A performance guide to JS Bach's viola Dav Gamba … · GUIDE TO J.S. BACH’S VIOLA DA GAMBA...

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APERFORMANCEGUIDETOJ.S.BACH’SVIOLADAGAMBASONATASTRANSCRIBEDFORVIOLA

by

AzraIsaacs

ThisdissertationissubmittedinpartialfulfilmentoftherequirementsfortheDegreeofMasterofMusic.

SOUTHAFRICANCOLLEGEOFMUSIC

UNIVERSITYOFCAPETOWN

2014

Supervisor:ProfessorRebekkaSandmeier

The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non-commercial research purposes only.

Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author.

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DECLARATION

Iherebydeclarethat“AperformanceguidetoJ.S.Bach’sVioladagambasonatas

transcribedforViola”ismyownworkandthatallsourcesthatIhaveusedor

quotedhavebeenindicatedandacknowledgedbymeansofcompletereferences.

Signed:_______________________________________

Date:_______________________________________

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TableofContents

CHAPTERONE–INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 5FOCALRESEARCHQUESTION ................................................................................................. 5BACKGROUND.............................................................................................................................. 5RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 7LITERATUREOVERVIEW.......................................................................................................... 7LITERATUREONHIP ............................................................................................................................. 7LITERATUREONTHEPERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLADAGAMBA.......... 8EDITIONSOFTHESONATASTRANSCRIBEDFORVIOLA ..................................................... 9LITERATUREONTHEPERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLA................................... 9

CHAPTEROUTLINE ..................................................................................................................10CHAPTER2:HISTORICALLYINFORMEDPERFORMANCE..................................................10CHAPTER3:PERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLADAGAMBA............................10CHAPTER4:EDITIONSOFSONATASTRANSCRIBEDFORVIOLA...................................10CHAPTER5:PERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLA ....................................................11CHAPTER6:HOWTOPLAYBWV1027ONTHEMODERNVIOLA..................................11

CHAPTERTWO:HISTORICALLYINFORMEDPERFORMANCE ...........................12HISTORICALLYINFORMEDPERFORMANCEMOVEMENT............................................12

CHAPTERTHREE:THEVIOLADAGAMBA ...............................................................22PART1..........................................................................................................................................22VIOLTYPES ..............................................................................................................................................22HISTORY....................................................................................................................................................23TREATISES/TUTORS ...........................................................................................................................24

PART2..........................................................................................................................................25FRETS/TEMPERAMENT.....................................................................................................................25FRETS/FINGERING/CHORDALPLAYING ...................................................................................26BOWHOLD/BOWING .........................................................................................................................27RESONANCE/SOUNDQUALITY.......................................................................................................31ORNAMENTATION/BOW/VIBRATO.............................................................................................31

CHAPTERFOUR:THEEDITIONS .................................................................................33BÄRENREITER’SNEUEBACHAUSGABE(NBA)EDITEDBYHANSEPPSTEINWITHACRITICALREPORT ................................................................................................................34BWV1027:SONATANO.1 ................................................................................................................34BWV1028:SONATANO.2 ................................................................................................................35BWV1029:SONATANO.3 ................................................................................................................39

THEVIOLATRANSCRIPTIONS ..............................................................................................39BÄRENREITER,EDITEDBYHANSEPPSTEIN...........................................................................39G.HENLEVERLAG,EDITEDBYERNST‐GÜNTERHEINEMANN .......................................39

BREITKOPF&HÄRTEL,EDITEDBYERNSTNAUMANN................................................43BWV1027.................................................................................................................................................44BWV1028.................................................................................................................................................47BWV1029.................................................................................................................................................50

TECHNIQUESOFTRANSCRIBINGFORVIOLA ..................................................................53CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................................56

CHAPTERFIVE:THEVIOLA ..........................................................................................57TREATISES ..................................................................................................................................57TECHNICALFACTORS..............................................................................................................57HOLDINGTHEVIOLA ..........................................................................................................................57FINGERING...............................................................................................................................................59ARTICULATION ......................................................................................................................................63

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PHYSICALFACTORS .................................................................................................................65PRE‐TOURTEVERSUSTOURTEBOW ..........................................................................................65GUTVERSUSSTEELSTRINGS ..........................................................................................................66PITCHANDALTERNATETUNINGS ...............................................................................................67

STYLISTICFACTORS ................................................................................................................68VIBRATO....................................................................................................................................................68DYNAMICS ................................................................................................................................................68

COMMONBAROQUERHYTHMS ...........................................................................................69SYNCOPATION........................................................................................................................................69THEDACTYL............................................................................................................................................69DOTTEDRHYTHMS ..............................................................................................................................70

BAROQUEBOWTECHNIQUES...............................................................................................70INÉGALETECHNIQUE .........................................................................................................................70SLOWBOW...............................................................................................................................................70

MESSADIVOCE………………………………………………………………………………………………..71PERFORMANCEPRACTICE.....................................................................................................71

CHAPTERSIX:HOWTOPERFORMBWV1027ONAMODERNVIOLA ............74MOVEMENTI:ADAGIO.............................................................................................................75BOWING.....................................................................................................................................................75FINGERING...............................................................................................................................................76USEOFDOTS ...........................................................................................................................................77

MOVEMENTII:ALLEGROMANONTANTO .........................................................................78BOWING.....................................................................................................................................................78FINGERING...............................................................................................................................................79

MOVEMENTIII:ANDANTE ......................................................................................................79BOWING.....................................................................................................................................................79FINGERING...............................................................................................................................................80

MOVEMENTIV:ALLEGROMODERATO................................................................................80BOWING.....................................................................................................................................................80FINGERING ...............................................................................................................................................80

FIRSTHANDEXPERIENCE .....................................................................................................81BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................83

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CHAPTERONE–INTRODUCTION

FOCALRESEARCHQUESTIONAsaviolaplayerwhoiscurrentlylearningthevioladagambasonatas,Ihave

notedasignificantdearthofliteratureinthisfocalarea.Thishasbeen

particularlyevidentwhenapproachingtheviolatranscriptionsofBach’ssolo

cellosuitesandvioladagambasonatas.

MyaimistocreateaperformanceguidetoJ.S.Bach’sThreeSonatasforviolada

gambaandHarpsichord(BWV1027‐1029),transcribedforviola.Ishallbe

comparingthreeeditionsofviolatranscriptionstoBärenreiter’sNeueBach

Ausgabe,editedbyHansEppstein.Thiscomparisonwillfocusonarticulation

markingsandothereditorialdevicesusedtoadaptthesonatasfortheviola.

AnanalysisofthearticulationusedbyBachandhiscopyistscanonlybe

undertakenifperformancepracticeofthetimeisunderstood.The“Historically

InformedPerformance”(HIP)movementiscentraltothisunderstanding,and

hasbeenthetopicofmuchrecentdebate.Althoughthevioladagambaandviola

arebothstringinstruments,theydifferinsizeandemploydifferenttechniques.

Thus,shouldthearticulationandtimbreoftheformerbeimitatedinplayingthe

latter?Orshouldtheuniquequalitiesoftheviolabeembracedtocreatea

distinctsound?

Thus,myinterestinthisresearchtopicwaspiquednotonlybytheneedfor

interpretativeclarification;butalsobythepotentialtoaddressthespecific

technicaldifficultiesarisingduetothemechanicsoftheviola.

BACKGROUNDThethreesonatasforvioladagambaandharpsichordarebelievedtobe

arrangementsofworksoriginallyintendedforothercombinationsof

instruments.Thefirstofthese,BWV1027,isbasedonanearlierversionfortwo

flutesandbassocontinuo(BWV1039)whichinturncouldhavebeenan

arrangementofyetanearlierversion.BWV1027istheonlyoneexistingin

autograph.ItthereforehasaclearerandmorereliabledepictionofBach’s

writingforvioladagambawithregardstoarticulationmarkings.

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Throughouthislifeandcareer,J.S.Bachviewedtranscriptionasaformofnew

composition(Paul.1953:308).AsachoirboyinLüneberg,hefirstrealisedthe

valueofcopyingtheworksofestablishedmastersasameansofabsorbing

technicalprinciplesandkeyconcepts(Paul.1953:308).DuringhisWeimar

period(1708‐1716),thisliteralcopyingdevelopedinto“freetranscription”,

whichultimatelyyieldedsixteenworksforharpsichordandanotherthreefor

organ,allofwhicharefreetranscriptionsofviolinconcertos.

Bachusedtranscriptionasameansof“refashioning”originalandadaptedworks,

inpursuitof“self‐expressionanddevelopmentofhiscraft”(Paul.1953:306).To

betruetotheworksofthegreatmasters,Rutledge(1979)suggeststhatone

shouldattempttorecapturetheirvisionduringthecompositionstage.Should

thisethosthenbefollowedwhenapproachingtheworksofBach‐acomposer

knownforrepeatedlytranscribingworksofhisownandothersinorderto

achievenewpossibilities?Inotherwords,shouldonealwaysstrivetoimitate

oldsounds;orratheraimtocreateanewstylebasedonoldmethods?According

toPaul(Paul.1953:307),Bach(asatranscriber)wasneveracceptingofthe

scrupulousadherencetohisoriginalideas.

Afterthedemiseofthevioladagamba,manysonataswereindangerofbeing

laidtorest.However,theenduringenthusiasmforandmusicalmeritofBach’s

workensuredthatishasbeenpreservedthroughtheages.Atthetime,themost

commonchoicetoreplacethevioladagambawasthecello,asbothareplayed

betweentheknees,andsharecommontechniqueandregister.Bycomparison,

theviolaisplayedonthearmanditsregisterisanoctavehigherthanthatofthe

violadagamba.Thus,thebodyofworkfocussedonperformanceconsiderations

forthecelloismoresubstantial,althoughitshouldbenotedthattheseare

rationalisedsuggestionsandopinionsthatformpartofanongoingdebate,rather

thanrigidlyformalisedmodels.PeterMartens,inhisdissertation,Inspiredbythe

Past,providesapracticalguideforcellistsintheexecutionofBaroquemusicon

moderninstrumentswithspecialreferencetoJSBach’sSixSuitesforSoloCello

(2007).

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TheinterpretationofBach’smusichasalwaysbeencontroversial‐bothfor

musiciansandacademics;forpuristsandforthosewhoadvocatecomplete

personalfreedom.Itfollows,then,thatthedebateoftraditionversusfreedom

shouldpermeatethecurrentliterature,includingtherelativelysmallbodyof

workthatpertainstothevioladagambasonatasplayedontheviola.Thus,there

isasubstantialopportunityforfurtherresearchandinvestigationinthisfield.

RESEARCHMETHODOLOGYInordertoformulateanoriginalperformanceguidetotheThreeSonatas,Ishall

beginbyselectingthosesonatasthatareparticularlysuitedtotheviola.For

thoselesssuitable,Ishallassesstheirpotentialformodification.Thereafter,I

shallcomparethreeeditionsofviolatranscriptionstoBärenreiter’sNeueBach

Ausgabe(NewBachEdition)editedbyHansEppsteinoftheThreeSonatasfor

VioladaGambaandHarpsichord(BWV1027‐1029);focussingontheeditorial

techniquesusedanddecisionstakentoadaptthesonatasforviola.

Tobetterformulatewaysofapproachingtheperformanceaspectofthesonatas

ontheviola,anunderstandingofhowtheywereplayedandsoundedontheviola

dagambaisimportant.Thedevelopmentofthemodernviolaanditscapabilities

arecrucialintherealisationofanewand/orimitativesound.

LITERATUREOVERVIEW

LITERATUREONHIP

NicholasKenyonhascompiledabookofessaysbytheleadingcriticsand

academicsinthefieldof‘Authenticity’inearlymusicandbeyond(Kenyon.

1988).Thegroupofessays,raisingrecurringthemesaboutthenatureof

‘authenticity,’shinelightonthefollowingdebates:Istheuseofperiod

instrumentsinre‐creatingthemusicofthepastasignificantfactorwhen

comparedtomusicalunderstanding,culturalandsocialcontext,acoustical

conditionsandconcert‐givingsituations?Canthecomposerexpecttoholdany

influenceoverhis/hermusiconcehe/shehaswrittenit,andisthereamoral

obligationonthepublictofulfiltheoriginalintention?Istheunderstandingofa

pieceofmusicenhancedbyrestrictingoneselftousingonlythosemeansthat

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wereavailableatthetimeofcomposition?Ifso,wouldthisthennotinhibitfull

self‐expressioninthemodernage?Kenyonstatesthatitisimpossibletore‐

createthepastwhenexecutingitinthepresent–aviewreminiscentof

Taruskin’sstandingthatHIPisaformoftwentiethcenturymodernism

(Taruskin.1995).

Inhisextensivestudyofbaroqueornamentation,Emery(Emery.1953)provides

substantial18thcenturyevidenceandagoodbasisforanunderstandingof

Bach’sintentions.Morerecently,JohnButt(Butt.2002)haspublishedPlaying

withHistory–anambitiousstudyofrecentdebatesonthetopicoftheEarly

Musicmovementandhistoricallyinformedperformance.

LITERATUREONTHEPERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLADA

GAMBA

Inhischronologicalaccountofthesoundofthevioladagamba,Rutledge(1991)

attemptstodecipherthemysterysurroundingtheinstrument.Inhiswork,he

recountsthesentimentsofHenrySaint‐George(oneofthemostactive

reintegratersstrivingtoreintroducetheviolintothemusicallifeofthetimes),

statingthattoplaynothingbuttheoldmusicisnottorevivetheinstrument

(viol)butforittosimplyremainwhereitwasbefore(Rutledge.1991:410).

Further,hesuggestsapproachingtheviolinamodernwaytogiveitnewlife

(Rutledge.1991:410).Thisposesthequestion:isitnecessarytoimitatethe‘old’

soundofthevioladegambaontheviolaconsideringitmaybe‘old‐fashioned’

andoutdated?

IntheirarticleentitledViol(grovemusiconline),RobinsonandWoodfieldprovide

acomprehensivehistoryofthedevelopmentoftheviol‐fromitsfifteenth

centuryoriginstoitsmodernrevival(Woodfield.Grovemusiconline.)Annette

Otterstedtalsoprovidesadequateliteratureonthetopic(Otterstedt.2002).In

hisearlywork,BachInterpretation:ArticulationmarksinPrimarysourcesofJ.S.

Bach,Butt(1990)attemptstoassessBach’suseofarticulationmarkingssuchas

slurs,dotsandstrokesinautographmanuscripts(oneofwhichisBWV1027).

ThispublicationprovidesinsightintoBach’smusicalstyleandcomposition

methods,thusalsoinformingthereaderofhisarticulationstyleandpatterns.It

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encompassesthehistory,style,analysisandperformanceofBach’smusicandis

aninvaluableresourcetothoseinterestedinthefield

EDITIONSOFTHESONATASTRANSCRIBEDFORVIOLA

Ishallcomparethreeeditionsofthesonatastranscribedforviolato

Bärenreiter’sNeueBachAusgabe(NewBachEdition),editedbyHansEppsteinof

theoriginalscoringforvioladagamba.TheseeditionswillincludeBärenreiter

Kassel,publishedin1987,editedbyHansEppstein;G.HenleVerlag,publishedin

2000,editedbyErnst‐GünterHeinemann;andBreitkopfandHärtelin1947,

editedbyErnstNaumann.ThecriticalreportbyHansEppsteinwillprovide

insightintotheseeditorialdecisions.Inparticular,Ishallfocusontheeditorial

techniquesusedanddecisionstakentoadaptthesonatasforviola.

LITERATUREONTHEPERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLA

Stowell(Stowell.2001)providesanexcellenthistoricaldescriptionoftheearly

styleofviolaplaying.Thisispivotalinunderstandinghowbesttoapproachthe

sonatasontheviola.Inhiswork,Stowelldiscussestheliterature,historyand

repertoireoftheviolinandviola,andconsidersvariousrelatedinstruments.

Similarstudies(Lee.2004;Morris.1991)havebeenundertakentodescribethe

cellosuitesthatweretranscribedforviola.Anumberofviolaperiodicalsarealso

availablethatmayprovideinsightintotheprogressionofplayingmethod.These

includeTheAmericanViolaResearchSociety,TheBritishViolaResearchSociety

andTheInternationalViolaResearchSociety.IntheirarticleentitledViola

(Boyden,DandWoodward,A.grovemusiconline),BoydenandWoodward

provideageneralhistoryoftheviolafromitsconstructioninthe19thand20th

centuriestoitsplaceincontemporarymusicsociety.Furtherinsightinto

ornamentationcanalsobegleanedfromtheworkbyMcCarty(1997),which

summarisestheviewsoffiveleadingviolaperformersattemptingtoclarify

certainperformancepracticeissues.

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CHAPTEROUTLINE

CHAPTER2:HISTORICALLYINFORMEDPERFORMANCE

Performancepracticeinvolvesallaspectsofmusicperformance–bothpastand

present.Itisofparticularrelevancetothemodernperformerconcernedwith

HistoricallyInformedPerformance(HIP).Fourmajorfacetsshouldbe

consideredwhenexploringperformancepracticesofthepast:a)notation(the

relationshipbetweenhownoteswerewrittenandhowtheywereintendedto

sound.Relevantcomponentsincludetempo,rhythmandarticulation);b)

improvisationandornaments;c)mattersoftuning,pitchandtemperament;and

d)instruments–theirhistory,mechanicsandmethodsofplaying.InChapter2,I

shalllookmorecloselyattheperformance(technique)andstructure

(technology)ofstringinstruments,specificallythevioladagambaandviola.

CHAPTER3:PERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLADAGAMBA

Anunderstandingofthesoundandmechanicsofthevioladagambaiscriticalin

ordertoplaythesesonatasontheviola.Chapter3willaddresstechniquesof

performancepracticeonthevioladagamba,includingbowing,articulationand

ornamentation.Themechanicsoftheinstrumentwillalsobereviewed,asthis

mayhaveinfluencedthekindofmusicwrittenforit.Forexample,theconcave

shapeofthebowcreatesaspecificnuanceofsound(Woodfield&Robinson.

grovemuisconline).

CHAPTER4:EDITIONSOFSONATASTRANSCRIBEDFORVIOLA

Thischapterwillincludeananalysisofthreeeditionstranscribedforviola.They

willbecomparedtoBärenreiter’sNeueBachAusgabe(NBA)oftheThree

SonatasforVioladaGambaandHarpsichord(BWV1027‐1029)editedbyHans

Eppstein,whichinturnwillalsobeanalysed.Thethreeeditionsinclude

BärenreiterKassel,publishedin1987,editedbyHansEppstein;G.HenleVerlag,

publishedin2000,editedbyErnst‐GünterHeinemann;andBreitkopfandHärtel,

editedbyErnstNaumann.

HansEppstein’scriticalreportonthesonatasprovidesanin‐depthanalysisof

editorialadditionsandchangesmadetoBach’sautographofBWV1027and

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copyists’partsforBWV1028and1029.Thesechangesrefermainlyto

articulationmarkingssuchasslursanddots.

Inanalysingtheeditionsfortranscribedviola,thefollowingeditorialtechniques

willbeaddressed:transposition,articulationandornamentation.Bachhad

intendedforthesonatastobeplayedonasix‐stringedvioladagamba.The

implicationofthisisthat,whentranscribedforviola,certainsectionshadtobe

transposedtoamoresuitableregister.Chordswerealsoaffectedandtherefore

adapted.

CHAPTER5:PERFORMANCEPRACTICEONTHEVIOLA

Thischapterwillexplorethepossibilityofimitatingthesoundandarticulation

producedonthevioladagambaonthemodernviola.Inordertoaddressthis

topic,areviewofthehistoryanddevelopmentoftheviolaisrequired.Thiswill

includeaspectsofdesign,soundproductionandarticulation.Itishopedthatthis

chapterwillprovidetheknowledgeandtechniquesneededtoapproachthe

sonatasontheviola.

CHAPTER6:HOWTOPLAYBWV1027ONTHEMODERNVIOLA

InlieuofaconclusionthischapterwillapplytheBaroqueperformancepractice

techniquesdiscussedinthepreviouschaptertotheexecutionofBWV1027on

theviola.

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CHAPTERTWO:HISTORICALLYINFORMEDPERFORMANCE

“PlayingBaroqueworksoninstrumentstheircomposerscouldnothave

knownbutwhichtheaudiencesareexpectedtoacceptasmodern

equivalentsisaformofunacknowledgedtranscription.”(Walls.2003.140)

HISTORICALLYINFORMEDPERFORMANCEMOVEMENTTheHistoricallyInformedPerformance(HIP)movementisoneofthemost

significantperformancestylestohaveemergedfromthetwentiethcentury.

However,ithaslongbeenshroudedincontroversyandcriticism,givingrisetoa

growingscholarlyandcriticaldebate.PioneersinthisfieldincludeLaurence

Dreyfus,HowardMayerBrownandRichardTaruskin.InhiswritingsTaruskin

suggeststhatHIPisasymptomoflatetwentiethcenturymodernism.Further,he

purportsthatverylittleinhistoricalperformanceistrulyhistorical,assomany

aspectsofperformancehavetobeinventedfromexistingpractices(Butt.

grovemusiconline).

TheHIPmovementbeganasameansofrevivingforgottenrepertoires,instruments

andperformancepractices.Inmorerecenttimes,thismovementhasgarnered

muchcontroversy,withopinionsdifferingonwhichconsiderationsandrulesneed

tobefollowed.Taruskinobservesthatthosewhoaimtoperforminahistorically

informedway,byusingperiodinstrumentsandrevivingoldplayingtechniques,

tendto“pickandchoosefromhistory’swares.”Therearemanyexampleswhere

performersofearlymusicknowinglydisregardthehistoricalevidencewhereverit

doesnotconformtotheirideaof‘thetruth’andstillpassitoffasbeingauthentic

(Taruskin.1995:165).Thismayleadto‘unhistoricalsounds’masqueradingas

historicalorauthentic.TheperformanceofHandel’soperasisoftencitedasone

suchexample.Duetotherarityofcapablefalsettistsatthetime,femaleperformers

wouldoftenbedressedasyoungmen.However,intoday’sperformance,the

countertenorispreferred.Taruskinclaimsthatalthoughthismaynotbe

historicallycorrect,itisindeed“authentic.”Heremindsusthathistorical

performanceisthesoundofnownotthen.Theauthenticityisnotderivedfromits

historicalresemblancebutfromitsbeingareflectionof20th‐centurytaste.Whydo

westrivetoplayhistorically,withthepossibilityofmisinterpretingthemusic,

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whenwecancreatesomethingperhapsmorerelevanttotoday’saudiencesand

performers?

Further,Taruskinsuggeststhatanimitationofearly20th‐centuryrecordingsoflate

19th‐centurymusiccaninfactserveasatemplateforhistorically‐informed

performance.However,inrecenttimes,thisviewhasfallenoutoffavour,asthe

modernaudiencetendstodisregardtheseoriginalrecordings.Taruskincautionsthat

historyshouldnotbeforgotten–thatthemusicofthepastshouldnotbeabandoned,

butratherremadeintheimageofthepresent.HecriticizestheHIPmovementforits

lackofcreativity,attributingthistotherigidityofclassicalperformance

expressionism.

ThroughoutTaruskin’swork,thereisapervasiveconcernthattheessenceoftheHIP

movementshouldbepreserved.Hequestionswhethermodernismcouldthreatenthe

aimofHIP,thereliabilityofhistoricalinformationandtheintentionoftheperformers.

Healsoobjectstothedogmaticadherenceonlytoinstrumentsorstylesthatare

historicallycorrect,asthismaydevalueotheraspectsoftheperformance.Iagreewith

theseconcerns.Ideally,oneshouldbeeducatedonallaspectsoftheperformanceprior

toselectinganindividualisedstyle,whichitselfshouldbecolouredbytheperformer’s

owntaste.

AUTHENTICITY

HowardMayerBrown,anexpertinthefieldofAuthenticityinPerformancesuccinctly

summarisesitsfocaldebateasfollows:“Shouldweplaymusicinthewaythe

composerintendedit,orattheveryleastinawayhiscontemporariescouldhave

heardit”(Brown.grovemusiconline)?Hegoesontopositthatitisinfactimpossibleto

createastrictlyauthenticperformance,asuncertaintyaboutitscompositevariables

(suchasthecomposer’soriginalintentions)willalwaysexist.Further,evenifsuch

comprehensiveknowledgewereattainable,thereasonsforperformingmusichave

evolvedovertime.Thus,thecentralcontroversyoftheHIPmovementliesinthe

selectionoftheindividualvariables,whichshouldbecompromised.

Inthetwentiethcenturyalone,therehavebeenmajorchangesinperformancestyles,

sound,techniquesandtechnology.Somerepertories,however,callforspecific

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techniquesandoriginalinstrumentation.Whentheparticularbalanceofthe

instrumentplaysanessentialroleincreatingtheappropriatecharacterinapiece,itis

perhapstheneffectivetousetheoriginalinstrumentation.Thisisparticularly

applicabletoworksoriginating17th‐and18th‐centuryFrance.Brownadvisesthatone

cannotdiscardallmusicofthepastsimplyduetoanapparentpaucityoftheresources

toperformit‘authentically’.Hegoesontoencouragetheperformanceofold

repertoires,evenifinan“inauthentic”way.Hesuggeststhatitisacceptabletoplay

Bach’smusiconmoderninstrumentsasthiswork“canemergeinaperformancethat

translatestheoriginalintomodernterms”(Kenyon.1988:30).

InhisseminalworkonAuthenticity,Haynessuggeststhatexplorationof(ratherthan

strictadherenceto)historicalideasmaybekeytooriginalityandauthenticity

(Haynes.2007:5).Taruskinsupportsthisviewbyadvisingthatadaptationofa

historically‐orientatedframeofmindcanenabletranscendenceofthe“habitual,and

thereforeunconsideredwaysofhearingandthinkingaboutthemusic.”Headdsthat

theintentionoftheperformershouldnotbeto“duplicatethesoundsofthepast,forif

thatwereouraimweshouldneverknowifwesucceeded”(Taruskin.1995:79).

CANONISM

Canonismmaybeconceptualisedasthefundamentalshiftinthinkingthatoccurredin

westernmusicalcultureduringthe19thcentury(Haynes.2007:6).Canonismis

characterisedbyagreatrespectforthecomposer;anobsessionwiththeoriginal

intentionofthecomposer;thepracticeoflisteningintenselytothemusic;andthe

repetitionofalimitednumberofworks(Haynes.2007:6).

HaynessuggeststhatCanonismisuniquetoclassicalmusicanddoesnotexistinany

othermusicalmedium.Baroquecomposers,forexample,wereheldinashighesteem

asweretheRomanticcomposers.Instead,theywereviewedmerelyastalented

craftsmanwhowereabletocomposelargequantitiesofqualitymusic.Oftenthis

musicwasintendedtobeplayedimmediately,andnottoendurethroughtheagesas

“iconicmasterpieces”(Haynes.2007:6).

HaynesdescribestheBaroqueperiodas“acelebrationofephemera”;aperiodwhere

musicthatwasthirtyyearsoldwasconsidered“old.”Thisisinstarkcontrasttothe

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ethosoftheModernera,inwhichmusiccomposedacenturypriorcouldstillbe

viewedas“modern.”Thisshort‐livedphenomenonlasteduntiltheearly19thcentury,

duringwhichamajorshiftinaestheticoccurred.Sincethen,musicianshaveattempted

toincorporatethis“Romantic”stylisticapproachintotheirperformances(Haynes.

2007:21).However,inthemid‐1960s,anotherparadigmshiftoccurred,andmusicians

ofthetimedeliberatelystartedplayingindifferentstyles,thusgivingcredencetothe

HIPmovement.

Inessence,amusicologistcanonlyequipamusicianwiththeknowledgetoaida

performance.Ultimately,however,itistheresponsibilityofthemusiciantoexpress

themusic.Theroleoftheperformerhaschangeddrasticallyoverthecenturies.The

Baroqueperformerwasacraftsmanratherthananartistand‘served’whenplayingor

composingmusic.Therewerefewerconcertsintendedforpublicviewing,andmusic

wasoftencommissionedforprivateconcerts.Thisisincontrasttotheperformances

oftoday,whichcompriseprimarily“recycled”musicdesignedforpublicviewing.

Unlikecontemporarymusicians,Baroque‐eraperformerswerefarmoreconcerned

withthereactionsoftheiraudiences,astheseindividualswerebelievedtobemore

emotionallyinvolvedinthework..Today,however,musiciansaremoreconcerned

withthecomposers’originalintentionsforthemusic(Haynes.2007:131).

Mellersstatesthat“ourpredecessorstendedtothinkthatnoproblemexisted;one

simplyplayedthemusicaccordingtoinheritedcustom,andifintheprocessthey

refashionedit,thatwastheirright”(Mellers.1992:925).DuringtheageofBeethoven

andWagner,‐beforetheHIPmovement‐musicwasperformedandinterpretedtofit

theaestheticofthetime(Haynes.2007:26).Haynestermsthisattitude–

chronocentricism–apositioninwhichoneassumesthatone’sowntimeorperiod

representsthereferencepoint.Thisattituderemainedthenormwellintothe20th

century,withmanymusiciansseekingtopreservetheirmusicalheritage.Thus,the

conceptofadaptingorchangingone’sperformancestyletomatchthecurrentgenreor

eraofmusicdidnotoccurtothem.Consequently,across‐sectionofmusicalgenres

(includingBaroque,RenaissanceandevenMedieval)wasplayedinastandardised

‘Romantic’way(Haynes.2007:27)wellintothe20thcentury,Throughoutthe19th

century,earlymusicperformancesabounded.Forexample,Mendelssohnwasknown

tohostanumberofBachrevivalsincludingtheSt.MatthewPassionperformancesin

16

1829.Unliketoday,musiciansandaudiencemembersalikeviewedtheworksofthe

pastaspartoftheirpresent.Composersofthetime“lookeduponearlymusicnotasa

bodyofhistoricalartefactstobepainstakinglypreservedintheiroriginalstatebutasa

repositoryoflivingartthateachgenerationcould–indeedshould–reinterpretinits

ownstylisticidiom”(Haskell.2001:831).

Haynesdescribessymphonymusiciansasworkingwithinanacknowledgedtradition‐

theyplayrepertoirefromcenturiesagobutconsideritascurrent.Thus,they

approachallmusicalstylesinthesameway.Becausethemusiciansarenotthinking

historicallywhenperforming,theyarenotplayingso.“Onewaytobringthemusicof

thepastintothepresentandthenintothesphereoftimelessnesswastostripitofits

original,localandextra‐musicalmeanings.Byseveringallsuchconnections,itwas

possibletothinkofitnowasfunctionless.Allonehadtodonextwasimposeuponthe

musicmeaningsappropriateforthenewaesthetic”(Goehr.1992:246).Thisisan

archetypicallyRomanticconceptasitdescribesmusicenduringthroughtheages–a

conceptrejectedbyHIP.

Haynesrecommendsapproachingearlymusicwithanopenmind.Hearguesthatitis

impossibletoknowwithcertaintywhatmusicandinstrumentswerereallylikeinthe

Baroqueperiod.Thus,ouraimshouldnotbetostriveforperfection,aswewillnever

knowifwehavesucceeded.Rather,ourgoalshouldbetostriveto“realizethestyleas

weperceiveitatthisparticularmoment”(Haynes.2007:120).

IMPROVISATION/ORNAMENTATION

AmaincharacteristicoftheBaroqueperiodwastheuseofimprovisationin

performance‐nottobeboundorrestrictedbywhatwaswrittendown.Tobea

successfulmusicianofthetime,oneneededtopossesstheabilitytoplayandcompose

musicondemand.ImprovisationwasthuspartofthemusicallanguageoftheBaroque

period.Asaresultofthismusicaltraining,composersusedashort‐handofsortswhen

writingascore(analogoustoaroughsketch,orskeleton),rarelymakinguseofmarks

toindicateexpressionsuchasphrasing,dynamics,note‐shapingandflexibilityof

tempo.Thesegestures,whichwereeliminatedinthescore,wereimpliedinthe

playingstyleofthetime.Thiskindof‘thin’writingallowedtheperformerstousetheir

ownspontaneousinput,whichultimatelycharacterisedthefreedomandexpressive

17

qualityoftheBaroquestyle(Haynes.2007:4).Eachtimeapieceofmusicwasheard,it

wasdifferent,evenwhenplayedbythesameplayer.Itwasthisfeelingofflexibility

thatallowedthemusictobeplayedinmanymediawithmanycombinationsof

instruments(Haynes.2007:4).

IncontrasttothemusiciansoftheBaroqueperiod,performersoftodaydonotpossess

theinherentabilitytoimprovise.Inrecenttimes,therehasbeenashiftfromfreedom

toexpresstoanobligationtoplayexactlywhatiswritten.Haynesclaimsthat

contemporarytraininghasbecome“overspecialized”‐“theabilitytocreatemusichas

becometotallyseparatefromcreatingit”(Haynes.2007:3).Hebelievesthat

musiciansoftodayshould“sharethesenseoffreedomthatmusiciansfeltatthe

[Baroque]time.”Inordertoachievethissenseoffreedom,oneshouldtaketheroleof

arranger/co‐composer.AccordingtoHaynes’,“habitualCanonicthinking”–playing

thesamepiecesoverandoveragain‐hasimpairedmodernmusicians’abilityto

improvise(Haynes.2007:203).Notationisanotherfactorthatstuntsself‐expression‐

a“limiter”,inChristopherSmall’sview(Small.1998:110).PriortotheRomanticera

(pre‐IndustrialRevolution),musicianswerebetterequippedinthespheresof“orality

andliteracy.”TheywereeducatedtointerpretBaroquepartsthatoftenlacked

performanceinstruction(Haynes.2007:204).Baroquemusicianswereabletoread

andimproviseequallywell.

Whendiscussingtherelationshipbetweenperformerandcomposerduringthe

Baroqueera,Haynesstatesthat“thecomposerwritestheplainair,providingthe

performerwithinspirationandmaterialandtheperformercontributesunwritten

additionsonthespot.”Thus,therolesoftheperformerandcomposerwerepairedas

they“decidedhowtorealizetheeffect”ofthemusic.Handel’sorganconcertos,opus4

andopus7,havemovementsmarked“Adagioadlib”and“Fugaadlib,”which

containednowrittensolopart.Handelexpectedthemusiciantobeabletoimprovise

appropriately(Haynes.2007:205).

“Gracing,”atermusedfortheadditionofgracenotes,wasamainfeatureofthe

improvisatorystyleoftheBaroqueandwasadevicetoaddbeautyandsubstanceto

themusic.Itwas“toosubtletobecapturedonpaper”andwasintendedtobe“felt”

(particularlyinthe17thcentury).Theexecutionofsuch“graces”was“theultimatetest

18

ofmusicianshipandgraspofstyle,”oftenrevealingtheperformer’ssensitivityand

imagination(Haynes.2007:205).

PERIODVSMODERNINSTRUMENTS

Inhisdiscussionofthetechniquesusedtoperformearlymusic,JohnButtsuggests

thatperiodinstrumentsmaymaketheplayerawareofhistoricaldifferences,thus

forcinghimtorethinkhistechniquesandtoviewhisrepertoireina“newlight”(Butt.

2002:65).Whenengagingthedebateofmodernversusperiodinstruments,Haynes,

likeMalcolmBilson,agreesthat“noperformanceonmoderninstrumentsorsingers

usingoperaticstylecanapproachtheoriginalconception”andsoundofthemusicof

BachandMozart(Haynes.2007:156).Ontheotherhand,CharlesRosenobjectsto“old

instruments,”statingthat“alivingandunbrokenmusicallanguagefromthepast

[shouldbeexpressed]intothenewsoundofcontemporaryinstruments”(Rosen.

2000:211).Rosen’sviewiscontroversialandcontestedbymostwritersinthefield,

includingTaruskinandHaynes.Haynesquestionsthetermusedtoclassifymodern

instrumentsastheseinstrumentsexisted120‐150yearsagoandarethereforenot

modernintheslightest.Hepreferstousetheterm‘Romantic.’Perhapsamore

appropriatetermwouldbe‘Contemporary’whendescribingtheinstrumentsused

today.

Instrumentsareadaptedtomakethemusicofthetimeeasiertoperform.Theperiod

from1760–1840‐historicallyassociatedwiththeIndustrialRevolution‐wasalso

characterisedbyaseriesofsignificantmusicaldevelopments(BaroquetoClassicalto

Romantic)andinstrumentalchanges.Tuningalsobecamestandardisedtoasimple

EqualTemperament(Haynes.2007:151).Itcanbeargued,however,thatthese

changeswerenotalwaysforthebetter.OneexampleistheuseofRomantic

instrumentstoplayBaroque‐erawork.AccordingtoFabian(Fabian.2003),“The

dynamicnuancesanduneventonaltimbresthataresecondnaturetothebaroque

fluteorbaroquebowinghaveacrucialbearingonarticulationasthesedelineate

rhythmicorornamentalgroupsalmostautomatically,whileamodernfluteorviolin

canonlyimitatetheeffectbysubstitutemeanssuchasaccentingandagogic

inflections”(Fabian.2003:247).Further,Haynes’positsthat“better”reallymeans

19

best‐adaptedtothedemandsofthemusic;thatbymatchingtheappropriate

instrumenttotheappropriatemusic,onewillstandthebestchanceatsuccess.

Playingonperiodinstrumentsencouragestheperformertoexperimentwiththeir

soundsandtechniques,buthas“littledirecteffectontheplayer’sstylisticapproachto

themusic”(Haynes.2007:153).Inhisselectionofessays,TextandAct,Taruskinstates

that“instrumentsdonotplaymusic,peopledo”(Taruskin.1995:130).Baroquemusic

ischaracterizedbyquickdynamicchanges,whichareeasiertoexecuteonperiod

instrumentsthanonmodernones.Modernor‘Romantic’instruments,however,are

moreadaptedtolong‐linephrasingtoaccommodateamoreRomanticstyle.Thus,

whenmoderninstrumentsplayearlymusic,theyoftenjoinallthephrasingand

neglectthesubtlenuancesoriginallyfoundinthescore(Haynes.2007:153).

TheperiodbowsandgutstringsalsomakeiteasiertoachievetheeffectsofBaroque

music.AccordingtoHaynes,“theRomanticbowdoesnotaswillinglyshapeeachnote,

theRomanticreeddoesnotallowsuddenandextremechangesofdynamic,[and]the

Romantickeysystemeliminatestheoptionsofalternatefingeringandfinger‐vibrato”

(Haynes.2007:153).Today’sinstrumentsaretunedatapproximatelya’=440Hz,which

isasemitonehigherthantheinstrumentsforwhichBachcomposed.Thishasa

profoundeffectonthesoundqualityandtoneofthemusic,especiallyinworks

involvingsingers.

WhileTaruskinmaynotbeinfullagreementthat“originalinstruments”arenecessary

forearlymusicperformance,hedoessuggestthattheypossesssomepractical

advantagesincertainrepertoires.UsingBeethoven’scellosonatasasanexemplar,he

putsforwardthatproperbalanceoftheseworksisbetterachievedwithafortepiano

ratherthanagrandpiano.Taruskinjudgesthe‘artistry’ofaperformancebythe

performer’sabilitytostrategiseandmakethebestperformancedecision.“Ifabetter

balanceiseasiertoachieveinonemediumthaninanother,thenthoseworkinginthe

hardermediumdeservegreatercreditfortheirbalances”(Taruskin.1995:299).

Taruskinsub‐dividesclassicalmusicasfollows:theHIPmovement,wherenoworkof

artmaybecomprehended,orevenapprehended,exceptintermsofitshistoricity;and

the“mainstreampostmodernism”movement(Taruskin.1995:300).Taruskinbelieves

thatmusicofthepastmaybeexecutedonpresent‐dayinstruments,aslongasitis

20

doneinapost‐modernapproach,devoidofanymetaphysicalorethnocentric

assumptions.Inotherwords,oneshouldapproachthemusicwithoutpreconceived

notionsofhowitshouldsound,asitwouldbeimpossibletorecreatethesamesound

onadifferentinstrument.Althoughmostcellistsshyawayfromplayingtheviolada

gambasonatas,therecentsurgeinskilfulgambaandharpsichordplayershasensured

theseworksarenotneglected.InTaruskin’sview,however,herecallsnorecordingof

thiscombination“inspired”(Taruskin.1995:301).Hegoesontoreviewthreecello‐

pianorecordingsofBach’svioladagambasonatas,includingthe1950performanceby

PabloCasalsandPaulBaumgartner.ThisisanexampleofaBachperformanceinpre‐

modernistdays.Casalsapproachedthemusicinatypicallyromanticway.Ifitwere

viewedfromahistoricallyinformedperspective,itwouldbeconsideredabsurd

(Taruskin.1995:301).Casalswascriticizedfor“playingBachinthestyleofBrahms”

buthewasacontemporaryofBrahmsinatimewhereBach’smusicwasnotseenasa

“deadlanguageinneedofphilologicalrevival”(Taruskin.1995:302).Hesimplyplayed

themusictheonlywayheknewhow.Casalswasnotfacedwiththeproblemof

definingthestyleinwhichheplayedBachheonlyhadtoexcelinit.HeplayedBachin

thestylehewasmostfamiliarwith(inthestyleofBrahms)andthuscreatingasense

ofintimacywithBach.Heplayedinawayhefeltmostcomfortableandcouldtherefore

interpretthemusicinanauthenticway.Thatintimacyislostinmodernhistorical

performance,despitetheinclusionofsoundsthatmorecloselyresemblethe

performancesofBach’stime(Taruskin.1995:302).

AlthoughCasals’styleofperformanceisadmirable,itcannotbeemulatedinthe

presentday.Thisperformerlivedandworkedinahistoricalperiodfarmore

reminiscentofBach’serathanisours(Taruskin.1995:303).Thus,itcanbeargued

thathisauthenticitywas“inherited”(Taruskin.1995:303)fromhispredecessors.

Taruskinpurportsthatmodern‐daymusicianslackthisinherentauthenticity,often

revertingtoobediencetoone’steacherorrelianceonoriginalinstrumentsor

historicalevidence.Hebelievesthatthesearesimplymeansofevadingthe

responsibilityofchoiceanddecision.Inhisview,trulyauthenticinterpretersofmusic

ofthepastarethose“whosestylesowetheleasttogeneralizedpreceptandthemost

toacute,personal,andhighlyspecificobservation”(Taruskin.1995:303).Heuses

GlennGould’sinterpretationofthegambasonatas,inwhichapost‐modernist

21

approachisdepicted,asanexplanatoryexample.Gould’sunique,authenticsoundmay

beattributedtohisinterpretingthemusicthroughitstexture–thethree‐part

counterpointembodiedinthewriting.Gould’stechniquesincludefreelychangingthe

musictosuitthecounterpoint(byaddingchordsadlib),improvising,andexpanding

therhythmtocreateindependencebetweenthetwolines.

ThelastoftherecordingsforcelloandpianoisplayedbyMischaMaiskyandMartha

Argerich.Argerichtriestoimitatethetouchoftheharpsichordonthepiano,andits

styleatthecadences.However,thisresultsinlossof“pianisticintegrity”(Taruskin.

1995:305).

AccordingtoGlennGould(amongothers),Bachwasindifferenttotheinstrumentsfor

whichhecomposed,ratherintendingforhismusicitselftobethefocus.Anopposing

viewisthatBachwasundoubtedlyawareoftheinstrumentsforwhichhecomposed,

andkepttheirspecificaffectsinmind(Haynes.2007:158).Ultimately,thisdebatemay

onlyberesolvedbyindividualmusicianswhoshouldrelyontheirpersonaltasteto

informtheirperformancestyles.

Haynesquestionsthereliabilityoforiginalinstrumentsandadvisesthatimitatingthe

pastmaynotbethebestorwisestoption.Hecautionsthat“wecouldgotoofarwith

duplicatingthepastunthinkingly.Withoutexercisinganyjudgement,wecould

reproducesomecharacteristicthathamperedplayersatthetime…”(Haynes.

2007:159).Ifwemayrectify‘mistakes’orimproveuponthepast,“wemay

inadvertentlyeliminatedifferencesbetweenthepresentandthepast”(Haynes.

2007:159).Anexampleofthiscanbefoundineditionsinwhichbowingandfingerings

havebeenaddedtotheoriginalscore.InHaynes’sview,itis“prematuretoclaimwe

knowmuchyetabouthowmostperiodinstrumentsoriginallysounded,orwere

originallyplayed”(Haynes.2007:162).

22

CHAPTERTHREE:THEVIOLADAGAMBA

Thischapterwillbedividedintwoparts:thehistoryofthevioladagambaand

howitisplayed.Thesectiononitshistorywillincludethetypesofviols,the

playersandthetreatises;andthepracticalsectionwillincludethephysical

aspectsofthevioladagamba,suchasthefrets,temperamentandthebow,and

howtheyaffectthetechnicalapproachtoplayingtheinstrument.Thesetechnical

aspectsincludefingering,chordalplaying,bowingandhowtoholdthebow.

PART1

VIOLTYPES

Throughoutthe16thand17thcenturies,thevioltookonawiderangeofsizesand

forms.Themostpopularofthesewasthebassviol,alsocalledtheviolada

gamba.Duringitsearlyhistory,theviolunderwentconsiderablestructural

change,eventuallybecomingfairlystandardintheearly16thcenturywithits

“deepribs,slopingshouldersandmiddlebouts”(Woodfield.grovemusiconline).

Thebellyandthebackoftheviolareverylightlyconstructedwiththebelly

gentlyarchedandthebackflat,exceptatthetopwhereitslopesintowardsthe

neck.Theneck,too,hasundergonemanychangesduringitsdevelopmental

course.Intheearly17thcenturyitresembledthestructureofacello,andwas

fairlyround.WithsubsequentdevelopmentsinFrenchviolmaking,theneckof

theinstrumentbecameflatter,resemblingthatofalute.Ingeneral,theneckof

Frenchinstrumentswasofthinnerwoodandalsosetatagreaterangle.Thelyra

wasthesmallestofthebassviolfamily,buthasincreasedinsizeovertheyears

withthedivisionandconsortbassviols.Attheendofthe17thcentury,thesize

ofFrenchstringinstrumentstendedtoincrease,asaseventhstringwasadded

andabiggerbodywasrequiredtoaccommodatethechange1.

Likeitsfellowstringinstruments,theviolalsounderwentanumberofstructural

changes,Itacquiredabassbarandsound‐post,anditsneck(whichpreviously

hadbeenstraightandcontinuedthelineoftheupperedgeoftheribs)wasset

backatanangle,thusgivingthestringsgreaterelevation(Brown.1990:69).

1RousseaubelievedMonsieurdeSainteColombéaddedtheseventhstring(Rousseau.1687:24).

23

Mostviolshavesixstrings2.Thestandardsequenceofintervalsofthestrings

consistsofa4th,4th,major3rd,4th,4th.Themostcommontuningsequenceofthe

violsfoundinaconsortare:d‐g‐c’‐e’‐a’‐d”(treble);G‐c‐f‐a‐d’‐g’(tenor)andD‐G‐

c‐e‐a‐d’(bass).

HISTORY

Duringthelate16thandearly17thcenturies,manywell‐knownEnglishviolists

tookupresidenceandemploymentinGermany,Denmark,AustriaandSpain.

Thispopularisedtheuseoftheviolintheseregions,andhadamajorimpacton

itsdevelopment.AmongthemigratingmusicianswereWilliamBrade,Thomas

Simpson,WalterRowe,DanielNorcombe,HenryButelrandWilliamYoung.

BradeandSimpsonpublishedcollectionsofconsortmusicincludingmany

dancesbyEnglishcomposers.NorcombeandButlercomposeddivisionsthat

weregreatlycommended.Butlerwrotemoretaxingandvirtuosomusicforthe

viol,whichexploreditsrange.ThefirstpublishedsonatasbyanEnglishmen

includeWilliamYoung’sSonataea3,4e5fortwotofourviolins,obligatobass

violandcontinuo(1653).ThevirtuositydisplayedbytheseBritishviolistsmay

wellhaveinspiredthesolostyleoftheviol.

ThefrequentuseoftheviolinthescoringofLutheranchurchmusicisevidence

oftheviol’spopularityinGermanyinthe17thcentury.Atthistime,violswere

mostcommonlyusedtoexpressthe“deeplyfeltLutheranLamento”(Woodfield.

grovemusiconline),andcontinuedtobeusedinsacredcompositionsuntilthe

1680’s.Theseworkswerescoredaspartofaconsortconsistingeitherofmany

bassviolsorabassviolalongsideotherinstruments.Withtheacceptanceofthe

stringquartetasthecoreforthe18thcenturyorchestra,theviollostitsposition

intheinstrumentalensemble.However,18thcenturycomposersoccasionally

chosetoemployitsunusualtimbreforspecialeffect,particularlyinPassionsand

funeralcompositions.SuchcomposersincludeTelemannandCPEBach.JSBach,

renownedforhisuseoftheviolinsacredmusic,scoredforitinthreesacred

cantatas(BWV76,106,152),theTrauerOde(BWV198)andthreePassions.His

mostfamousariaswithviolobbligatoincludeEsistvollbrachtinStJohnPassion

2AseventhstringwasaddedtothebassviolinthelateseventeenthcenturyinFrance.Therearealsosomeformswithonlyfivestrings.

24

andKommsüssesKreuzintheStMatthewPassion.Bach,followingthe18th

centurytradition,usedthevioltoemphasizethelamentofhiswork(Woodfield.

grovemusiconline).

Towardstheendofthe17thcentury,thesoloviolschool(rootedintheEnglish

Divisionstyle)becameinfluencedbythe“thrivingItalianinspiredAustro‐

Germanviolinschool”(Woodfield.grovemuisconline).Manyvirtuosoviolin

players,suchasSchop,NicolausBleyerandBiber,werealsoviolplayers,and

begantoincorporatemorevirtuosopassagesofshowyscalesandarpeggiosin

violscores.

WhilethisvirtuosoviolstyleisevidentintheworksofCarolousHacquartand

JacobRiehman(Netherlandsschool),Schenkremainsthemostprolificofthe

school.Hisfirstpublicationofviolmusic,Tydenkonstoeffeningen(Amsterdam,

1688)comprisesfifteensonatasforviolandcontinuoofa“breath‐taking

virtuosonature…Multiplestoppingandtheuseofhighpositionsareall

hallmarksofhiswriting”(Woodfield.grovemusiconline).Telemannwroteone

work,anunaccompaniedsonata,intheGermanvirtuosotradition.CarlFriedrich

AbelwasthelastmemberintheGermanschooltowriteforvirtuousviol–his

twenty‐sevenunaccompaniedpiecesencompassalltechniquesofthevirtuoso

stylewith“resonantarpeggiatedpassageworkandlargeslursofuptothirty

notes,someofwhicharemarkedstaccato”(Woodfield.grovemusiconline).

TREATISES/TUTORS

Thepopularityoftheviolamongstamateurplayersresultedinthepublicationof

manyvioltutors,includingtreatisesbyGanassi,DanonvilleandSimpson.In

Woodfield’sview,themostinterestingandsignificantinstrumentaltutortohave

emergedfromthe16thcenturyisSylvestroGanassi’sRegolaRubertina(Venice,

1542‐1543).Thisworkincludesinformationaboutposture,bowingand

fingeringtechniques,tunings,methodsofplacingfretsandtestingthequalityof

strings,performingdiminutionsandaccompanyingsingersinthemannerofthe

liradabraccio(Woodfield.1978:544).AccordingtoWoodfield,itwasnotuntil

Simpson’spublicationoftheDivisionViolin1659thataworkof“comparable

25

value”becameavailable.Therefore,Ganassi’stutorremainsaninvaluableasset

tounderstandhowtheviolwasplayedinthe16thcentury.

Incontrasttotoday’stheorists,thefocusof16thcenturytheoristswasto

describethemanymelodicformulaewithwhichaperformercoulddecoratehis

music.Withthisstylecamemanytreatisesforindividualinstrumentsandthe

developmentofcontrastingidiomaticstyles.InPond’sopinion,thesolobassviol,

whichflourishedsobrieflyintheFrenchcourt,wasoneofthe“moreinteresting

examplesofthisdevelopment”(Pond.1978:512).Many(includingPond)believe

that,JeanBaptisteRousseau’sTraitedelaviol(1687)isthemostcomprehensive

treatisefortheviolplayer.

DuringBach’stime,theviolhadasatisfyingroleasasoloinstrumentand

participatedfullyintherichcantataandpassionrepertory(Brown.1990:67).Its

popularitypeakedinFrancefromabout1680onwards.Manytutorswere

publishedduringthistimeincludingDeMarchy’sPiecesdeviole(1685)and,a

yearlater,MarinMarais’sfivebooksofPieces.

PART2

FRETS/TEMPERAMENT

Frets,madefrompiecesofstretchedgut,aretiedaroundtheneckina

specializedfretknot.Whilethereareusuallysevenfretsplacedatintervalsofa

semitone,aneighthmaybeaddedattheoctave(Simpson.1659).Allfretsmaybe

finelyadjustedtoimprovethetuning.AccordingtoSimpson,thestringsshould

lieclosetothefingerboard“foreaseandconvenienceofstopping’”(Woodfield.

grovemusiconline).Consideringthefrettingoftheviol,itfollowsthatitwas

usuallytunedinequaltemperament.

Thetuning,particularlyoffrettedinstruments,becomesnoticeablewhenplaying

withkeyboardinstruments(Kuijken.1978:10).Inhistutor,Ganassi(1543)

includesadiagramdemonstratingtherepositioningoffretstomatchthe

temperamentoftheharpsichord.Hedoesnotprovideanexplanationforthe

repositioning,onlyinstructingtheplayertorearrangethefretsasshown.“Ifit

doesn’tsoundintuneoneshouldjustmovethem.Thiswillresultinunevenly

spacedfrets”(Ganassi.1543:60).

26

FRETS/FINGERING/CHORDALPLAYING

Ganassielaboratesextensivelyonfingerpatternsonallthefrets,including

patternsabovethefrets.SomeofthemorevirtuousplayersofGanassi’sera

playedbeyondthesefrets.Whenchangingpositionsanopenstringwasplayedto

avoidagapinthemusic.Ganassiwaswellawarethatthefingeringinfast

passageshadtobecarefullyconsideredinordertoaccommodatethebow.

Whereverpossible,stringcrossingsweretobeavoidedbyplayinginhigher

positionsonthelowerstrings–notonlyfromatechnicalperspective,butalsoto

retainthe“visualgracefulness”oftheperformer(Woodfield.1978:547).

Ganassiconsiderednotonlymattersoftechnicalitywhendealingwithfingering,

butalsoitseffectonthesound.Hisviewwasthattheinstrumentalistshould

strivetoimitatethehumanvoiceinitsabilitytoexpressarangeofemotionsand

tonesubtleties.Onesuchexamplemaybetoplayinahigherpositiononalower

string.Bychangingbowdirectionondifferentnotes,onemayalsochangethe

emphasisofthework,thusalteringitsmood.Woodfieldprovidesasummaryof

Ganassi’svariousleft‐handtechniques,thusdemonstratingtheextenttowhich

Ganassielaboratedonthesubject(Woodfield.1978:549).

Simpson’sruleforstoppingstatesthat,“…whenyousetanyfingerdownyouare

toletitrestthereuntilsomeoccasionrequiretheremovingofit.”Thistechnique

alsoensuresfor“betterorderoffingeringandthatthefingersmaypassmore

smoothlyfromnotetonote,withoutliftingthemtoofarfromthestrings…alsoto

continuethesoundofanotewhenthebowhathleftit”(Simpson.1659:5).

ThemostcharacteristicfeatureofFrenchviolplaying‐particularlyattheendof

the17thcentury‐ischordplaying.Violplayingwasoriginallyinfluencedbythe

linearstructureoftheluteandvocalmusic,beforeadoptingamorechordal

structure.However,theexecutionofsuchchordsmaydistorttherhythmand

flowofthemelody.“Achordoffourorfivenotesislikelytooverpoweramelody

linesimplybyvolumeandthereforeinterrupttheflowofmusicsomewhat

explosively”(Pond.1978:512).Thus,acertaindegreeoffreedomwasafforded

performersinordertofitachordintothemusic.Thevirtuosodemandsmadeon

theplayeralsoallowedforthedevelopmentofafreerhythmicstyleinFrench

27

violmusic,asthebeatneededtobeexpandedtoaccommodatethenumberof

writtennotes.Severalcomposersincludedanexplanatorytableoftheornaments

andtheirexecutionatthebeginningoftheirbooks.

Chords,forminganintegralpartofviolplaying,developedintheEnglishlyraviol

musicintheearly17thcenturyandbecomeverypopularamongstFrench

Baroquecomposers.Intheirdescriptionofthebowingofchords,Simpsonand

Macestatethatthelowestnoteshouldbesoundedproperlybeforethebowis

drawnacrosstheotherstrings.Simpsonadvisesthatthebasicapproachtoviol

fingeringallowsthemaximumresonanceofthechord.SimpsonandsomeFrench

playerspositionedtherightthumbatthebackoftheneckoppositetheindex

finger(firstfinger),whilethefollowersofSainteColombeplacedtherightthumb

oppositethemiddlefingerforbetterextensionandflexibility(Brown.1990:90).

BOWHOLD/BOWING

Theconcavedesignoftheviolbowprovides“theadvantageofamoresensitive

responsetothenuance”(Woodfield.grovemuisconline).Danonvillestatesthata

violbow“mustbeofChinesewood,andshouldnotbetooheavybecauseit

makesthebowinghandclumsy,nortoolight,becausethenitcannotplaychords

[easily]enough;butaweightproportionedtothehandwhichiswhyIleavethat

tothechoiceoftheonewhoplaystheviol”(Danonville.1687).

“Inmusicmaking,beautyrevealsitselfinthewayinwhichaplayerholdshis

instrument,whenhispostureandthemovementsofhishandandhiswhole

bodyaresocontrolledthathisaudienceiscompelledtofallsilent”(Ganassi.

1542/43:8).Whendiscussingthebowhold,Ganassistatesthatitshouldbeheld

withthreefingers‐thethumb,indexandmiddlefingers.Thethumbandmiddle

fingershouldholdthebowensuringitdoesnotfall,whiletheindexfingershould

“actasalever,topressthebowontothestringstoagreaterorlesserdegree,as

themusicdemands”(Ganassi.1542/43:9).Whendrawingthebowacrossthe

strings,thebowshouldbeatadistanceofapproximatelyfourfingers’width

fromthebridge,“drawingthearmbackwardsandforwardskeepingitrelaxed

withalightbutfirmtouch.”LikeSimpson,Ganassiagreesthatlongernotevalues

28

aremovedbythearm,whilemore“emphatic”passagesare“bestplayedby

movingthewrist”(Ganassi.152/43:10).

Throughhismethodofperformance,Ganassiexpressedthatviolplayingshould

beexpressive,thusimitatingthehumanvoice.Themeansbywhichheachieved

thisvarietyinexpressionincludea“tremar”orshakingofthebowarmandleft

hand(possiblyrepresentingtremolando(bowvibrato)andvibrato);andaltering

thevarietyoftonedependingonwhichpartofthestringisbeingplayed.

Whenconsideringthebowgrip,Simpsonstatesthatoneshould“holdthebow

betwixttheendsofyourthumbandtwoforemostfingers,neartothenut.The

thumbandthefirstfingerfastenedtothestalk;andthesecondfingersend

turnedinshorter,againstthehairsthereof;bywhichyoumaypoiseandkeepup

thepointofthebow”(Simpson.1659:5).

Woodfieldclaimsthataccentsarenotpossibleontheviolasthedownandup

strokesaredrawnacrossthestring,ratherthandownonthestring.Light

accentscanonlybeachievedbymeansofincreasedpressureatthebeginningof

eachstroke.Thus,violbowingisessentiallytheexactreverseofbowingonthe

violin.

Simpson’sruleforthemotionofthebowstatesthat,“whenthereisaneven

numberofquavers,semiquaversas2,4,6,8youmustbeginwithyourbow

forward.”Withoddnumberslike3,5,7,“thefirstofthatoddnumbermustbe

playedbackward.Andthisismostproperlythemotionofthebow;althoughnot

absolutelywithoutexception”(Simpson.1659:5).Forquick‐notepassages,the

notesshouldbeexpressedbymoving“somejointnearerthehand:whichis

generallyagreedupontobethewrist.”Therearetwomajorviewsconcerning

theuseofthe‘elbow‐joint.’Oneadvisesthatitshouldbekept‘straightandstiff’;

whiletheotherrecommendsthatthearmshouldbekept‘freeandloose’sothat

themotionofthewristcanbestrengthenedandassistedbythecomplianceor

‘yielding’oftheelbowjointuntoit(Simpson.1659:6).Forsmoothdivision

playing,Simpsonprefersastraighteningorstiffeningoftheelbowjoint,but

statesthatthe“skippingdivision”cannotbe“wellexpressedwithoutsome

29

consentoryieldingoftheelbowjointuntothemotionofthewrist”(Simpson.

1659:6).

“ThetechniqueofFrenchbaroqueplayingclearlybuildsonthatofthe17th

centuryEnglishmasters”(Brown.1990:69).TheFrenchwritersoftechnique

(J.B.A.Forqueray,Marais,Loulie)adviseusingthethirdfingeronthehairofthe

bowformoresubtlecontrolofinflections.Inallcases,muchemphasisisplaced

ontheflexibilityofthewristandthearm.Theprincipleoftheviolbowing

techniqueisanalmostinverseofthatoftheviolinfamily–“anatural

consequenceoftheunderhandgrip(Brown.1990:69).Theupbow(pushbow)is

naturallystrongerthanthedownbow(pullbow).

InChristopherHogwood’sinterview,WielandKuijken(abassviolplayer)

discussesthetechniqueandsignificanttreatisesofthisinstrument.Kuijken

explainsthemoretechnicalcomponentsofChristopherSimpson’sDivisionviol,

referringtoperformancemethodsofstartingwithstraightlongnotesbefore

creatingaswellinthemiddleofthestroke,ie.startingfromnothingandcoming

backtopiano(Simpson.1659:3,10).

Hsuemphasisestheimportancenotonlyoflearningthebowingpatternsofthe

viol,butalsoofunderstandingthetonalqualityandinflectionforwhichFrench

playersinthe17thand18thcenturiesstrove(Hsu.1978:256).Unlikethesmooth

bowstrokeoftheItalianviolinist,thebasicbowstrokeoftheFrenchviolplayer

wassimilarincharactertothepluckingoftheharpsichord(Hsu.1978:526).In

Defensedelabassedeviole(1740),HubertLeBlancstates,“Thesebowstrokes

aresimple,withthebowstrikingtheviolstringasthejackspluckthe

harpsichordstringsandnotcomplexlikethatoftheItalians,wherethebow,by

useofsmoothandwell‐connectedupanddownbowswhosechangesare

imperceptible,producingendlesschainsofnotes….”(Hsu.1978:526).3

Inhisdescriptionoftheup‐bowinMéthodepourapprendreájonerlaviole

(c.1700),EtienneLoulieadvises,“whenyouwanttobeginwithanupbow,the

wristshouldbebentsomewhatinwardpressingthestringwiththehairatthe

tipofthebowbyleaningthemiddlefingerratherheavilyonthehairasthough3TranslationbyJohnHsu.EarlyMusicvol.6,no.4.1978:526.

30

youwanttograteorscratchthestring.Assoonasthestringwantstosound,

relievethetensiononthehair,thatistosaydonotpress(themiddlefinger)as

heavily;atthesametimereversethewristmovementsothatitleansvery

slightlytowardstheright.Continuetheupbowdirectionandkeepthesame

wristposition.Therestofthearmfromthewristtotheelbowandfromthe

elbowtotheshoulder,shouldfollowthemovementinsuccession”(Hsu.

1978:526).4Whendescribingthetechniqueofthedownbow,hestates,“when

youwanttobeginwithadownbow,thewristshouldbebentsomewhatoutward

andturnedveryslightlytotheright.Pressthestringwiththehairofthebow

verynearthehandbyleaningthemiddlefingerratherheavilyonthehairas

thoughyouwanttoscratchthestring.Assoonasthestringbeginstosound,

relievethetensiononthehair,thatistosay,donotpress(themiddlefinger)as

heavily;atthesametimepushandstraightenthewristandevenleanitvery

slightlytotheleft.Continuethedownbowdirectionandkeepthesamewrist

position.Therestofthearm,fromthewristtotheshoulder,shouldfollowas

thoughitwereasinglepieceyetwithoutstiffening”(Hsu.1978:526).5

Thepercussiveorpluckingeffectofthesoundatthebeginningofeachstrokeis

achievedbytheactionofthemiddlefingerandflexiblemovementofthewrist.

Oneisabletovarytheeffectsofthepluckingandtoneproductionbychanging

theamountofpressureappliedtothestringandthespeedwithwhichthearm

drawsacrossthestring.JeanBaptisteForquerayagreesthatthethird(middle)

fingerisresponsibleforachievingexpressivenessandnuance,stating,“itisinthe

actionofthethirdfingerofthebowarmthatistheprimemoverofexpressive

playingandthatgivescharactertoallthemusic.Forthispurpose,thefirstjoint

ofthethirdfingershouldrestcrosswiseonthehairofthebowandalways

remaininthatposition.Thefingerpushesthehaironthestringinordertodraw

moreorlesssoundbyleaningorreleasingimperceptibly,whichresultsin

loudnessandsoftness”(Hsu.1978:526).

ThistechniqueischaracteristicofFrenchviolplayinganddiffersfromthat

describedbyGanassiinthe16thcenturyandfromthemorelyricalwayofplaying

4TranslationbyJohnHsu.Earlymusic.Vol.6,no.4.1978:526.5Sameasabove.

31

consortviolmusic.Dependingonthecharacterofthework,thesmoothbow

strokethatbeginswithanimperceptiblesilencewasalsousedincertainFrench

styles.

RESONANCE/SOUNDQUALITY

Theviolcontinuestoresonatelongafterthebowhasleftthestrings.Thefrets

andmanystringsareresponsibleforthisresonance.AccordingtoKuijken,one

shouldusethisqualitytoone’sadvantageinperformance.Forexample,when

playingachord,oneshouldleavethefingersonthestring.Thisensuresmore

resonanceasthenotesofthechord‐particularlythebassnotes‐ring.This

techniquehasbeendescribedinmostvioltutors(Kuijken.1987:6).Simpson

referstoitas“holds”(Simpson.1659:5)andtheFrench,LesTenuës(Demachy,

DanovilleandRousseau).

Woodfieldattributestheviol’sextremeresonancesandreadyresponsetothe

bowtoitslightbodyconstructionandrelativelylowtensiononitsstrings.“Its

toneisquietbuthasareedy,ratherdistinctivenasalqualityandthismakesitan

idealinstrumentforplayingpolyphony,inwhichclarityoftextureisofgreatest

importance”(Woodfield.grovemusiconline).

Theresonanceisalsoenhancedbythefrets.Thefingerpressesdownhardonthe

stringdirectlybehindthefretandthisproducesaneffectsimilartothatofan

openstring.Thefretsalsoensurestableintonation,thusallowingthelefthandto

assumeagreatervarietyofposturesthanwouldbepossibleonanunfretted

instrumentsuchastheviolinorcello.

ORNAMENTATION/BOW/VIBRATO

Itwastheopinionofmanyvioltutorsofthe17thcenturythatthebowwas

responsibleforthesoulofthemusic.Thebowwasusedtocreatecertain

inflectionstoprovokeparticulareffects.Acommonbowedornamentofthetime

includedtheenfle.Whendescribingtheenfle,Loulie(c.1700)states,“Itbegins

afterthepreparation–thatisafterthemomentofstillnesswhichprecedesthe

wristmovementatthebeginningofthestroke,thestringmustnotscratch,butit

mustbemadetosoundasquietlyaspossibleatfirst,andthenmoreandmore

stronglyastheupordownbowcontinues.”Maraisindicatesthesametechnique

32

byaneplacedaboveorafteranote.Itimpliesaswelltoemphasisenoteson

rhythmicallyweakbeats,thehighestnotesofphrasesandthelastportionof

suspendednotes.Itspurposeistocreatemusical“sighsandsobs”withinasingle

beat(Brown.1990:90).

Simpsonclassifiesgracenotesintotwo:bybowandbyfingers.Gracingwiththe

bowincludesplayingloudlyorsoftly,growingloudertowardsthemiddleor

endingandshakingortremblingwiththebow(liketheshakingstopofthe

organ).Finger‐gracingmaybeclassifiedaseithersmoothorshaked.Thesmooth

variantdescribestherisingandfalling(analogoustoaglissando);andthe

shakedakindofvibrato,whichcanbeeither‘closeoropen’(Simpson.1659:9).

UnlikehisFrenchcounterpartsDemachyandMarais,Simpsondidnotprioritise

ornaments(Kuijken.1978:5).Thereweretwotypesofvibrato‐piante,the

commonly‐usedonefingervibrato;andflatement,whichusestwofingersandis

onlyemployedinspecificinstances(Kuijken.1978:6).Simpsonreferredtothe

latteras‘close‐shake’(Simpson.1659:11).

InKuijken’sview,violornamentationshouldremainjustthatandshouldnot

becometooimportantinthemusic.Trills,forexample,shouldnotbeplayedtoo

loudly.“Ifyouuseforcewiththebowwhenyouareplayingatrillitisalways

terrible”(Kuijken.1978:9).Inhisopinion,itisimportantthusforalltrillsto

diminuendo.Vibratoshouldbesweetandsoft,especiallyinslowpiecesand

strongerwhenthemusicismorepassionate.Thecoutédedoigt,oftenusedin

Frenchviolmusic,isaglissandobetweensemitonesandmostlychromaticones

(Danoville.43,Rousseau.1687:101).

33

CHAPTERFOUR:THEEDITIONS

ThefollowingchapterwillexaminetheeditionsofthreepublicationsofJohann

SebastianBach’sThreeSonatasforVioladagambaandharpsichord,transcribed

forviola:BärenreiterKassel,publishedin1987,editedbyHansEppstein;G.

HenleVerlag,publishedin2000,editedbyErnst‐GünterHeinemann;and

BreitkopfandHärtel,publishedin1947,editedbyErnstNaumann.Eachedition

willbecomparedtotheoriginalvioladagambasonatasintheNeueBach

Ausgabe(NBA):Bärenreiter’scriticaledition,editedbyHansEppsteinand

publishedin1989.AnanalysisoftheNBAwillbeincludedalongwiththesources

thatwereconsultedduringtheeditorialprocess.Inorderforeachpublicationto

adaptthesonatasforviola,certainchangesandadditionswererequired.These

techniquesormethodsincludedtransposingthesectionsthatarenotplayableor

difficulttoexecuteontheviolatoamoresuitableregister;rearrangingchords;

andchangingoraddingslursfortechnicalconvenience.

Thethreesonatasforvioladagambaandharpsichordarebelievedtobe

arrangementsofworksoriginallyintendedforothercombinationsof

instruments.Thefirstofthese,BWV1027,isbasedonanearlierversionfortwo

flutesandbassocontinuo(BWV1039),whichinturnmaywellhavebeenan

arrangementofanearlierversion.

BWV1027istheonlyoneexistingsonatainautograph.Thus,itisaclearerand

morereliabledepictionofBach’swritingforvioladagambawithrespectto

articulationmarkings.Inthissonata,Bach’sattitudetowardsnotating

articulationdiffersfromhisothermanuscripts.Ingeneral,hetendedtomark

articulationonlyuntilthefirstappearanceofanewfiguration.Inthissonata,

however,almosteverymarkneededispresent.InJohnButt’sopinion,this

divergencefromthenormcouldhavebeenforinstrumentation;theslurringand

bowingisoffundamentalimportanceintheproductionofnotesontheviolada

gamba(Butt,J.1990:148).

34

BÄRENREITER’SNEUEBACHAUSGABE(NBA)EDITEDBYHANS

EPPSTEINWITHACRITICALREPORTThearticulationmarkingsinBach’smanuscriptswereoftenvolatileandhasty–a

featurethathascauseduncertaintyamongsteditorsovertheages.6However,it

wasnotBach’sintentionfortheslurstoberead“strictly”(Bach:NBAVI/4.

1989:14).Whencomposing,Bachconsideredmusicianswhowerewell‐versedin

thetraditionandstyleofperformanceandwerethusinapositiontounderstand

andinterprethisrecommendednotation.InEppstein’sspecialnotes,hestates

thattheNBAdoesnotlayclaimtoabsoluteauthority,ratherprovidingalternate

solutionsbylistingtheoriginalmarkingsfoundinBach’smanuscriptsand

copyist’sparts.

BWV1027:SONATANO.1

MOVEMENTI:ADAGIO/MOVEMENTII:ALLEGROMANONTANTO

Almostwithoutexception,aslurisusedovergroupsoftwotofournotesthat

representastep‐wisepattern.Pairedslurringisusedonintervalsnolargerthan

athird.Insuchcases,Bach’sintentionwasdirectedunequivocallytothe

articulationbetweenintervals.Ininstancesinwhichbowingarticulationwas

difficulttodecipher,theeditorwasforcedtointerpretthemusicusingthe

generalprincipalsalreadydiscussed.Anexamplecanbefoundinbars69,71,73

and75ofthesecondmovement,inwhichtheslurmayhaveendedonthe

penultimatenote.Theeditorchosetoendthesluronthelastnote.

MOVEMENTIII:ANDANTE

InBach’smanuscript,theslurringonthequadrupletsemiquavergroupsis

extremelyunclearandinconsistent.Eppsteindistinguishesthetwomain

articulationpatternsasfollows:a)asluroverallfoursemiquaversandb)paired

slursonnotes1‐2and3‐4.Asidefromthesetwomainpatterns,thereare

numerouspointsinthescoreinwhicha“strict”readingofthearticulationmay

leadtoanumberofdifferentandcontradictoryoutcomes.Eppsteindescribes

6JohannSebastianBach,NeueAusgabeSämtlicheWerke,SeriesVI,band4,ThreeSonatasforVioladagambaandharpsichord,CriticalreportofHansEppstein,BärenreiterKassel,London,1989,14.

35

threesuchoutcomes:c)aslurovernotes1‐3(onlyfoundintheharpsichord

right‐handinbars1,3and8),d)asluroverthelastthreenotes(alsoonlyfound

intheharpsichordright‐handinbars2,5and10)ande)aslurovernotes2‐3

(foundonthe1stbeatoftheharpsichordrighthand,onthe3rdbeatofbar4and

onthe1stbeatofbar10ofthevioladagamba).

a) b) c) d) e)

Attimesinthispiece,theboundariesoftheslursareunclear.Onesuchexample

canbefoundinbar10(2ndbeat)ofthevioladagamba.Theshortenedspellingof

theslurscouldalsobeattributedtothelackofspace,necessitatingclose

placementofnotesorlowbaselinesnearthebottomofthepage.Themost

peculiarvariationsofslurringcanbefoundintheharpsichordtreblepart.These

aremostlikelyrelatedtopatterna.

Thearticulationofthequadruplesemiquavergroupsinthevioladagambapart

isbasedprimarilyonpatternb.Inbars10and11thephrasingisslightly

differentandtheslursareobscured;thefirstbeatispatternewhilethesecond

beatispatternc.Whiletheslurringineachcasewaslikelyahastyversionofa,c

cannotbeentirelyruledout.7

MOVEMENTIV:ALLEGROMODERATO

Eppsteinfoundnodiscrepanciesintheautograph.

BWV1028:SONATANO.2

Themainsourcesconsultedforthesecondsonatawerethehandwrittenscore,

preparedin1753;andthegambapart,originatingapproximatelytwoyears

later.BothwereworksbyChristianFriedrichPenzel,8apupilatStThomas’sin

Liepzig.ItisclearthatPenzelaffordedhimselfcertainfreedoms,asslurs,

ornamentsandsimilarmarkingsareoftenomittedoradded.

7Bach,NBA,CriticalreportofHansEppstein,15.8ReferredtoassourceAbyEppsteininthecriticalreport.

36

MOVEMENTI:ADAGIO

ThemaininconsistencyinPenzel’svolatileandincompletemanuscriptwasthe

articulationofthefigureconsistingofaquaverfollowedbytwosemiquavers.

Theslurcaneitherbereadoverthetwosemiquavers,oroverallthreenotesof

thefigure.AccordingtoEppstein,thelatterreadingismorelikelyandis

thereforeusedintheedition.

MOVEMENTII:ALLEGRO

Itislikelythatallconsultedsourcesconcerningthismovementareunanimous,

asonlybar21ofthevioladagambaparthasadiscrepancy.Allsources,aside

fromtheOldBachGesamtausgabe(editedbyWilhelmRust)haveeight

semiquaversinbar21.Rustrepeatsthissequenceeverytwobars(startinginbar

16),byusingaquaveratthesecondhalfofthefirstbeatandtyingittothefirst

semiquaverofthesecondbeat.

Rust’sversionofbar21 Eppstein’sversionofbar21

MOVEMENTIII:ANDANTE

Astherewereonlyafewphrasingandarticulationmarkingsfoundin

movementsIandII,therewerenotmanyopportunitiesforuncertainty.The

same,however,cannotbesaidformovementsIIIandIVinwhichPenzel’ssloppy

andcarelessnotation,hascausedsignificantdoubt.Inthevioladagambapart,a

numberofinconsistencieswerefoundinthearticulationoftherecurringfive‐

notepattern.

37

Theseinclude:

DESCRIPTION: NOTATION: BAR(S):Slurovernotes1‐5

1,3,7,8,10,15(1sthalf),and23

Slurovernotes1‐4

28(1sthalf)

Slurovernotes1‐4with

eitheradotorvertical

lineonnote5

15(2ndhalf),16,19,20,26(2ndhalf),27,29

Sluronnotes2‐4with

verticallineonnote5

18(withouttheline),26(1sthalf)

Slurovernotes2‐5

28(2ndhalf)

Eppsteinfavourstheslurusedfromnotes2to4.Thisdecisionissupportedby

ananonymousmanuscript9,preparedintheearly1800s,inwhichaverticalline

isplacedonnotes1and5,withaslurfromnotes2to4.

MOVEMENTIV:ALLEGRO

InPenzel’svioladagambapart,thearticulationinbars99‐110isinconsistent

andoftenunclear.Fromatechnicalperspective,thisarticulationmayseem

illogical.Inbars99,101and103,thereisaslurlinkingthelastnoteofthefirst

semiquavergrouptothefirstnoteofthesecond.However,thereareadditional

slursinbar101withaslurovernotes1‐5and8‐11.

9ThesourceisreferredtoassourceDintheNBAandsourceCintheHenleedition.Itisaversionforviolinandharpsichord.

38

Eppstein’sversion:bar101 Penzel’sversion:bar101

TheseadditionalslursareunlikelytooriginateinBach’sworkanddonotappear

intheothersources.Thus,theyareomittedfromtheNBA.Yetmore

controversialistheimplementationofslurringusedontheseven‐notegroup:

semiquaver,twodemisemiquaversand4semiquavers

inbars100‐107.InPenzel’smanuscript,fivearticulationvariationsoccuronthis

figure.Theeditorhaschosentobindnotes2to4andthisremainsconsistent

throughoutthepassage.Thelargerfigures,consistingofseventoninenotes,

oftenhaveslursthataredistortedandunclear.Thisismostlikelyduetothe

compressionofthefigure.Asameansofresolvingtheseuncertaintiesand

inconsistencies,theeditorhaschosentoslurthepairofdemisemiquaverstothe

followingsemiquavereachtime(seebars108‐110).10

EPPSTEIN’SSOLUTIONTOTHESEVENTONINENOTEFIGURES:

Seven‐NoteGroup

Eight‐NoteGroup

Nine‐NoteGroup

10AdiagramofPenzel’sarticulationfrombars99‐110canbefoundinEppstein’sCriticalreport,28‐29.

39

BWV1029:SONATANO.3

Forthispublication,Eppsteindrawsonthreemajorsources:ChristianFriedrich

Penzel’shandwrittenharpsichordandgambaparts,dated1753;threedifferent

manuscriptsofaharpsichordandgambapartbyunknowncopyists,originating

inabout1800;andtheOldBachGesamtausgabe,editedbyWilhelmRustin1860.

AsRustwasfairlyliberalinhisadditionofarticulation11,hismarkingswereonly

usediftheywerecertifiedbyatleastoneothersource.(Acompletelistof

editorialnotesonthissonatacanbefoundinEppstein’scriticalreport.)

THEVIOLATRANSCRIPTIONS

BÄRENREITER,EDITEDBYHANSEPPSTEIN

Bärenreiter’stranscriptionforviolaistheUrtextoftheNewBachEdition(NBA).

ItpresentsthecriticaltextoftheNBA,withtheeditorialadditionsmarkedinthe

samewayastheNBA.Allletters,includingdynamicmarkings,areinitalics;ties

andslursaredottedlines;andothermarkingssuchasornamentsareinsmall

print.Thesectionsthatarenotplayableontheviolaaretransposedtoamore

appropriateregister.12

G.HENLEVERLAG,EDITEDBYERNST‐GÜNTERHEINEMANN

TheviolatranscriptionbyHeinemannisalmostidenticaltotheNBAwiththe

exceptionofbowinginstructionsandfingerings(whichareprovidedbyJürgen

Weber).Whenthegambaversionisnotreachableontheviola,theeditorchosea

registermorecompatiblewithitsrange.13Heinemannprovidesadetailed

discussionofthesources,editorialmethodsandalternativereadings.Incasesof

discrepanciesbetweentheoriginalmanuscriptandcopyists’parts,additionsand

changesaremadetothearticulationmarkings.

11Eppstein,Criticalreport,39.12JohannSebastianBach.ThreeSonatasforVioladagamba(Viola)andHarpsichord.BWV1027‐1029.UrtextoftheNewBachEdition.Bärenreiter.1987.HansEppstein.Preface‐Editorialnote.13Theviolaversionisplacedupanoctaveinsuchcasesandismarkedbyanasteriskeachtime.

40

BWV1027

Ineditingthissonata,HeinemanndrewheavilyonBach’sautographgambaand

harpsichordparts.Ingeneral,theautographscoreisdevoidofomissionsand

ambiguousness,andfewchangesandadditionsarethusrequired.Bach’s

omissionsofslursandprobableaccidentalsoftenaffectedornamentssuchas

appoggiaturasandtrills.HeinemannhasretainedmostofBach’soriginal

articulationmarkings,includingtheirinconsistencies.Onesuchexampleisinthe

secondmovement14,bar61,inwhichthelastfoursemiquaversareslurred;and

inbar108whenthelastfoursemiquaversaretransposeddownaperfectfifth,

areslurredinpairs.Onlybars25(3rdbeat)tobar28(1stbeat)inthismovement

aremarkedupanoctave.Unfortunately,JürgenWeberprovidesnocommentary

onthebowings.

BWV1027:Allegromanontanto

BWV1028

Anumberofsourceswereusedinthiseditorialprocess,includingahandwritten

gambapartandscorepreparedin1753byChristianFriedrichPenzel.Thethree

othersourcesbelongtoanonymouscopyistsoriginatingatthestartofthe19th

century.Oneoftheseanonymousworksisaversionforviolinandharpsichord

believedtobebasedonanauthenticearlierformofthegambaversion.The

othertwosourcesarecopiesofthisversion.

ThesignstakenfromPenzel’sgambapartareidentifiedbysquarebrackets,

whereasmarkings(whichwereunavoidablyaddedtoPenzel’smanuscripts)are

enclosedinparenthesis.TheeditorialadditionsmadetoslursintheNeueBach

Ausgabearemarkedwithdottedlines.Mostoftheslursmarkedwithdotted

linesintheNBAandtheslursinbracketsintheHenlecorrelatetooneanother.

However,thereareafewslursthatarenotpresentintheNBA,aslistedbelow:

14Allegromanontanto

41

MOVEMENT: BARS: ARTICULATION:7(2ndbeat) Firsttwosemiquaversare

slurred9(3rdbeat) Notes1‐2and3‐4are

slurred

MovementI

20(2ndbeat) Slurredtofirstnoteof3rdbeat

8,60,61,62,64,65,67 Sluronnotes1‐2,3‐4ofthe2ndbeat

MovementII

79 Sluronnotes1‐2,3‐4of1stbeat

1,7,10and18 Sluronnotes2‐3of4thbeat

2,11and22 Sluronnotes2‐3of1stbeat

3 Sluronnotes1‐2of1stbeat

4 Sluronnotes2‐3of3rdbeat


12 Sluronnotesof2ndbeat17 Sluronnotes2‐4of1st

beatand2‐6of3rdbeat21 Sluronnotes2‐7of1st

beatand2‐6of3rdbeat24 Sluronnotes2‐4of2nd

beatand1‐2,3‐4and5‐6of3rdbeat

MovementIII

29 Sluronnotes2‐4of2ndbeat

11and121 Sluronnotes2‐4of1stbeat

24 Sluronnotes2‐4of2ndbeat

99and103 Sluronnotes2‐5and8‐11

MovementIV

100,102and104 Sluronnotes3‐4and5‐6of1stbeat

42

TheHenleeditionandNBAdifferinbars99‐104ofthelastmovement.TheNBA

rejectsPenzel’sslurringofnotes2‐5and8‐11inbar101,whileHenleretainsit

andaddsittobars99and103.

Thereareafewinstancesinwhichthegambapartisplacedanoctavehigherto

accommodatetheviolaregister.Theseincludebars72‐75intheAllegro(second

movement);bars1‐3andbar18intheAndante(thirdmovement);andbars81‐

92(1stbeat),bar95(2ndhalf)‐97(1stbeat)andbar106(2ndhalf)‐107intheAllegro

(finalmovement).

BWV1029

ForthissonataHeinemannconsultedthesamesourcesemployedbyEppsteinin

theNBAwheneditingtheHenleedition.

MOVEMENTI:VIVACE

Thesectionsplacedanoctavehigheroccurinbars9(2ndnote)‐10(3rdnote),bars

46(2ndnote)‐47(9thnote),bars95(2ndnote)‐97(1stnote)andbars107(2ndnote)‐

110.

Anoteismadeintheeditorialcommentarythattheaddedarticulationwasonly

includedifconfirmedbyatleastoneadditionalsource.Slursandother

articulationmarkingsthatwereaddedandthatdonotoccurintheNBAare

listedbelow.

BARS: ARTICULATION:3‐5 Sluronnotes1‐3

13,45 3rdbeat:sluronnotes3‐5

25 Turnon2ndbeat

32 3rdbeat:sluronnotes2‐5(not2‐4)

33 1stand3rdbeats:likebar32

52 4thbeat:mordentinsteadoftrill

76,77 3rdbeat:staccatodotonquaver

43

Thefinalchordofthemovementischangedfromatriple‐stoptoadouble‐stop,

thusmakingiteasiertobeplayontheviola.

Othersources Henle

MOVEMENTIII:ALLEGRO

Thesectionsplacedanoctavehigheroccurinbars10(2ndnote)‐19(1stbeat),bars

44(2ndbeat)‐61(1stbeat)andthefinalbar.

Theadditionalandmodifiedarticulationmarkingsarelistedbelow.

BARS: ARTICULATION:18 2ndbeat:trillondottedquaver24‐27,37‐43,104‐107 1stand2ndbeats:sluronnotes1‐4(not1‐6)

28 1stbeat:noslurs

50 1stand2ndbeats:sluronnotes2‐4(not2‐6)

51,89 2ndbeat:sluronnotes1‐3(not1‐6)

91 2ndbeat:sluronnotes1‐2

BREITKOPF&HÄRTEL,EDITEDBYERNSTNAUMANNNaumanndoesnotprovideanyeditorialcommentaryinthispublication.His

editionincludesanumberofadditionsandmodificationstoslurs,ornaments,

dynamics(nearlyineverybar)andarticulation.Therearealsoanumberof

instancesinwhichtheviolapartisplacedanoctaveup,eveniftheoriginal

gambamanuscriptiswithinviolarange(e.g.thelasteightbarsintheAllegroma

nontanto‐secondmovementofBWV1027).Nearlyeverybarisedited,giving

theworkanuntidyappearanceoverall.Thisextensivedirectionandinstruction

suggeststhattheeditionmayhavebeenintendedforstudents.Thesections

whichfollowprovideadescriptionofthechangesandadditionsmadetothe

NBA.

44

BWV1027

MOVEMENTI:ADAGIO

Alltrillsarefollowedbyaslurredwritten‐outlowermordent.Naumannmay

havechosentowritetheseoutforthepurposeofperformancepractice.These

occurinbars6,7,10,11,15,19,24and27.

Adagiobar6:Naumann Adagiobar6:NeueBachAusgabe

Theappoggiaturasfoundintheopeningtheme(bars2‐3),areaddedby

Naumannintherecapitulation(bars17‐18).ItmaynothavebeenBach’s

intentionthattheseberepeated.

Inmostcases,addedslursareintendedtoensurethatthedirectionofthebow

correlatestothestrengthofthebeat.Inbar1,thefirsttwosemiquaversofbeat4

areslurredsothattheupbeattothenextbarisplayedwithanup‐bow.Inbar3,

thefirsttwosemiquaversofbeat2areslurredinorderfortheproceeding

separatedsemiquaverstostartonadown‐bow.Whenasinglesemiquaver

occursinasextupletsemiquavergroup,withoutanyarticulation,Naumannslurs

itwiththeprecedingnote.Thisoccursinbar7(2ndbeat)wherethecsharpis

slurredtothebnatural,andinthe4thbeatwherethebnaturalisslurredtothea.

Otherinstancesarethe4thbeatofbars6,8,9,20and24;the2ndbeatofbar15;

andthe1stand3rdbeatofbars19and20.

Bar1

Bar3

Bar7

45

Everynotehassomeformofarticulationorornamentation,eg.tenuto,staccato,

slur,trill,mordent,appoggiatura,oracciaccatura.Theaddeddynamicscorrelate

tothephrasing,withcrescendosleadingtotheclimaxofthephraseand

decrescendosgoingdownthephrase.

MOVEMENTII:ALLEGROMANONTANTO

Wheretrillsonquaversexistinthemanuscript,Naumannreplacesthemwith

mordents.Thismayhavebeenhisattempttotaketheplayer’stechnicalability

intoconsideration,asplayingafulltrillinafasttempomaybechallengingfor

moststudents.Examplesofthismodificationarefoundinbars6,7,19,20,60,

61,65,66,79,80,97,98,107,and108.

Bar6:Eppstein Bar6:Naumann

Alltrills,includingthosefoundinthefirstmovement,haveamordentbefore

resolvingtotheproceedingnote(bars15,17,29,42,51and83).


Allsemiquaversarearticulatedwithslursorstaccatos.Theaddedslurs

accommodatebowdirection.Theadditionalslursensureeverybarlandsona

downstroke.Acommonarticulationoccursovertwoquadrupletsemiquaver

groupsinwhichthefirstsemiquaveristiedtotheprecedinggroupfollowedby3

slurredsemiquavers,andthenfourseparatedsemiquavers(bars25‐26,53‐56,

104‐105).

Bar25‐26:Eppstein Bar25‐26:Naumann

46

Passagesinwhichitisnecessaryfortheviolaparttobeplacedupanoctave

occurinbars18‐22(1stbeat),bars25‐28(1stbeat)andbars106‐113.Thereare

threesectionsthatareplacedanoctavehigherdespitetheiralreadybeingina

comfortablerangeforviola‐bars32‐33(1stbeat),bars39‐42andbars78‐

82(2ndbeat).

MOVEMENTIII:ANDANTE

Inthismovementeachgroupof4semiquaversisslurred,asopposedtothe

pairedslurringfoundintheNBA.Thequaverquadruplet(minor3rdup‐minor3rd

down‐major3rddown)alwayshasastaccatoonthefirstquaverandaslurover

thelastthreequavers(bars3,4,10and11).


Thequaverquadruplet(minor3rdup‐tonedown‐minor3rdup)isslurredin

pairs(bars5and7).Thepurposeoftheseadditionalslursmayhavebeento

createalegatofeelintheslowmovement.Bars12‐17(1stbeat)aremarkedup

anoctave.


Displacementanoctavehigheroccursinbars9‐20(1stbeat)andtheupbeatto

bars90‐98(1stbeat).Whilethiseditorialchangeisnotnecessaryto

accommodatetherangeoftheviola,itdoesshow‐offtheuniquecolourofthe

instrumentwhenplayedinthisregister.Asthisisafaster,moredance‐like

movement,Naumannaddsmorestaccatomarkings.Crotchetsarealways

markedwithstaccatosifnotunderaslur(bar9and26‐29).

CommonbowingsequencesadoptedbyNaumanninclude:a)aquaver

quadrupletgroupwiththefirsttwostaccatoquaversslurredandthelasttwo

quaversseparated(bars34‐36and131‐133)andb)threeslurredquavers

followedbyfiveseparatedstaccatoquavers(bars17,82,99,101‐2,125,137and

139).

47

a) b)

BWV1028

MOVEMENTI:ADAGIO

Asthisisaslowmovement,itcontainsmoreadditionalslursandtenutosthan

staccatos.Acommonarticulationforasemiquaverquadrupletgroupisaslur

overnotes1‐2andstaccatosonnotes3‐4(bars9,13and20).Thereisalso

addedoctavedisplacementinbars15‐22(1stbeat).

MOVEMENTII:ALLEGRO

Thismovementcontainsfarmorearticulationthantheprecedingworks.A

commonexample,foundinbars8,10,12,16,18,20,22,60,61,62,64,65,67,is

threesemiquaversunderaslurfollowedbyfivestaccatosemiquavers.

Notesaretuckedintoslursforbowingconvenience,asseeninbar42,wherethe

Dsemiquaverisslurredsothatthefollowingseparatesemiquaversareplayed

down‐bowonthestrongerpulses(bars45,46,73,74,75,25,26,27).

Bar42:Naumann

Thereisaddedoctavedisplacementinbars37‐40andbars72‐75.

ThereareanumberofnotediscrepanciesevidentinNaumann’seditionofthis

movement.Anexampleisthetiedf’sharpinbar21.IntheNBA,itappearsas

follows:d‐e‐fsharp‐d‐b‐d‐e‐fsharp(allsemiquavers);andintheNaumann

editionasd‐e‐fsharpquavertiedto‐fsharpsemiquaver‐d‐e‐fsharp.Thereis

particularmentionofthisbarinEppstein’scriticalreport.15Naumann’sversion

wasadaptedfromtheOldBachEditioneditedbyWilhelmRust.

15JohannSebastianBach,NeueAusgabeSämtlicheWerke,SeriesVI,band4,ThreeSonatasforVioladagambaandharpsichord,CriticalreportofHansEppstein,BärenreiterKassel,London,1989,26.

48

Bar21:Eppstein Bar21:Naumann/Rust

Followingthediscoveryofsuchdiscrepancies,anumberoffeaturessharedby

RustandNaumann’sedition‐whichdonotoccurintheNBA–werealsonoted.

SharedslurringbyRustandNaumannoccurinbars40and50.Thesecondbeat

ofbar26isane;whileintheNBAitisac.Thefirst‐timebarinbar32of

NaumanndiffersfromtheNBAasitconsistsofacrotchetfollowedbyaquaver

restandquaverupbeatinsteadofaminim.IntheNBA,thelastsemiquaverof

bar40isag,asopposedtothedthatappearsinNaumann’sedition.This

modificationmayhavebeenintendedforbettervoiceleading,asbar40in

Naumann’seditionisraisedanoctave.


Thelastquaverofbar79anditsresolutioninbar80isplacedanoctavehigher.

Thismayhavebeenintendedtocreateadramaticendingtothemovement.

MOVEMENTIII:ANDANTE

Inthismovement,theornamentsintheNaumanneditiondifferfromthoseinthe

NBA.Themostcommonexampleisthetrill.IntheNaumannedition,thisis

followedbyawrittenlowermordent(bars19and23andthroughoutthe

sonatas),whiletheNBAdoesnotincludethemordent.Further,allthe

appoggiaturasintheNaumanneditionarewrittenasacciaccaturas(bars4,3,

12).Whenamordent,actingasanup‐beat,isslurredtoanote(bars1,7,10,12,

18),Naumannwritestwograce‐notesemiquaversslurredtothenote.

49

BAR: EPPSTEIN NAUMANN1

4

(Appoggiatura)

(Acciaccatura)

19

(Trill)

(LowerMordent)

Therearethreesectionswhichareplacedupanoctave‐bars1‐3(firstbeat),bar

9andbar18withupbeat.Therearealsotwoinstancesinwhichdiscrepanciesin

therhythmoccur:inbar27oftheNBA,thethirdbeatisadottedquaver,

semiquaverandquaver,whileNaumannusesacrotchetfollowedbytwo

semiquavers.Thethirdbeatofbar17oftheNBAalsocontainsadottedquaver

followedbyfourdemisemiquaversandasemiquaver.Thisisincontrastto

Naumann’sedition,inwhichadottedquaverisfollowedbyasemiquaverand

thenfourdemisemiquavers.

ThefollowingtableshowsthesimilaritiesinarticulationbetweenRustand

Naumanninthismovement:

BARS: ARTICULATION:1,7,10,15,16,18,26,27 Sluronnotes1‐2of2ndbeat

2,11 Sluronnotes2‐3of1stbeat


15,26 Sluronnotes2‐5of4thbeat

18 Sluronnotes2‐3of4thbeat


21,27 Sluronnotes2‐7of1stbeat,notes2‐6ofthe3rdbeat

50

MOVEMENTIV:ALLEGRO

Thismovementischaracterisedbystaccatomarkingsoverallthesemiquaver

passages.Manyslursarealsoaddedfortheconvenienceofthebowing.Onesuch

exampleoccursinbar58onthesecondbeat,whenthefirstpairofsemiquavers

isslurred.Thesecondthemeinbars17and18alsocontainsanumberof

additionalslurs.Inthismovement,Naumannmakesfulluseofthehigher

registeroftheinstrumentandplacestheviolapartupanoctaveonnumerous

occasions,includingbars58(secondbeat)‐63(firstbeat),bars81‐92(firstbeat),

bars95(secondbeat)‐97(firstquaver),bars106(secondbeat)‐107,bar108and

bars111‐114.

BothRustandNaumanncopytheinconsistentarticulationinbars99‐110of

Penzel’shandwrittencopies,whichwasdisregardedbytheNBA.Theseinclude:

thefirstandsecondbeatsofbars99,101and103whichhaveaslurovernotes

2‐5;bars100,102,104whichhaveasluronnotes1‐4(not2‐4)andbar106

whichhasaslurovernotes2‐10(not2‐4and8‐10).

BWV1029

MOVEMENTI:VIVACE

Inthismovement,thepassagesthatareplacedupanoctaveoccurinbars9‐10,

up‐beattobar24‐25,bars35‐38,bars46‐47,bars95‐97(firstquaver),up‐beatto

bar101‐102andbars107‐110.Forthefirsttimeinthesonatas,Naumannplaces

apassageuptwooctaves‐bars91‐95(firstquaver).Thisconfirmshisintention

totakefulladvantageofthehigherregisteroftheviola.

Inthismovementalonetherearefiveslurringvariationsonagroupoffour

semiquavers.Thetwomainvariationsoverastep‐wiseorscale‐likegroupisa

sluroverallfoursemiquavers andasluroverthefirstthreenoteswith

astaccatodotonthelastnoteofthegroup .Theformervariation(a)can

befoundinbars3,4,5(1sthalf),41,42and43;whilethelatter(b)canbeseenin

bars2,6(1stbeat),10(3rdbeat),12(4thbeat),45(4thbeat),47(3rdbeat),toname

butafew.

51

(a)Bar3 (b)Bar2

Thenexttwobowingvariations(c)and(d)occurinagroupoffoursemiquavers

thatdonotmoveinastep‐wisepattern,butratherhaveleapsofintervalslarger

thanathird.Theseincludeasluronthefirsttwonotesfollowedbytwostaccato

notes ,foundinbar8(1sthalf),bar23(1sthalf),bar27(1sthalf)andbar40;

andpairedslurringonnotes1‐2and3‐4 inbars53‐55(2ndhalf),bar

69(4thbeat),bar86(2ndhalf),bar87(1sthalf),bars75‐76(2ndhalf).

(c)Bar8 (d)Bar54,beats3‐4

Thelastbowingvariation(e)ofagroupoffoursemiquaversoccursinbars48

and49inwhichthefirstnoteistiedtotheprecedingnotefollowedbyaslurover

thelastthreenotesofthegroup .

(e)Bar49

Thereisonefigureinwhichthebowingshouldberevised,asitmaycausesome

technicaldifficultytotheperformer.Thisfigureoccursinbars32(3rdbeat)‐

33(1stand3rdbeats)andrepeatedinbars84(1stand3rdbeats)‐85(firstbeat),and

comprisessixnotes:acrotchettiedtoasemiquaverfollowedbytwodemi‐

semiquaversfollowedbytwosemiquavers.Notes1to5areunderaslurandthe

sixthnoteisseparatedwithastaccatodot.Thisfigureisrepeatedthreetimesin

sequenceovertwobars.Bowingdifficultiesmayincurwiththeseparated

staccatosixthnoteofthefigure,asthebowwillbeatthetipafterthe5‐noteslur

anditmaybeawkwardtoplayaseparatedstaccatoatthetip.

52

SimilaritiesbetweenRustandNaumannoccurinthefollowingbars:

BARS: ARTICULATION:2,10,36,69,74,96 3rdBeat–SlursOverNotes1‐3

3,4 Slurovernotes1‐4and5‐8

5 Slurovernotes1‐4,5‐8,9‐11

6 Slurovernotes1‐3

12,45 3rdBeat–SlurOverNotes1‐2And3‐5

4thBeat–SlurOverNotes1‐3

41‐43 2ndBeat–SlurOverNotes1‐4

9,53‐55,75‐77 4thBeat–SlurOver1‐2And3‐4

Therearefourinstancesinwhichmordentsareusedinsteadoftrills:bar12(3rd

beat),bar45(3rdbeat),bar58(lastnote)andbar65(3rdbeat).Additionaltrills

havebeeninsertedintobars23(lastnote–withwrittenoutmordent),bar

25(2ndbeat),bar44andbar66.Atrillhasbeenomittedfromthelastnoteofbar

102.

TherearealsotwocasesinwhichaccidentalsaredifferenttotheNBA.Inthis

movement,thelastnoteofbar68hasasharp(fsharp),16thesecondisfoundin

movementII(describedbelow).

MOVEMENTII:ADAGIO

ComparedtotheNBA,Naumannusesacontrastingapproachtobowing

articulationintheslowmovements.Forexample,hisslursareextendedand

lengthened.IninstancesintheNBAinwhichminimbeatsareslurred,Naumann

extendstheslurovertwominimbeats(bars5‐6).Thismaycausesometechnical

difficulty,astheperformermayrunoutofbow.

Thesecondnoteinbar29isabinsteadofthegthatispresentintheNBA.17

16TheFsharpcanbefoundinthetranscriptsof:ChristianFriedrichPenzel(sourceA:NBAcriticalreport)andtheOldBachGesamtausgabebyWilhelmRust(source[G]:NBAcriticalreport).17ThebcanbefoundintheOldBachGesamtausgabebyRust.

53

MOVEMENTIII:ALLEGRO

TheborrowedmarkingsfromRust’sOldBachEditionareasfollowers.

MARKINGS: BARS: ARTICULATION:4,12,80,94 Slurovernotes5‐8 19,45,47 Slurovernotes2‐3 21

Slurovernotes3‐4


46,48,49 Slurovernotes1‐4,5‐6


72 Sluruptoandincludingthefirstnoteofbar73

91 Slurovernote6‐7

Slurring


28,30,55 Staccatodotonthe7thnoteArticulation

55,56 Staccatodotonthe1stnote

Ornaments 86,87

Twostep‐wisegrace‐notesbeforethe3rdnote(insteadofamordent)

DifferentNote 58 1stnoteisaGnotandC

Theoctavedisplacementsoccurinbars10‐27,44(2ndhalf)‐61(1sthalf),67(3rd

note)‐74(1stnote),94‐95(1stnote)and111.

TECHNIQUESOFTRANSCRIBINGFORVIOLACertaintechniqueswererequiredwhentranscribingtheSonatasforviola.These

includedtransposingtoamoreappropriateregisterandrearrangingchordsto

suittheviola;andaddingorchangingslursforpracticalconvenience(asalready

discussedunderSECTIONHEADER,above).

54

Table1:Adescriptionofthesectionsthathavebeentransposedanoctave

higher.

BarënreiterandHenle BreitkoptandHartel

BWV1027

MovementII Bars25(3rdbeat)to28(1stbeat) Bars18‐22(1stbeat),25‐28(1st

beat),106‐113,32‐33(1stbeat),

39‐42and78‐82(2ndbeat)

Movement

III

Bars12‐17(1stbeat)

Movement

IV

9‐20(1stbeat),upbeattobars

90‐98(1stbeat).

BWV1028

MovementI Bars15‐22(1stbeat).

MovementII Bars72‐75 Bars37‐40andbars72‐75,last

quaverofbar79andits

resolutioninbar80

Movement

III

Bars1‐3andbar18 Bars1‐3(firstbeat),bar9and

18withupbeat.

Movement

IV

Bars81‐92(1stbeat),95(2nd

half)‐97(1stbeat)and106(2nd

half)‐107

Bars58(secondbeat)‐63(first

beat),81‐92(firstbeat),

95(secondbeat)‐97(first

quaver),106(secondbeat)‐

107,108and111‐114.

BWV1029

MovementI Bars9(2ndnote)‐10(3rdnote),

46(2ndnote)‐47(9thnote),

95(2ndnote)‐97(1stnote)and

107(2ndnote)‐110.

Bars9‐10,up‐beattobars24‐

25,35‐38,46‐47,95‐97(first

quaver),up‐beattobar101‐

102andbars107‐110.Forthe

firsttimeinthesonata,

Naumannplacesapassageup

twooctaves:bars91‐95(first

quaver).

55

Movement

III

10(2ndnote)‐19(1stbeat),44(2nd

beat)‐61(1stbeat)andthefinal

bar.

Bars10‐27,44(2ndhalf)‐61(1st

half),67(3rdnote)‐74(1stnote),

94‐95(1stnote)andbar111.

Table2:Therearrangementofchords:

NBA Barënreiter Henle Breitkopf

BWV1028

MovementII:

Finalchord

D,Fsharp,A,

D

D,Fsharp,A,

D

Fsharp,A,D D,A,Fsharp,

D18

MovementIII:

Finalchord

D,Fsharp,B B B B

MovementIV:

Finalchord

D,Fsharp,A,

D

D,D D D

BWV1029

MovementI:

Finalchord

G,D,G G,G G,G G,G

MovementIII:

bar44(1st

beat)

F,A,C,F F,A F,A F,A

Bar93

(notes2‐6)

Dbelow

middleC

Dabove

middleC

Dabove

middleC

Dabove

middleC

18Thisrearrangingofthechord,comparedtotheothers,isbettersuitedtotheviola

56

CONCLUSIONWhencomparedtotheBärenreiterandHenleeditions,theBreitkopfandHärtel

editionincludesmoresignificantmodificationstotheNBA.Theadditional

articulationanddirectiongivenbytheeditorsuggestthathehasconsideredthe

uniqueattributesandtechniqueoftheviola.Theseincludeitsqualityofsound,

bowingarticulationanddirection,andfingering.WhileNaumannmayhavebeen

over‐inclusiveinhismodification,hehasnonethelessconsideredthelimitations

oftheviola.

57

CHAPTERFIVE:THEVIOLA

Thischapterwillprovidethereaderwiththetoolsrequiredtoexecutethe

Baroquestyleonthemodernviola.Thereareanumberofwaystoachievea

historically‐informedperformanceonamodernviola.Theseincludetechnical

factors,physicalaspectsandstylisticadaptations.Technicalfactorsthatmaybe

employedareholdingtheinstrumentinaparticularway,fingering,bowhold

andarticulation.Thephysicalaspectsincludethepitch,thetypeofbowand

stringsthatareused,andalternatetunings.Stylisticfactorsofnoteinclude

vibrato,dynamicsandarticulationincommonbaroquerhythmsandstyles.In

thepursuitofahistorically‐informedperformance,allthreefactorsshouldbe

borneinmind.

TREATISESTheviolatreatisesoriginatinginlate17thandearly18thcenturyGermanyoffer

limitedadviceonplayingtechnique.Treatisesintendedspecificallyfortheviola

firstappearedinFrancetowardstheendofthe18thcenturyandwerewrittenby

MichelCorrette(1773),MichelWoldemar(c.1800)andFrançoisCupis(1803).

Thesewerethenreplacedby“moresubstantialandslightlymoresophisticated

methods”byAntonioBartolomeoBruni(Méthodepourl’altoviola;Paris,c.1820),

JacobMartinn(Méthoded’alto;Paris,c.1820)andMichelGebauer(Méthode

d’alto,Paris,c.1800)(Stowell.2001:24).InStowell’sopinion,themostadvanced

late‐19thcenturypublicationsbelongtoLéonFirket(Méthodepratique;Brussels,

1873)andBrähmig(PraktischeBratschenschule;Leipzig,c.1885)(Stowell.

2001:24).

TECHNICALFACTORS

HOLDINGTHEVIOLA

Itwasnotuntiltheearly19thcenturythattherewasconsensusonthebestway

toholdtheinstrument.Beforethen,18thcenturytreatisesemphasizedthe

importanceofa“comfortable,freeandnaturalposture”(Stowell.2001:52).

AccordingtoStowell,19thcenturyplayers“soughtanobleandrelaxedbearing,

58

withheadupright,feetnormallyinlinebutslightlyapartandwiththebody

weightdistributedtowardstheleftside”(Stowell.2001:52).19

Positionsvariedandincludedonthebreast,onthecollarboneandattheneck.

Thechoiceofpositionwaslargelydependentonthetypeofmusicbeingplayed.

Formorevirtuosomusic,thecollarboneandneckpositionsweremore

appropriateasthechinprovidedextragripandsupportoneithersideofthe

tailpieceandensuredmorefreedomofthelefthandwhileshifting.Thebreast

positionwasmoreappropriatefordance‐likemusicinwhichpositionworkno

higherthanthirdpositionwasrequired.

LeopoldMozartrecommendsthe‘chin‐off’methodwiththeinstrumentresting

onthecollarboneandtheneckoftheinstrumentsupportedbythelefthand

withoutallowingittocomeintocontactwith“theskinthatjoinsthethumband

indexfinger”(Mozart.1756:57).Stowellstatesthatalthoughthispositionwas

conducivetoplayinginlowerpositions,itwaslessadequateforhigher‐position

work(Stowell.2001:54).Thereareanumberofdifferingopinionsregardingthe

placementofthechin.Sometheoristsrecommendrestingthechinontheright

sideofthetailpiecewhileothers,likeL’Abbélefils(1761)andCupis,optfor

restingthechinontheleftsidetostabilisetheinstrumentduringshifts.Thechin

positionwasnotimmediatelyacceptedascommonpractice.NotuntilSpohr’s

inventionofthechinrest(c.1820)didtheplacementofthechinbecomemore

standardised.

Thechinrest“allowedoptimumfreedomofleft‐handmovementandflexibilityof

bowing”(Stowell.2001:54).Italsoenhancedposturebyenablingtheplayerto

holdtheinstrumentupright,almosthorizontallytothefloor.Cupisstatesthat

theviolawasheldinalmostthesamewayastheviolin,althoughthescrollwas

positionedlowertoaccommodateitsgreatersizeandweight.Thesizealso

demandedwiderstretchesbetweenthefingersandmorepressureappliedby

thefingersontothestring(Cupis.Méthode:10).Baillotwasoneofthefirst

1919thcenturypostureandviolin/violaholdisillustratedinBaillot’sL’artduviolon:nouvelleméthode(Paris,1853).

59

theoriststoadvocatetheshoulderrest/pad.Thisensuredenhancedsecurityand

comfortandpreventedshoulderraising(Baillot.L’art:16).

Nowadays,Baroqueviolinistsandviolistshaveanumberofwaysofmanaging

thesetechnicalchallenges.Someplacethechinrestontherightsideofthe

tailpiece,whileothersabandonitaltogetherandholdtheviolin/violaagainstthe

chest.SomeBaroqueviolin/violaplayerstodayemployashoulderrest,thus

mimickingthebulkierclothingoftheir18thcenturycounterparts.

Thewaytheinstrumentwasheldhadaneffectonanumberoftechnicalfactors.

Theseincludethefingeringused,theuseofopenstrings,thepositionofthebow

onthestringsandtheheightanduseofthebowarm.

FINGERING

InBaroquerepertory,unnecessaryfingeractivitywasoftenavoided.Mostofthe

violarepertoryrequiredlowerpositionsandtheinstrumentplayedasomewhat

subservientroleintheensemblerepertory(Stowell.2001:57).Accordingto

LeopoldMozart,necessity,convenienceandeleganceweretheonlyreasonsfor

usingpositionsotherthanthefirst(Mozart.1756:148).Untilthe18thcentury,

shiftswereemployedtoenhancethepunctuationofthemusic.Ingeneral,these

weremadeonthebeatoronrepeatednotes;bythephraseinsequence;afteran

openstring;onarestorpausebetweenstaccatonotes;orafteradottedfigure

playedwithaliftedbowstroke(Stowell.2001:57).

RULEFORHOLDINGDOWNTHEFINGERS

Alackofmechanicalsupport(chinandshoulderrest)invariablyleadsto

creepingaroundthefingerboardinsecondandhalfposition.Asitisnearly

impossibletoholdtheinstrumentwithoutthehand,thethumbandfingercannot

movetogetherwhenshiftingandthushavetomoveseparately.

Asageneralrule,lowerpositionsweremostlyutilised.Exceptionsoccurred

whenitwasnecessarytoplayhigh.AccordingtoTarling,themostimportant

motivatorforretainingthelowerpositionsistoincreasethestringlengthand,

byimplication,theresonanceoftheinstruments(Tarling.2001:72).Sheadvises

60

thatitisnotnecessarytoplayinhigherpositionstoavoidopenstrings,andthat

secondpositionisoftenusefulwhenavoidingawkwardstringcrossings.

OPENSTRINGS

OpenstringsareencouragedinBaroquemusic,providedtheyareintune.Open

stringsinchordsandarpeggiatedpassagesprovideagreaterringorresonance

tothechordandthusalsototheharmony.

CHANGINGPOSITION

Tarlinglistsanumberofinstancesinwhichitissuitabletochangeposition

(Tarling.2001:76).Theseinclude:

1. Whileanopenstringisbeingplayed.

2. Ataconvenientpointofarticulationeg.Adottedrhythm

3. Atthestartofapatternthatisbeingrepeatedinasequence

4. Betweentwonotesofthesamepitch.

5. Betweenslurs

BOWHOLD

Overthecenturies,therehasbeenadramaticchangeintheamountofpressure

appliedtothestringsbythebow.InBaroqueplaying,themainsourceof

pressurewastheindexfinger,withtheelbowseparatedfromthebodythe

distanceofanextendedthumbfromtheindexfinger(JoséHerrando.1756:2).In

comparisontomorerecenttechniques,theelbowwaspositionedfarcloserto

thebody.Thisresultedina‘high,supplewrist’whenplayingatthefrog.Today,

thetrendistopositiontheelbowhigher,thusallowingthewristtoflattenatthe

frog.

DuringtheearlyBaroqueperiod,theFrenchusedthethumb‐on‐hairgripwith

the“threefingersplacedontopofthestickandthelittlefingercommonlybraced

inthebackofthestick”(Stowell.2001:75).ThisgripwascommoninFranceuntil

the18thcenturyandwasparticularlysuitedtotheheavyaccentsindancemusic

(Stowell.2001:75).TheItalians,however,wereinfavourofthethumb‐on‐stick

gripwithfourfingersonthetopofthebowstickandthethumbplacedonits

61

underside.Thegreaterfreedomandsubtletiesoftoneproductionofferedbythis

methodultimatelyledtothedemiseoftheFrenchgrip.

AccordingtoBaillot,thegripshouldbekeptsecure,butwithoutstiffnessinthe

hand,fingersandwrist;andbendingofthethumbshouldbeavoided.This

techniquedivergesfromlate19thand20thcenturypractices,inwhichthethumb

wasbentandkeptflexible.StowellsuggeststhatBaillot’sinstructionshouldnot

alwaysbetakenliterally,astheultimateaimshouldbesubtletyandflexibilityof

thefingers(Stowell.2001:76).

Thepositionofthethumbonthebowhasalsobeenthesubjectofmuchdebate.

Mostcommonly,itwaspositionedoppositethesecondfingerbutbetweenthe

indexandsecondfingers(L’abbélefils.Principes:1).Apositionbetweenthe

secondandthirdfingerswasalsoused(JeanBaptisteCartier.L’artduviolon.

Paris.1798:1;Baillot:12).

Therehavealsobeendiscrepanciesinthepointofcontactoftheindexfingeron

thebow.The‘German’gripinvolvesacontactpointofthefirstjointoftheindex

finger;whileinthe‘Franco‐Belgian’grip,thecontactpointisbetweenthefirst

andsecondfingers,butclosertothesecondwiththethumbpositionedopposite

thesecondandthird(Stowell.2001:76).

Untiltheendofthe16thcentury,playerstendedtoseparatetheindexfingerfrom

therestofthefingersto‘controlvolume’byapplyingandreleasingpressure

(Stowell.2001:76).Thesecondandthirdfingersrestedonthestickina‘curled‐

over’position,whilethepinkie,restingonitstip,aidedbalancewhenbowingin

thelowerhalf.

The‘French’bowholdwasusedpredominantlyin17th‐centuryEngland.

Primarily,itemployedaveryshortbowwiththehairatquiteahightensionto

taketheheavyaccentedstrokes.Withtheintroductionofalongerbow,a

transitiontothe‘Italian’bowholdoccurred,ie.thethumbwasplacedonthe

stick.Whentheviolin/violaisplacedontheshoulderwhileusingthe‘French”

bowhold,theplayer’sarmmayfeelquiterestricted.Thismayaccountforthe

positioningoftheviolinlowerdownonthechest,atechniquepopularisedbythe

dancemastersofthe17thcentury(Tarling.2001:84).Toliftthebowanywhere

62

exceptneartheheelischallenging,asitresultsinashorterstrokeclosertothe

heelinthemoreenergeticdancemovements.

Overtime,managementofthebowandthetypeofstrokeusedhaveevolved,

oftenalignedwithbowtypeandgrip.AccordingtoStowell,thepre‐Tourtebow

suitedastyleofplayingcomprisingclearlydividedphrasesandsub‐phrases,as

opposedtosweepingmelodiclines.Asthisbowcreatedunequalstressesonthe

downandupstrokes,the‘ruleofthedown‐bow’wasemployed(Stowell.

2001:77).Today,BaroquemusicwiththeTourtebowisbestplayedwiththe

thumbplacedonthestick.

THERULEOFTHEDOWNBOW

“Notethattherearestrongandweakbeatsinmusic.Inthemeasurewith

fourbeats,thefirstandthirdbeatsarestrong,thesecondandfourth

beatsareweak.Inameasurewithtwobeats,thefirstisstrongandthe

secondisweak.Inameasureofthreebeats,allthebeatsareequal;if

desired,thesecondandthirdcanbeweak,butthefirstisalwayslong”

(Cessac.1995:398).

Inthisextract,Charpentier(1692)advisesthatthehierarchyofthebeatsofthe

barshouldbematchedtotheinequalityofthedownandupstrokes.

Muffat’srulesforthebowremainthemodelformostbasicBaroquebow

practices.Further,hisnomenclatureforthedownbow(nobile)andtheupbow

(vile)maywellhaveinformedthesigns(nandv)thatareusedtoday(Snyder.

1987:386).Muffat’sgeneralbowingrules(1698)includethefollowingitems:(1)

Everybarstartswithadownbowifthereisnorest(2)Incommontime,beats1,

3,5aredownbowandevennotes2,4,6areupbow.Thisrulealsoappliesto

tripletime(3)Thedoubledownbowisusedintripletimeinslowmovements

wherethelastdownbowofeverybarretakesforthenextbar(nvn|nvn)(4)

Alternativelydoubleupbowsareusedinfastermovementsintripletime(nvv)

(5)Thedoubleupbowisalsousedtoaccommodatetheruleofthedownbow(6)

Ashortnoteafteradottednoteisusuallytuckedinandhardlyeverplayedona

separatebow(Tarling.2001:89).

63

Theharmonymayalsoeffectthebowdirection.InBaroquemusicitisimportant

toemphasisethedissonancewithinthebar.

ARTICULATION

Articulationistherelationshipbetweennotesorphrases,theirbeginningsand

endingsandhowtheseareconnectedorseparated(Tarling.2001:11).Themain

articulationmarkingsinBaroquemusicareslurs,dotsanddashes.Dotsoften

indicatethatnotesshouldbeplayedequallyandshouldbeseparatedwithout

slurs.Noteswithdashesareusuallydetachedbyaliftedstrokeinthelowerhalf

ofthebow.

ARTICULATIONINALLEGROMOVEMENTS

CantabileandAllegropassagesshouldbedistinguishedbymeansofarticulation

(Tarling.2001:134).Theformershouldbesmoothwithnogaps,whilethelatter

shouldbeslightlyseparated.Todeterminewhetherapassageiscantabileor

Allegro,Tartiniadvisesthatstepwisemelodiesshouldbeplayedcantabile

(legatowithslursaddedifdesired),whilemelodieswithleapsshouldbeplayed

inamoredetached(separated)style(Tartini.1771:55).

Tarlingdescribestheshortstaccatostrokeasdiggingintothestringwithabite

beforereleasing.Shesuggestsusingverylittlebowforthe‘bite’,ensuringthat

pressureisfromthehand(mainlythefirstfinger).Thebowshouldthencometo

restbetweenstrokes,beforepressingthenext‘bite’(Tarling.2001:136).When

appliedonanearlybow,theplayershouldkeepthebowclosetothestringand

therighthandshouldmaintainpressurethroughoutthefastpassagetoensure

thebowdoesnotbounceandratherremainsclosetothestring.AstheTourte

bowismorelikelytobounce,careshouldbetakentoensurethatitremainsclose

tothestringbetweeneachstroke.

PriortotheinventionoftheTourtebow,theterm‘spiccato,’wasusedtodenote

a“short,individually‐controlledbowstrokewelldefinedfromneighbours”

(Tarling.2001:136).Withitscombinationofweightandbounce,theTourtebow

canproduceshort,‘bite’strokeseasily.Inpre‐Tourteterms,“detached”was

takentomeanseparated.Itdidnotrefertothetypeofbowstrokenowmost

64

commonlyassociatedwiththeTourtebow–détachéandmartelé–whichare

executedintheupperhalf.

PLAYINGCONTINUOUSFASTNOTES

Whenconfrontedwithcontinuousfastnotes,theplayershouldavoidaseamless

successionofnoteswithequalemphasisoneachnote.Patterns,sequencesand

theharmonicstructureshouldbeconsideredandemphasized.Accentsorlonger

strokesshouldbeusedtoemphasizethebeginningofasequenceorpattern.

Nuancesinthemelodymayalsobeemphasizedwithdynamicchanges.Cadences

shouldbeweak,leaninginonimportantharmoniesandlengtheningimportant

notesinthepassage(Tarling.2001:137).

THESLUR

Duringthe18thcentury,theslurwasalsoregardedasadiminuendowiththe

secondnoteundertheslurbeingplayedmoresoftlythanthefirst.Mozart(1756)

andQuantz(1752)emphasizedthisruleintheirtutors(Tarling.2001:142).A

slurhadmanyfunctions‐itwasabowinginstructionandforpurposesof

phrasingandarticulation.Mozartadvisedthatnotesatcloseintervalsshouldbe

slurred,butthatthosefarapartshouldbeplayedwithseparatestrokes.Further,

passagesshouldbearrangedtogiveapleasantvarietyofslursandseparate

strokes(Tarling.2001:142).Shiftingandstring‐crossingshouldbeavoided

undertheslur,asthiswouldinterruptthesmoothness.

Inthelate17thandearly18thcenturies,theslurwasconsideredanornamentand

couldbeaddedtothemusicatthediscretionoftheperformer.However,

composerssuchasCouperinandJ.S.Bachusedtheslurinaverypreciseway.

Tarlingadvisesthatcautionshouldbeexercisedwhenaddingslurstothemusic

ofthesecomposers(Tarling.2001:143).Shealsostatesthat,“breakingslursfor

theconvenienceofwhathappensnextinthemusicisnotgoodpractise.Tryto

keeptheslursintactfortheireffect,andre‐arrangethebowingbytuckinginthe

upbow,orretakeanotherdownbowascloseaspossiblebeforethemost

importantpointforthebowdirection”(Tarling.2001:144).

65

Tarlingsummarisestheuseoftheslurintheperformanceasfollows(Tarling.

2001:148):

1. Thefirstnoteoftheslurshouldbeemphasizedorlengthenedsomewhat

2. Dependingonthehierarchyofthebarandtheharmony,notallslurs

shouldbethesame

3. Articulationshouldoccuratthebeginningandendoftheslur

4. Mostslursarediminuendos

5. Theslurshouldbeassmoothaspossible.Thus,stringcrossingsand

shiftsshouldbeavoidedundertheslur

6. Slursmaybeaddedtoconjunctnotes

PHYSICALFACTORS

PRE‐TOURTEVERSUSTOURTEBOW

ThemaindifferencebetweentheBaroque(pre‐Tourte)andTourtebowing

techniquesistherelationshipbetweenspeedandpressure.Theearlybowhas

significantlylesspressureatthetip.Thus,mostofthenuanceandexpressionis

executedinthemiddletolowerpartofthebow.Fasterbowspeeds,particularly

onlongernotes,willhaveaweakertonewhenusingtheshorter,lighterBaroque

bow.TheaddedweightatthetipandheeloftheTourtebowmakelongerstrokes

farmoreeven,evenatfastspeeds.Messadivoce,withitssoftstartandend,may

bechallengingtoexecuteontheTourtebow.Theendsoftheboware

considerablyheavierthanthebaroquebowandfarmorecontrolwouldbe

required.

Thenaturalstrokeofthepre‐Tourtebowwasarticulatedandnon‐legato.Players

couldcreateandvarynuancesbymodifyingthearticulationandadjustingthe

length,speedandpointofcontact(pressure)ofthebow.Shortbowstrokes

requiredtheforearmandaflexiblewrist.Occasionally,theupperarmwasused

toplaylongstrokes.Alowelbowwasessentialasithelpedtocreateasmooth,

evenarticulation(Stowell.2001:77).Thepre‐Tourtebowwasnot,however,

well‐suitedtoaccentedbowstrokessuchasmarteléandsforzando.Asbowing

66

instructionsinthe18thcenturydeveloped,sotoodidthedemandsonthebow

increase.Thus,theTourtebowwasadaptedtocreateamoresonorouscantabile

sound,andwasmorecapableofanimmediateattack(comparedtothemore

delayedresponseoftheconcavebow),ofsforzandoeffectsandofaccented

strokes.

TheworkofBaillotwaskeytothedevelopmentofmodernbowarticulationand

handling.AccordingtoStowell,Baillot’ssurveyofviolinbowingsremainsthe

mostextensivecatalogueofthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury.Inthiswork,he

subdividedthebowingsintotwobasiccategories:slowandfast.Thefaststrokes

werethedétachés.Thesecouldbe‘muted’(mats),ie.onthestringand

articulatedbythewrist(détaché,martélé,staccato);‘elastic’(élastiques),ie.

mostlyoffthestringusingtheresilienceofthestick(détachéléger,perlé,sautillé,

flyingstaccato);and‘dragged’(traînés),ie.compositeonthestring.

GUTVERSUSSTEELSTRINGS

Gutstringsmaybeusedasameansofsimulatinganauthenticsound.When

comparedtonylon,thesoundandqualityoftoneofgutstringsaremore

interestingandlively.AbbottandSegermanattributethistothefactthatgutisa

naturalmaterial.Althoughtheringingedgeofthehigherstringsoftheviolislost

whennylonisreplacedwithgut,someplayerspreferthewarmthoftheguttone.

JeanRousseau,authorofTraitesdelaviol,objectedtotheeffectofthemetal

stringsonthebowingandtoitsshrilltone(Rousseau.1687:22).However,this

viewwasdisputedbyMichaelPraetorius,whodescribedtheoverspunstring

soundassmoothandbeautifullyresonant(Praetorius.1619.48).Modernmetal

stringsmaybeatahighertensionthanwerethoseinthe17thcenturyandare

thusmorelikelytobeplayedforcefully.

Inordertoretain18th‐centuryauthenticity,onemaychoosetoreplacethe

overspunmetalstringswiththemoreappropriategutstrings.However,thismay

resultina‘thickerorduller’tone,asthehigherharmonicscreatedbythe

overspunstringsarelostonthegutstringsandintonationproblemsbeginto

appearonthefrettedinstruments.AccordingtoAbbot(Abbott.1976:430),

67

mixingstringscanbecomerather“irksome”andmaycausetuningandbalancing

problems.

Asgutisanaturalmaterialitisaffectedbyforcesofnature.Forexample,gut

tendstoswellinmoistconditionsaswaterisabsorbedbetweenthefibres.The

swellingcausesthelengthtoshorten,thusincreasingthetensionandraisingthe

pitch.Themoretwistonthestring,thegreatertheeffect.Theincreasein

moisturealsoaddsweight,thusloweringthepitch.Withaslightincreasein

moisture,thepitchsharpens.However,withalargeincreaseinmoisture,the

increaseinweightsupersedestensionandthepitchislowered.Dryconditions

exertasimilareffect,ie.asthemoistureinthestringdries,thepitchislowered.

Whenstrivingforanauthentic“gutsound”,itisimportanttonotethatthetone

ofastringisdependentonitselasticity,onitsmassperunitlengthandonits

sound‐absorptionproperties(Abbott.1976:435).Plaingutstringshave

considerablymoreabsorptionwhencomparedtometalstrings.Abbottand

Segermansummarisethedisadvantagesofusinggutstringsasfollows‐“…(gut

strings)donotlastaslong,[are]troubletokeepintune,[are]inherentlymore

outoftune,[have]lessbrillianttoneandthesounddiesawayquickerafterbeing

plucked,[are]hardertostartsoundwithabow(especiallynearthebridge)and

itemitsahisssoundduringbowing…Ifaplayeragreestocopewithallthese

disadvantages,hewillberewardedbyadevelopingrelationshipwithhis

instrumentwhichparallelsthatoftheearlyplayers,withtheconsequent

impetustodiscoverauthenticcomponentsoftechniqueandtoneproduction

whichhewouldotherwiseneverhavepredicted,andwhichwillofcourse,addto

therediscoveryofthelifeofthemusicitself”(Abbott.1976:437).

PITCHANDALTERNATETUNINGS

Pitchhasbeensomewhatstandardisedtoaccommodatecertainperformance

practices.ForBaroquepieces,a”istunedto415Hz;Classicalto430Hzandpost

c.1830tobetween435/440Hz.Thisstandardisationcreatesuniformityamongst

playersandclarityconcerningintonation.

Today,themostcommonlyusedtuningforearlymusicisa=415.Conveniently,

thispitchliesasemitonelowerthanthemodernstandardisedtuningpitch

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(a=440).Werethestringstobetunedasemitonelower,aBaroque‐typesound

maybeattainable,asthestringswouldbeatalowertension.

STYLISTICFACTORS

VIBRATO

DuringtheBaroqueera,vibratowasusedprimarilyasaselectiveornament.It

wasoftenaddedfreelybytheplayer,usuallyonalongsustainednoteoronthe

finalnotesinaphrase.Itwasalsoemployedforexpressivepurposes,toenhance

theimportantnotesinaphrase.Spohr(Violinschule:175)associatedvibrato

withaccentednotes.BaroqueandClassical‐eraplayersusedavibratooffar

shorterwidththanperformersoftoday.Atthattime,vibratowasexecutedby

thefingersandwrist,ratherthanbythearm.Thismayhavebeenduetothe

holdatthetime,whichdidnotofferadequatemobilityofthearm.Leopald

Mozartdescribestheeffectofvibrato20tothe“wave‐likeundulation”created

afterstrikingabellorslackstringsharply(Mozart.1756:203).Headvisesusing

theornamenttoaddemphasistoanote,onalongnoteattheendofapassage

andtodecorateasustainednote.

Withthegradualintroductionofthechin‐bracedgriptowardstheendofthe18th

century,thearmwasfreedtocultivateamorefluidvibratomovement(Stowell.

2001:65).AccordingtoStowell,thevibratoasexecutedontheviolaisless

intensethanontheviolin.BaillotandSpohragreethatthevibratomovement

shouldbeslightandthatadeviationfromthenoteshouldscarcelybeheard

(Spohr.Violinschule:175‐176).

Thedevelopmentofvibratoasa“constituentofapleasingtone”ratherthanan

embellishment,maybeattributedtothecontinuousvibratoemployedby

KreislerandHeifetz(Stowell.2001:65).

DYNAMICS

WrittendynamicmarkingswererarelyincludedbytheBaroquecomposer.Thus,

dynamicsthatmayberequiredinperformanceincludedroppingdownbeforea

risingsequenceandmakingadiminuendoasthemusicdescendstoalower

20Thetermtremolowasusedtodescribevibrato.

69

registerInthecaseofastrongerbottommelody,acrescendoshouldbeused

instead(Tarling.2001:137).

COMMONBAROQUERHYTHMS

SYNCOPATION

Bowdirectionisdeterminedbythehierarchyofthebar.Thestrongestbeat(first

beat)isusuallyplayedwithadownbow,unlessastrongharmonyorrhythmical

interruption(syncopation)mayequalthestrongdownbeat.Itisimportantto

notetheharmonywithinthesyncopation.Ifthesecondnotewithinthe

syncopationbelongstothesameharmonyasdoesthefirstnote,itshouldnotbe

playedmorestrongly.Often,thetendencyistoplaythesecondmorestrongly,

withanaccenteddownbow,particularlyifitishigherthanthefirst.Inthis

instance,oneshouldbearinmindtheroleofhierarchywithintheharmonic

frameworkofthebar(Tarling.2001:94).

THEDACTYL

ThedactylisarhythmcommonlyfoundinBaroquemusic,includingBach’sViola

dagambasonatas.Thedactylconsistsofalongnote(quaver)followedbytwo

shorternotes(semiquaver).Thedactylcouldfallontheupbeatoronastrong

beatofthebar.Thelongnotemaybeliftedonanupboworemphasizedona

downbowfollowedbytwoalternatebowsontheshorternotes,dependingonits

rolewithinthehierarchyofthebar.Thesecondnoteofthedactylmaybea

double‐downifthenoteremainsthesamepitch(Tarling.2001:94).

SonataBWV1027,secondmovement(Allegromanontanto),bar59,isan

instanceinwhichtheruleofthedactylshouldbeappliedHenlemanipulatedthe

bowingsintheprecedingbarsothatthefirstdactylinbar59beginswithanup

bow.However,thiswasnotinaccordancewiththerulethatthestrongerbeat

shouldstartwithadownbow.Henleneglectedthisruleinorderto

accommodatethedirectionofsemiquaversthatfollow.Thebarendswitha

staccatoquaverwhich,asaresultofHenle’sbowings,isadownbow.Thisdoes

notsuitthecharacterofthepieceandshouldbeplayedwithaliftedupbow

instead.

70

DOTTEDRHYTHMS

Tocompensatefortheshorternotewithinadottedrhythm,thebowisoften

lifted.Itisnotnecessarytousethesameamountofbowonthedottednoteand

lift,asnotwosuccessivedottednoteswillbeofequalimportance.Toavoidequal

accentsaftertheretake,theplayermayvarythesizeoftheretake.Tarling

suggestssmallerretakesbeforeweakerbeatsandlargeronesbeforestronger

beats(Tarling.2001:95).

BAROQUEBOWTECHNIQUES

INÉGALETECHNIQUE

Notesinégale(Fr:unequalnotes)referstoaperformancepracticefromthe

BaroqueandClassicalerainwhichnoteswithequalwrittentimevaluesare

performedwithunequaldurations–usuallyalternatinglongandshort.

AccordingtoTarling,themainconsiderationwhenperformingnotesinégalesis

the“weightofthearmbringingthebowdownintothestringonthestronger

longernote,andliftingtheweightontheup‐bow”(Tarling.2001:169).Thebow

speedonthelongernoteshouldbeslowerandheaviertoachieveagreater

contrasttothelighterup‐bow.

SLOWBOW

Inthe18thcentury,thelongstrokewasoftendescribedashavingasoft

beginning,evenwhenplayedloudly.Theattackatthebeginningofthestroke

becamemorecommonwiththeTourtebow,whichhasmoretensionattheheel.

“Everytone,eventhestrongestattack,hasasmall,evenifbarelyaudible,

softnessatthebeginningofthestroke;foritwouldotherwisebenotone

butonlyanunpleasantandunintelligiblenoise.Thesamesoftnessmust

beheardalsoattheendofeachstroke(L.Mozart.1756).”

Itiskeytounderstandtherelationshipbetweenthepressure(exertedbythe

fingersofthebow)andthespeedofthebow.Theaimistobeginthenotewithan

imperceptibleattack,beforeincreasingthepressureandspeedtowardsthe

middle,andfinallydecreasingthepressureandspeedtowardstheheelsothata

softendingisachieved.

71

MESSADIVOCE

MessadivoceistheItaliantermusedtodescribetheswellingoflongstrokes.It

iscommonlyusedinslowmovementsinwhichlongnotesfrequentlyoccur.

Tartinidescribesthestrokeas“beginningwiththemostminutesoftness,

increasingthetonetoitsloudestdegreeanddiminishingittothesamepointof

softnesswithwhichyoubegan”(Tartini.1771:133).Geminianiportraysthe

executionas“pressingthebowuponthestringswiththefore‐finger.”Mozart

describesthecombinationofpressureanddistancefromthebridgeasfollows:

“Thefingerofthelefthandwhichisplacedonthestringshould,inthesoft

tone,relaxthepressuresomewhat,andthatthebowshouldbeplaceda

littlefartherfromthebridge;whereasinloudtonethefingersoftheleft

handshouldbepresseddownstronglyandthebowbeplacednearerto

thebridge”(Mozart.1756:97).

TheunderstandingofthisrelationshipisintegraltotheexecutionofBaroque

music.Strongerbeatsshouldbeplayedclosertothebridgewithmorepressure

withaslowerbowstroke,whiletheweakerbeatsshouldbeplayedwithlighter

strokes,afasterbowandfurtherfromthebridge.Tarlingsummarisesthemost

commonandeffectiveusesofmessadivoceasfollows(Tarling.2001:127):

1. Anysuspensionortieontoadissonance

2. Dissonancesonorduringlongnotesingeneral.

3. Alineofsuspensionsorothersequencesincorporatinglongnotes,which

maybeplayedalternatelyswelledandnotswelled.

4. Alongnoteattheendofamovementorsection

5. Alongintroductorynoteatthestartofamovement.

PERFORMANCEPRACTICEInordertoachieveaperiodinstrumentsoundonthemodernviola,asound

understandingofitsmechanicsandtechniquesshouldbeacquired.InDavid

Dalton’sPlayingtheViola,heinterviewsWilliamPrimrose,apioneerintheartof

virtuoso(solo)violaplaying.Primrosetranscribedandadaptedmanypre‐

72

Brahmsworksfortheviola.OnesuchtranscriptionishiseditionofBach’ssuites

forsolocello.Thisworkmaybeakeyresourceininforminghistorically‐

appropriateBaroqueperformancestoday.WhenaskedbyDaltonhowto

approachthesuitesontheviola,Primroserespondedthus:

“IhavebeengivenbytheauthoritiesthatintheBaroqueperiodamuch

moreattachedstylewasusedthanwepractisetoday,i.e.separate

bowings.Consequently,Iamquiteshyofputtingtoomanylegato

markingsintothefastermovementslikethepreludesandsomeofthe

correnteandgiguemovements(Dalton.1988:189)…Ialsoadvocateuse

ofthelowerpositionswhenplayingthecellosuites.TheseIconsidertobe

brighterinsoundwhenperformedontheviolaasopposedtothecello

(Dalton.1988:190).”

Inhisview,theviolaplayercannotachievethesame“profundityandweight”as

acellistcanonhisinstrument.Thus,thesuitesshouldbeplayedina

considerablydifferent“spirit”ontheviola.Headvisesthattheperformershould

notattempttoimitatethecelloperformance,butshouldrather“developatype

ofperformancestyleofourownwhichisofalighterquality,generallyquickerin

tempo,perhapsalittlegayerallthewaythroughwithlessgrumblingand

bemoaning”(Dalton.1988:190).Primrosedrawsheavilyontheworksofauthors

suchasTartini,DolmetschandBoydenwhenformulatinghisviewson

performancepractices.This,hefeels,willensuremoreinformed‐decision

makingwhenapproachingmusicthatwasoriginallyplayedtwoorthree

hundredyearsago.

PrimrosealsoconsultedtheworkofRobertDonington21toinformhisexecution

ofornamentation.Forexample,abaroquetrillstartedslowlyfromtheupper

noteandthenspedup(Dalton:1988:191).Priortotheintroductionofthe

Tourtebow,themannerofbowingwasmoredetachedandarticulate,anda

more‘Romantic’melodiclinewithmorefrequentslurringwasfavoured(Dalton.

1988:192).

21RobertDonington.TheInterpretationofEarlyMusic.revisedversion.FaberandFaber.London,.1974.

73

“Sonorityandcolourareessentialinrescuingourinstrumentfromthe

chargeofdullness,dinginess,drearyandlack‐lustresoundthatissooften

laidagainsttheviola–Primrose(Dalton.1988:68).”

Primrosedisputestheuseofthedown‐bowrule,inwhicheverystrongbeatis

playedwithadown‐bow.ThisisinlinewithearlyworkbyFrancescoGeminiani,

whostated22(Dalton.1988:107)

“Imaintainthatthebeautyofviolatoneresidesintheopenstrings,witha

freeuseofopenharmonicsandalotofbariolage…(thestringcrossings)

lendspungencytothetone”(Geminiani.1751).

Primroseadvisesthatfirstpositionsshouldberetaineduntiltheperformerif

obligedtoascendtotheupperrange,asthemediumregionsoftheDandG

stringscanbeadullsectionoftheviola(Dalton.1988:114).

InlieuofafinalconclusionChaptersixwillapplytheBaroqueperformance

practicetechniquesdiscussedinthischaptertotheexecutionofBWV1027on

themodernviola.

22FrancescoGeminiani.TheArtofViolinPlaying.Facsimileedition,editedwithanintroductionbyDavidD.Boyden.OxfordUniversityPress.London.1751.

74

CHAPTERSIX:HOWTOPERFORMBWV1027ONAMODERN

VIOLA

Inthisbodyofwork,IhaveanalysedBärenreiter’s,HenleandBreitkopfand

Härtel’seditionsofBach’ssonatasforvioladagambatranscribedforviola.In

termsofadditionalperformancedirection,Bärenreiterdoesnotincludeany;

Henleincludesfingeringandbowing;andBreitkopfincludesfingering,bowing,

dynamicsandaddedslurs,dotsandlines.

Inordertoachieveahistorically‐informedperformance,theplayershould

adherecloselytoBach’soriginalarticulationmarkings(slursanddots),which

themselveswereverythorougheventhoughnotalwaysclear(refertop.34).

DuetoitssignificantdivergencefromBach’soriginalwork,Ihavechosento

disregardtheBreitkopfeditionbyNaumann,andtofocussolelyontheHenle

edition.ThemotivationforNaumann’sextensiveadditionofarticulation

markingsisunclear.Hemayhaveintendedtoassistthemodernplayerin

executingBach’swork.Whiletheaddeddotsmayhavebeenincludedasa

remindertotheperformertoplaymorelightly;theslursareunjustifiableasthey

changethephrasingandarticulationofamelodyentirely.Onesuchexamplecan

befoundinbars57and58intheAllegromanontanto(secondmovement),in

whichthesecondsemiquaverofbeat2isslurredtotheprevioustiewithnodot

indicatingthatitshouldbere‐articulated.Thispatterncontinuesthroughout

bothbars.IntheNaumannedition,thesemiquaveristuckedinwiththetiefor

bowingconvenience,completelychangingthearticulationfromseparatedto

legato.Bachintendedthesemiquavertobeseparatedandthusliftedand

articulated,notslurredandlegato.

Anotherexamplecanbefoundintheopeningthemeofthesecondmovement.

Naumannslursthetwosemiquaversofbeat4inbar5,sothatthefirstbeatof

bar6canstartdown‐bow.Again,thismodificationchangesBach’sintended

articulationentirely,simplyforthesakeofconvenience.Thereareanumberof

similarexamplesintheAllegromoderato(fourthmovement),inwhichNaumann

changesthearticulationbyaddingslurstoaccommodatethedirectionofthe

bow.

75

Althoughitissometimesnecessarytoadaptthebowingstoaccommodatethe

emphasisofabeatorharmony,thiscanbedonewithoutchangingthe

articulation.Forexample,inbar5ofthesecondmovement,startingup‐bowon

thefirstquaverofbar5wouldresultinanup‐bowinthenextbar.Toavoidthe

up‐bowonthestrongbeatofbar6,adoubledown‐bowmaybetakenonthefirst

quaverofbar6.Thistechniquemayberepeatedinthenextbar.Infact,thereare

anumberofinstancesinwhichthedirectionofthebowmaybeadaptedtosuit

boththearticulationandtheemphasisofbeatandharmony.

TheeditionbyHenledoesnotaddslurs,butdoesadaptthebowingdirectionfor

practicalconvenience.Mostoftheseadaptationsarenotinlinewiththe“rules”

ofbowingoftheBaroqueera.Thus,theirimplementationwillbeassessedand

revisedinthechaptertosuitamorehistorically‐informedperformancestyle.

Henle’ssuggestedfingeringswillalsobediscussed.Ratherthanusingthesecond

position,thiseditoroftenjumpstothirdposition(acommontrendin

performancestoday).Onlongsustainednotesthatcouldbeplayedwiththeopen

string,Henlesuggestsplayingthemstoppedinordertousevibrato‐another

elementdiscordantwiththebaroquestyle.Further,headvisesthatopenstrings

shouldbeusedwheneverpossibletocreatemoreresonance.

Intheanalysistofollow,thebowingsandfingeringsofeachmovementofBWV

1027willberevisedtosuitamorehistorically‐informedperformance.

MOVEMENTI:ADAGIO

BOWING

Thelastquaverofbeat4inbar3,suggestedbyHenle,ismarkedП. Theprecedingfoursemiquaversareslurredonanup‐bow,resultinginthelast

quaverofthebarstartingquitelowinthebow.Itisthenfollowedbyalongnote

ofsixcountsinbar4and5.Inordertohaveenoughbowforthelongnote,the

lastquaverofbar3shouldbeplayedwithafullbow.Thismay,however,cause

thisnoteto‘stickout’,whenitshouldactuallybethesoftestnoteofthephrase.

Thus,thisquavershouldbe“tuckedin”totheup‐bowslurredsemiquaversthat

precedeit.Thiswouldresultinthebowbeingattheheeltostartthelongnotein

bars4and5.

76

Henleaddsanumberoftuckeddown‐bows,anothertechniqueuncharacteristic

oftheBaroquestyle,duringwhichup‐bowsweremoreoftentucked.Henle’s

tuckeddown‐bowscanbefoundinthefollowingbars:

BARS: TUCKEDDOWN‐BOWS:(HENLE)6 Secondsemiquaverofbeat47 Secondsemiquaverofbeat2andbeat48 Secondsemiquaverofbeat410 Secondcrotchetofbeat419 Secondsemiquaverofbeat120 Secondsemiquaverofbeatandbeat323 Secondquaverofbeat224 Secondsemiquaverofbeat4

Inalltheabovecases,anup‐bowisrecommended.

Further,theuseofdoubleup‐bowsisadvisedinthefollowingbars:

BARS: DOUBLEUP‐BOWS:(REVISED)10 Lastquaverbeatslurred15 Lastsemiquaverpairinbeat416 Lastsemiquaverpairinbeat3

AdditionalalternativestoHenle’sbowdirectioninclude:

BARS: REVISEDBOWING:18 Inplaceofanup‐bowonthefirstquaverofthelastbeat,adown‐

bowisadvisedtoavoidaccentingthepreviouscrotchet.Theharmonyremainsthesamewithinthebeatanditisgenerallynotadvisabletoplaceanaccenteddown‐bowmidwayinthebeat(Tarling.2001:94).

23 Theuseofadown‐bow(ratherthananupbow)onbeat3isadvisedasthenotefallsonastrongbeatofthebar.Adoubleup‐bowisthennecessaryfortheupbeattobar24.

FINGERING

BAR: HENLE: REVISED:2 4thfingeronthelastnoteofthebarto

avoidstringcrossingundertheslur4 2ndfingerinthirdposition OpenAstringondottedsemibreve6 OpenAonsecondquaverofbeat2,

openDonbeat3,2ndfingeronCsharpforconvenienceofthetrill

77

Secondposition:fifthsemiquaverofbeat2tofirstquaverofbeat3

7

Thirdpositiononthelastquaverofbeat4tothelastquaverofbeat1inbar8

Itisadvisedthatfirstpositionismaintained

18,19 Henlesuggestsshiftingtosecondpositiononthefirstcrotchetofbar18beforemovingtothirdpositiononthebeat2ofbar19.

Stayinginfirstpositionisrecommended

20 Remaininfirstpositionforbeat1,movetosecondpositiononthethirdsemiquaverofbeat3toavoidthestringcrossingundertheslur,andprepareforthetrillinbeat4

24 Secondpositiononthefirsttwosemiquaversofbeat2,openGonthethirdsemiquaverofbeat2

USEOFDOTS

Inthissonata,thedothasthreedifferentfunctions:1)itmaybeassociatedwith

aspecificmotivicfigure;2)itmayservetolightentheendsofsmallnotegroups

orsmall‐groupphrases;and3)itmaycomplementslurredpatterns(Butt.

1990:162).

Anexampleoffunction(1)isevidentinbar1ofthefirstmovement(Adagio),in

whichthesecondandthirdquaversofthebararedotted.Wheneverthistheme

recurs,thedotsarepresent.Asimilarexampleoccursinthemainthemeofthe

secondmovement,inwhichtwosemiquaversandaquaver(withadot)are

present.Thesesemiquaversshouldbeaccentedwiththequaverplayedmore

lightly.Thesecondfunctionofthedotoccursattheendofbar3inthefirst

movement.Thelastquaverhasadot,thuspreventinganaccentandallowingthe

playerenoughtimetocrosstotheAstring.Thedot’sthirdfunctionisevidentin

thesecondmovementinbars30‐32,inwhichthreequaversareunderaslurand

thefourthquaverisseparatedwithadot.AccordingtoButt,thistypeoffigureis

anintegralelementoftherhythmandmelody(Butt.1990:163).

78

MOVEMENTII:ALLEGROMANONTANTO

BOWING

InButt’sopinion,onlyminimaladjustmenttothebowingdirectionsisrequired

inthismovement.Ifplayedasis‐startingdownonthefirstquaver‐the

semiquaverstringpassageinbar12is“comfortable”,withanup‐bowinthe

melodynote(thefirstnoteofeachpair).Inthecaseoftheviola,inwhichthe

down‐bowisthestrongerstroke,theoppositebowingwouldneedtobe

executed.ItseemsthatBachpaidparticularattentiontothearticulation

markingsinhissonatas,alwaysbearinginmindtheinstrumentforwhichhewas

composing(Butt.1990:160).

Adoubledown‐bowisrecommendedintheopeningthemeandshouldbeused

throughoutthemovement,evenwhenitisdisplacedinthebar.Otherinstances

inwhichthedoubledown‐bowshouldbeusedinclude:

BARS: DOUBLEDOWN‐BOWS:(REVISED)90‐92 Thesemiquaverafterthetieddottedcrotchet100‐101 Downbowonthequaverofbeat1anddoubledonthefollowing

semiquaver

Again,Henle’suseofthetuckeddown‐bowisunnecessary–up‐bowsshouldbe

utilisedinsteadasfollows:

BARS: UP‐BOWS:(REVISED)13 Lastsemiquaverofbeat315 Secondsemiquaverofbeat129 Secondsemiquaverofbeat132 Lastsemiquaverofbeat347 Secondsemiquaverofbeat257 Allsemiquaverafterthetieshouldbeplayedupbow63 Lastsemiquaverofbeat283 Secondsemiquaverofbeat1112 Lastsemiquaverofbeat2

BAR: ADDITIONAL:(REVISED)37 HenlemarksthelastquaverП.Itisadvisabletoplayitup,thus

resultinginadown‐bowonthedescendingslurredsemiquavers

79

onbeat2and3.Thisdown‐bowwillcreateanaturaldiminuendoonthedescendingline.

FINGERING

Firstpositionshouldbemaintainedformostofthemovement.Openstrings

shouldbeusedwhentheystandontheirown.

BARS: OPENSTRINGS:(REVISED)9 Beat314 Wholebar

Ifalternativefingeringisrequired,theplayershouldshifttotheclosestpossible

position.Thisisnecessaryinbars29,32and61,inwhichthetrillshouldbe

playedinsecondposition.Creepingisadvisedinbars65and66,ie.shiftingto

secondpositiononthelastbeatofbar65andthirdpositiononthebeat1ofbar

65.Tocreatemoreresonance,theuseofopenstringsisrecommendedinbars85

and86.

MOVEMENTIII:ANDANTE

BOWING

Mostofthemovementconsistsoftwo‐andfour‐noteslurs.Duringthe

eighteenthcentury,theslurwasregardedasadiminuendo,withthesecondnote

undertheslurbeingplayedmoresoftlythanthefirst(Tarling.2001:142).Inthis

movement,thesluremphasisesthephrasing‐leaningonthefirstnoteand

fadingonthesecond.Shiftingandstring‐crossingshouldbeavoidedunderthe

slursoasnottobreakthesound.

RecommendedmodificationstoHenle’sbowingsareasfollows:

BARS: 7 Henlesuggestsasecondup‐bowonbeat2anddoublesthedown

onthesemiquaverofbeat3.Forpracticalpurposes,thisbowingisfartoocomplicated.Thus,itispreferabletoplaythebar‘asitcomes’,tuckingthefirstsemiquaverup.

12 Henletucksthesemiquaverofbeat3down.Again,thisbarshouldinsteadbeplayed‘asitcomes.’

80

FINGERING

Shiftingandstring‐crossingundertheslurshouldbeavoided.

BARS: FINGERING:(REVISED)2 4thfingeronainthesecondandfourthsemiquaverpair3 Beat3:firstpairofsemiquaversinhalfposition,secondpairin

secondpositionBeat4:playinthirdposition(creepingmethod)

Insomecases,itmaybeincreasinglydifficulttoavoidshiftsandstringcrossings

undertheslur.Intheseinstances(eg.bars6,4,11),thelowestpossibleposition

possibleshouldbemaintained.


BOWING

Inthismovement,theuseofdoubledown‐bowsisrecommendedtoavoid

awkwardup‐bowsinquaverpassages.Thebarsconsistingofacrotchet,four

quaversandacrotchetshouldbeplayedwiththefollowingbowing:

П ПⅤПⅤ П│П

Thespacebetweenthedoubledownbowscreatesalightnessandlift,thusaiding

the“spirit”ofthefastmovement.

Alldottedcrotchetsshouldbeplayeddown,followedbyanup‐bowonthe

quaver–notuckeddown‐bowsshouldbeusedonthequaverafterthesedotted

crotchets.

FINGERING

Thesamefingeringrulesappliedtotheprecedingmovementsmaybeusedhere.

Thetrillsshouldbeplayedinthelowestpossibleposition(mostlysecond

position)inbars10,25,48and65.Wheneverpossible,openstringsshouldbe

played,particularlywhenthesenotesarestandingalone,eg.bar9(beat3)and

bar48(beat1).Thirdpositionshouldbeavoided,excepttopreventastring

crossingunderaslur,asisthecaseinbar112.

81

FIRST‐HANDEXPERIENCEAspartofmyprogram,IattendedaHIPcourseattheSouthAfricanCollegeof

Music,coordinatedbyProfessorRebekkaSandmeier.Thecoursewasan

introductiontoHIP,providingalinkbetweentheacademicandpracticalaspects

ofmusic.AsaperformerIfoundthiscourseextremelybeneficialwithregardsto

arrivingtoaninformedwayofinterpretingmusic.Wewereshownhowtouse

periodevidencesuchasmusic(manuscriptsandearlyprints)anditseditions,

treatisesonmusictheoryandperformanceaswellastheinstrumentsand

instrumentation.

ThepracticalaspectofthecourseinvolvedreceivinglessonsbyAntoinette

Lohmannonthebaroqueversionofone’sinstrument.Thiswasextremely

challengingforme,asIhadneverplayedabaroqueviola.IsoondiscoveredIhad

toabandonallIknewaboutplayingtheviolainordertosuccessfullylearnthe

basicsofsoundproductionandbowarticulationonthebaroqueviola.Because

thepre‐TourtebowisconsiderablylighterthantheTourtebow,itisnecessaryto

playwithalowerelbowtocreatemoreweightandultimatelymorebitein

articulationonthegutstrings.Aswellasbeinglighter,thepre‐Tourtebowisalso

shorter,soonehastocompensatebyusinglessbow.Itsconcaveshapealso

makesplayinginthelowerhalfeasiertocontrolcomparedtothemiddleand

upper‐halfofthebow.Holdingtheinstrumentisalsoachallengeasthereisno

chinrestorshoulderrestforaddedsupport.Thismakesarmvibratonearly

impossiblelimitingmetohandandfingervibrato.Ialsoavoidedshiftingand

usedmostlyfirstandsecondposition.

Thefinalpresentationrequiredmetoplayanearlypieceofmusicinamore

historicallyinformedwayonthebaroqueinstrumentwehadreceivedlessons

on.OfcourseIchoseBach’svioladagambasonataBWV1027,transcribedfor

viola.Sincemythesisisaimedatarrivingtoamoreinformedwayofplayingthis

sonataonamodernviola,Idecidedtotreatmypresentationasanexperiment

withthesameobjective.Theexperimentinvolvedplayingthesonataonthe

Baroqueviolawithapre‐Tourtebowandharpsichordaccompanimentusingthe

techniquesIhadreceivedfromthelessons;playingthesonataonthemodern

violawithTourtebowandpianoaccompanimentdisregardingHIP;andfinally

82

playingthesonataonthemodernviolawithTourtebowwithharpsichordina

moreinformedway.

IfounditextremelydifficulttoperformthissonataignoringtheknowledgeIhad

acquiredduringthecourse.ItriedtoperformitinamoreRomanticwayusing

legatostrokesandcontinuousvibrato.Itfeltveryuncomfortable,asitdidnot

suitthestyleofmusic.

WithabetterunderstandingofplayingthesonataonthebaroqueviolaIwas

betterequippedtoplayinamoreinformedwayonmymodernviola.Someof

theseadaptationsincludeplayingwithalightertouch,playingwithmore

separate(nonlegato)bowstrokesespeciallyinthefasterpassages,usingless

bowandvibrato,andstayingpredominantlyinfirstandsecondposition.

83

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