three curved branches, bent legs or arms radiating from the center of the symbol. The flag of the Isle of Man contains a triskele.Seasonal Days of Celebration:Druids, past and present, celebrate a series of fire-festivals, on the first of each of four months. Each would start at sunset and last for three days. Great bonfires would be built on the hilltops. Cattle would be driven between two bonfires to assure their fertility; couples would jump over a bonfire or run between two bonfires as well. The festivals are:Samhain (or Samhuinn) Literally the "end of warm season". November 1 marked the combined Feast of the Dead and New Year's Day for the Celtic calendar. It is a time when the veil between our reality and that of the Otherworld is most easily penetrated. This fire festival was later adopted by Christians as All Soul's Eve, and later became the secular holiday Halloween.Imbolc (or Brighid) Literally "in the belly". February 1 marked The Return of Light. This is the date when the first stirrings of life were noticeable and when the land might first be plowable. This has been secularized as Groundhog Day.Beltaine (or Bealteinne). May 1 was the celebration of The Fires of Bel. This was the peak of blossom season, when domesticated animals bear their young. This is still celebrated today as May Day. Youths dance around the May pole in what is obviously a reconstruction of an earlier fertility ritual.Lughnasad (or Lughnasadh, Lammas). August 1 was The Feast of Lugh, named after the God of Light. A time for celebration and the harvest. There were occasional references in ancient literature to:• the winter solstice, typically December 21, when the night is longest;• the spring equinox, typically March 21, when the day and night are equal;• the summer solstice, typically June 21, when the night is shortest;• the fall equinox, typically September 21, when day and night are equal.However, these do not appear to be major seasonal days of celebration for the ancient Druids.Modern Druidic Movements:Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD): There are two beliefs concerning the development of this group. One traces their origin to the Ancient Order of Druids (AOD) by Henry Hurle in England in 1781. This group repeatedly split due to internal dissension into many separate organizations. By 1918, there were five groups attempting to perform solstice ceremonies at Stonehenge; all were breakaway groups from the original Ancient Order of Druids. By 1955, all had disappeared except for the British Circle of Universal Bond which subsequently split in 1963 to form the OBOD. The other lineage is claimed by the OBOD who trace their ancestry back through the AOD to a group founded in England in 1717 by John Toland. He is said to have combined local groups of Druids (called groves) from a 10 locations into the Mother Grove. The OBOD's current address is: PO Box 1333, Lewes, East Sussex, England, BN7 3ZG.Email address: oaktreepress@e-world.com

Ar nDraiocht Fein: This can be loosely translated as "our own Druidism". Their name is pronounced "arn ree-ocht fane". It was founded by Archdruid Isaac Bonewitz, and emphasizes scholarly research, and " a blend of ancient practices and modern realities". His motto is "paganize mainstream religion by mainstreaming paganism". Their goal is to recreate a Pan-European Druidism, involving elements from Baltic, Celtic, Germanic Slavic and even pre-classical Greek and Roman beliefs. The ANF publishes a quarterly ADF journal, a bimonthly News from the Mother Grove, and a semi-yearly Druid's Progress. Their address is: PO box 516, East Syracuse, NY 13057-0516. Email address: kithoward@delphi.comBook References:P.E. Ellis, The Druids, W.B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids MI (1994)C. Chippindale, Stonehenge Complete, Thames & Hudson, New York (1994)P. Carr-Gomm, The Druid Tradition, Element, Rockport MA (1991)J. Bonwick, Irish Druids and Old Irish Religions, Dorsett Press (1986)R. Nichols, The Book of Druidry, Aquarium, London (1975)B. Raftery, Pagan Celtic Ireland, Thames & Hudson, New York (1994)Internet References:CATHBAD has prepared an information sheet: The Solitary Practitioner'sBasic Druidism FAQ at: http://www.reed.edu/~kday/druid.htmlThe Ar nDraiocht Fein has a lengthy home page at: http://justice.loyola.edu/~rmcilhar/text/adf.txtA mailing list which specializes in Druidism is described at: http://www.speakeasy.org/~mimir/nemeton.htmlA Pagan Resources Page lists many Druidic and other Neo-Pagan sites at: http://www.ssc.org/~athomps/pagan

Ric Carter

Druidic Philosophyby Chris TraversPart 1: IntroductionIn this paper, I intend to try to extract from the sources elements of druidic philosophy. This paper is based on my interpretation of the evidence and so is not infallible; the only way to know for sure is to learn Old Irish, build a time machine, and go talk to real druids. I hope, however, that it can shed light on Celtic myths, legends, and lore. At the same time, I hope that my interpretation can be relevant for today. We live in a world today very different from the world of Catbad and Medb, yet the philosophy of the druids may still be useful.We live in a world that does not recognize the l inks we have to nature, a world where people aren't actually conscious of the cow when they eat their favourite hamburger, a world where the urban environment has made us unaware of the vast wilderness that still surrounds us. As a result of this world, many people have joined what has been termed "counterculture." Yet,

counterculture is not the answer either, as many of these people whom I have known are no more aware of nature than the CEO of a large business.I believe the answer to this lies in our past. Through the study of the history of people, and especially of ideas, it is possible to gain a greater understanding, not only of where we are today, but also what we need to do to feel more at home in our world. Edred Thorsson has pointed out in A Book of Troth, that Norse Heathenism (Asatru) should not be an anachronistic religion, attempting to reconstruct some golden-age, but should be a religion which uses the past constructively to move into the future.I think that the same should hold true for the Celts as well, though I haven't seen the attitude as prevalent in the Celtic reconstructionist groups as I have in the Norse. Perhaps it will come, but it may take time. I have found that IMBAS seems to be an exception to this rule.Sources:I have divided up my sources into primary and secondary sources. The primary sources are used to form basic conclusions, while the secondary sources are used to further clarify points. The division is based on what I believe to be the trustworthiness of the sources, hence this subject deserves special attention. Among the Primary sources are the pieces of evidence that speak for themselves. Archaeological finds, myths and legends, and linguistics form the core of this group. The rational is that these sources are more or less unquestionable. When a statuette bearing the name "Lugus" is found in Gaul, we can say several things with certainty. We can say that Lugus was a Gaulish god (linguistically connected to Lug in Ireland), that this is an image we can attribute to him (archeology), that his name means "li ght" (linguistics), and that he was associated with a spear (mythology and archeology). In this way, it is possible to learn quite a bit about the Celts.The secondary sources also consist of several types of evidence. Among them are the opinions of scholars and antiquarians, folklore, the contemporary writings of the Greeks and Romans, and parallels with related cultures. These sources are not irrefutable, and so deserve caution in their usage. The problems of the various sources in this category deserve special attention, so I will devote special space to each one. Opinions of scholars and antiquarians pose a certain amount of difficulty in this study. In general they are grounded in the evidence to varying degrees, but they are also products of the authors' culture and time. For instance, T.W. Rolliston, writing in 1910, argues that agriculture was not valued by the Celts, as evidenced by the fact that women worked in the fields alongside the men.Other authors have speculated that women were excluded from the ranks of the druids or that Boudicca and Medb were no more than figureheads to their tribes. All of these examples are demonstrably false and were put forth by reputable scholars! In essence, each opinion is used only where it is supported by the primary evidence.The folklore poses a different sort of problem. The origins of a certain custom or belief are often difficult to determine. In Ireland, the waves of new-comers brought different attitudes and beliefs which were assimilated to

varying degrees over local ones. In addition, changing circumstances, such as the Famine, brought about shifts of attitudes as well. For instance, Se=E1n =F3 Tuathil makes = the statement that white symbolized barrenness to the ancient Irish, a statement heavily based on the folklore. However, it seems more likely that this association came about in the last century due to the intense cultivation of all the arable land, as seen in the sean nos song "The Rocks of Bawn," where Bawn is a corruption of the Gaelic "Ban" meaning white:Come all you loyal heroes, where ever you may be. Don't hire for any master til you know what your work will be. For you must rise up early from the clear daylight til the dawn, And I'mafraid you'll ne'er be able to plough the Rocks of Bawn.The song goes on to lament the back-breaking work of the deforested area (which,presumably, had eroded into white rocks).As to the Greek and Roman sources, they fall into the same trap as the antiquarians and scholars. The people writing them were strongly biased, as everybody is, and may not be the best objective source of lore, though they are important simply because they are contemporary. Though many of the writers, such as Tacitus, never traveled, they still compiled much lore which is important to the study of such a people. Lastly, comparative studies are valuable, but can be misleading. Cultural parallels can help us to clarify certain points, but cultures are distinct and different. It seems to be a flaw of many antiquarians to rely to heavily on these cultural comparisons, but they do have their place. The Celts were descended from the same culture as the Greeks, the Romans, the Persians, and the Norse, as is evidenced by linguistics.Parallels between the Celts and these people can be fruitful indeed if they are kept in perspective.There is another reason for using comparisons in this way. According to J. Romilly Alan, the Celts borrowed much of their material from the people they came into contact with, but they would always modify the material and make it something completely Celtic. Comparisons between the Celts and their neighbouring peoples can again be useful, but it must be kept in mind that the core philosophy was then applied to what was borrowed.Levels of Philosophy:It is also important to remember that religious and mystical philosophies exist on many levels. I intend to try to outline my approach to this problem here by formulating a map of these levels and illuminate them using the Younger Futhark rune "FEHU":1: The mundane. An idea exists as it is strictly relevant to the material realm. The rune's name here means "cow," and also money (our English word 'fee' is related to this name). Both these items were heavily important to the Norse.2: Metaphorical. An idea exists as an abstract set of metaphors relating to the symbol on question. The Old Norwegian Rune Rhyme states that "FEHU” causes strife among kinsmen/ The wolf grows up in the woods." It is

generally believed that these verses are m etaphorical expression of the mystery itself.3: Mythological. The idea exists as it is connected to the mythology and legends. Among the Norse, the cow is connected with Freya and Freyr ("Lady" and "Lord," respectively), two fertility/sexuality oriented deities.4: Mystical. The idea exists in such a state where it can be experienced, but not effectively communicated. Little here can be said on any subject. One might say that here is where the Platonic archetypes, or perfect ideas reside.Each of the levels is connected with all the others; the interactions go both ways. However, exploration must commence from the lower levels and proceed to the higher ones. Otherwise, the explorer risks losing objectivity and drifting of into the realms of the subjective.The Scope of this Work:This is a small essay which will, undoubtedly touch on many interesting concepts. Please bear in mind that most of these topics could, and should, be expanded into book-length documents. Because of the massive amount of evidence and the depth of the subject matter, the treatment of the topics will, undoubtedly be incomplete.Also, the reader may notice that I intend to use other peoples opinions as secondary evidence, regardless of how well-read they are. I intend this document to be secondary evidence as well. In a field of such diverse opinions, misinformation, and forgeries, doubt is a virtue. Doubt everything I have to say, for in doubting and thinking for yourself, you may find the truth.The Command to Look and Celtic Art:One more subject warrants discussion in the introduction: artistic theory and Celtic art. In particular, the idea of the command to look as written in the book of that name by William Mortensen. The book is quite rare, so I only have second-hand inform ation on the work as written in Black Runa by Stephen Flowers.In essence the Command to Look argues that artistic impact is accomplishes by three things: Impact. An object must attract your attention. Interest. An object must arouse the subject's interest. Participation. An object must evoke an emotion from the subject. It could be said that all masterpieces of art use this process.As far as impact, Mortensen identified four basic shapes which compel a person to look at the image: • The diagonal line or zigzag.• The s-curve.• The triangle.• The compact mass.Mortensen argues that the impact is a biological response to a recognition of danger. For instance, the triangle could be said to be recognized as teeth. I also think that the impact effect can also be a biological response to other stimuli. For instance, the s-curve is connected with the female body, so it could, especially for males, act as a sex-oriented stimulus. Another example is that the last two examples could also be seen as landmarks in an area (navigation is a survival skill!).

To condense the rest of the argument, interest is generally composed of reference to sex, sentiment, and wonder. Interest is important in order to hold the subject's interest long enough to activate participation, which is the evoking of an experience o f the artwork. As far as Celtic artwork goes, it is interesting to note that the bronze-age Celtic artwork uses primarily curves and diagonal lines, along with the triangles which result. Examples of the diagonal lines in bronze-age borders include:/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ \\\\\\\\\\\\=\\\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ ////////////=//Also included on the Bronze Age art, according to J. Romilly Allan, are the swastika, the solar ship, the trifot, and many other symbols. Many of these became later incorporated into other forms of art.However, many of them use diagonal lines which wo uld give them an impact.The other two criteria (interest and participation) are likely cultural, and yet, Celtic artwork, especially in its later forms has a strong enough impact to survive into today. The evolution of Celtic art is very much a process of attainment of the command to look. As the bronze-age turned into the iron-age, the s-curve became more dominant in the spiral, and hence the spirals became more abstract. The result was that the art work gained much more impact.The final metamorphosis occurred soon after the Christian conversion, where Ireland was in a mixed faith period, and the artists were no longer bound into making large quantities of useful objects. This last shift also saw the incorporation of the compact dominant mass, as seen in the figures of the disciples in the Book of Kells. In the end, the artwork incorporates mostly curves, diagonal lines, and masses. The knotwork, key patterns, and images in the later works have far greater impact, interest, and participation than did the bronze or iron age material.Could the same process be said for poetry? We have no way of knowing. However, the command to look (or in this case, listen) is equally valid for poetry. Impact is accomplished using alliteration, meter, rhyme, and rhythm, while the last two aspects ( interest and participation) remain largely the same. The late pagan and early Christian poetry of Ireland and Wales shows off this "command to listen" like no other. While space does not permit me to exhaust this subject completely, I hope this discussion will help to illuminate some of the power of Celtic Magic.Part 2: Druidic Philosophy Water and the OtherworldIt is my opinion that water was an expression of the otherworld. Wells, lakes, marshes, rivers, and the sea are all strongly associated with the otherworld, as evidenced by the archaeology, legends, and mythology. The association with wells and lakes is best attested through archaeology. Votive deposits have been found in many wells and lakes throughout Britain, and we have good records of deposits which would have existed in Gaul, as the Romans record selling off these deposits to the highest bidder. Also, the wells seem

to be connected with certain otherworldly activity. Serpent demons (Loch Ness Monster?) frequently appear in caves, rivers, and lakes, and even in wells in the folklore and legends. The serpent demon theme is clearly a Celtic one, as it appears in The Mabinogion, The Tain Bo Cuilgny, and other legends. The theme even occurs in Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, the basis for much of the later Arthurian legend. It is on this account and others that I maintain that Geoffrey must have had some authentic Welsh sources in his work, though he reconciled conflicting accounts and added material, both that he forged and that was of the general scholarly fad of the time.There is also some evidence of feminine guardian spirits of the wells. Few scholars provide much evidence for this hypothesis, but it seems based on the connection of women to the otherworld (see below), the fact that the river-deities were all women (Banba, goddess of the Boyne and Danu, the river goddess), and the interpretation of Arthurian legend, in that the Lady of the Lake may be one of these. Arthurian legend demands great care, due to the diverse cultural roots of the legends, so I make this h ypothesis only conjecturally.Marshes also plays a role. A body, believed to be a ritually slain, was found in England in Lindow Moss, a peat bog. The man had suffered blows to the head, a spear through the neck, a garrote tied with three knots, and had been "drowned" in the bog. While Anne Ross and Don Robins argue that the killing was a triple death, to Esus (identified by some as Lleu), Tautatis, and Taranis (listed by the Roman historian, Lucas, as being deities which accepted sacrificial victims, and that the three deaths were the garrote, the blows, and the drowning, I argue that it makes more sense to argue that the spear also figured into the slaying.The sacrifices to Esus were generally hanged or stabbed according to Lucas. Perhaps in this case, he was hanged and stabbed. The triple deaths in legend often have this apparent four-foldness to them, while they are still three distinct deaths. Consid er Myrddin's death in the Lailoken fragment, where he is slain by shepherds (beaten and stoned), impaled on a spike, and drowned. Lindow Man was beaten, garroted (and stabbed), and drowned. The fact that Lindow Man's sacrifice took place in a bog does s eem to indicate a special place in the minds of the Celts for the bogs. As a side note, Myrddin's death takes place on the edge of a river (see below).Chief among the bog-finds, though, is that of Llyn Carrig Bach, on the Isle of Anglesy. Discovered during the construction of an air-base amid the chaos of WWI, the site was hastily excavated and covered in runways and everything else that goes along wi th air bases. However, the wealth of artifacts discovered, many of which seem to be votive offerings, seems to add much more credibility to the hypothesis that bogs were indeed important.The sea is also important. Manannan is the Irish god of the sea, in possession of many great magics. Bran and many others, in tales known as voyages, were said to have sailed to the otherworld across the sea. Also, the Selkies, or seal-women, were sai d to come from the sea. Let us examine the

concept of water according to the first three levels of philosophy outlined above: On the mundane level, water isnecessary for life. It nurtures plants and without it crops and people die. Bodies of water are also seemingly bottomless. In many of the lakes in Britain and Ireland, one cannot see the bottom. In marshes, the water is murky, which obscures vision. Also, in the marshes, the phenomenon known as the "will o' wisp," where the swamp gas (methane) spontaneously ignites providing a ghostly flame. Drowning is also a danger in the water, and this figures in prominently in the folklore. On the metaphorical level, I argue that the water was symbolic of the otherworld, both as a gateway of death, and as gate to the realm of the gods. On the mythological level, water is connected with Manannan, Danu, Banba, Beli, and Tautatis (of Gaul). These were among the most important deities to the Celts. Tuatha De Dannan translates as "Tribe of Danu's people." Banba is generally considered to be an aspect of Eiriu, the supreme land goddess, based on the legends of the coming of the Sons of Mil. Beli is the father of the human race. Mannanan, of course, appears in very prominent places in the legends, and Tautatis seems to have been prominent based on the etymology (his name means something like "tribe-god"), archeology (such as Lindow Man) and the classical sources.Betwixt and Between: The worship of ambiguity We have, at our disposal, a high degree of evidence that the Celts held dawn and dusk as times of great power. Similarly, the doorway, the stream-bank, and the sea-shore seem to have been sacred places. This subject is one of the most intriguing topics on Celtic studies for many people. By some accounts, Fionn Mac Cumhaill attains his knowledge after his thumb gets crushed in the doorway of the S=EDde mound. In others, he gets his thumb burned on a salmon while he is residing with a druid who lives on the shore of a river. Both of these accounts occur in places which are neither this nor that, and as such, they are places of great power. Both occur along the boundary of thisworld and the other one. I theorize that the significance is that, at these points, the powers of the two oppos ites coincide undifferentiated, do that the subject (Fionn) is party to the powers of both at once.The same could be said for dawn and dusk, where day and night coincide for a short time. The Reuses point out that the Irish had certain taboos concerning actions taken at these times, yet dew, gathered at dawn, was supposed to bring beauty to the woman who washed in it. They also mention that certain herbs were gathered at dusk or dawn for their full curative powers.If these are to be moments of great power, perhaps it is better said that they are not so much conditions of "neither this not that," but of "both this and that," where the union of opposites leads to a greater power. This is not such an outlandish thou gh as it may seem. In The Edda, by Snorri Sterlusson, the cosmos is formed out of the meeting place of fire and ice, which then produce, among other things, a giant and a cow, which leads to a chain of events leading to the creation of thisworld. Also, Edred Thorsson points out in his translation of S. A. Kummer's Rune Magic (in German, Runen Magie), that the Armanens believed that the

differences which are in existence in this world are at once both real and contextual.There are powers which can tra nscend these differences, because the differences are the context to the actual event. (page 1). One side note on the Armanen movement is in order. In Kummer's time, they were heavily racist (even more so than the general public), but following WWII, all the groups I have come in contact with have removed the racist teachings of their forebearers.There is also another aspect of this topic, though. These times in between times and places in-between places are unstable. They are places in which opposites coexist in a precarious way and great changes occur. Day turns to night or vice versa. The waves go in and out, stream banks erode, and changes occur. These are places which exist only in comparatively small locals and times which exist only for a short time, but when and where they come to be, the change which is released is incredible.It has been my experience researching the Ogham alphabet (without reading any of the Armanen material) that this concept of "text with context" is very much a part of the Celtic way of thinking. Also important is the concept of the changes occurring at the threshold.Ambiguity and the Ogham Alphabet: Throughout my research into the Ogham, beginning about a year ago, I have found certain patterns which, while I thought them accidental at first, gradually began to awaken my interest until I saw them as important in their own right. I have since come to see the Ogham alphabet in light of these patterns and feel that they present the core of the Ogham teachings of the Celts. The patterns I saw consisted of inconsistencies in the primary sources. One would mention "nuin" (ash) as connected with peace, while another would connect it with war. The folklore contained similar oppositions, so I maintained to look at the language . What I found was that the same pattern of opposites was born out in the language. In order to justify this last statement, I will now look back to the sources and try to illustrate what we know about the alphabet.The mythology lists the alphabet as being created by Ogma for the use of bards. It is listed as being "perfect alliteration" in this story, retold both by Thorsson and Matthews. This would seem to imply that the Ogham was then a code for sounds. It al so seems likely that some of the non-sense inscription found on wands may have had operative purposes. Such magic is alluded to in the Tain, where CuChulainn scribes the letters on wood declaring conditions which must be met before Medb can go forward.Based on this evidence, Thorsson argues, reasonably, I think, that the alphabet served as an esoteric categorization system based on the initial sound of a word. Many mystical traditions have such categorization schemes, such as gematria in Kabbalah.The Irish linguistics reveals more. The word for letter (f=EDd) is related to the word for wood. For this reason it seems plausible to assert that the associations of the Ogham with the trees is, in fact, an old one. The trees, then seem to hold the key s to the magic of the alphabet, but so does the

language. My sources for this section then include, among others, a couple of dictionaries of Irish and Celtic mythology.It also seems likely that the Ogham was used, at some point, for lot-casting. All the neighboring Indo-European people to the Celts practiced lot casting, at it seems likely that the Druids did too, as there is reference to the tree-utterings in Cat Ma g Ruit (Cath Magh Ruith). The comparative study is especially important here as Allan has argued that the Celts borrowed most of their material (artistic, monetary, etc.) from their neighbors and modified it to make it their own. The Ogham alphabet cannot have ever been a system designed primarily for writing. Firstly, it is long and cumbersome to write. To write even a simple sentence takes up quite a lot of space. While this works for terratorial markers, communication via O gham is impractical.Secondly, there are sounds (such as "p") in Old Irish which are not represented while there are redundancies in the alphabet (str for sloe, why not s+t+r?). Due to this, on cannot, say, write St. Patrick's name in Ogham. These two problems make the system hardly useful for writing.To illustrate the main pattern, I shall use a couple of examples. Rowan and ash seem the easiest to articulate, so I will use them. Rowan is known throughout the folklore as being protective against hostile magic and the wee folk (fairies, elves). The standard means of using it this way is to construct a solar cross (equilateral), and keep it on his or her person (it will be argued later that the equilateral cross is, in fact, an old Celtic symbol of the sun).Also in the folklore, is a reference to the druids burning it to evoke the Tuatha De Dannan. There is also reason to believe that the Rowan was used for active magic, as there are seeming references in folklore and legend to rowan wands being used (and why protect yourself from benevolent magic?).Ash is a bit different. We do not have to rely on the folklore to show the dichotomy. Two of the tracts from the Auricept na'Eces (as included in Matthews' book) show this point quite well. One of them refers to ash as a "Checking of Peace" while the other refers to it as a "Fight of Women."While it has been pointed out to me that these are kennings, orpoetic metaphors, this does not discount the importance, as, by definition, kennings are metaphors. Mystical and esoteric schools of thought often have to rely on metaphors for communicating the incommunicable, so the importance of metaphor cannot be denied. This dichotomy is also seen on the mundane level as ash is used for spear shafts and loom beams, due to its straightness. Spear shafts are, of course, associates with war, but the hea rth and home (and hence loom) is associated with community and harmony almost universally for obvious reasons.Yet another key example is that of "gort" or ivy. There are many names associated with the letter. Among them are Goibniu (the smith god who makes the ale of immortality), Galad Bolg (Fergus Mac Roi's sword), Gorm Clas (Concobar's sword), Gruagach (one of the long hair), Goll (a Formorian warrior), etc. Other words are Geis (sacred taboo), the gae bolga (CuChulainn's spear). Many of the names have connections with strength and invulnerability, such as Gobniu and his ale. Others, such as "geis" have to do with vulnerability, yet strength.

I see this as being an example as to how the Ogham letters are between the opposites. Space does not permit me to go into more detail, though this is a subject worthy of a book. Similar patterns can be shown for the sloe, the hawthorn, the alder, the holly, and many others. For more on this, I refer the reader to my essay on the Ogham alphabet. It seems that the Ogham is based on the use of these powers which transcend opposition. They are like a key to a lock, capable of opening the door or of preventing it from opening. In addition, they also seem to represent a cycle, but that is beyond the scope of this paper.The Sun and the Moon:Seemingly of great importance to the Celts were the sun and the moon. My studies have suggested that the Northern European peoples, especially the Celts and the Norse, had very different concepts of these two heavenly bodies than did the Greeks and Roman s. The Norse saw the sun as feminine and the moon as masculine, and the Celts may have done the same. The rational seems to have been that the sun is the great giver (to the crops) and that she protects from storms and gives daylight to humanity, while the moon is the great measurer of time. Even in modern English, we see a trace of this philosophy: our word month comes from the same root as moon.Also the word man may be connected (Old Norse for moon is Mani, possibly from Germanic Mannaz, meaning ma n), but this connection is distant if it exists.The sun seems to be of central importance to many peoples, and this seems to hold true for the Indo-European (I-E) cultures as well as the Neolithic people. As to the Indo-Europeans, the fylfot, or swastika was a nearly universal I-E sun symbol, appearing in Greece, India, Scandinavia, the Celtic lands in connection with the sun. It is worth noting that in India, the swastika can mean either the sun or the moon, but this is not born out in other I-E lands (the word "swastika" in San Scrit means "sign of blessing, or benediction"). Also appearing in many of these cultures is the solar wheel, a four-spoked wheel representing the sun. From this is extracted the solar cross, a cross bearing four equally long arms, which appears in Greece and other I-E lands. A few words are in order on the origin of the Neolithic peoples.The maps of monuments seem to indicate that they came from northern Africa and then spread to western Europe as well as across Africa and even into India. The linguistic evidence seems to argue also for this theory, as the undercurrents of Irish Gaelic appear to be Hametic, according to Rhys Jones (writing about a hundred years ago, his theory has not been successfully discredited). Also, the symbols on the monuments have a habit of turning up in Egyptian monuments. Examples include the ankh, the sun-ship, and many others. Whether or not (as scholars have argued) the Neolithic people founded Egypt, they certainly had a tremendous impact i this culture. If there is to be a link between the Druids and Egypt, it would be this one, indirect as it is. The Neolithic people seemed to hve heavily influenced both the Egyptian and Celtic magical systems very early on (see below).

As to the Neolithic importance of the sun, the astronomical alignment of the Neolithic stone circles, tumuli, and other monuments seems to suggest that many of them had a significance concerning the yearly cycle of the sun. Due to these alignments, it i s now accepted among scholars (reasonably) that Stonehenge's primary function was as a calendar governing agricultural activities. Similar statements appear to hold true for Callinesh, a stone circle on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland.Another striking ex ample is that of the tumulus at New Grange, where the sun, on the winter solstice, shines down the hall and onto the back stone of the tumulus. All of these monuments seem to point to a strong place for the sun among the Neolithic peoples.On many of these monuments, there are symbols which seem to be connected with the sun and solar rites. Besides providing evidence that the menhirs (standing stones) are, in fact, solar in purpose, they also provide us with a look into their solar symbol ism. Examples of these symbols include the sun ship, the enclosed double spiral, and others. Note that the last two examples occur both in Egyptian and bronze-age Celtic art.In his classic study of Celtic art, J. Rommily Allan pointed out that the Celts tended to borrow material from their neighbors. He then goes on to list common symbols in bronze-age Celtic art, as found in the archeology (mostly burial finds): spiral, fy lfot, wheel, trifot, axe, ship, concentric circle, and cup-and-ring patterns. He then asserts that most of these symbols are associated with sun-worship, and he is correct.=The fylfot, the wheel, and the ship we have already seen to be solar symbols. T he spiral appears to be associated with these symbols, and so is also listed here. In the Neolithic material, spiral does indeed occur on monuments which are of special solar importance (New Grange, for example), and in the Celtic one, it often appears a long with the wheel. The concentric circle may also be a sun symbol.The above arguments point to a great degree of importance attached to the sun, but what was the nature of that importance? For the answer, e must turn to the mythology. There are two gods and one goddess who seem to be explicitlyassociated with the sun. Their names are Ogma, Lug, and Brigid. One of Ogma's ("Cutter?") titles means "sunny countenance," a title which seems to be a reflection of Ogma's poetic ability. F or more evidence on this point, I will mention the great Welsh poet Taliesin, whose name means "Radiant Brow." Both these individuals were poets of great magnitude, and both had names or titles concerning the light in their head. This would seem to go a long well with Cowan's idea that the Celts had a form of shamanism not unlike the shamanism of Siberia were it not for one problem.In shamanic cultures, the illumination of the head is only visible to another shaman in a trance. It seems more likely to me that the "fire [or light] in the head" Cowan talks about is a metaphor for the poetic performance, in this case. It seems, then, that the sun may have a connection to poetry.The second god I listed was Lug ("Light"), who is often misleadingly called a sun god. Lug's connection to the sun comes from his appearance at the

Second Battle of Mag Tuired, where it is mentioned that his face glows like the sun so that Bres ("Handso me") mistakes his face for the sun and asks the druids why the sun has risen in the west. They tell him that it is the face of Lug, not the sun. Lug is the god of crafts, as his title Samildanach ("Very skilled in all arts") mentions.In particular, hi s is a great warrior and a great magician, like the Norse Odhin, and he holds a great powerful spear, one of the four great treasures which the Tuatha De Dannan brought over from the Islands on the North. In this case, the sun seems to be connected with strength at arms and magic as well as the ability to create.Lastly, I shall discuss Brigid in connection with the sun. What we lack on her in the mythology is made up for in the folklore. The folklore will be discussed here first in terms of its origins and reliability, then in terms of significance.As to its origins, the corpus of folklore surrounding St. Brigid appears to be older than Christianity in Ireland, and it certainly traces back to the mixed faith period of Ireland. Brigid appears in the mythology as three sisters: a poet, a smith/warri or, and a healer. In the folklore, St. Brigid is a healer. As the Reuses point out, much of the lives of the saints seem to be based on some sort of Indo-European set i themes. Perhaps they represent aspects of the mythology which were incorporated in to Christianity. The Reeses only use one example of how the Indic themes appear in the Lives of the Saints, but Nikolai Tolstoy cites a second example from Caledonia, which was once part of Wales. The folklore concerning St. Brigid is full of pagan themes. Her well was supposedly of great spiritual importance (even greater than anything of St. Patrick's) at one time, and her control over the sun was legendary. Supposedly, she could command it to come out and even hang her cloak on its rays. In one story, she even causes the sun to move. It seems then we are dealing with several possibilities as to the origins of the folklore surrounding her. Perhaps this was a Christian invention. Perhaps th is is pagan mythology attributed to a real person. Perhaps this is the legend of a true saint (or magician) capable of performing miracles. Or, perhaps it was just pagan mythology adapted wholesale by the Christians. For our purposes the second and the last possibilities are identical.I would argue that the first possibility is unlikely. The folklore could not, in my opinion, be a Christian invention for a couple of reasons. First, the folklore is too pagan. Complete with the connections to wells and the sun, it seems that the orig in is something utterly Irish, or at least Celtic. Hence it makes the possibility that the folklore originated in the Irish mythology seem more likely, but it is impossible to prove or disprove the theory about Brigid being a true saint or magician witho ut getting into the presumptive argument over whether miracles are possible. The possibility of the origins within the mythology seems more likely, though, so I am going to operate under the assumption that it is true.As I mentioned earlier, Brigid is associated with the sun. In addition to the material listed above, I will submit one last piece of evidence: Brigid's Cross. Legend has it that Brigid constructed the cross out of reeds for a dying man.

The cross is e quilateral, a common Indo-European sun-symbol. While the cross does not occur in the early art much, I maintain that this is because it lacks the command to look mentioned in the introduction. The solar cross was used among the Greeks, the Norse, and, a t least later, among the Highland Scots who would burn them to rally the clans to war. The solar cross is simply the solar wheel without the rim. As such, it does not seem particularly suitable for artistic purposes, when the wheel would suffice, but it is easier to construct from wood as a talismanic object that a solar wheel. For this reason, I hypothesize that the cross was used in operant work, though not in artistic work. If Brigid is associated with the sun, then we have a very striking analogy to make. They consist of three sisters: a poet (like Ogma), a craftsman/warrior (like Lug), and a healer (the most prominent aspect of St. Brigid). It seems here that the figure of Brigid encompasses, to a certain degree, the figures of Lug and Ogma.Perhaps she is the deity here most connected with the sun. There is also other evidence that may indicate that the sun is feminine. The goddess Sul was considered to be the goddess of the hot spring at Bath in England during the Pre-Roman period. I suspect that the name Sul is connected to the Old Norse S=F3l, t he goddess of the sun and the name of the sun herself. Considering that the Norse were the most similar culture to the Celts, linguistically and culturally, then it might make sense that the mythology might be similar. The Latin word for sun is sol, and I don't know the Greek cognate, so it seems quite possible from the data on hand that the names are connected. It seems that the sun symbolizes vital energy, whether it be for poetry, craftsmanship, war, or healing. All of these tasks require a certain amount of ecstasy or inspiration, and the sun represents this. This is why Ogma and Lug are associated with th e sun. A lasting reminder of the power of this symbol occurs still in the Celtic cross, where the solar wheel sits atop a pillar. The earliest examples of these are quite simply sun wheels carved into the top to taller ornamented stones, usually placed near ch urches. As time went on, the supporting pillar used grew thinner and thinner until we have the Celtic cross of today.The moon is similar and yet different from the sun. Like the sun, it was used to mark the passage of time, but unlike the sun, it was used on a smaller scale, measuring the portion of the month rather than the portion of the year, as evidenced by the Co ligny calendar. The moon is seldom mentioned in the mythology or legend, unlike the sun, so we are left with comparative studies for whatever we can gather. Like the Celts, the Norse seems to have used the moon (which is masculine in their mythology) primarily for the purpose of keeping time. The Norse, the Germans, and the Slaves associated the moon also with animals and possibly plants, for the cycles of activity of animals and plants change with the moon's light. This is a reason for the legends of the werewolves and the full moon. Because of the wild nature of the moon, he is masculine.Among the Greeks and the Romans, the moon was associated with magic and women's menstrual cycles, hence the moon was feminine. It is also my hypothesis that the Greeks tended to assert that women were culturally more

inept than men (as they did in nearly every other area...), so that any associated wildness would be seen as feminine rather than masculine. If this hypothesis holds true, then it would make more sense for the Celtic moon to be male and the sun to be female, though this is sheer speculation.

I think that the moon shows a dual nature, being the wild one which brings out the beast in us, also known as the full moon effect. Though not well studied statistically, the full moon effect refers to the experience of policemen and doctors that mor e violence and accidents seem to happen around the full moon. Could this be another aspect of the origin of the werewolf legend?On the other hand, the moon seems to give us light to harvest our crops (the harvest moon), gives us a sense of time and order to the calendar. Perhaps the moon was seen as the measurer of time. We cannot be certain, as we have insufficient data. Hen ce we cannot say whether the moon was male or female. Any attempt to do so would simply highlight our ignorance. To say that the moon was male would be speculative to say the least, but to sat that the moon was female would do little more than highlight the Greco-Roman bias many authors have towards history.The Sacred Year:I have argued for a central place for solar worship among the Celts. Nowhere is this seen more prominently than in the major festivals of Bealtaine, Lugnasad, Samain, and Oimbelg. These are strongly solar festivals, commemorating the various aspects of the year. They are also earth-centered festivals, for the year is as much a phenomenon of the earth as it is of the sun.In addition to the major festivals, the equinoxes and solstices may have also been celebrated by the Neolithics and later the Celts. Ward Rutherford mentions that there are megalithic monuments which are oriented towards the cross quarter days (and olde r than Stonehenge!), so it may be that the Celts borrowed their calendar from the Neolithics. Also, the Neolithics had monuments oriented toward the solstices, such as New Grange. The folklore also supports such an assessment, though the festivities were certainly not as major as the cross-quarter celebrations.Each of the major festivals has strong religious associations. Two of them were associated by name with gods, the third named for the seasonal with the changes, and the forth was associated with the seasonal name. I will now introduce each festival an d what its significance is in mythological and practical terms.Samain is not associated by name with any deity, rather its name seems to be connected with the word for summer, according to the Reuses. It seems, though that it was the day of the Wild Hunt, associated with Gwyn ap Nudd in Wales and possibly Cernunos in Celyddon, as Tolstoy has suggested. Samain is the day of the dead and of the death of the year. It is the day when the excess cattle were slaughtered and great feats held to consume the excess food. Divinations were practiced for who would die or ge t married in the coming year, assuming that these customs have pagan roots.

Another mythological connection to Samain is the connection it has with the end of the war between the Formorians, which, by some accounts lasted from Bealtaine to Samain and the fact that the Tain Bo Cuilgny began on Samain..Metaphorically, Samain seems to represent the coming of the darkness of winter. It is not really all that much a "dark" holiday, but a dusky one. Samain is like dusk, a time when the hospitality is unequaled and the contact with the other-world often t errifying and awe inspiring. From the details above and the metaphorical connections, I would surmise that ancestor worship would have had a prominent place in Samain celebrations.In the middle of the Celtic winter came Oimbelg, meaning "coming of the ewe's milk." This day was heavily associated with Brigid, and was passed into Christian custom as St. Brigid's Day. This day marked both the middle of winter and the beginning of e nd of winter's desolation. This was the time when the milk of the ewes began to flow, so that it could feed the people. Given Brigid's association with this day and her association with the hearth-fire, I would also surmise that the hearth-fire was impo rtant to the festivities, apart from the fact that, like the other major celebrations it was a fire-festival.I have already discussed the character of Brigid to some degree, so now I will mention other mythological connections to Oimbelg. At Oimbelg, Lug comes out of the mound to allow CuChulainn to sleep for the first time since Samain. Going without sleep d uring this interval had been one condition (prophesy?) of his marriage to Emer. I think that this day represented a kind of midnight of the year. If one had lived this long, then one could make it through. In this sense it could be a day of a renewal of hope.Next was Bealtaine, whose name probably means "Fires of Bile." B=EDle, or Belenos, as he was called in Gaul was the father of all men. Particularly symbolic here is the fact that all the waves of invaders arrived in Ireland on this day. It is a day when the spring flowers are up and the vegetables are growing. It is a day when the weather is becoming warm again and love was in the air. Particularly interesting is the custom of the may-pole. Some scholars have concluded that it was a Norse custom brought over to the Celtic lands via trade and commerce. Whatever its source, it forms one of the enduring images of May Day. The pole seem s to have been used in all of the Celtic and Germanic lands since we have records, and, while many scholars see it as a sex symbol, my research into folklore has suggested that the pole was originally a living tree, as evidenced by the fact that many area s of Europe used either trees with the branches still attached or else living trees for this dance.The symbolism of the May Pole then seems to be that of the world tree (Old Irish, B=EDle). I find it interesting that the World Tree seems to be named after the father of men, and that this tree is most celebrated on the day named after him as well.Bealtaine was also a day of intense contact with the otherworld. The wee fold were especially active at this time, as the Reeses and others point out. This statement is based on the folklore, but appears to be the product of an earlier pagan era, as it lacks Christian themes. I would surmise that

Bealtaine was the day of the dawning of the year. Like dusk, dawn was supposed to have had particular powers, and the fairies were held to be particularly active at this time. It was a time in between times.Lastly came Lugnasad, the feast of Lug. As we have already seen, Lug was a god of light. The day was at the beginning of the long harvest season. Like Samain, it could be said to be a harvest festival, but unlike Samain, it was the beginning of the ha rvest, not the end. It is also the high tide of summer, so that the days would eventually become colder again.Horse races were held, and Tolstoy makes a good argument that iconographic stone heads and serpents were symbols. Like at the other celebrations, animals, especially goats, were sacrifices and their meat eaten.I maintain that this day represented the noon of the year. Lug means light, so Lugnasad could also be translated as "Feast of Light." I think that both of these translations are valid, as Lug was a god of light.The reader has doubtless noticed that I am comparing the daily cycle with the yearly one. This is by design, not accident, as I have come to conclude that the two are seen as one by many cultures. Consider the following: our year starts close to the wi nter solstice, while our day starts at midnight.The Celtic day began at dusk, while the year began at Samain. Also, certain taboos effect both of those boundaries. One should not to about at dusk or dawn carelessly unless one wants trouble from the wee folk, according to Irish folklore. Also, we kn ow that whatever went unharvested at Samain was considered the property of the wee folk and was to be left for them. On Bealtaine, ritual niggardliness was observed; it was considered unlucky to be generous, according to the Reuses, who also point out th at these rituals occur at points in the year where there was considerable vulnerability to famines. I am more inclined to lean toward a primarily solar outlook myself, yet there is something to be said for the need of rituals at the times they occur.Yet the seasonal cycles are not totally solar. They seem more based on the cycles of the earth than the sun. Otherwise, I would expect the celebrations to fall on the solstices and equinoxes than on the cross-quarter days. I think that they represent the cycles of the earth as applied to the sun, so that the festivals are both terrestrial and solar in nature. Perhaps this is why the solstice and equinox celebrations never acquired a major standing, as they lacked the aspect of the union of the duality. Instead the celebrations are of the earth's cycles as determined by the sun.The Three-fold WorldThe early Celts probably believed in a three-fold world, like most other European peoples. The gods are above and the dead below. Examples of the way that this manifested among certain Indo-European peoples include the duality of Olympus and Hades among the Greeks, and Asgard and Hel among the Norse.Remnants of this cosmology still can be seen in the Welsh language, where the Milky Way is called Caer Gwyddion, Carona Borialis is called Caer Arianrhod, and some other constellations bear other related names, according to Tolstoy. At the same time, Ar awn, whose name has been

translated by some authors to mean "Lord of the Dead" is seen as living under the hills.As time went by the divisions of the two worlds became less and less, until they appear as one and the same. The otherworld exists both under the sea and under the hills. The gods live under the hills and in the heavens. The land of the ancestors is u nder the hills and across the sea, and the gods themselves came to Ireland from across the islands in the north, presumably across the northern sea. The dividing line eventually ceases to exist and the three worlds become two. I find it interesting that the Celts, with their intense love for threes moved from a threefold model to a twofold model in this case.Part 3: Conclusions and EpilogueThe Celtic and druidic mind set is quite different than ours today. Water was not something that was taken for granted, but was something sacred and powerful. Wells were not merely a source of nourishment, but also a gateway to the gods. Everything tha t was sacred, especially that which was of importance to society, and of supreme importance was the sun. Also sacred were the places in between places and the times in-between time, and the cycles of the day and year were powerful, and all around dwelled the denizens of the otherworld, above and below, north and west, crossing into this world especially at night while humans slept. Picture yourself on Ireland's rocky shore at dusk. The sea and the sky are both a kind of bluish gray, owing to the rain-clouds over head and extend into the distance as far as the eye can see. Such a picture must have been at least as awesome to the a ncient Irish as it would be for us today.To the ancient Irishman, such a moment would be of awesome beyond all senses of the word. To be at a place and time might drive a man mad or else inspire him to poetry. There was magic in the spoken word and in alliterative poetry, and such otherworldl y power cold be transferred to a man at such a place and time.The importance of such philosophy cannot be under estimated. In another essay of mine, I argued that "druid" meant "knower of truth," so philosophy must have been the core of the druidic tradition, conclusion which is born out in the Classical sources.I would like to write so much more, yet space does not allow me this luxury. Perhaps future essays can make up for this loss.BibliobraphyCeltic Mythology:Ellis, Peter Berresford. A Dictionary of Irish Mythology. New York: Oxford 1991-----. A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. New York: Oxford 1992Matthews, John and Caitl=EDn. Encyclopaedia of Celtic Wisdom. Element Press 1994=F3 Tuathil, Se=E1n. The Excellence of the Ancient Word. Available via int=ernet at ftp://bronze.coil.com/ pub/nemeton/lore/eaw.cnlRolleston, T.W. Celtic Myths and Legends. New York: Dover 1990 (origionall=y pub 1917)Squire, Charles. Celtic Myhts and Legends. Van Nuys, CA: Newcastle 1975

Scholastic studies and Archeology:Allen, J. Rommily. Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times. London: Brack=en Books 1993 (origionally pub. 1904)Eliade, Mercae. Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Princeton Univer=sity Press 1964James, Simon. The World of the Celts. New York: Thames and Hudson 1993Piggot, Stuart. The Druids. New York: Thames and Hudson 1975Rees, Alwyn and Brinley. Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and= Wales. New York: Thames and Hudson 1961Ross, Anne and Don Robbins. Life and Death of a Druid Prince. New York: Touchstone 1989Rutherford, Ward. Celtic Lore. London: Aquarian/Thorsons 1993Tolstoy, Nikolai. The Quest for Merlin. Boston: Little, Brown 1985Esoteric and Antiquarian Sources:Cowan, Tom. Fire in the Head: Shamanism and the Celtic Spirit. San Fransi=sco: HarperSanFransisco 1990Flowers, Stephen Edred. Black Runa. Austin: Runa-Raven 1995Kummer, S.A. Rune=3DMagic (tr. Edred Thorsson). Austin, Runa-Raven 1993MacCrossan, Tadhg. The Truth about the Druids. St. Paul: Llewellyn 1993Thorsson, Edred. A Book of Ogham. St. Paul, Llewellyn 1992---- A Book of Troth St. Paul: Llewellyn 1989---- Runelore. York Beech, ME. Weiser. 1987Related Cultures:Hollander, Lee M. The Poetic Edda Austin: University of Texas Press 1962