A PLAN FOR SUPERVISION BY THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL
byRollin D. Burr
A Thesis submitted to the faculty of the
Department of Education
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
in the Graduate College University of Arizona
1 9 4 8
Approved:"Director of (]
■ . ■ ACKNOWLEDGMENT \
Grateful acknowledgment is "made, here to Dr0 Glenn H* Nelson for his advice9 suggestions9 and .criticisms which have been so valuable-in this .stuay. , . : :'v- • ;
; ii:
; . ■ " TABLE OF ' GOHTEMTS v ;' \: v .. : , : : /
Impertanee of the StmdyThe principal is becoming more important as the super-
1visorj head of the school<> In the past p supervision has been carried on mainly by special personnel who were depend” ent on routine inspection and often a single observation0 It is now' re cognized that the principal should play an Important role in the leadership of teachers in their development toward greater professional growth and efficiencyg im- provement of the curriculum. and the techniques of teaching0 Howevers studies.indicate that principals as a whole fall short in their efforts toward supervision9 due to increasing
.... - . 3administrative duties and lack of training for supervision0They also fail to realize the importance and benefits of awell organized Supervisory programo Perhaps the greatestdifficulty encountered in the formulation of a suitablesupervisory program by most principals is a lack of conceptof what •such a program should consist0 The following
lo Jacobson9 Paul B0 ,and'. Reavlss William 06 'Duties of School Principals „. p o 5.07» : . . .
&@f ini t i on eont a in.s the elements of - supervision necessary to ; a well-rounded programs
Modern supervision "by contrast is the study • and analysis of, the total teaching-learning/ situation through many diverse functions operating through a carefully planned program that has been cooperatively derived from the needs of the situation in which many persons participate05It is the desire of the writer to formulate into one re
port the necessary materialg information3 and suggestions for carrying out such a programs ■
Statement of the Problem The purpose of the study is to set up a working pro- •
gram for supervision within the school9 to be carried on with full cooperation between the teachers and the principal0 The problem is: ,
fessional literature3 research studies9 and from the writer personal.experience .as a' principal of an;elementary- schoolo
OmPTER II
CRITERIA OF A GOOD PLM FOR SUPERl/ISIGN
. The success of a supervisory program depends largely; • i :upoh a well-established, plaa0 A planned, program will as
sure a study of school needsa the setting up of worthwhile goals a the selection of procedures9 the coordination of activities s and the provision for adequate time0 It should bederived and formulated on the basis of recognized needs of
. . . 2the persons and the instructional situation0 Sources ofdata for determining these needs are the pupilss the instruc
3tional staff5 and the administration0
Any endeavor - will succeed in proportion to the interest and cooperation of the persons involved c Therefore the interest and enthusiasm of the teachers must be obtained»The formulation of the supervisory program must be a product of the entire staff o The determination of objectives should be done by group discussion of the problems9 difficulties* and needs of the situation as shown by the survey0. The objectives thus derived should be interesting*
lo Douglas* Earl Ro and Boardman* Charles Wo in Secondary Schools pi ,95 =
The 'detefi^natiou nf /the of time- to be spent ona supervisory program is an important factor for considers. tipno This, should, be determined by the nature of the ob~, jectives to be reaehedo Some objeetives may be attained in>one semestero v Others may:take a year9 while still others
- . v \7 \may' necessitate av eontinuous proeess» _ ,, '. - %'
An important phase of a supervisory program is the se~ lection of procedures and the emphasis to be given eacho They should be appropriate to the objectives, and economical in application o They should be selected with regard to acceptability by the staff a and their skill and ability to apply them* They should also be selected with consideration.:,, for the least interference with the school in general* Any • program of supervision must have an effective means of appraisal if It is to be valid* The selection of measurements .must be made as soon as the objectives are set up to determine whether or not the goals can be reached* Definite re-v.;suits ■ arev.neeessary;;to, indicate the degree of success of ., the.;
DIFFIGGLTIESs SHORTCOMINGS s AM) MEEDS OF WAGHERS IN SERTIGl
Ihe diffieulties s shortcomings 9 and needs of teachers In service are revealed in numerous studies directed at the improvement of the teaehing=learning situationc Most of these studies have been carried out with the intention of forming a basis for supervisiono The planning of a supervl« sory program would not be complete without consideration of some of these studies» •
Typical of some of the early studies of teacher diffi- eulties is that of AaSo.Barr and Mabel-Rudisell0 . Theirstudy was in the form of a survey as the result of a follow- up of the supervisory program of the University of Wisconsin It was based upon the difficulties of graduates during their first two years of teachingo
The following difficulties relating to inexperienced teachers g, as recognized by the teachers and their principals are presented:
In briefs the ten most characteristic difficulties of first and second-year teachers are: control over pupils9 provision for individual
lo Barr % AoSo and Rudisell & Mabel, sl?The Inexperienced . Teachers Who Fail and Whyo^ The Mat ion’s Schools „'5s 30-34-s (Februarys 193010 , •
differences , presentation of subject matter, mQtlvatidn, organisation ef work and teaehing
;V.mteria'l,9 60K i: i°risvfor''work9 measuring /aGkierements, teaeher and pupil participationg :making assignments, and adjustment by the teach-
' ■ V::' ers ■ to the "classroom ■ eituation<>'2::.■; ;■ •; ;;The difficulties listed by this and many other studies
;.-M %ttAmn: ' revealed t M Shortcomings-'of teachers by' a study of supervision in rural schools by showing that the pupils in supervised schools advanced much further than those of .unsupervised schools c This type 'of., study; lhdieates: ;in= . ;- directly many shortcomings and needs of teachers 0 -; ■ - v ;
The Shortcomings and needs of teachers are indicated in the large number of studies devoted to the determination .of what qualif ies are essential to successful teaehing0 The quality studies deal- with" reasons for teacher failure 9' characteristics of good and poor teachers $, desirable teacher qualities/ and factors contributing to teaching successo
;;2 o Barr j' AoSo . and - Eudlsell-, label 0;;' op o cit 0, , pp *;; 30«34 3 o: Tit tman,, Iff oS = The Value of S oho ol^Super vi s ion; ; quoted - ■
from "Douglass , - HoR6 and Boardman, CoWo n op0 cit e 9- : -To iso
10
An example of the studies of why teachers fail is thatk
of Co Jo Anderson g AoBo Barr 8 and Maybell Busho They grouped the causes of teacher failure under seventeen head” ings or. typeso Based on earlier studies and additional data from the Detroit Public Schools they found that teacher failure is caused by a lack of one or more of the followings
f control'’over teaching technique; ability to maintain discipline ; mastery of subject matter; intelligence; effort; initiative; adaptability; common sense; physical ability; standards; ability to carry on; singleness of purpose; sympathetic understanding of pupils; social background; knowledge of what pupils can do; personality; moral standards0 This study indicates that lack of teaching techniques is only one of many shortcomings which condition teaching successc,
The studies of the characteristics of good and poor'■ . .. • 5 ::teachers are best, illustrated'by that of A0Bo Barro The
author made an extensive study of the teaching performance of forty-seven good and forty-seven poor teachers of the ' social.Studies o 'The characteristics, or weaknesses: asso- ., eiated with the teaching of poor teachers are illustrative of the shortcomings of many teachers„ The elements of weakness as determined by the study-are t no • provision for • :
Ao Anderson* Go Joj Barr» AoSo and Bush9 iVJaybelio Visiting ' the Teacher at Work, pp» . 331=3334o 5 o Barr s . AoSo Ggaracteristic Differences. in ..the. Teaching
. Performance of Good and' Poor Teachers of^the Social • Studies 3 p p ^ ' . ..
11
IMlTiduial differences; no socialization; formal textbook teaehing; inability to stimulate interest; weak discipline; no daily preparation; ■ no interest in work; and no knowledge of subject mattero \ - 1 ' :V ; ' ! :' ■ '■ • : /liie growth needs of teachers are indicated by the in« vestigafions deToted to trait analyseSo The most extensive
: Inyestigation in this field was done by WoW0' Qharters and Douglas WapleSo They, prepared a list of twenty^f iTe teacher traits considered to be of importance in selecting and train™ ing teachers a. : Desirable teacher traits as indicated by the ;
, study are presented below: . '’ '".lo Adaptability ' ■ • ' ■■ -v;- , --'l-'i: AttractivenesSg personal appearance ' : , ■3° Breadth of interest (interest in eom~
. '• .' . ■ ■ 6 o’'Coop ® rat ion {helpfulness 9 loyalty ■., ;': ;: 7 :;v :• Jo^yBependabllify-' (eensisteney). -i ■’ V ;■ . 8o Enthusiasm {alertness9 animation^. inspire• : V :r,‘;v' at long spontaneity 1 :' .. . . ' V ^
' ' ; , ;9o F l u e n c y : :10«, • Eorcefulness: (courage; decisiveness 3 in=
dependence, purposefulness) : : : : . , ■ V: - : ; 'v;:;;;;3' " - 110; Good judgment (discretion3 f o r e s i g h t ; :: , .: 1 ■ insighty intelllgericeI : - /'' \ v ' - '
- 12o Health , \ ' ; . ■ '' ■ ■ 13«. Honesty' i. . :■ m , . ■ ; ;x ■ : lla . Industry (patiencey perseverance) ' /. r;
' ■" BTTtJarr; ■'•'' Wo/cltofTable 24, pp:"#-?!, ;y: f ::;S':" ” : . ',. v7» Charters g'WbWo. and. Waples s Douglas * The Commonwealth
; : : Teacher draining Study; quoted from Barr, AoSosBurtons WoHo and Brueekner 9 Lo J0 $ opo cit 0 8 (1938) 9 . : ;
Later studies attempted to determine the needs of teachers in a broader sense rather than those of classroom diffi- . culties® Some example's of the trend are presentedo
: ko Tq develop, the art and science of teaching and fb" become' familiar with and' accustomed to the role of the teacher in the community and the administrative aspects of the school9 as well as in the classrooms
curriculum making by Gordon No MaeKenzie who states thatteachers should be able g
10 Alone or in cooperation with others to guide boys and girls in attaining a balanced plan of livingo
2o To lead children and youth in finding solutions to their immediate difficulties9 and in relating them to the broader social .problems c ' 3o To. guide children into■ much meaningful .
ejcperienee with the basic tools and methods of worko^l
- William A0 McCall , suggests that the measurement of
18 6 - .Hartley g Eelehe ^Developing a Gurriculum. f or Pro- ;'fessional Teacher Preparation o’8. .'A Functional Programof Teacher Education as Pevelop.ed”at~Byraeus~e tini-versityl pp0 76-77: quoted;from.Barr» 'A*St, Burton9, WTHo and Brueekners Jo9 opo eit»« (1947)9 Po 329«
piipll> eiiang iiagsr :S@';iased 'as. a-'means; for determining the .shorteomings and ne;e'dsteachers in serviceo He points out9 howeverthat this is an exceedingly difficult process and that the use of pupils9 tests for evaluating teaehefs
■ may easily do more harm than goods unless teachers cooperate In'rthe. measureWnt of their own ef ficiency0 ; ': \ ' 'V
The difficultihSs shortcomings s and needs of teachers are many and variedo A number of approaches have been employed in their studyo The earliest studies along, this line. dealt with the performance of teachers as observed in the eiassrdomo This effort was concerned with the discovery of common difficulties of teachers in classroom procedure0
; Another approach to teacher improvement was the quality ‘ studiesg" which attempted to determine what qualities were essential to successful teaching0 These studies indicate .
; that successful teaching is more than the possession of good . teaching techniques on the part of the teacher= ■ Some effort has been devoted to the study of teaching through observation of changes In pupilsc This approach is difficulty due ' to the fact that more harm than godd may result unless full
;' cooperstioUof ;'':the;'teach is secured0 Much effort.'has .been devoted to the study of teaching effIclemcy as inferred by the possession of certain knowledge and understanding of
' izV ivicGall 8 'William a, how to Measure in Education, " ppo 150-151= ‘ s
15
many things* skills in the:direetlon and guidance of the learning process^ proper attitudes 9 wholesome interests $ worthwhile ideals *• and appreciation of the finer points of . life a"- This’approach Is'more valuable for determining pro™ babl® efficiency of potential teachers in training institu- tiotis rather than in the fieldo
The determination of teaeher needs is a difficult pro-' cesso- To "be effective „ it should he done on a cooperative "basis o The needs should be determined by an analysis of the factors or lack of factors contributing to the situation» Methods for improving the situation should then be selected on the basis of. judgment or a detailed studyQ The methods chosen should be applied and the results analyzed to determine If improvement has been effected0 If the results indicate definite improvement 9 then the method should be con- tinuedo
, : : SHAHER IV
. Instriaiaents Wployed in the StMy pf v / feaehers and TeaehiHg '
. Historioal Baokgrotmd: There have been a number ofstudies devoted to the use of instruments in the analysis of teaching efficiency«, These studies grew out of the'realiza^' tion that more aeeurate tieahs:should be used in determining the probable causes Of poor workg if supervision was, to be effectiveo This movement began with the interest in objee» tive.items to observe as opposed to the conventional type of
v Eomiett Stevens was one of the first to attempt the ;measurement of ihstructibhal efficiency by a study of thequestions asked in the classrooms In his study he attempted '.to 'determine' thev teaeher:9s efficiency through the number and, quality of the questions asked during the recitation0 ErnestHorn followed with a study of the distribution of opportunity afforded pupils in the classroom reeitat ion» The
l a gt evens „ Romiett o ' The Question'' as a°: clency in _
2o' Horns Ernesto ■
17
Braabez' and distribution of opportunity for the pupils were used as an index of the teaeher®s effieieneyo'' These two studies apparently are the first of their kind to attempt the utilization of objective method0
The forerunner of the present rating scales was.pro=; 3 : '
posed by E 0G» Elliot in 1910= This tentative point scale was perhaps the first effort to rate the efficiency of teachers on a point basis0 SoAo Courtis was one. of thefirst to conduct a study of the effectiveness of supervisione
' • • 5The use of rating scales was advocated by William H6 Burton
6 ; ' ' : in 1922o AoS» Barr suggested that cheek lists and observe^tions of classroom procedure were not effective devices$, and developed lists of objective items to observe with many teacher and pupil-activitiese : .
Considerable attention also has been given to the development of objective means of recording the essential facts
' ' 7about the teaching process* Leo Jo Brueekner in 1925 and
3o Elliott 3 EoGo e8A Tentative Scaie for the Measurement of Teaching Efficiencyow ■Teachers® Yearbook of Educational Investigations; tuoted from Barra Ao.Soa An Intfoduction to the Scientific Study of Classroommpefvision: pr r r ~ ;" ~:;" ^ ~:
■ Ao- '0ourM.:sV’BoAo ’ Measuring the Effects' of Supervision in : ' . Geographyote School and Society^ 10:61-7# (July 19„
1919), ■'5o Burton,, William H* Supervision and the Improvement of: Teaching0 pp* 3 k g = m r ‘ .....—
6e Barrg AoSo Elementary School Standards for the Improve- . ment of Teaching 9 ppo 1-2 o- ' ■
1920 'proposed tlie analysis of teaching situations through the aid of time and frequency studies,, The use of diffieulties analyses of teaching as a means of improving teachers in; ^ v: s : - ■.,service was advocated by George H0 Betts in 1927.o
fliere have been a number of studies devoted to the de= velopment. of ' criteria for the study and ■ improvement; of: teach- ihgo Florence Eo Bamberger prepared'a 'list"of -observable 9 improvable, factors to be noted eoneerning changes to lookfor in the children9 the teacher8 and the elassroomo Frank- : 10 ; - ' ■ ; ' ; - , ' . . . ■ - ' - . ' A0 Butler also prepared a list of items to observe inclassroom procedure fbr the improvement of teaehing6 George
■ 11; . - . " ' v;;, ■ ,Go Kyte studied the effects of the supervisory conferenee on teaching3 and found a marked improvement in all class- . room procedures that had-..been discussed ■ in the conference 0 Walter So Monroe has prepared a list of thirty observable characteristics to study in the classroom in order to formulate a significant index Of the teacher^s efficiency0
9» Bamberger $ - Florenee.Eo "A Survey:, of Observable s Im- ,'. provable Factors , which Evidence Skill in Teaching0 !f
■ Elementary'. Sohool Journals 20g181-105 (October8 1927) 10 o'Butler g Frank'A» ' Standard Items to Observe for the '■■'■-■';''''"'.'3iproveiiieht-v:bf':':fbaehing.-vih:'.,01asSrobm-'lfenagement
.Teachingo? The Nation * s Schools” 0:21-26 (August«V'V '■ ■1931),0' - ” —12e Monroe»,Walter So ' ^Observable Oharactefisties of Effi
ciency in Teaching« The Elementary School Journal?. :27s597-599 - (April, " ~ '— — - —
19
Many other devices' have been suggested for making■■ ■■■ • , ■ ' 13records'of things more objective 0 Boswell C0 Puckett ■ sug<=gested the use of a rather elaborate coded chart of. pupilresponses instead of the traditional check.lists containings?jes!S and' wno18 columns 0 A study of similar nature was made. .. 14by Boris F 0.Twitehell who proposed to record the degreeg types and distribution, of pupil participation in a classroomby means of a code chart» The diary method for recording
, v: . ■• . . . : . . 15classroom procedures was suggested by Frederick So Breede ■■ ■ ' . ' 16 ■ ' - : ' ■ . - AoSo Barr and CoDo layne proposed the use of sound andsound=motion recording devices for recording classroom reei~tationso
Educators are interested in the development of objee= tive methods in classroom supervisions, as shown by the numerous studies* An analysis of the studies indicates a lack off coordination on the part of the researchers* The effort has been directed toward the improvement of classroom instruction rather than the supervisory act itself* Some of the
13* Puckett s Boswell Q* “Making Supervision Objective0 89 School Beviews 36s209“212s (March 1928)*14o Twitehell9 Boris F * »4n 0bjeetive Measure in Supervi^sion*18 lournai of ..Educational Research % 19sl28=>135» (February^ 1929)®' .
15o Breed8 Frederick S* Remedial'Supervision Based, on a..Diagnostic Survey of Instruction*88 Second Year Book of the Department of Supervisors and^Hirectorg of Ins true W o n * ppo G^Tbo
16* Barr9 A*S* and Jayne 9 0 *B* ?8The Use of Sound-Recording Equipment in the Study and Improvement of Teaching*88 iournai of Experimental Education; .4s279=’286 (1936); q.uoted .fromTiafrV AoS77 Burton9 W*E* and Brueckner.p L* J* * dp* cit* * 11938)* p* 396*
studies suggest the. use of devices that are quite teehnioa;! and,.difficult to apply. .
Problems luvoived in Securing,Accurate Bata about Teachers at Works One:of the major difficulties in. studying the teacher at work is'to know what prerequisites8 qualities^ ■' ,and activities eohtfibute most to the effectiveness of the
v toaehing prOeeseThe many .studies and different approaches ' to the question of what constitutes effective teaching have.
' made worthwhile contributions to the problem, but as yet re- f ' seaichers do. not seem to have arrived at a satisfactory Gom= , . v
iitisiono This is probably due to the charaeteristic of studying the teaching-learning process as. separate parts v
, rather than as a wholes, .We' may look forward to the time '■ :;when information Concerning teachefs will be more precise. and
.■ v : effective &, ; •' ’ y,.;.. h' : -y - .■ ' :1 & survey of educational literature and the writerf S
meager experience concerning the efforts to analyze teacher ' :. : . factors'.' in the improvement of teaching' indicate the.; numerous,
probiems involved in such an undertaking.6 These problems ..arise from many sources such as. faulty concepts of education, lack of skill, lack of intelligence,, biased opinions, and
' many others0 ' ■ ;y. The following seems to be dn excellent list of precau- , ,
tions to keep in mind when analyzing the problems involved -y ' vy in collecting accurate data about teachers and teaching0
.2o There is- a tendency to treat as universal many practice's that may he good or had in some instances3 but not good or bad in all instances»
3* It is diffietiit to avoid generalities and to get down to particulars in studying teachingo Most studies do not go any further than the dls= eovery of Whether or not it is efficient or inef= fieiento
4o There is difficulty in separating the factors observed in a teaching process from the preconceived opinions of the persons observing the teaching*
5» There is the problem of distinguishing good teaching method from a variety of special techniques and devices*
6* There is difference of opinion in the conception of what constitutes improvement in
We may look forward to the time when data^gathering , ydevices wili be pfodueed which will exactly suit the needQ Probably textbooks and courses of study eventually will be ,accompanied by ■suitable devices for many of the UnitSo
" " y ,v.:" \ -yi@;r ■ ..y ' : - ... - . i - ' , -Dr 0 AoSa; Barr has accomplished something along this lineby his work on supervision in the Detroit public schools 0
Since teachers or the results of their efficiency aretO be analyzed, it is suggested that they be included in theselection and development.of devicesowThe major purpose of y Vsupervision is to provide for professional improvements and
■■ - ■ ■ : Iv A yyr'yrv;'" '. . ' 19 . ■.-■y;-:to continue the professional growth of the teachers o1': , ■ ..-V: .;-y\. . , ■ ■ 2 0 . ■ : ■ . ' ;V. y:
Paul Bo Jacobson and William So Reavis suggest that tests and other data^gathering devices administered and developed
, by teachers should perform the dual purpose of creating pro* fessional interest as well as placing teaching on a more democratic ■ basis '.;1 hisJ will ■ aid, teachers in building up a
18o Barr, AoSo Elementary School Standards for the fmpfovef - ment of TeachingT . yj ^°".yy' y ■
19 o Myers 9 Alonzo T Q, £ifera bouise $ff6:5),MerryRuth,, C» and - ffoleya Prances o, Goopebative Supervision in the Pub- :
■ • .iic S.ehoolsi pp0 19-20. yyf"'' '. ' .V . .. ... y ;20o JacObsons Paul Bo ;and Reavis 9 William G0 Duties of ' School Principals pp. 505-506b . ' — —
store of worthwhile material to be used in improving the school and in helping them to better.understand the potentialities of good teachingp Some teachers have never had the opportunity- to develop along scientific lines % due. to the minimum of educational courses required of them from educa-
ztional institutionsoKinds of Data-G-athering Devices: An examination of a
list of available data-gathering devices indicates a wide range of effort and interest on the part of researchers to develop accurate and scientific methods for obtaining information 0 These devices consist of many kinds of tests, rating scalesg check, lists^ meehanical and recording devices a reports 9 and questionnaires o A, rather complete list of devices and their classification are suggested by JUS0 Barr^ "WilliamHo Burton, and Leo J0 Brueekner in their latest book on
21 -supervisiono The list is as follows:
l.o". Check ListsAo Question cheek lists
, • Bo Activity check listsHo Other Types of Records and Recording Devices
,.Ao, Written .records of various sorts ' - -lo Stenographic - reports' - ' •
' T : : 25- Diary records ' '3» Anecdotal records : , . .
Bo Mechanical recording devices . lo Time-recording devices , -So Sound recording 3o The sound motion picture
21 o BarrV AoSos, Burton^ WoHo and (1947K ppo 342-343o
24
; Go Peirsonal data records . . , • I* Records of training; institutional '
■ . , ;V; and non=institutional . . ■ ; ; ; :; - ■ 2o Records of experience; professional ■ 1: ' ' R/,
i Co Tests of-teaching aptitude . ' / ' ^. Do Tests of character3 personality, ete0 I' :-;; 'To Interviews, Questionnaires, and Inventories
: flo BBasures oD Pupil Growth ‘ V 'The check list is a device used principally as a guide
in the observation of teaching0 It consists of groups of Xquestions organized arouhd phases of teaching procedure»They are sub jective in nature, but are . of value in'that they i • - '•.make supervisors; and;those supervised aware of problems and,' . ;X-U;.:.. of the he cess ity for - improvement« The check list is Of two v X x,
typesa. The question type consists of groups of questionsorganized around a particular phase of teaching which may taXiX'-lvi
. .22cheek list is that, of A08a Barr9 .which was prepared in thereorganization of the/ supervisory program of the Detroit ::public schools <, The lists were prepared with the idea ofsetting up standards with which to judge the quality of theinstruction observed in order to evaluate the efficiency ofteaching* The purpose of the items selected to observe wasto make supervision W'objective as,possible0
23; • ' ' . .Hosle was one of the first to employ stenographic reportsin place of the usual longhand notes *
A technique similar to that of stenographic reports isthe diary method* This technique consists of recording thehappenings in a classroom recitation in diary form* hikethe stenographic report 3 it is valuable in that it gives
. . ‘ 24continuity to the events recorded*
22o/ BarrV 4*8* and others * e p % . ■ ;. . ' ... .' 7; _23 o Hoslc n James Empirical gfudie.s in School Reading0 :24 o' Barr g Ao.S*. Ah Introduction^to the scientific Study of
- Glassroom SupervisionT?* 211*. : ' 4
Another written ir.eeerding deTiee developed fairly recent ly , which is similar to the two mentioned above9 is the anecdotal teehniqueo This consists of a longhand running. aeeount of classroom procedure in story-like form01 .-/.T-:'''
formed by AoSo Barr and GoBo Jayne la the mse of sound- recording eg.uipment in the study and improvement of teachingc The use of this technique seems to possess ;great possibilities as it provides the most accurate record possible9 as
' well as allowing the teacher and supervisor to evaluate the recitation by playing back the record or showing the film0
■ to supervise their work0The employment of rating scales as an observational
device was one of the earlier methods of gathering data for
: supervisory purposes <, They probably became popular due to a ;laek Of other means for measuring teaching abilitya and because of the ease of construction and administration„ it is felt by some that rating scales are not instruments of im- : provement, • .. ' . .. ■
. Point ■scales are lists of teacher qualities9 usually .comsidered. as consistent with good teaching* . h value or • 'point score is given to each quality in relation to its importance to the teaching process* Some of the qualities that point scales attempt to .measure are teacher personality. and preparations teaching techniques, and pupil reaction*
Graphic scales are: similar in nature to point scales
2?'» Burtoni W o n* Op* clt', i bo . ' . ■■■'• : ■ . ;2So Barr$ AoS* ..An Introduction to the Scientific Study of
Olassrpbm. Supervision* p*
29
as far as listing qualities of good teaehimg to be evaluated®However». they-indicate the degree of teaching competence ingraphic form® This type of scale appears to be interestingand worthy of consideration for general supervisory uses butthe same difficulties face the person constructing thesescales as those of the point scales0 An excellent exampleof this type of scale is that of HoC® Almy and Herbert
29Sorenson® This scale attempts to rate teacher traits such as resourcefulness p enthusiasm^ leadershipj, cooperation^ trustworthinessj and so forth» The- scale has a chart for measuring the degree with which each trait is exhibited0 The charts range in value from zero to ten® There is also a separate chart for indicating the basis of judgment for each trait measured as to whether,the' rating is definite» general or.inadequate c There is a space for the score of each trait which is used for the determination of the teacher8s total score® In all9 the scale attempts to measure twenty traits or characteristics thought to be most important to teaching successo ; ' ■ .
The diagnostic scale is also somewhat similar to a point scaleo It is organized in such a manner as to indicate levels of attainment of teaching by an inventory of the instructional activities of. a teacher® tee of the
29 o Almy a Hod® and Sorenson s Herbert ® Teacher-Hating " Beale . of Determined Beliability and.. Validity®?! Educational Administration and Supervision; 16t179^ 186, (mrcEg 1930)o - "'
Quality scales are devices which attempt to measure the different degrees of teaching meritolach merit is de- , /SCpibedv: in;''terms! of aims r methods 8 and. procedures^ which are arranged at different intervals with values assigned to each<The construetion of the scales is similar to those of hand-,: I"' / ■■■ ; ' 31 ^ - -i; ^writing^ art g and compositiono An example of this type of' /I:-;' .ct,, S6ale; is. that, of Leo. J0; Brueekner ■ who developed a scale
TcLo Torgerson Diagnostic Teacher Eating Beale; quoted from;Barr, :XoSa, An Introduction to
.e Study of Classroom Supervision, pp0,31.ar.Ibld;„-::pp, 343- .32 o Brueohnera Leo ,1 a" "Scales' for the Rating of Teacher • . . .. ' .Skill9 quoted from Baray iUSo, ' Burton9 WoHo and
Human or man~toyman comparison scales are based on the judgment of the rater over certain selected teacher qualities of the teacher being rated* The judgments are indi- .eated by checking such qualities as vitality9 general per-
. • .sonality9 growth and progress, team work, and so forth, by ratings as to very superior, superior, average,■ inferior, or , very inferior0 ; Each rating is assigned a point value inascending order from very inferior to very superior0 The
: 33total of the points scored would be the teacher5 s ratingsThis type of scale appears to have possibilities because of its ease of administration and direct comparison value, but it is limited due to the small number of qualities usually measured 0 ■ ;
The conduct or performance rating scales are different from those previously mentioned in that they attempt to measure the results of teaching instead of the teacher» One of the leaders in the development of this type of scale is "Woho' Connor, who suggested that teaching performance be
33 o- Barf AoSc An Intfoductlon to th^SefehtTfic Study of”- Qlassrobm uperv£sflh7^p° 352-3$3q ■
34* Gonhor, WoLo. ,!'A New Method of Rating Teachers." - . : ; "Journal, of Educational Research; 1:338-358 (lay, 1920) °
32
measured, through standards of pupil performance* fhe Connor seale contains, seven; standards of pupil performance which are used as measures for judging the.quality of instruction@ .Sach sfahdafd contains a number of pupil.responses or aets which when checked indicate theg,uality of instruct ion 0 fhe ; pupil performance measured bj. the scale is that pertaining '• to: (1) thinking5 {2} emotional reaction^ (3} knowledge andskill5, (4) morale in dispatch of works, (5) initiative in ./socially signif 1 cant '■ situationsi■ (6 j ethieal .self-control: in'/ situations socially/Significant s and (7) deportment 0
A sample of the rating scales that have been used by educators has been reported upon* In general8 rating scales, haye:a definite place: in a supervisory program /if adminis-. /. tefed intelligent to the feeling among teachers that:rating scales are instruments for rating and not for improve” m@nt of. instruction9. it is suggested that .they be developed cooperatively if the best results are to be obtained by their ...used ' • ' ; 1 . '", : ' v . . : • ; / :
Other means of evaluating teachers that have been de=. veloped rather recently, are the tests of.teaching ability0
'They; are ,;ob jedtlyeyih\nature a: and attempt to test many qualities associated with successful teaching0 Some of the
. tests are concerned with teaching aptitude * These tests give,an objective m of ability to learn:professional
■ / material: concerned. with the field of teaching &
In general the tests mentioned above, because of their variety and complexity9. would not be practical for a super® visory program in an individual school0 They may have a place with the teacher who would like to increase her ability along certain lines0
. Borne studies have- been devoted to the securing of data concerning teachers and teaching by the use of question® naireSj, interviewss and inventories0 This type of data gathering is used principally for discovering teachers9 problems and difficulties <, -
Another type of data®gathering device is the measure® ment of pupil changes as a means of.evaluating teaching ef® fieiencyo This can be done by the application, of standard® ized tests to the many phases of the teaehing®learning
:processo. A word ofeaution concerning the use of standard" izefi'tests.for.determining the fffieieney of teachers is given by William Ho MeOall who states that more harm than good may result from their use if they are allowed to antagonize -teachers o'.:;/',;'. :/v'J /: t ://'''/. ;;/'//'■'': . h ' / :'':;y;:/; ; ; C
The selection and. use of data=gafhering devices should be a cooperative undertaking If real imppovement is to take
placeo- The "devices selected should fit the purpose for which they are intended; they should provide accurate data3 and keep within the limitations of the situation0 Check lists and rating scales are generally used to evaluate teacher per- formanee <,• Tests of teaching ability as well as rating scales are used to indicate the presence of qualities in teachers commonly associated with teaching success* Intelligence tests s questionnaires s, interviews 9 and inventories are used to indicate the mental prerequisites of teachers for teaching success0 The use of tests for measuring pupil change is for the purpose of evaluating teacher efficiency in numerous phaseso ■
■ Methods Employed by Supervisors The methods employed hy supervisors are many and variedo
The methods and the importance attached to them have changed as different concepts of supervision have developed0 A number of writers have attempted to describe the types and means of supervision as to levels, principles, periods, or
■' 36 v;concepts« Thomas So Briggs has aptly classified them as Cl), corrective, '(Si preventive, (3); constructives and (4) • creativeo' Due to the wide variation of methods employed by supervisors, these levels seem to be present in supervision at the present time0■ The methods used by supervisors in
36
the first three of these levels are. of the traditional typecThis eons1sts mainly of inspeetion or visitation and confer- .ehee9 It is teaeher-eentered and eonsists of fault finding,looking for difficulties, or proposihg'remedies 0 Creative'supervision assists the teaeher in developing teehniq.mes andsolving her problemso,; - : ■■ ■ : ; 1 l ’ '
Many attempts have been made to summarize the supervi®scry actlyity of priribipalS and the time devoted to them?, :iin ezeellent study dealing with, supervisory duties is found : \ ■..'3? . ■in the National Survey of Secondary Education0 It eonsistsof a list of seventy-two activities that are performed by supervisory officers. The list deals with supervisory ae- ■tlvitles pertaining to aims and objectivess subject matter,.: methods and procedures, teacher adjustment, individual differences, and evaluations^ / ", - v i ; . i . " 3B : • .r . L - / iHarl B> Douglass and Charles Wo Boardman list eleventypes of Supervisory proced^ commonly employed. They are..;.as ;follows:?■ ; 'V' >;;: ,Y . \.y , y . . ,
lo Classroom visitationj the evaluation and -" t\diagnosis,nf'-IrstruGtidn ": v ;• .: - :yy-
2o Gdnferences with teachers, both group - and" individualo v ■ ' ': ■ . - ; '
BOy Oe ". %dWhIstration and Supervisioho * National ; Survey of Secondary Educationa pp. 155^1571
" •f rom feeObson, ,P0B i'anl"Beavls:, :M«>Gk s opa. eit0 s, v pp. 509-311° y'- ' : .v: " " . ' ' :■.38«> DouglasHoB 0. and" Boardmans', ■; op,* c i t p 9 108,
37
3° Measurement of instructional outcomes, achievement* and. diagnostic testing
kp Suggestion of and guidance in methods of remedial instruction
5<> Stimulating professional study and reading So Stimulation of experimentation and research 7o Sneouraging and guiding classroom visitation
among teachers within a school and in other schools Bo Providing effective demonstration teaching 9= Using effectively the school bulletin and
other school publications*10o Measuring teaching efficiency 11 * Recognising and providing rewards for pro=
list the following means as desirable in supervision:(1)"teacherss meetings* (2). classroom visitation* (3) confer^ ences* (4) demonstration'teaching* (5) study groups* (6) extension classes * (7 i bulletins * (B):' experimentation and re . . search * : and (91 int e'rvi s itat ion«-
It is evident from a survey of the above supervisory procedures that the activities of supervisors are many and diverseo Their application requires knowledge and skill on the part of the supervisor employing them0 A we 11-planned program and careful selection of procedures, are essential to
' successoIt would be well to discuss at this point some of the
more common procedures and activities of supervisors e Perhaps the most common is classroom visitationo Much has been
saiS f or , and against this proee&tire; ne-rerthelessif ' ::pr@» ; •perly employed it oah he of benefit to any supervisory pro-; ' ' ■ V' ■ ' ■ - 4-0 ■" - ' ■■ ' ■' , . ' - ' ' ' :vgram, Thomas Ha Briggs lists a number of suggestions as tothe valme of elassroom.visitation;
lo TO learn the educational practices of each toaeher and to evaluate them by referenoe not only
; to basic principles 9 but also to the practices of■■■■■■/. : other teaehers'o, ' ', ' :: : 1. v■ , . / 2 0 T0 discover the espeeially good and;;' promising characteris11cs of eaeh teacher0 /v : v:; • -
To discover the extent to which teachers are endeavoring to apply supervisory suggestions previously madeo
60 To get material that will determirie what the supervisory program should be,
7» To develop confidence in the supervisory program because the teachers realize that the prinoipal knows what they are doing„
80 To build up the principal^s capital bythe aceumulatiQn:Of a rich store of knowledgee
9, To aid in integrating and unifying' the . school o ■.:''•••= ■ ■ '
■ V. ■ 10o To know the pupils, ;, • : ; ; • . . ■ - I'■ . 11Q To learn what administrative changes '
will facilitate good-teachingo : ' - ' '.'V V 1.-7 - V :77 1 : ' ' = : ' ' : : ; , ■■■■• . ' - . 7 /- ;• , Ernest 0, Melby in a study of supervisory practices .in cities of l0s>000 to 20,000 population states that the an-nouneed visit of supervisors is little used by all groupsexcept spe elal supervisors:^;while the unannounced visit seemsto be. preferred by all but special supervisors c. He furtherstates that non-teaching elementary principals' and general.
39
smperrisors use long Tisits mosto The study Indicates that teachers are less inclined to attach importance to visitation by supervisors than are the supervisors6
It is felt that classroom visitation is beneficial to both teacher and supervisor9 when it is the result of a planned program* A record of each visit should be made for future reference0 Visitations of this nature should be for the purpose of improving instruction and developing profes« sienal growtho
Another supervisory activity worthy of mention is the... ' ' . . -V • . ■" : • ' 4:conference 9 which should follow classroom visitation^ Briggs
suggests that this is perhaps one of the most important means■ ■ . ■ ■ ■ '. ■ 43 ' .for improving instructiono Melby8s study- indicates that ■ ;
teachers s principals and supervisors consider the confer*-enee'after visitation a valuable devicee - However, less thantwenty per cent of the teachers reported that it was muchused or emphasizedo If the conferenee is to be an effectivesupervisory device9 certain factors must be kept in mind eom~
42, Briggs 9 f%%^^p7cit o 9 pI 3496 / ' - : :43, Melbyg Eo0'» Qp, pp a 109-1110 .44, Jacobson, PoBo and Beavis, WoGQ ogo cit0 0 ppe 525"5260
40
' . 45of supervisory oonferenees as presented by Thomas Ho Briggsare excellent reasons for including this device in a super=visory programs
lo To kn,ow each teacher' better as an indi” vidual and as an instructor
2a To help teachers know themselves'better 3o To- develop in teachers confidence9
hope9 ambition, enthusiasm^ and determination 4= To lead teachers to appreciate and to
accept opportunity .go To help teachers make a long-time plan
for growth6o To incorporate each individual teacher
into the professional group7o To supplement group teachers8 meetings So To clear up doubtful points 9o To give recognition and praise 0 10o To: administer criticism 11o To get help*
The general teachers® meeting is another supervisorydevice mentioned with favor by many writers0 This device is-ranked high by all types of principals 9 but not so high byteachers and special supervisors 9 according to Melby8s
46 . 47-study o. Jacobson and Eeavis suggest that the general teachers8 meeting has fallen into disfavor with teachers because of a lack of planning^ little or no teacher participation /and the fault of principal's in using the meetings for administrative purposes0 nevertheless» they suggest that general teachers8;meetings are a desirable supervisory pro™ eedure if teachers are asked to assist in the planning and
Demonstration teaching as a supervisory device is advo=>49eated by Jacobson and Reavis« However8 they state that it
. 50is rarely used in public schools* M@lbyvs study indicates that this device is ranked high by teachers 8 but not so high by principals* The study further indicates that when used9it is generally found in the elementary schoolQ Douglas and
' 51Boardman have named some limitations to demonstration teaching* They feel that the demonstration lesson is not sufficient to convey the idea being demonstrated 9 that very often the details are confused with the principle or prinoi=> .pies9 and that.the observer is likely to imitate the demon™ strator without fully comprehending the basic principles involved*
Demonstration teaching should be provided for in a super™ .visory program as an outgrowth of the immediate and long- range needs of teachers* The demonstration should be
.:,:v;v . ; ' ' • 52 . . . ' : y-Vv:'''i ,• a few writerSo _ Melby . states that teachers rank this.devicehighs if the visitation is with other•school systemso
53 . . •Briggs • believes that all teachers can benefit' from visits-•'tion .if' the teachers are* prepared beforehand, and if the .teaching observed is of interest to the observer0 Bouglasand Boardman state thatnthe worthwhileness of directed andundirected visitations is doubtful, howevero They suggestthat a limited progfam of this nature may be of some bene-fit, if a carefully supervised follow-up program is used®
' A sample /of; the methods employ ed;by - supervisors M s yVi- ■•been reported upono Studies indicate that the activities ofsupervisors are many and diverse® They may be classified as" 'V: ■■'v. . ■ ' ' / . I ' :55 ,
observational, dlrecf contactand verbal, in nature.®,:' ; f
Activities Contributing to In-Service fraining There have been a number of studies dealing with the
problems- and effectiveness : of . activities, which contribute to the in-service training, of school persbnhelo Early studies
iMioate that the effort, was toward direct trailing for improvement <, while later studies foeus attention upon activi-
- ' : ■ : . . ■ ■ ‘ - : ■ . ■ ■ . ■: ’ ' 56 , "ties whieh provide for growth as am incidental proeesso.- ■ <r :Sduoat-iohalwfItera: 11 st numerous devices and aetifities
employed in improvement programs0 Means eommonly employed in the training of teaohers in service are? (1) extension, summer sohoolj and correspondence courses; (2) local programs of , CiwricUlw.revision; J 3): directed reading;, and (4) apprenticeship ' teaehingo >'& . study, of extension activities ■ of'■ A■■■ ■ ;;; :■ " 57. > ; • 7 ■teacher-training institutions by BoEo Hadsall indicates thefollowing activities present in in-service programs: publications g extramural ''classes 9 correspondenee classes9 clubs 9 personal visits^ teacher institutes, visual aids j and radio
; , 4 study by Oliver K0 Garretson . of in-service activities of high school teaehers in Oklahoma reports such activities in use as;Intervisitationg demonstration teachings correspondence: :eourses>: and reading 0 M. interesting study
i O Mop XJ CIJ. U V-LJ. .7j MU o-L-t-Q C4-U.U. XJJ. ViV' f. JU<> l o OP 0 Ci/to•{1947-Is Po 705o 57o Hadsall8 Bold “The Extension Activities of Certain
. Publicly Supported Institutions in Assisting Teachers /:in .Service, in .Elementary Science ;or Nature Studyi w
: ■ ■ 2o Organized stndy of special topics in .,v general staff meetings -vV: - : / - , ' .
3o Providing a professional library andbrowsing room for teachers. ■ V:. : ■ - .
' 4o Having teachers (not administrators) give.' reyiews of articles in current educational maga=:/ : :zlneS:o ; ' ' V.,>y . . • /V:;:.; ■■ ■ ■: : ,
• 5o Giving spec ial financial'awards for p a r - -:' ' '-\/ticipation ' In^pregrams/of ^; ''X-" ^ ; Cooperatively engaging In' a systematic
eValnation of the school, using the criteria of. ■; / the Gooperative Study of Becondary^Sehool
. / Standards . ' / . / .:; ■ 7» Carrying out a well-planned attack upon
the problems of curri culnm development ;$a Holding forums where parents 3 pupilsy
•,.. teachers3 and board members participate ■ ■91 Attending summer workshops :10* Visiting teachers in one’s own school or
y,,;;v.:::: Inother:;schools: :'V''•.71 - .I:. 7; , : : ' • ■ • ■ ' ,11 o Holding small group meetings to study re
visions of. the course of study in a department 6The techniques that were considered as.promising by
more than ten schools but less than twenty schools are as.foilOwS'§,::r\.. . :: :. .. , : - - t v V : ; . ; ; :
1 o. Panel discussion by /teachers ' - -120 Experimentation with new classroom ; ' ', it':
. I procedures . ' : \ ' It//.' ■: . ■ ■ 1 :t t;./;t;'/t : 3o- Making surveys of . pupil; problems't . ko Attending professional meetings
5o Having' teachers prepare and issue, hand-books for new teachers :;t. t ■;
- 6«, Planning an orientatidn' program for . hew teachers . :t- t': \ /.; ' •' :' t ;,y>: -'t - 7o Holding informal meetings 'of the; staff ' " V
8= Home, visitation. • , '9» Field trips for teachers '-• /
t lot Inking surveys Of graduates . ■t 11* Participating in the eight-year study ' .
12o Participhting in interschool studies Of Curriculum development ': : t... '' .1 -tt. ,
:>5
13 o .Encouraging teachers to write magazine , ; ' artieles' by vdff ering casS awanas, ; ■ , ' /
; I 14=. AttenMng guidanee eonf’ei enees . ;■ri'’':.''::: 15o Individual, eonf erencsesc / . .0 '; The. techniques listed as promising "by less than fivesehools are as follows:
lo Visitation of classes fey the principal 20 Talks fey the principal \3o Reading of.papers fey teachers
Using rating scales V!.5o Regaining special reading ' " 'Ay--'
h"-"' A ■ ■ 6c Demonstration teaching ■ . :A-'- ■. y;'yA.A . 7o Issuance of feulletins fey the principal
. 8c Requiring summer school attendance„A wide range of techniques for in-service training is :
indicated in the afeore“mentioned studies of improvement pro-" _gramso The aetivities .pertaining tq in-service training seemto. fall into two general classifications0 Some are moresuitqfeie for group participationv ihile others are more suitedfor individual use? : ’ y' ; ■ A:
Among those feetter; suited to group participation are:(1) the educational workshop g (2) committees §, ■ (.3 ) staff meet- ." IngSg (4). group ■ counselingy, (5)" course works •.'•■(S') documentary. ■■aids s (7) directed:; reading '.(S') directed observation A (9) - ■field trips$ (10) travel seminars8 and (11) audio-visual .
The educational workshop is composed of a group of A. teachers ,who meet .together at an educational ihstifutlorn for
Barry A 0 8 A/Burton 9 Wo HA A ■yy(i947K .p,y:709v Ay -,
46
a period of time to work on common problems imder the diree~‘ . ■ 61tioa of staff members of the institution, The educational62
workshop has the following advantages slo It is concerned with the felt needs and
problems of participantso2= The participant develops individuallya
socially9 and emotionally as well as profession^' ally0 : ' '
3° It provides an opportunity for participantsto make a constructive contribution on the educa=
- tional.frontiero v . '■4o It provides' a means of supplying, more'
practical assistance to field workers<, ''.5 o It provides easy access to competent , '
assistanceo .6, It provides a democratic9 large gromp»
individual attack upon educational problems =7o It furnishes a stimulus to continued pro=
fessional growth in service 0So The materials and ideas developed in work<=
shops are useful in school situations*The educational workshop has great possibilities as an
,In-service training activity; however» due to the time element it cannot very well b@ Included within an in-service , training program for the individual schoolo
The use of educational committees within an individual school or system as an in-service activity seems to be on the increaseo These committees are given direction toward definite goals such as curriculum revision$ selection of materials .such as texts j, visual aidsj, techniques 9 and surveys, An
61 o TyleF^SalphrfC-' f8I^hd¥T.n the Preparation of Teach- ersora School Review; 61;207=212s (April8 19431.
62* Erwine, ,R*5* and Fordyc®, WoO* •. "The Workshop. and. In- Service Teacher Training0W Educational Research Bulletini 22 g 59-62s (Sferch, 1943).
’V service training program within a sohoel can create def i™:' mite interest and improvement by the use of educational committees whose membership is selected with reference to ; abilitys interests 9 and iyorthwhileness of the results to be - obtained, ' v , - i , . ' ; .Z :,.V
Teachers'* or'Staff meetings have been discussed as a supervisory .device in another sect Ion :,bf' this chapter „: As ■ am-In-service training device there are several types ■ . worthy of mention, These are Conventions, institutesg de-
. Y/-: r:. 63partmentalj grade 3 and small group meetings.
The teachersr convention is a means whereby a large number of teachers convene for numerous reasons, As a result
' they receive inspiration and .guidance„ The .teachers8; •institute is-another'; form.''Of;:, teacherlocal nature3 where■ there are demonstrations and exchaage of •■ideasd U viCv.'
Departmental meet ings 9; grade meetings 9 and small group . : conferences are more adaptable as improvement devices in the; individual school as. they bring together teachers with com-
. mon interests and problems, •: The: success of: group me efings will depend oh' a; number/Of things o' First of all, they must have a definite purpose, The meetings must be carefully planned with.due consideration of the importance of the subject and the time to be
allottet to.ito A favorable attitude on the part of the parti eipants must be solicited through the selection of topics of real value9 and the inelusion of the participants in the discussion as much as possibleQ An avoidance of the use of meetings for routine matters must be practiced» The highlights of the meetings must be summarized at the close as a
tively newo It differs from the teabhers^ meeting in that it not only concerns itself with what is to be done and how to do it % but it creates opportunities for personal and social adjustment» In short^ the members of a counseling group profit by the recognition given them by other members of thegroupo This recognition acts as a stimulus to the develop-
- . . 6$ ment of more professional attitudes^ habitss and ideals«This type of activity^ to be fully effective8 calls forleadership of a very high degree, and the participants musthave basic or true interests if real development is to takeplae@o It has definite value as an in-service training de--vice o '
Gourse work for teachers has long been recognized as an
E^T^BarFs AoBo Burton^ W0H0 and SueckherT"iTlo ope bit .i (1947L pp«
65o Herrick, Virgil S;0 and: Stephen, Carey M0 i8Group Counseling with. Teacher s.,’1 Educational Administration and Supervision; 30g331-B50V IBepl5aber o' 1944) o '
effective in-service training device. Almost all teacher- training institutions provide a :wide variety of interesting eonrses which may he taken as summer school coursess extension courses g correspondence. courses s or as evening classes«, Thomas Ho Briggs states that correspondence courses are ; less effective than summer school or extension coursesj, due to a lack of personal contact between the instructor and student & He' further- states that summer school courses are de- ■ -sirahle; due to the opportunities for ■ .contact.' with superior' ::: 'instructors9 cultural relationships9 and other opportunities for improvement, Extension courses are fine 9 hut have their limitations due to the,fact that teachers have so many demands placed'on them during the school year,
Bulletins s guides, and other printed matter pertaining.. to educational prohlemsr are among the- common; documentary aids' V:-i ' i.::: -1 ‘ - .' .-'i-'/V'' I/'"used for in-service trainingD Briggs ' states that supervi- .sory hullefins are vaiuahle as supplements for other supervisory activitiesj for creating desirable interest, and for coordinating the work of the school0 There aie numerous bulletinsI guides y and printed aids made available to schools by various national, state, and other agencies, This ma- % terial consists of information distributed by various public and priyate eoneerns such as;chambers of commerce, industry
50'
and laborg governmental units9 and foundationso These eovera great variety of subjects and can be used in many ways in
• 68.
improvement programsoThe use of school bulletins as an in-service training
device calls for a great deal of effort and thought oh the part of the individual preparing themo. There should be definite principles employed in their preparation if they are toachieve the purpose for which they are intended0 The following are a few suggestions or principles which may be used
- 69to make bulletins more effectives
lo Educational bulletins should be sharply distinguished from noticesg from summaries of regulations8 from routine announcementss from news notes9 and so.fortho .
2(, A supervisory bulletin should be basedupon and directed toward the solution of adef inite need or;-problem which has been diseov-■ ere'd by: any of the 'usual means 0
3o A bulletin shouldg preferably9 deal with but one problem,-.issue-, or itemo
4o Educational bulletins have their Own unique values and functions9 and should be used only when bulletins serve better than any other meanso
5o Bulletins may be used by individuals, but should most frequently result from cooperative group study,.discussion, and summary0
. ' 60 Bulletins should be-dynamic, provocativeof' thought and action«
7o Vocabulary, style, and tone should be lively and1-interesting, neither over-enthusiastic nor pessimistic, neither pollyannalsh nor nagging in tone6 The writing of interesting, provocative bulletins is a specialized skill* .
80' Bulletins should provide for individual .■ 1 ; and group actions in writing^ or in group discus- .
sion5 or inlboth* 1; 11 .1..li ' - 9o. Bulletins should provide for continuity: on given problems through, direet reference to
; , ■' the problem, to previous results 9 plus sugges-. .:'i' " tions for future study, discuss ion 3 and ae;tlvity0 .,
. • Devices and forms for measuring 8 evaluatings and . . .recording progress may be ineluded when appro-. . ■ ' / 1,
:V:/ ; : ' priate* - ' ' -•• , Directed.reading as an in-service training device eould','',
he of great value if properly carried outo Most teachers ■ do a certain amount of professional reading; however, ohser-. ' r: vation leads•to the conclusion that a good many: teachers read
at random and without regard to their own specif ie prohlems or fields o This is due to lack of time.s lack of facilities, and the ahsehee of a true desire for improvements To he an
'r ■ effectivemeasure for in-service training^ it should he ■ planned for and a thorough interest huilt up hy the super-
; visor or principal0.. Briggs suggests that teachers be en=■' couraged to read material which will deveiop their strong 'i; points rather than . attempt to remedy their , short comings ,..v on :
the theory that a strong teacher will eliminate many of her -.. 0#n shortcdmings. :‘ An inducement to more professional reading on the part '
; of . teachers is the maintenance of a.; good school iihrary <. :' . Teachers ;should. he encouraged to read widely on single topics
of particular interest to the individual0 Group reading and
discussion also should be encouraged where there are similar interests. Perhaps the best aid to directed reading is for the supervisor or principal to have available a choice list of reading references which may be suggested to teachers as the occasion requires, .
Directed observation has been treated as a method employed by supervisors in a previous section of this chapter. It also has value as an in-service training device when careful preparation has been made previous to observation and when a follow-up discussion is provided for.
Even though a number of shortcomings have been advanced with reference to the effectiveness of directed observation, the writer believes it has a definite place in an in-service program within a school due to the fact that the beginning teacher needs crystallization of teaching theory<, while the teacher, in a rut needs new ideas and a general revival of faith in her own ability to,teach.
The purposes of directed observation, as stated by JoR, 71Shannon s make the inclusion of this activity a desirable
one.in an in-service program. These purposes are: (1) toimprove teaching practicea (2} to stimulate, interesta (31 to accumulate a store of common knowledge a (4) to provide topics for discussion, (5) to crystallize educational theory9
(6) to increase the appreciation of teaching problems$, (71 to proTide teehniq.ties worthy of esnlation0 ;- Due to the fact that many teachers come into the profes=
sion with limited backgrounds 8;there is definite need for In-serTice training of a nature which will bring about experiences and opportunities to acquire an understanding of many, things which will enrich them professionally» There is particular need for community background on the part of the new teacher o ' Devices whereby teachers, may learn by seeing
: are field 'tripsexcursions, travel $, - and motion pietureso . : Through the cooperation of.the local school^adsinisfra
tion and other Interested persons9 many interesting field trips and exewsions v Conld - be -arranged with the idea of building up a background of community interests» Handbooks containing information edncerhirig various points of interest . to, be; ylslted Icould also be supplied -to: .teachers. ; Borne ' : - things of interest to be seen are local industries? museums? historical points of interestworks of nature $ parks, zoos s and many other sights which would have a broadening effect ■ A number of educational and private institutions offer planned tours whereby teachers may view many interesting ' parts of the United States aswell as,foreign countrieSo ■: The use of .audio-visual aids for in-service 'programs is
54
fairly reeent0- Many vteaeiw institutions maintain film libraries containing films suitable for use in instructing
The following suggestions for the use of films in anin-service program are worthy of? attentions
The procedure.employed in the use of sound motion pictures is similar to that in demoBstra-• fions o The observation should be planned and the
v evaluations made; according to carefully validated ' ■Criteria.o There should be discussion before and after showing the film0 The film may be observed as many times as necessary; and with the personal
\ f actor removed by the use of pictures * the discus- sion can be as critical as d e s i r e d o 7 4
Other visual aids employed in improvement programs areeducational exhibits _ and. museum materials6 These aids arealmost prohibitive in an individual school* due to the costand space necessitated by them* It is almost necessary fora school system of some size to undertake projects of this
Among the group techniques for in-service training best suited for employment in an individual school are committees, staff meetings* group counseling* documentary aids * directed
Educational Administration and Supervision; 29:168=74o Barr, :AoS.<»» Burton* .W0Hd and Brueekner* L o d o opo pit
(1947)5, P* 733o
eMirigj, direeted observationg and field trips> The use of . ; any one or more, of these techniques depends on the needs and interests of the teaehers as well as the ability of the super- "visor of prinelpal'to. create a desire for improyement in the sehool 'personnei as a whole» : ■ . ' . '
Among the in-service teehhiques best suited to .lndi-= ■ vidmal participation are: (1) participation in the total .teaching act s -.(2) individual problem solving^ (3! individual .conferences j, (4) adjustment counseling3 (5) directed observa-
of ;the best in-service learning devices according to Barr 9' 76 ■■■ y: : ; y ::;v
Burtori' bnd Bruecknero They state that certain factbrs \such as attitude, critical alertness, willingness to experiment , and ability t o.analyze are Cpsential on the part of the teacher if this, technique is to be employed successfully%■ They'point out, however, that this technique has limitations if the teacher' using 'it fails to react favorably or fails to: apply or organize,the experiences acquired through contact with the teaching-learning process» ;
The .individual techhitue of problem .solving is ahother ' in-service device favored by a: humber of writers«, It has many good points, among thembeing the personal satisfactionv
75c Barr, AoBo-, Burton, W0Ho and Brueckner y Lolo op0 cit 0. ': ;(1947U Po 710» • ■ . —
76, Ibidpp. 734-737o
56
of recognizing a problem and working toward a satisfactory solution. Howevers there are several difficulties to be overcome before this technique can be put to much general use* There is the lack of time required for much individual research, Many teachers lack the necessary training for such undertakingso There is a lack of sympathy among some supervisory officers toward individual efforts along these lines* The solution to the above-mentioned difficulties lies in the cultivation of proper attitudes on the part of teachers as , "well as 'supervisory officers*
The individual conference is perhaps one of the most important in-service training techniques* It must be based on reactions j, observations 9 or felt needs to definite situations* This technique requires a great deal of skill and understanding on the part of the supervisory officers whoshould attempt to lead the teacher into the satisfactory
. . ' 77analysis and solution of her own problems *Adjustment counseling and directed observation of teach
ing as in-Serviee training techniques have been discussed in an earlier part of this section* The same ideas apply to their use as individual techniques as those given for their use with groups*
A number of studies dealing with the activities of
7? * BarrV A*g* V Burt bn 3 WoH* and Brueekner * ZTd, op * citTT" C1947K PPo 736-743.0 - " :
in-service training pregrams have been reported upon® Several techniques of an informal nature have been discussed with reference to their desirability for inclusion in a supervi-=
v : - ^ \ ' ' 'sory programo . Willard 0. Jackman sums up what he believes ■ • to be the'proper procedure for selecting techniques for an . in-service training program by stating that, there are no ' • best techniques and that their selection, should vrbe : on the : :-'': basis of whether or hot they will help in the development of the teacher9 - \. Y . '-v / - .
lackmang Willard @i.. Devices for In-Service Education of Teachers6.fS .American School Board Journal? 103s56=.58,-
Research has been direoted toward many objectives in am „'-effort to'procure more • scientific procedures for evaluating ::v'the whole, or parts' of the teaching-learning process. The .: determination of the worthwhileness of all or parts of this : process is known as evaluation^ Educational literature in- , • ■■dicates that there is mo one method of group of methods' A-;;/-/'':-:/'-;;'.. which will perf orm this - service» Eew or many steps may be taken in this process , HumeroWs. methods and procedures have . . been employed in this difficult task0 Evaluation may' employ measurement, criteria, principles, observations9 knowledges '. records, - or experiment at ion o However, in the minds of many, - '. ':V A
the term evaluate denotes the use. of one of many forms of measurement o' The: use of •measurement, for evaluation brought about the development: of methods for their use0 These methods of evaluation do not .replace any of the activities of supervision such as classf oom visitation9 conf erences with teachers * and so forth» They aid in the collection of information upon which to fease an evaluationo It is the purpose.of this ■ • chapter to discuss and evaluate some of the procedures available for conducting a supervisory programuv / ' ' { hi /.-. .
. -Although a number of tests and measurements generally . are accepted by teachers and supervisors as instruments for determining the effectiveness of teaching processes $ there are many diffleulfies involved in their application and in- • terpretationa These difficulties lie within the measure- ments themselves, as they lack the .capacity to measure many ; of the desirable outcomes of learningo This phase of research has been given relatively little attention in proportion to its importanceo - - ; . . ... ' '" .-h
Some of the difficulties encountered in an appraisal program are pointed out by Briggs who states that a favor- ; able evaiuation of supervision must indicate proven general■ results, definite effects on teachers9 and definite results in its various parts,. He believes that proven general
60
results are Tery difficult to obtain^ due to the many tmmea^ surahle factors affecting teacher growth and the many existing concepts of supervisions As to the effect- on teacherss he believes this may be determined by measurement if applied over a sufficient, period of time> ' Although there are many difficulties surrounding the efforts to measure results of supervisions, Briggs believes that various parts of a programmay be evaluated9 if properly approached0
2An article by S 0Ao Courtis also indicates many prob
lems confronting an attempt to evaluate supervision* He believes that the main difficulty in such a program is the lack of effective measurement. This statement is based on his bblief that a true appraisal of supervision must provide for the many differences of philosophy9 concepts9 and effects produced on teachers and pupils0
.Despite the difficulties enumerated by the above authors9 a number of methods have been developed to assistin evaluating supervision*. The Eighth Yearbook of the De»
. . . ... . 3 ' • ' ■;partment of Superintendence lists a number of significantreports of studies of evaluative efforts employing methodsof measured changes in achievement of pupils and changes inteaching procedure s observed changes in teaching and learning
2 * G o urt i sTTs«A * ^Problems in the Appraisal of Supervi- sion-o-” Educational Administration and Supervision;15§2$9-2TCTO'29lT ." • ■ . '■ “ = .
3* ^Evidences of the Value of Supervision01? Eighth Yearbook - ike Department of Superintendence 9 pp* 9^140 *
. The statistical data method is employed principally for conducting surveys» These surveys are made for the purpose of evaluating some phase of school activity0. An example of- ' this method is the report of an early study by Leonard P0 Ayres, to/determine' reasons for retardation0 The statistical ' data used to conduct the survey consisted of age-grade and / progress studies of the pupils in the schools being surveyed* Since then this has become, a rather common method of eValua- tion which:may be'applied, to the evaluation of mahy facfofst. /,
An early example of the method to evaluate the general
worth, of supervision in the Detroit pmhlie sohools was re=-• . ' ' . 5ported by S0Ao Gourtiso The investigation was made to d@=
termine the effectiveness of four types of general supervi”sory proeedures as applied to the supervision of the teachingof geography0 Employing the results of standard tests as abasis9 the schools were divided into four equal supervisorygroupso .The first group was to remain unsupervised; thesecond^ merely inspected; the third, merely supervised byschools and the fourth % supervised by classes 0 The resultsof the investigation indicated an increase of achievement offorty per cent for the schools supervised by classes over theones unsupervisedo The conclusion drawn was that supervisionand measurement are valuable=
; An example of the method to evaluate the effectiveness :of supervision in a particular situation was reported by
6He,Ko Bennett in Iowao The investigation resulted from the realization by the regional supervisors of the Iowa State Department of Public Instruction in 1935 that additional effort should' be directed toward the teaching of work-type-■ reading in the elementary schools0
The plan of procedure consisted of (1) to explain to all teachers the nature of the program; (2) to provide
3T%eSfis, 8 oAo \ MMeasurin^:3he;. Effects of Supervision in ;, Geography.School and Society ?:! 10:61-70 * (July9. 1919K
6e Bennett 5, HoKo . f6irWate”Wogram for, the Improvement of Instruction in BeadingElementary School Journal; 395735-746s (June* 1939)= . ' ' ' ". V ; '' '
demonstrat ions aad materials fpr the plan; and (3) to follow np the progress Of the program by, means of q.uestipnnaireS o..The eTaluatioh "was. to he made from the results of measures applied to three, counties where. pre-tests and f inal tests were administered in town, eity„ and consolidated schools for grades four through eight„ The results of the imrestiga® tion indicated such definite; gains in the teaehing of work=. type reading that the pfogram -vms continued through the next yearo '
of factors conditioning pupil growth and achievement is employed to evaluate teaGhing,efficiency^ pupil interests and habits $ and the materials of instruction and environment„
The evaluation of teaching' efficiency by measwement ■ or inference is the product\of investigations in two closely related fields of feseafehi One field is concerned with the traits and .qualities of teachers believed, essential to,.suc^.. eessful teachingy while the other relates to measurement of
teaching-efficiency»The traits and qualities investigations have attempted
to define aad measure the traits and qualities eontrihuting most effectively to pupil growth and achievement 0 Three methods of approach have "been emphasizeds (1) reasons for teacher failure; (2) opinions of pupils and experts; (31 dif-= ferenees hetween good and poor teachers; C4) other factors related to teaching success o '
The investigations of teacher failure attempted to determine by surveys of opinion what traits and qualities contribute most to teacher failure0 The recognition of traits contributing to,failure'was to be a basis'for evaluating efficiency 0 , Like all investigations of this type, they vary somewhat in the number of traits inferred as contributing to failure and the degree, of importance as factors0
The investigations to determine desirable teacherqualities by surveys of opinions of pupils and experts are
■ 7best illustrated by that of Bussell ho Go Buts ch., who analyzed several studies in this field to determine the qualities of teachers considered most important.0 Some of the qualities mentioned most frequently in the opinions of the pupils were: fairness, kindness9 instructional skill, goodmatured or pleasant, good disciplinarian, knowledge of
7T" Butsoh','&usseTt.^iducational Be search; 1:99=107« (AprilT’TJ^X)«
sWjeefcV sense of; Btior ^ $, good personal appearance ainspiring^. sociat)ility:8 interest in work, and pleasing per-. sonalityo Some of the qualities considered most important as judged ty-■expert: opinion aret disciplines teaching skill9 good personality^ cooperations scholarshipa daily preparation j, fairness; Intelligence^ and resourcefulness0. ■■:
An ihteresting approach to the determination of qualities and traits eonsidered most desirable in teachers by expert opinion was mde by AdSb Barr and Lester M0 BmonSo Their investigation attempted■to evaluate the qualities arid 'activities considered prerequisite to teaching success, as .v listed by 209 rating scales as. compared-with the findings of , a- ■ study ;;by.S0Wo - Charters' and Douglas Waples« Their, study revealed some striking differences in regard to the qualities listed in the scalesa For the most:part. the items were undefined and. subjactive in nature o Many of the scales seemed ineomplet®, and expressed different points Of view as to , teachers and teaching« '■% ■ ;■'■/ .' i :■■ \ . ■ ' . \:D
The investigation to determine the essential qualities . ■ of"teachers by determination of the traits and qualities ofgood and poor teachers: is best illustrated by that reported i . x;; - .pi- ; 9 \ - • ' ■. ■■%;/ .by AoSo'Barr6 ■ A few Of the desirable qualities indicated
...So', Barr9 A03o: and Emons<, -Lester Mo ,rihat Qualities are^^• Prerequisite to Success in. Teaching?" The nation?s ,
■', ■ t •" Schools; 6s6G-6As; (•September9 1930). ;:9. Barrb AoS°:■'Characteristic Differences of Good and Poor
The traits and qualities investigations employ many descriptions and list many teacher factors considered essential to teaching success» The indications are that not much agreement exists as to which traits or qualities are most prerequisite and the degree of attainment necessary* Doubtless this is due to the lack of the use of a common vocabulary by .researchers, and the lack of instruments of measure*
The value of the method of evaluating supervision by the recognition of desirable traits and qualities is problematical, due to lack of suitable measurement*
The methods for determining the efficiency of teaching, other than those pertaining to desirable qualities and traits, • have been partially discussed in a previous chapter* These investigations have utilized several approaches to the question of measurement of teaching efficiency* One group is concerned with investigations to determine efficiency by the employment of check lists, rating scales, and other
deviees^ another group is eoneerned with the measurement of changes in pupil growth and achievement; while still another attempts the measurement of changes in teaching procedure0
Although some types of devices j, such as check lists and rating scales* are subjective in nature, they are valuable when used in the discovery of problems and needs for improvemento fhey are most valuable as guides to classroom observationso The earlier types of devices were concerned with the evaluation of general procedures8 but the newer types attempt to measure some of the more desirable outcomes of teaching efficiencyV illustrative of the newer trend isone recently developed to. measure the activity of the prae~
, ' 10 tice of democracy in the elas.sroomo The device is composed of lists of questions grouped around twelve categories concerning classroom activities which* when applied and evaluated9 give am indication of the efficiency of the teacher in preparing pupils for life in a democracy,. Another variation of this type of device is the use of analysis charts for determining the frequency or time devoted to classroom procedureo Illustrative of this type is one preparedV 11 .; , . . . . ... ■ . .by LoJo :Brueekner0 The time analysis is made..by the systematic recording of the time devoted to various classroom
107 Fistor9 Fredericko VA Standardized Measure of dlass- room Democracy0$s .Journal of Educational Research;
procedures0 ' -Much, has "been written for and against the use of rating
scales as devices for evaluating teaching efficiencyG Hoxr= ever9 there are several available for use which have been evaluated as to validity and reliability* Although the coefficient of validity of these devices is low9 they probably are higher than those of ratings made without their use*
The preparation and use of records of teaching constitute another means for the evaluation of teaching efficiency0 These records may be compiled by classroom visitation such as the keeping of diaries9 anecdotal or time records of classroom procedures^ obtaining information from records of training and experience 9 or the administering of tests to teachers covering such important phases as growth and achievement, intelligence, teaching aptitude, character and personality 0 The diary type of record has the element of continuity which is not present in many other devices* A similar device is the anecdotal record * The effectiveness of any of these forms of written records depends on the judgment and interpretation of the person making them*
Another method for collecting data that has increased in the last few years is. the test of different aspects of teaching ability* Numerous - tests are available for measuring intelligence, knowledge of.subject matter, teaching - •aptitude, professional information, social and professional.
attitudes $, ami. social ad justmemt6 Similar to the .rating - i ,scaless, these tests have "been the objects of study to deter-”■ mime' their validity and reliability as instruments of measmre.o'As in the- case of rating scales9 the coefficients of validity - ' are father' low® l'.,-;.: ' v-;-: - . '■ ■■ dy
Much .effort has; gone into the investigation of teaching ■' ■ efficiency0 : As a factor in the growth and development of : • ; :pupilSg it is i the most importanto However3 due to lack of • suitable measures. it is of doubtful value as a method for - .. ■evaluating pupil:1growth« ;Perhaps the ultimate measure of teaching eff 1 ciehcy should be the changes produced in the :' d'., . </,pupils <, Here again s - however 9 the lack of measures makesthisdifficulto ' " ' d. 'd' 1 1 ' . ; ' .
: Educational literature contains many reports and studies dd of the use of measures relating to pupils and their work as ' , a means for evaluating school programs 6 The efforts to de= velop suitable measures and techniques for their employment reveal a large range of interests» These interests are the result of the recognition of the many problems encountered ; in the teaching-=learning process = Early efforts in this . 'dv/>V v'v.:d field were devoted to the measurement of teaching efficiency through tests of accomplishment in subject matter<. From . experienced-the :writers huows. the effects, of these tests on {d''/d'/':.d.\dl
The elements: and techniques for administering appraisal programs on the basis of measurement of pupil achievement are a complete study in themselves o They deal with the se= ilection bf objectives« methods'of evaluation, program plan= 'ning.9: administration and evaluation^ : - '
Measures and techniques relating to pupils and their work are numerous & Their employment as data-gathering •devices.;:in a supervisory program necessitates an understanding of their availability^ purposes^ selection3 and rell= abilityo hdueational literature reveals a great many measurements currently employed* A rather complete list of these1 - ■li;-,-/ 1measurements and techniques is given belowi- v i
I. The Traditional ilssay-Type Examination. ' v ' ’ 11 The Improved Essay-Type Examination
/ 1. . /with Well-Selected and FormulatedV Questions which Adequately Sample
iearhing Outcomes and are Scored on - a Eaifly #bjec:t:ive Easls:;
ill<> 33 6Mardized Tests a M Measnring Deiriees \Ai Mental and intelligenee tests
VHo Inventories and Questionnaires of Interests g :. , Activitiess Associates^ et@o
VIIIo Interviews and Personal ReportsIXo Analysis and Evalmation of Creative Products
such as Poems9 Musics Constructions, etc. ’' Xo inalysis of a Plays Debate, or any Other ; ■
Kind of Student Performance •'XL* Case Studies Involving Use of Specialized
Clinical Devices and ProceduresThe measurement of pupils and their work may be em
ployed for purposes of conducting surveys 9 diagnosing diffi~ eulties, and predicting achievement0 The survey tests are generally administered for the purpose of ascertaining achievement in subject matter0 Many tests of this nature are in use0 The diagnostic tests are employed to ascertain causes, of diff icultieso These tests generally are in a series for the measurement of different phases of learning in a particular subject<, Prognostic tests are for the purpose of predicting success in various fields of endeavor0 The development, selection, administration,, and evaluation constitute a field in themselves^, Many good tests are available for employment for the purposes indicated above0 They are easily obtained, and contain specific instructions for their administration and evaluation0
The'success of any program depends in part on the materials and setting for its,operation. The increased interest in all elements contributing to successful teaching- learning situations has not overlooked the importance of
these as factors0 Although many ladividual schools have little voice In the selection of the texthooks and equipment to be employed 8. nevertheless a supervisory program would■do well to irielude some basis for their evaluationc,
The evaluation of the uses and quality of school materials is another technique of evaluation. A school may , have excellent mat er ial available which is. being wasted 3, due: to lack of knowledge or indifference to its possibilities0 This refers partieularly to the use of textbooks0 Studies
Ike■ Barr j - AaS*,s Burton ' WoH0 and Brueckner L “La Jo % opo cit „ „ (19A7)S pp. 448-W. : ... : ™ ,..15 o' ieA Survey of the Use of Teaching Aids0". ThirteenthYearbook of the 'Department of Elementary School. 1
74
indicate efforts to rate or evaluate the use and adequacy ofequipment» The plan for rating the quality of materials used
. " . ' : : : 16 . in the school might follow that of Laura Zirhes whoevolved a scale to evaluate reading in the various grades =The scale contains four levels with, definitions and deserip-=tions of an instructional program, on each level= The chiefvalue in constructing a device of this type for a schoolwould he the increased interest oh the part of teachers inattaining the highest level0
Numerous check lists and rating scales for books areavailable» However3 these rating scales have been foundgenerally to be inadequate s due to the differences in stand- .
, •' '■ - 3.7arts and lack of objective qualities reportedo The scientific evaluation of textbooks has been the subject of many studies involving the basic vocabularys contents j, format difficultyj, and interest0 Realizing that the facilities of ■ an individual school are such as to make it rather difficult to evaluate materials of instruction from a .scientific standpoint j, nevertheless a fair job can be done by evaluations through the opinions of several teachers» comparison with lists of graded vocabulariesv observing the reactions of pupils to the books9 book reviews, and so forth* The
• 6 0 Zjmses s ; Xaurao ; Comparative "Judies Of'^urrent 'Pra~bi.oes in Reading wltbTiPeoliniques f or"th¥~Improvem®nt
The evaluation of the school soeio<=physieal environmentin the past has been more in the light of an administrativefunction than that of supervision0 However, the interest inthis factor has placed it in the supervisory category, due;to its important influence on the teaching-learning sitmation0Several studies have been made in an attempt to evaluate theschool plant0 A supervisory program of am individual schoolwould do well to especially consider the factors involved inclassroom comfort, as they definitely affect the teachingslearning situation^ A complete list of factors to consider
18in the evaluation of classroom comfort is presented:
. :10 Conditions 0ausing Eyestrain and HearingDifficulty ;a* Evidence of eyestrain and hearing
difficulty b» Location of pupils with visual and
auditory deficiencies■ Co Boise and disturbing conditions■ ■■2d- Seating Provisions that iffect Posture
a0 Proper desk height b0 Proper seat height Co Placement and slant of work surface
;■ application fof criteria o'Dhe opinions of teachers and interested persons may be
obtained as the occasion requires6 Some consideration.of the studies of opinions of teachers and interested persons has
; been made in a previous chapter«, The employment of opinions •is in keeping.with the idea that supervision should be a cooperative procedureI Teachers and interested persons should . be given ample opportunity tp express their ideas as to the worth of the various supervisory activities« The opinions may be-’ obtained by interviews and questionnaires® In. any : Ga8e .,'a record sho kept;for; reference6 It would bewell to request written suggestions and follow-up reports
at the beginning and elose of anj phase of supervisory efforts
fhe method of direct appraisal by the evaluation of changes observed in teaching procedures has been partially discussed in a previous part of.this chapter under measures of teaching effiei@neye This method particularly lends it= self to the evaluation of a program involving the appraisal of the changes observed in the teaching techniques of particular subjects which have been the object of supervisory
19efforto The method consists of obtaining information concerning teaching practices through tests and questionnaires j, motivating the employment of new teaching techniques g and obtaining results after the new techniques have been employede The results are then used to evaluate the effectiveness of the program0
The method of evaluation by the employment of records has been partially discussed in a previous part of this chapter under measures of teaching efficiency0 However9 the method considered here is not that of evaluation by means of the usual records and reports9 but the evaluation of the program by the use of reports of teachers indicating unusual or effective achievement <, These achievements as reported may . be of a variety of efforts such as provision for individual '
19o Brueelmers L0lo and1 Butrights Prudenceo ,$A Technique =a™ for Measuring the Bfficieney of Supervision^^Journal of Educational Research; 16§323-331 fQeeember $, 1927) o
differences, employment of more effective techniques of teaching5, experimental teaching9 and provision for desirable outcomes 0 This method has "been applied to the evaluation of : a vhchpdiv syet mbi' y '^we^er^ vit : is , adaptable of employment in an individual school0
. whole0 Instrments have' been devised f or measuring parts of /the; edueatlorial producft however, the results secured from their einployment are ;only relatively accurate I The resultsmust be carefully: interpreted in making an evaluation with
Besplte the difficulties eneountered in a.n evaluation programj methods are reported to be in general use. The methods are classified into groups according to their use*The methods eohsist of those empioying statistical data for eondueting surveysa the measurement of pupil growth and
aehi@Y@m@nt s the measurement of factors conditioning pupil : growth and achievement, and the direct appraisal-of the supervisory.programs. ' ■ :::V
Supervision and measurement are closely related in the mih# of many people <, Due to vthis .fact s much effort has been directed toward - the construction of measures- and; devices to :: assist in' the"appraisal of the various educational factorso There are numerous'devices and tests available for measuring fact or s c ohs id ered ess ent ial to successful teaching and learnings Studies, of many devices, indicate low validity and lack of agreement on the elements of importance.. This condition exists beGaUso of conflicting concepts and lack of a common vocabulary. The.results shown by these tests have only relative: value6 As yetj no tests exist for measuring the more desirable Outcomes of education.
CH&FEBR VI
sTimiis qv the m m s w evaluating supervision
Although educational literature has devoted much time and effort to the subject of the evaluation of supervision8 it has given little attention to development of the means.The study of the means of evaluation deals with the teoh= nique for determining the progress and growth of pupils over a specific period of time, It concerns itself with the appli= cation of measures for determining'the efficiency of teaeh= ihg by indicating the growth and progress madeo As indi~ eated in a previous chaptera the measurement of growth and progress is quite difficulty due to lack of effective mea» surements. It was also pointed out that the results obtained by measurement were relatives and needed careful interprets^ tion before employing them to evaluate teachingo
The development of means for measuring teaching efficiency has passed through several well-defined stages0 The firsts of course3 was that of observation by a supervisory officer. This individual attempted to arrive at an estimate of the teacher’s efficiency by visiting her in class from time to time. The evaluation of her efficiency was really the result of the favorable or unfavorable impression the supervisor.received during the visits0 Measurement of
this kind, is sadly deficient be cause the supervisor employing it could not possibly have measured teaching efficiency,-,■:Observation, could not have ffleasured-':ail: the various phases - of the teaching a c t i s also lacking in that there is no common basis for judgments made«
fating device or score card developed next* Its use developed with: the realization that a more systematic instrument was needed to:aid in classroom Qbservationo Judging from the number of rating devices in existence 5, it must have Seemed to possess great-merit as an evaluation device> The cards are too subjective to measure such,a quality as teach- . ing,,eff iciencyo - - f ' :,: C ■ : ;
With the development of objective measures in the various subject fields came the practice of judging teaching efficiency through the ancomplishments of the pupils as indicated by the results of the tests 0 This method was hot a' true index of teaching efficiency because it failed to take into account differences in ages of the pupils 9 which would influence the resists, The method also failed to provide a pre-test at the beginning of the class year and a final test at the end of the yeary so that an index of the teacher's eff iciency might bd 'arrived at by the gain in aece^ as shown by the difference between the original and final results, ; - : - /■■V V: ■' iriother factor that this method failed to .take into aecount was: the differences. in: group intelligence that often
v:’ ?'C;:' ■ ^ ^
9 ist "between classes in the same grade levelj, 02? classes in a school. or: system*' Due. to these differences•, ’ it would r; hardly be fair to rate the teachers,,of classes having low intelligence 'in one and high in another on the basis of the achievement of the groups 0 ■ V; '. - , -v:'; ';;':
.The use. of objective measurement for measuring teaching efficiency became much more effective with the develop™ - ,■ - ;;:V ' '•_ / V; ■ .ment by Raymond Franzen of the accomplishment ratio formula0 The basic idea behind the formula consists in considering . the educational achievement or quotient in relation to the pupll^s ihtelligenGe quotienti#y this ratio one is able to i indicate whether or not . the pupil is learning in relation to v., his potentiality*: This factor s according to Fraazen2 is the i:■ .trus'ytest ofiteaching ''efflciehey*' \ - A y l:Ay-v,v.YyAy\.a,;ay
; The use of the accomplishment quotient for teacher efficiency evaluatioh. is not without' its problems 5, as indi- • ;cated.; by'-'Several ystudieSb Genevieve Coy states that teach- ' ers should not be judged On the annual accomplishment quotient change unless they began the teaching year with elassbs of comparable ability and unless the differences -■ found between the groups at the end of the year were computed
fTTranzen Raymond * }fThe AccomplTshment %iotlent / A',■ y School Mark in Terms of .Individual Capacity0M Teachers : College -Records, * (1920) * ; - — — .
2<, Coy 3, Genevieve o nA Study of Various Factors which Influence the Use of the Accomplishment Quotient.as a
, , -'Measur e. Of Teaching': Ff ficlency p' Journal of Eduea- ■,:A-A:,y tjonal Research; 21:29-42, (1940)*-'/ y.''A'''.Au::. y: a :..''A ■ :aA.-''A
with high statistical reliability0An outstanding example of the use of the aceomplishment
... 3 'quotient technique is that of Lelah Mae Crabbs0 Her study9 one of the earliest of its kind3 was for the purpose of determining the general worth of supervisions The procedure was to evolve a supervisory technique and means for evaluation in a particular school with the aid of intelligence and educational testso The first phase of the program consisted in instituting what was thought to be desirable supervisiono The second phase consisted of the evaluation<, The conclusion drawn from the investigation by Miss Grabbs was that the best measures of the efficiency of supervision are found in the changes produced in the pupils as measured in terms of the accomplishment quotient0
study of the various investigations in which the effectiveness of supervision as a .means of improving in= ; struct ion has. been made,, such as teacher qualities' measurement of teaching efficiency, activities contributing to in- service training, and evaluation^ it appears that much re- mains to be done in the,field Of research in order to facilitate the supervision of Instructions .yi
fhe investigations pertaining to the difficulties, , shortcomings9 and needs of teachers Indicate that much more., should:-;he■ known concerning theprerequisites to successful. ' teachingo The studies of the essential knowledges9 skills, attitudes, ideals, and appreciations indicate that more mast•;■ he:■ learned .'concerning- the;: degree of attainment and how : much they confrihute to. successful teaching<, The studies of traits and qualities indicate that it is difficult to ,determine what characteristios eontrlhute most to suecessful ; teaching and whether they are general or specif ic in naturee More needs to be known concerning the% relationship between the ezhibitidn: of these qualities and the situations which ' :: give, rise;.:to; them. ■ The ,importance of teacher qualities in
Hneh needs to.he known conoerning the efficiency of teaohing as judged hy the observation of elassroom proeedure0' Much has. been written concerning what teachers should do in'V igeneral s or; should be able to do if certain oceasions arise';but as.yet' little is known of the charaeteristies of good teaching perf ormance or the degree of attainment neeessaryV. : ■The many preconeeiyed notions of aetivities essential to Vgood performance should be studied in the light of 'scien- tific;'investigationo--. The •studies of teacher needs as indicated by the measurement of changes: in pupil growth and 'achievement indicate that there is much yet to be done, in the measurement Of desirable pupil outcomes. However, determination of teacher efficiency on the basis of measured de- V sirable pupil outepmes is hampered by lack of effective measures and knowledge as to what; factors, contribute most to the promotion of desirable:outeomes. Research is needed to determine measures and procedures for facilitating desirable - outcomeS in pupil growth and achievement» .
The above-mentioned.studies also indicate needed research in teacher selection and training0 The effeetiveness • of teaCher—training institutidns and in-service training • likewise should be i n v e s t i g a t e d *
88
The investigations of current supervisory practices show a wide variety of activities due to the many concepts as to what constitutes effective supervision,. Research is needed to determine the most effective concept of supervision in the light of educational aimsy and to determine the activities most effective in putting that concept into operatione
The studies of instruments employed in the measurement of teachers and teaching indicate much needed research in this important field= Much needs to be done in regard to determining the importance of items observed by use of ob= , -servational devices and their relation to successful teachinge The reasons for the low validity of many rating devices should he determined, and more effective devices constructed* There is need for more and accurate tests of teaching ahil= ityo The ones in existence vary in practical value. The difficulties encountered in the use of measures of pupil growth for evaluating teaching efficiency need study in the light of more effective measures to determine the kind and • amount of desired outcomes, produced by teaching» Although much.has been done in the development of instruments for measuring teaching effieiency3.considerable improvement could and should be made in the methods now in use*
The; investigations of methods employed by supervisors indicate needed research regarding the most effective methods and techniques for applying them. Although some effort has been devoted to determining what methods teachers like most
in Siaper.Yision9 little has been aoeomplished toward the study of factors infln.enGing these attitudes, .The studies i'-: show little effort to promote standardization of supervisory methods* Mttie is known concerning the relationship of a.upervisory aetiyities and the changes produced in teachers by them* The activities of supervisors listed by the various investigations are general in nature* More needs to be known about specific activities and their effectiveness * In line With:this^ studies should be made to determine'what specific activities, are best suited to provide, for Individual differences among teachers * : :■ j; . . ; The studies- reveal several, concepts of supervision^ in- dicating differing philosophies« It would be interesting to know the relationship between supervisory skill and supervi-;■ sory philosophy«, Studies ;of supervisory methods are too ; general in their treatment bf difficulties observed in classroom procedure * More eff ective knowledge should be had eoncerhing the. activities to eliminate difficulties, and pre=* vent error s. on the part of teachers * A eonsideratlon of the studies of supervisory methods Indicates that many methods are in use with various.concepts as their guiding principless but much'remains to;be ddne through; research as;to the im- ■ portance, effectiveness„ and contributions made by these to supervision. ' '
The investigations of activities contributing to in=. service training indicate that relatively few activities are
in use in relation to its seeming importaneeo Some efforts have been, inati® to determine what aetivities are more preferable and whieh are suitable to group and individual useo However9 little has been done to measure the effectiveness of the various activities* Although it is known that many teachers need improvement in their profession3 most of the ' efforts to teach them have been of an indirect nature* This probably is due to needed research as to how teachers learn to teach. Much needs to be known concerning teachers9 limitations and methods most suited for improving them* Beseareh is needed also to determine the best procedure for eliminating undesirable teacher traits and for encouraging the development of desirable ones* Techniques for motivating teacher self-improvement are also needed*
The studies of the evaluation of supervision indicate that research is necessary to develop measurements which will give, proven results* Evaluation must still use inference in determining many important outcomes« The lack of measurements has confined the methods of evaluation to a narrow field0 It is interesting to note that only measurements of relative value have been devised for measuring only certain aspects of the products of teaching. Hone have been devised for measuring the product of teaching as a whole 6
' . , G H A P W ' W
.SUMMARYj C O N C LU S IO N S , AND. Ip S p iE E m ^ IC E g ; ' . ' I r
^ Simmary : ''V' ■From a study of the various experiments v/hieh have been
carried out under the direction of. supervision^ it is evident that supervision has a definite place in the teaching ■ process«, Supervision is necessary because of the nature of teachings': Along with many other factors, supervision brings about a greater understanding of educational knoW“ ledgeA ideals j :and concepts^ . -,'
It is to be hoted that suecessfui supervision is determined largely by a well-established plan in conjunction with the;interests and cooperation Of all individuals concerned„ : The beginning.teachers and those in:a;rut will:receive the most benefit, because; they are in need of guidance and direction which supervision affords in order to build up a store of worthwhile e^perienoes The exceptmost by receiving recognition and encouragement for greater . tasks! C -/I" /- . ' ■■ ■ ■ v
‘ With;supervision9.all teachers should show improvement in yarying degrees in their knowledge of education and in their ability to ' perform: the teaching act 0 Studies indicate that teachers come into the profession without adequate
preparation and with' little conception of the fundamental 'problems and.their'solution* However9 through building up . an adequate store of knowledge.9 the' teacher will be able to do more effective teaching * J \
good program of supervision should be established on, the'basis of recognized needs, factors to be considered are . the objectives: to be attained, means for achieving them, and the coordination of activities necessary to accomplishment, The supervisory officer should be prepared to carry out his part of the program. That is, he must know how to secure, select, and evaluate instrument s of measurement, and how to organize and supervise a program, ' :
■ Several types of instruments are available, They ares . (1};: sheck lists; (2) records and recording devices; (3} rating scales; {k} tests/ for teachers; (5) interviews, questionnaires, and 'inventories'; and (6) measures of pupil growth; •, As far as possible,.instruments should be used which have been made for definite purposes. An instrument should be
: used.only when it secures accurate data and stays within the limitations of the situations. The data secured by the instrument should be of such a nature as to make evaluation easier* . A f ' \
In evaluating the;fesults of supervision, Certain pro- ; Cautions. should be observed. Teaching .should be thought of , comprehensively* Guard against treating teaching practices 4 as univefsals. Effective: study of teaching concerns itself .
93
with partieiilar8» Avoid, the use of preconceived opinions 0 : % / jGqod teaching eKonld not % confneed with special techniques^
.Many methods are employed. % supervisors0 They are classified as to types depending on the levels principles s
' pr 'concepts of the individuals employing thenu The types ;v : -r are 'corrective:,,, preventive , constructiveand creative« , • p v-; / The first three types are traditional in naturey They
, are confined to correcting errors /preventing mistakes, and' f ; giving cohStrtietiire criticism^ The fotirth type assists the ' '■, ■ s ' teacher in reeoghizing problems . and; developing teehhiipies : for : ,
solving theme Some, of the more common methods of supervi™: sors are classroom visitation, conferences with teachers,
; ingintefvisitation, providing demonstrations, preparing bulletins and publications, measuring teaching efficiency, and 'providing rewards for growth and accomplishment« - :
, V ; number of investigations have been devoted to the v .
study of in=service training activities. Some of the activ- ities advocated by writers are: (1} the .educational work-*shop, (2) committees, (3) staff meetings,■ (4) counseling, ■■ ; ; ■
' :> ' v, :: - (5) course work, (6 )v documentary aids, (7} directed reading,. •(8):direGted observation, (9) field trips„(10} travel ; seminars> (11) audio-visual aids'.: A program of supervision ' should make provision for in-service training, due to the ,faet that many teachers come into.the. profession with ,
limited backgrounds,. The activities offered should be of such a nature as to provide experiences and opportunities which will enfich teaGhers professionally« ? "' ■
^Valuation of the teaehing-learning process is a difficult undertakingo fhere is he over-all method for performing this servicee It may be necessary to employ numerous de= yiceh and measures« and these give only relative resultso Care and understanding must be used in interpreting the re- suits. As yet there do. not exist satisfactory instruments for measuring the desirable outcomes of learning. Despite the lack of satisfactory measurementj several methods are in general use for, evaluating supervision. They are classified as follows: .statistical data for conducting surveys; , measurement of pupil growth and. achievement; measuremeht of factors eonditioning pupil growth and achievementf and the : direct appraisal of the programo . ; '
. The literature of education has devoted much effort to the evaluation of supervision, but little has been done in development of the means for evaluating it 0 The means of ■’evaluation': are the techniques employed to determinethOvt:; progress and growth of pupils. The development of objective:• measures. Opened : a, new field in the determination of teaching ; efficiency. The many'dangers involved in rating efficiency by this means were part ially over come: by the Introdudtion . and use of the accbmplishment quotient. ' . • • ■■
The stuaies of the methods used in evaluating teaching efficiency; indicate that much research is needed in various fields in order to do this more effectively. The greatest need lies in the improvement of the methods involving the v/
ofpupil growth and aehlevement g and the' mea* surement of factors conditioning this growth and- achievement:
: with artlchlar': reference to. 'measures relating to teachers and teaching effieieney» The measurement of pupil growth . and achievement has. been greatly facilitated by the construction of standardized'tests for the determination of pupil intelligence^ achievement, and aptitude However s care must be used in the interpretation of the results to judge the effIciency of teaching^, 'because "as yet no tests are available for 'testing ail:'the products of teaching* The '•present tests are confined largely to those of achievement in subject matter fieldss and they.do not measure the important outcomes of the teaching=?learhing process* Research is needed in the development of means for evaluating the progress of pupils* : The- accomplishment;quotient in present use is a step in the right direotiOh; however, it- has its difficulties of application and has limited employment due to the lack of measnrements f or'testing the more desirable outcomes* . Re-
. search should be directed toward the development of better
Research is needed also in the field related to the measurement of teachers and .teaching' efficiency. The
by the faripms approaches to this study :" . are inadequate0 Their■ results must be interpreted with skill . :; and:understandings v ' ' ;/'.
. Oonolusicns . ■■ ■lo A supervisory program .within, a school should be or- ,*
■ganized and based on the recognition of defihite needs, of the situation as shownf:by%n analysis->of r pupil achievement ;
. in relation to desired outcomes, and oh consideration of the i factors eonditioning pupil growth and achievement such as
the teachers, the materials. of instruction9 the environment? the curriculum/ and the admlnistratiohh , • '
' i - . 2«■ To be most effective / a supervisory program must bea cooperative undertakings The entire staff must assist in •the determination of objectives to be obtained, the selection of procedmres and devicos to be employedg and the time to be devoted to the program.
supervisory program will improve the teaching- : learning proeess; through 'the stimulation of professionalgrowth and interestj' and through'the attainment of desirable pupil outcomes. /" " /-uV '
.'V.:.:;.. 4o- Evaluation of a supervisory program must'be a con- tinuous process, and should be based on definite .criteria formulated on interesting and obtainable objectives.
97
: Reoommemdatlpms 'V::lo activities of a supervisory program should be
eeaterei around, pupil growth and development« ' .2o fhe principal should set the level for the program
hy his creative ahi democratic approach to supervision^ He . should stimulate individual and group efforts in the determination of problems and means for solving them® His actions should create an atmosphere of kindness, understanding <, and
. confidence e - -, 3o 'fhe program should provide friendliness$ sociability g and informality among the childrens teachers, and principals fhis should be. evidenced by informal conversa-
;. tions at . odd times' in relation to school or personal problemsof children, teachers, and principala .3 :- fhe program should provide .for the’ inclusion of all .
relationships contributing to the development of pupil growtho in addition to the staff there are the special su-
’; peryisorsthe: parents,; the; repreeehtatives of character- t x.'t- bullding organisations^ and even the janitor. They all should cooperate to perform a better jobo
5o The supervisory program should not lose sight ofthe importance of the elementary school in preparing pupils ; for.;life dn a democfatic society in a . eompler worlds,
Ao Books. Andersoiig Co J s Barr j, ,AoS« and .Bushs Maybell G.
Yisitiiig the Teacher at Work.:: mr%oac, 1925,Ayres ? Leonard v.-'. %, ' :
Laggards ih Our Schools0 ■■..) ■ ^ s o o l ^ e B 9 Inc, g Mew York, 1909o ■
. ...
Ah Introduetton to the Scientific of .Classroom ••Bo.Appleton and Go„ New York$ 1931» " ' -
■ ' ■ GharacterlStic Differences of . Good .and: Boor Teachers of; : P u lirc '^ W o l^ u H T ih ln g Go/, Bloomington, 1 1 1 ,, 1929.
: Barrs A oS 0 . and Others v. / . . ; i . ..' J . .;.. T ,. . .. '.Elementary .School 'Standards .for the Improvement of ; :
■ -V' .r- : .: ' ' ' - %. - Edwards Bros,, s ' Ann : Arhor, Mich®, 1926» :.Barr.s,. AoS» s, Bmrtons. 'WiHd and Brueckner 9 Leo i6 . SuBervlslonb ' ' - i
,i. D/Appleton^Oentiiry C o l e w York9 1938;$ 1947«Briggsi vThomas .B*:. ' / r ’ ■. '
Improving Instruction.
:Bineekner S;'■ ;I?eo . Jo and . IsfieIhy,iErnest. & Diagnostic and Remedial Teaching«
Barton 9 William -Bo " Snpervislon and the Improvement of T 1 Do Appleton and GOb.g:%%%7ZorE^Tl922?
Charters ,■ WolfoThe Teaching of Ideals.
Ceilings j Dllswer# \ v: :.'V . :;v. ■ : % "Setiool gupe rlsloft in Theory, and ^astloeo /: #iGi#s CrGwell Publishing Co, , New York, 192?»'/ Supervisorsr, Guidanee of Tes-.ehers in 'Seoondary, Seiiools 0
■ ; Tle^cFiTraF^e77^ew^QrE7Tfl4'7“ v 'v '; . :DotiglaS j Harl E e ant Boai’dmn;? Charles ¥»• Snpervislon in Secondary Schools 0 . : ■ ■ '■ ’ HougE¥oW"Wfflin Go., Bestons .1934o: • ;; ‘ ::Garrett3 Henry B0 \ . ■: Statlsties in Psyetiology ant Btucationo , •
v Eongmnsy™Green and Co»s Hew York; 1926 „ • : ; ''Good9 .CoVs $ Barr^ :.'A>So :and;Seates:s. B6B6; ■ ' '■ ftp Methodology of Educational Res ear ebu ' 1''A'.-: ': Do A^Iiton-C^tnry‘To77Tew^ork7~Tf41£, '; - ,;
:Greens Ho A o 3 Jorgensens A0H0 andGerberieh, J0Ro AMeasurement and Evaluation in the Elementary Sohoolo
:, Bohgrnans's Green and Co. s New"York 9 1942. . ' ;;Jacobsons Paul Bo and - Eeavis.9 William C 0,
Duties of School Principals».Prenticn%alls Intos Hew.Tork, 1941. ■.
Kilpatricks m - H* 3A BodeV B0He 9 Childs s: J6Do, Hullf ishs ' Ho Go s :;Dewey »;■: Johns Raup,, RoBo and Thayer s VeT0
aa ■ tA A ■-a aaThe Century Coa 9"S^^Torkg 1933 0
Kyte> George;C = A A; , ;;A- - , :-A;x ' : -A ' . - " ' . .How te Superyiseo A : ;
Supervision, of the Elementary School, bought oh: m r B o s t o n t :r ~ ™ "
^megs,Ernest'An Evaluation of Some les of /teacher Seiection,
Go., Bloomington, O 5,
Trabue, : Mar ion R « /• . . /Measurihg- Results in Education ■ .American BooF^oT.""^ ‘
lifalkdr, ;Helen S» ; • , ; //: /' The Measurement of Teaehihg■ Iffieiencv»
T O femillan Go 0, New Tork,1^0o ■
' V: . '' V ' ; Bo Parts'of a'.Series : '.Ashbaugh, E»Jov. . - / ■ v',v':. v
The Workshop on Teacher Edueationc> ./;ional Research BulXetino ' ’/: : .
Ohio State University, Columbus, 1941» . 'Baldwin, JoW0■ Social Studies laboratory: /v-..
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York., 1929°Crabbs, Lelah Mae. ;; '- ' ... ... , ,: -.. Measuring Effleiehcy. in Supervision and Teaching<,■ cSHtriWtions” to E d ' a c ^ i m T N o T I T F ^
teachers College, Columbia Univcrs^ New York, 1925»
101
: OoTzrtls 9; .S* A* '■eMirmE ;; f : .;:,$0oopera.tIon ?: Prlnelples^ and 3ract;lee 6 ; ;; . ; .
: Eleventh Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and- ■ ': Bireotors of Instruct ion 0 ' ;:v
National Eduoatlozi Assooiation, Washingtons DoCe ■1.93$®'
for the•Dyer, William P0 .
Aotivitie.s of the.Elementary SchQol Impfovement of instrnotionc :
Gontrihutions to Sdueation 8 No 0 274® - •Teaohers College, Oolimbia University, New York, 1927,
:Hosie9;:lames Fv; , . .Empirical Studies in School Reading0
-- Gontn hut ions to Edmcatfon^": No' 0 llW' - - ';■ ;v /' •■Teachers Collegej.Columhia University, New York, 1921,
Monroe, Panl, edit of ■•■./ ' _ ■' ■ppU'Smperyision' of . :Teeehihg>#. : ' V ' >/;' : ■ iV. .,V ■' A: Cyelotiedia' of Edheafipnl':' -’ ' '
New York, 1913VMorris, ,Elizaheth, Hnnt , :v; ii... :-
Personal Traits and Suecess in Teaching<>.Contrihutions to”lEueaHo57; NoTeachers College-," Columbia University^ New York,; 1929«
Zirbes, Xaura i : . ■Comparative Studies of:Current Praetices in Reading Tech-
. niq.ues for the Tmprovement^ of" Teac: ". -CohtrTbutions to Eduoatipn,. No., 3T5T Teaehers College, Columbia University,;New York, 1928<
0* Periodical ArticlesAlmy, ;HoGo and Sorenson, Herbert:
"A Teacher Rating Scale of Determined / Validity^ 'v'vV: v:;; i,'" v; i: ::
, Educational Administration andReliability and
16 f179-186;
Antell,, Hi ■ ... ; ;■v "Inventory of Teacher
.: Improvement in Service „" ; Educational Administration
"Do Teachers Receive the Kind of Supervision They Desire?” Journal of Educational Research; 40:713^716, (lay, 1947)°
Bamberger, Florence E,"A Survey of Observable, Improvable Factors which . Evidence Skill in Teaching,f?Elementary School Journal; 28:181-185 (October1927)°
Barr, A,8, '■“Planning the Tear8 s Program,“Journal of Educational Research; 22:140=141* (September,....2920),— ■ ... ■“Research and the Professional Education of Teachers," Journal of Educational Research; 27:364=366, (January,
"Systematic Evaluation in the Professional Education of Teachers,"
Journal of Educational Research; 34:689=692, (1940=1941)°"The Scientific Study of Olassroom Supervision," .Journal of Educational Research; 22:219=222, (October,
Barr, A«S, and Emons, Tester M,"An Analysis of Teacher-Rating Scales,"The Nationas Schools; 6:60-64, (September, 1930)„"What Q,ualities are Prerequisite to Success in Teaching?" The Nation*s Schools; 6:60-64-, (September, 1930),
.Barr, A^S, and Jayne, GoB,"The Use of Sound Recording Equipment in the’Study and Improvement of Teaching," ;
Journal of Experimental Education; 4:279-286, (liareh,“""TO6T°“ =-— =» - ■ •Barr, A,S-, and Rudisili, Mabel '
"The Inexperienced Teachers Who Fail and iliy,"The Nation?s Schools; 5:30=34, (February, .1930),
■ Eelser, B= . ' ■ v-"Changing Concepts of School Supervision,"Educational Method; 22;259-265, (March, 1943)°
103.
% State. Program f or the Improvement of Instrnetion in ?y. Eej3,ool Jpurnal; 30:735=746, tJnne9 1939 h '
, - Betts,- George Sq : / Vr':1?Ieaehers5 Diagnosis of Classroom Difficultiess ”
Sciiooi Journal| 27:600=608, (1926-1927}oBonser^:F^a0;!l : :/:/vvv;: 1' V ::V;
Brueckner, - : ' ''' ■: 7 . :>' f'7' ,.v ;diagnostic .Analysis . of . ciassroom Procedures o "Elementary School/Journal; 27:25=40, (September, 1926)0"A Diagnostic Chart; • for Determining the Supervisory Heeds : of Teachors in ArltlmetiGo" / ;
y School Journal,; 30i96=103 j COctober , 1929) e"The Value of a Time Analysis of Classroom Activity as '. :: a Supervisory TechnllW»" 'The Elementary School Jou r n a l 25:518=521, (March, 19291® 7
.Brueckher,' 1® Jl and Outright, Prudence 0 -/.7- -. % ^: 77 V-: . 7;'-: '"A Technique for .Measuring the ■Eff iciency of Supervision 01,: journal of Educatlonal.• Research; 16:323=331, (December ,
Buckingham,: BqEo "tW--; ':'- v"\' '-'.Vt:...5 ,: : - 1Q.-:■.."The Public .School .Teaeher as . a Research Worker o !? Journal, of Educational .Research: .11 :;235=243, 7(&pril,
Buts eh, Russell : "..." ' V ': ^Teacher Bating^ra;:. . ;" :Review of Educational Beseafoh; 1:99-107 a, (April $, 1931}
Butler, Erauk AV^ :v. ' '■ i: " ' ' ■ . V .•.^Standard Items to Observe for the Improvement of . feaeMng.in Classroom Management 0t5
, Educational Method; 9s517'“527,. tlune^ 1930) .:Clark^ EoCA - ' ' / V': : : : . ' V ' :’’Direeting the Observation Lesson01?.. Educational Administration and Supervision; 22:632=635,
Coliings, Ellsworth ; \ . V . ' ; ; ; . :”A. Conduch the Measurement of Teaching o.”
' Eteeationatl .Method : 6s97-lO,3-$,: 'iB-bvember g■ 1926jii■Connor.,'. W»E^ ' iv ' l A'". .
!!A :Hew Method of Rating Teachers»18, i :Journal of .Educational Research; 1:338«3$8, (®ays. 1920}Corey, Stephen Mo ; : 1: - . ' V:;. '; ' : ' :
^Maturation Units.for the Measurement of Growth0 n School and Society; 301683=690% (1929)« ;
v.y t8Measufihg the Effects of Supervision in Geography0" School and Society; 10 261-709 (July, 1919}%
: ; ' Problems in the Appraisal of Supervision^88 ' 'A-. r . Educational Administration and: Supervision; 151.269-278,
Goy:S .Cerieyieve'y'.;: .; v '' - '.' V, ' y .1' :.-lA?Studyvof'v'yarioUiS'Eactbrs ich.lhfluenee: the Use Of 'i'
.the Accomplishment Quotient as a Measure of Teaching : ■ :, .lfficieney^ . i:.'if i y;;:; V; k? " . ;i. Journal of Educational Research; 21:29=42„. (1940}0Engelhart,. Maz: D^ and Tuckef ,f Eedyard R0 ' '
"Traits Related toy Good and Poof Teachings " ' f: School Revie.wi 44s 28“33 , (l936| i 1«Erwinej'R6H*'yand' Eofd3#e-,''wyot''y ^ .. '"y:':::'::;<yv':': ■
..Carrdtson,. - Oliver Ko’; -'v’ •v : :*lB-SeWloe IralniBg of Teachers in High Schools in . , 0klammao» :> - . • v' :Sohool EeTiew; 391449-460, .(lune s 1931) a .
^Methods of Improving the TeoWique of Teaching,," ' ■Elementary School Journal; 20:263-275, (Beeember, 1919)?"Rating:. S.oalea / Self-Analysisy-. and the Improvement of ;'Teaohingo” '■ : '
Schooi;Review; 29i%9~57* (January, 1921), ;$93?he ."Work of the .Elementary Sehool Principal„?T
r Elementary Sehool Journal; 19:24-35, {September9 1918)„Greenfield, B„Xo - -; , — :: .;v: I.- ■ ■■ ??A Study of the Effectiveness of a. Program of Elementary ., School Supervisionjournal of Educational- Researchi 27 ;.123°126 „. (October ,
Gillette,; K oM; : '1 -"What Teacher s. Eon8 t'Like0". • . .
of; Certain Publicly Supported: ;■ ■ S , Institut ions'in Assisting Teachers in Service in Ele-
mehtary Scienco or Mature Study«" ; y: :- Science Education; 20^7-11, (1936):«.: y .
' ^ H a f t i e y , ; ; ^ ^ - :H o ' - y i y , . 1. ^ - " ^ - - ; ■ : y ^ :y i : '■ y - y . - " - - t - v - . y l ; ;'y "Teacher Education through FijmSo" ' 'Educational Admihistrat.ion and ..Supervision; 29:168-176,
Heffernan, H 0 and Burton, W 0Ho"Adjusting Theory to Practice in Supervision*" Educational Method;.i8t323°328y (April, 1939)*
^Relative Serviceability or. Frequency of Use of Devices , for Improving Teachers in Serviceo" ;Journal of Educational.Research; 34:679-688, (May, 1941)
109
,: ??School-]Mad.e Film for Purposes bf Supervision of In^' - / :,_8t±m#tio%^" :V , ; V :. .
. Mueational S.croem; 23il5.7“l59i, (April, 1944) o. Symonds, Percival M» ■ ' : . " : '' "Supervision , as . Oowseling*! ; ,,;. :,;-y V ;. . / ; V '. ..V :■■ <' : ; ' - Teachers Oollege Record.; 43 249"56 s (October , 1941) ®
': Twitchell9 Doris ra '/ , ^An Obj.eGhive .Measure , in Superyision," . ' -
Journal of Educational Method;' 54279=282, (March/ 1926) c. 1- Waddell^ Charles Wo :
: "Some Griteria of Progressiveness f or Elementary School. ■ ■' : P r i n c i p a l s ® .. ... -/; C'' ' Ele^#ary Sohool' Journal; 28:606=609, (April,. 1928) 0 .. •. ' :■ Weber/<:GoA«. ' 1 I": / ' ' / ' .' /- ' ;
"Obstacles to be Overcome in a Program of Educating'. Teachers in Serviceo"; 9 '.4.9-4/. : . . ' ' ':4 . 4Educational Administration and Supervision; 28:609=6l4o ..
. / ... "Promising Techniques for Educating Teachers in .Service®"Educational Admihlatration and Supervision; 28i691-695
"Reatitions of Teachers - to In^Service Training in Their ,, Schools." :/-I;. :;/999/''- -' 4 . . . '. ■': ' ;. y . '•... .School Review/ 51 £234-2409 (Aprils 1943)»■
Aippleg Gertrude < '''/.'/ "Procedures.PSed. in Sejecting'Textbooks®"Elementary School Journal;;36:760=775, (June„ 1936)® . 4/ .
9 Whitneyv 'E®X® ; : 4 'i' - ::/// / "4# W : \ ' ■ ■ ^:;4-"Trends,in Methods of Teaeher Improvement®" 4 4 American School Board Journal 1 93:18=19s. (Decembers 1936) ®
110
Woodylags. larle h6 ; . ; .i?$he Use of the Stenographic lesson in Improving . .Instruct ion o18. . ‘ ’Teachers gollege He cord.; ,37x50^517» (March/ 1936)*
Da Yearbooks"A Survey of.the Use of Teaching Aids«" . . .■ Thirteenth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School . Principals *national Education Association, Washington, D0G0 s 1934°
Breed, FoSo V ■ - " ;"Remedial Supervision Based on a Diagnostic Survey of . Supervision*"Second Yearbook of the .National Conference of Supervisors -^anTPlreotors W ISItrucnonT — ™
Hew York, 1929<Brueckner, LoJ°
"Developments in the Techniques for Securing Factual Data Concerning Classroom Teachingo"
Cook, WoW6 •"The .Use of Tests in.a Supervisory Program*"Sixteenth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School "Prih'erpa 1 s* " ^ : . .National Ed?ucation Association, Washington, D»G0 9 1937°
"Evidences of the Value of Supervision*"...... Eighth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence *
"Activities of Principals*". Eighth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence * National Education Association/ WasEington, D°C* / I929*
Ill
Hosi-G.y JoFo : -r, “Seientif lo .Method in Supervialono18
Becond Yearbook of the.National•Conference of S and Directors of instractionr
.; TeacEers GolXege s Col'um'bia University^ New York, 1929®: " l i n d t n l s t ; f e]mintiian);.:} ■; •’ '
-' "Effective Instructional Leadershipc"Sixth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors.and
. — - — - - ■ . . . — •
Coltimhia diversitys New Yorks 1933 - %^Standardized Achievement Tests and Their delation to . .Curriculum Gonte ; v ■ A-Sixteenth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary : ■
, ?TihCipaieo';. ’ y -v:,. ,Education Associations Wshington,;, E 0G6 5 1937«
.. McClure j Worth ■"The Rating of Elementary School'Principals in Service ® " .Fourth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary SchoolNa STonal Education Association^ Washington, B eCB „ 1925®
, Mrnm, Gertrude Ee V :v ' " . { :v : y";: ■ ' V V : -"Demonstration lessons®" ; ' A : . y /: . . . . •
' Tenth YeariboOk, Department of Elementary School Principals „mtTbnar%dngEtibn§so5Iat'ibn— m m i n ^ o n r W ^ . T ^
Stullken 9 E^H®"Activities of .'principals."Eighth Yearbook of the Dei
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Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary SchoolNational Edncatioh Association, Washington ID 0C c, 1931® ""Educational Leadership®" - . ‘ . .Eleventh Yearbook of the .Department of Superintendence® 5r?_j.Education Association, Washington, D = 0», 1933 ®
