A P Powerpoint L3

8/12/2019 A P Powerpoint L3

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Anatomy and physiology


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Bones and Joints

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Postural deviations

Kyphosis - exaggerated curve of

thoracic vertebrae, leading to round-

shoulders ( hunch-back appearance)

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Lordosis - exaggerated curve of

lumbar vertebrae

Scoliosis- spine is twisted laterallya

sign is often shoulders at different

levels


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Normal

postureLordosis Kyphosis

Correcting postural deviations

Kyphosis

reduced lung capacity

Strengthen trapezius/rhomboids &

spine extensors Stretch pectorals & deltoids

Lordosis

Often associated with adiposity

Strengthen muscles that tilt pelvis backwards Strengthen gluteus maximus and rectus

abdominis/core

Stretch hip flexors and erector spinae


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Anatomical terms of direction

Superiorstructure higher or closer to head than another

Inferiorstructure lower or closer to foot than another

Medialtowards midline of body

Lateralaway from midline of body

Anterior/ventraltowards front of body

Posterior/dorsaltowards back of body

Superficialtowards surface of body

Deep- internal or below surface of body

Proximalstructure/body part closer to point of attachment than another

Distalstructure/body part further away from point of attachment than another

Supinelying face up

Pronelying face down 6


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Planes of movement

Sagittal planesplits body

vertically into left and right sides

Transverse planedivides bodyhorizontally into superior and

inferior sections

Frontal planeruns vertically

and divides body into anterior

(front) and posterior (back)sections

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Joint actions & planes of movement

Movements in sagittal plane:any movement that brings body part in front or behind body

- best observed from the side:

Flexionextension/hyperextension

Dorsi flexion - plantar flexion

Movements in transverse plane:any movement that rotates (twists) body (or body part):

Medial/internal rotation - lateral/external rotation

Rotation to the left or right of the vertebral column

Supination - pronation

Movements in frontal plane: movements out to side of body - best observed either from

in front/behind:

Abductionadduction

Lateral flexion

Elevation - depression 8

Inversion - eversion

Horizontal flexion - horizontal extension

Protraction - retraction


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Muscles

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Structure of

skeletal muscle


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Each muscle fibre consists of large numbers of

microscopic threads called myofibrils, which

in turn consist of two rows of microscopic

protein filaments called actin andmyosin These bring about muscle contraction

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ZZ AA

I H I

MyosinActin

ZZ

I A I

Muscle relaxed

Muscle contracted


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More muscles

Adductor group

Adductor magnus

Adductor brevis

Adductor longus

Pectineus

adducts/flexes hip

Gracilis

Abductor group Gluteus medius

Gluteus minimus

Piriformis

Tensor fascia latae

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Abdominal group

Internal obliques

External obliques

Rectus abdominis

Transverse abdominis

Quadriceps group

Rectus femoris

Vastus medialis

Vastus intermedius

Vastus lateralis

Hamstring group

Biceps femoris

Semimembranosus

Semitendinosus

Hip flexor group (iliopsoas)

Iliacus

Psoas major


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Rotator cuff group

(shoulder joint stabilisers)

Supraspinatusabducts/lateral rotation arm

Subscapularismedial rotation arm

Infraspinatuslateral rotation arm

Teres minorlateral rotation arm

Shoulder girdle group

Levator scapulaeelevates scapula

Pectoralis minorprotracts scapula

Serratus anteriorprotracts scapula

Trapezius

Rhomboids major & minordownward rotation scapula

Teres majoradduction, medial rotation, extension shoulder 14

Spine extensors

Erector spinaeiliocostalis, longissimus,

spinalis

Multifidusextension/rotation spine

Quadratus lumborumlateral flexion lumbar

spine

Sartoriusflexion/lateral rotation hip, flexion knee

Biceps, brachialis, brachioradialisflex elbow


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Structure and function of the pelvic floor

muscles

= small group of muscles/connective tissuespan underneath

of pelvis from pubis to coccyx

Support pelvic organs (e.g. bladder, intestines) and pelvic

girdle

The growing uterus during pregnancy can place a lot of stress

on the pelvic floor muscles

Weak/damaged pelvic floor muscles can lead to incontinence

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Core muscles

Localclose to spine (i.e. deep), recruited prior to gross

movement

Transverse abdominis

Multifidus

Quadratus lumborum

Internal obliques

Pelvic floor

Diaphragm

Globalsuperficial

Rectus abdominis

External obliques

Erector spinae

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Antagonistic muscle pairs

Reciprocal inhibition= whilst the agonist contracts, the

antagonist muscle relaxes

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Type 2 (fast twitch) fibres

Type 2a(fast oxidative glycolytic)used in both aerobic &

anaerobic work, take on certain type 1 (ST) characteristics

through endurance training; greater resistance to fatigue, and

are used in activities fairly high in intensity of relatively shortduration

Type 2b(fast glyoclytic)high firing threshold, used for

activities of very high intensity and have a much stronger force

of contraction.

[slow twitch fibres = slow oxidative]

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Cardio-respiratory system

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Structure of the heart

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Coronary arteries (not ondiagram) feeds

cardiac/heart muscle with

blood


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Valves

Atrio-ventricular valves

(bicuspid/mitral & tricuspid)

Between atria and ventricles

Prevent backflow of blood into atria

Semi-lunar valves (pulmonary &

aortic)

Between ventricles and arteries

leaving heart (i.e. pulmonary arteryand aorta)

Prevents backflow of blood into

ventricles

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Coronary circulation

Arteries carrying

oxygenated blood from

aorta to myocardium

(heart muscle) Coronary arteries

branch off aorta

Blood flow greatest

during diastole

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Blood pressure

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= pressure of the blood on the artery walls

Systolic(SBP)pumping phase of heart (contraction of cardiac muscle)

Diastolic(DBP)relaxing phase of heart

Increases during exercise (SBP, DBP stable or slight)

Healthy resting BP = 120/80 (systolic over diastolic)

160/100 = hypertension(high BP)CHD risk factor; CV training can

decrease resting blood pressure in long-term

Hypotension= low BP (


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Arteriosclerosis/atherosclerosis

Arteriosclerosis

Disease causing arteries to harden

Atherosclerosis

Progressive diseaselaying down of fatty deposits (atheroma) in

arteries

Increases resistance to blood flow, increasing blood pressure

Risk factors:

Sedentary lifestyle

Diets high in saturated fat

High levels of LDLs in diet

Smoking 24


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Long-term effects of regular exercise

Cardiac/heart muscle stronger

Increased stroke volume and cardiac output

Decreased heart rate and blood pressure Increased capillarisationimproved blood supply to muscles

Increased size and number of mitochondriaimproved aerobic energy

production

Reduced risk high blood pressure (hypertrension)reduced risk CHD

Reduced risk obesityreduced risk diabetes

CHD/diabetes risk factors = MODIFIABLE (can be changed; e.g. activity &

diet) or NON-MODIFIABLE (cannot be changed; e.g. genetics, ethnicity,

gender, age)

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Valsalva effect

Holding breath during exertion (forced expiration against a

closed glottis)

fluctuations in blood pressure & heart rate

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Energy systems

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Adenosine P PP

ATP ADP + energy for contraction

AdenosineP P

P


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The energy systems

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Three energy systems (2 anaerobic, 1 aerobic)

Energy produced used to resynthesise ATP, not movement

Lots of heat energy release when ATP broken down

Energy systems used to resynthesise ATP affected by

intensity and duration of exercise


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1. PC System (phoshocreatine system)

ATP

CP


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2. Lactic Acid System

ATP

C

Glycogen

Lactic acid

Glycolytic= breaking down of

carbohydrates into pyruvic acid

(LA system also known as

anaerobic glycolysis)


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3. Aerobic System

ATP

Glycogen Fats Protein

CO2 H2O

O2


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CV thresholds

Lactate threshold - point

at which blood lactate

begins to accumulate

above resting values

OBLAintensity wherelactate produced in

muscles faster than it is

cleared4 mmols/L

VO2maxmaximum

amount of oxygen aperson can take in,

transport and use per min

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Fatigue - causes

ATP resynthesisif not enough ATP available to keep up

muscle contraction

Hydrogen ion (H+

) accumulation- hydrogen ions whichdisassociate from lactic acid (leaving lactate) increase acidity ofmuscleacidosisinhibiting action of glycolytic enzymes

Glycogen depletionglycogen primary fuel for ATP resynthesis;

when completely depleted, muscles unable to carry on contracting

as body cannot use fat by itself as fuel

Decreased availability of calcium ionsdepletion of CP stores

plus lactic acid build up calcium accumulating in muscle cells

calcium ions stop being released for muscle contraction

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The nervous system

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Role and functions of the nervous system (NS)

NS = CNS + PNS (CNS=Central NS/ PNS=Peripheral NS)

Homeostasis= maintaining/returning a system tofunctioning within a normal range

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CNS= brain & spinal cord

Brain

Cerebellum = responsible for controlling group action of

muscles

Spinal cord = link between brain & PNS

PNS = nerves outside spinal cord

Motor neurons (efferent nerves)transmit impulses from

CNS to organs, muscles, glands cause muscle

contraction/movement (i.e. CNS PNS)

Sensory neurons (afferent nerves)sensory receptors in

muscles/tendons/joints relay info about muscle dynamics/limb

movements to CNS (i.e. PNSCNS)

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Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Responds to internal environmentsenses hormonal status,

and functioning of internal organs

Controls cardiac and involuntary muscles, and endocrine

glands that secrete hormones

We have no conscious control over this branch = involuntary

Sympathetic actionstimulates/increases activity

Speeds up heart rate, breathing rate, response times, etc

Mobilise energy stores to get us ready for action

More active during exercise

Fight or flight response

Catecholaminesadrenaline & noradrenaline

Parasympathetic actionslow things down

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Somatic nervous system

Responds to external environmentsenses movement, touch,

pain, skin temperature, etc

Controls voluntary muscles

We have some control over this branch = voluntary

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Nerve cell

Synapse= a place where 2

nerves communicatei.e. The

junction between neuron/nerve

and target cell

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Principles of muscle contraction

Motor unit= single motor neuron (efferent nerve) + all

muscle fibres it innervates

When impulse sent down neuron, all fibres in MU are

activated, or none = all or none law

If impulse > set thresholdimpulse sent down motor

neuron causing activation of fibres

Frequency of nerve impulses summatewhen close

togetherhigh frequencystronger muscle contraction

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The more MU recruited, the greater the force

Beginners only recruit certain number of MUprotects muscle

from developing too much force & damaging

muscle/connective tissue

Trainingmore MU recruited force = enhanced

neuromuscular connections improves motor fitness

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Sensory organs

Exteroceptorsinformation received from outside body

through sense organs (e.g. skin, eyes, ears, nose)

Proprioceptorsinformation received from inside body by

proprioceptors (e.g. stretch receptors in muscle); tells brain

body position at that moment

Chemoreceptorsblood acidity levels

Baroreceptorsblood pressure

Thermoreceptorstemperature

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Golgi tendon organs (GTO)

Prevents muscles from exerting more force than bones and

connective tissue can handle

Thin capsules of connective tissue where muscle fibre and

tendon meet

Triggers reflex action when very high tensions developed

within muscle and tendon

Causes muscle to relax and antagonist to contract

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Muscle spindle apparatus

Responds to excessive lengthening of muscle

= very sensitive receptors between muscle fibres

Relays information through afferent (sensory) nerves

concerning state of muscle contraction and length of muscle

When a muscle is stretched, the spindle is stretched

Sends impulse to spinal cord, indicating how much and how

fast muscle has been stretched

If muscle stretched too far, muscle spindle apparatus will altertension within the muscle and cause a stretch reflex(also

called myotatic reflex), where muscle is automatically

contracted and shortened

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Neuromuscular connections and motor fitness

Improved neuromuscular efficiency increased inter-muscular

coordination during movement

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Endocrine system


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Pituitary gland- growth hormonehelps with growth/development

Adrenal glandshormones regulating nutrient levels

Adrenalineand noradrenaline (catecholamines)

Assist sympathetic nerves preparing body for stress - mobilise fat from adipose

tissue, stimulate breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increase heart rate, breathing

rate, etc.

Pancreas- hormones involved in blood sugar regulation

Insulinlowers blood glucose

Glucagonraises blood glucose

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2 Denne Hill Business Centre

Womenswold Canterbury

Kent CT4 6HD

Tel: 01227 831840Fax: 01227 831850

www.amactraining.co.uk

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