A prograding slope–shelf succession of the middle–late
Miocene Jatiluhur Formation:
Sedimentology and genetic stratigraphy of mixed siliciclastic and carbonate
deposits in the Bogor Trough, West Java
January 2014
Abdurrokhim
Graduate School of Science
CHIBA UNIVERSITY
（千葉大学学位申請論文）
A prograding slope–shelf succession of the middle–late
Miocene Jatiluhur Formation:
Sedimentology and genetic stratigraphy of mixed siliciclastic and carbonate
deposits in the Bogor Trough, West Java
2014 年 1 月
千葉大学大学院理学研究科
地球生命圏科学専攻地球科学コース
Abdurrokhim
I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Professor Makoto Ito
Supervisor
i
Contents
List of figures…………………………………………………………………….…..…iii
List of tables…………………………………………………………………….….…..xii
Abstract………………………………………………………………………….….…xiii
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Research area and datasets ..................................................................................... 4
1.3. Research contribution ............................................................................................. 7
2. Geologic Setting of the Bogor Trough ........................................................................ 11
2.1. Tectonic framework .............................................................................................. 11
2.2. Stratigraphy and age ............................................................................................. 14
3. Prograding Slope–Shelf Succession ............................................................................ 19
3.1. Lithology and structures ....................................................................................... 19
3.2. Biostratigraphic analyses ...................................................................................... 21
3.3. Facies associations and depositional environments.............................................. 22
3.3.1. Facies association 1: Siltstone and sandy siltstone ........................................ 23
3.3.2. Facies association 2: Slump deposits ............................................................ 24
3.3.3. Facies association 3: Slump-scar-fill deposits ............................................... 25
3.3.4. Facies association 4: Channel-fill deposits .................................................... 27
3.3.5. Facies association 5: Thick-bedded sandstones............................................. 28
3.3.6. Facies association 6: Sandy siltstones intercalated with skeletal limestones 29
3.3.7. Facies association 7: Limestone and interbedded calcareous siltstones ........ 30
3.4. Klapanunggal carbonate reef ................................................................................ 32
3.5. Sequence stratigraphy ........................................................................................... 35
4. Petrography and Textural Analyses ............................................................................. 40
4.1. Petrographic facies ............................................................................................... 40
4.2. Framework composition ....................................................................................... 42
5. Depositional History .................................................................................................... 49
6. Slope Channel Formation ............................................................................................ 52
6.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 52
6.2. Incipient processes of slope channel formation .................................................... 53
ii
6.3. Distribution and dimension of slump-scar-fill deposits ....................................... 55
6.4. Triggering of slump scars as incipient depressions for channel formation .......... 57
7. Controlling Factors of Carbonate Development .......................................................... 58
8. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 61
9. Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... 66
10. References ................................................................................................................. 67
iii
List of figures
Fig. 1. Plate-tectonic framework of Indonesia and adjacent area.
Rectangular box indicates Western Java, where the study area is located
in the southern margin of the Sundaland. Modified from Hall (1996). .......... 79
Fig. 2. Geographical setting of the study area. The rectangular box indicates
the study area, about 60 km from Jakarta to the south. Modified from
http://www.streetdirectory.com/indonesia/jawa_barat/--- .............................. 80
Fig. 3. Geological sketch map of the study area representing the distribution
of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal Formations. The numbers denote the
locations of log sections that are used in this study (Jatiluhur Formation
and Klapanunggal Formation). ....................................................................... 81
Fig. 4. Present-day tectonic setting of Indonesian region, showing the
Sunda–Java arc-trench system where the Australian plate subducts
beneath the Sundaland–Eurasian continent to the north (Hall, 1997).
The rectangular red box indicates the study area. The blue-color part
represents mainly shallow marine, continental shelves, and the zebra
pattern indicates distribution of ophiolithic areas. .......................................... 82
Fig. 5. Sketch map of the distribution of onshore and offshore basins in Java
Island. The Bogor Trough is located in the western part of the Bogor-
North Serayu-Kendeng anticlinorium zone, a place where Neogene
deep water sedimentation occurred and the deposits were intensively
deformed during the Plio–Pleistocene tectonic event (Sujanto and
Sumatri, 1977; Satyana and Armandita, 2004). .............................................. 83
Fig. 6. Tectonic elements of the west Java, which comprise two major
structural grains. The older N–S structural trend is distributed in the
north, whereas the younger E–W structural trend is situated largely in
the southern area. The E–W structures represent a young compressional
tectonic regime in the Sunda–Java arc-trench system. The rectangular
box indicates the study area. Modified mainly after Sujanto and
Sumantri (1977) and Martodjojo (2003) ......................................................... 84
iv
Fig. 7. Geological sketch map of the northern part of the Bogor Trough
modified mainly after Sudjatmiko (1972). The Jatiluhur Formation
occupies the central area and extends parallel to the young E–W
structural trend. A younger compressional tectonic regime caused the
uplift and outcrops of the Neogene formations, which are distributed in
the West Java Basin. The Jatiluhur Formation is conformably overlain
by the Klapanunggal Formation in the west, and by the Cantayan
Formation in the south. ................................................................................... 85
Fig. 8. Stratigraphic classification and ages of the Cenozoic stratigraphic
successions in the studied and adjacent areas (after Sujanto and
Sumantri, 1977; Martodjojo, 2003; Suyono et al., 2005). .............................. 86
Fig. 9. E–W stratigraphic cross-section in the strike section of the Jatiluhur
Formation. The red dashed lines indicate datums based on the
planktonic foraminifera biostratigraphy, and the red solid lines
represent bed-to-bed correlations of same key sandstones beds. In
general, paleocurrents indicate sediment-transport directions to the
south and southwest. ....................................................................................... 87
Fig. 10. 3D stratigraphic cross-section of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal
Formations. Both the western and eastern areas contain shelf and
carbonate deposits. Carbonate horizon in the middle part of the
Jatiluhur Formation tends to thin away from the carbonate-reef of
Klapanunggal Formation. The slump deposits thickening toward the
south (basin), and well distributed in the center part, where the shelf
margin deposits (FA 6) is thin. It is suggested that the slope is steeper in
the center part. ................................................................................................ 88
Fig. 11. Stratigraphic cross-section from a N–S transect along the
Cipamingkis River, illustrating the pinching out of slump deposits in
the updip direction. ......................................................................................... 89
Fig. 12 Biostratigraphic datums of the Jatiluhur Formation along the
Cileungsi and Cipamingkis rivers. The age of the Jatiluhur Formation in
this study area is in the range between N12 and N16 (Nurani , 2010;
Zahara, 2012). ................................................................................................. 90
v
Fig. 13. Summary of the seven major facies associations of the Jatiluhur
Formation. ....................................................................................................... 91
Fig. 14. Laminated siltstones and intercalated sandstones beds of facies
association 1 in the Cipatujah River. Figure for scale .................................... 92
Fig. 15. Close-up of siltstones intercalated with very thin-bedded, fine-
grained sandstones with current-ripple cross-lamination in the Cipatujah
River ............................................................................................................... 92
Fig. 16. Close-up of facies association 1, which is represented by thin- to
very thin-bedded sandstones with parallel lamination and current-ripple
cross-lamination in the Cileungsi River. ........................................................ 93
Fig. 17. Laminated siltstone overlaid by very thin-bedded, fine-grained
sandstones in the Cihowe River. ..................................................................... 93
Fig. 18. Thick slump deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River ....................... 94
Fig. 19. Folded and low-angled reverse faults in interbedded thin sandstones
and siltstones of slump deposit of facies association 2 in the
Cipamingkis River. Pencil = 15 cm. ............................................................... 94
Fig. 20. Close-up of slump deposits representing folded very thin-bedded
sandstones in the Cipamingkis River .............................................................. 95
Fig. 21. Lenticular geometry of a sandstone bed, identified as a slump-scar-
fill deposit, observed in the Cipamingkis River. Figure circled for scale. ..... 96
Fig. 22. Concave-up discordant surface below the sump-scar-fill deposit
observed in the Cipamingkis River. Figure for scale. .................................... 97
Fig. 23. Structureless fine-grained sandstones of slump-scar-fill deposits,
which developed over a discordant surface observed in the Cipamingkis
River. Scale = 10 cm. ...................................................................................... 97
Fig. 24. Highly bioturbated, fine-grained sandstones of slump-scar-fill
deposits containing Rhizocorallium ichnofacies observed in the
Cipamingkis River. ......................................................................................... 98
Fig. 25. Burrows commonly found in the lowermost part of fine-grained,
slump-scar-fill deposits. .................................................................................. 98
Fig. 26. Lateral-accretion surface in the coarse-grained, cross-bedded,
slump-scar-fill deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River. ......................... 99
vi
Fig. 27. Close-up of gently inclined cross stratification of coarse-grained,
slump-scar-fill deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River .......................... 99
Fig. 28. Sealed discordant surface (yellow arrow) in siltstones below the
infill deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River. Dotted line is the
bottom surface of fine-grained slump-scar-fill deposits. Scale = 10 cm. ..... 100
Fig. 29. Discordance surface sealed by thin mudstone streaks observed in
the Cipamingkis River. Scale = 10 cm. ........................................................ 100
Fig. 30. The base of the coarse-grained, slum-scar-infill deposits, which
incises into the underlying discordance surface in the Cipamingkis
River. Hammer = 30 cm. .............................................................................. 101
Fig. 31. The base of coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposits, (1) which
incises the underlying fine-grained sediments of infill deposits (type 3-
A), (2) concave-up discordance, the surface of slump scars. Scale = 10
cm. ................................................................................................................ 101
Fig. 32. A package of coarse- and very coarse-grained sandstones, with
trough cross- and planar bedding of facies association 4 observed in the
Cipamingkis River. Figure circled for scale. ................................................ 102
Fig. 33. Close-up of locally observed mud clasts and medium- to coarse-
grained sandstones with cross-bedding in the middle part of channel-fill
deposits in the Cipamingkis River. Pencil = 15 cm. ..................................... 102
Fig. 34. Close-up of the surface of medium- to fine-grained sandstones with
current-ripple cross-lamination observed in the Cipamingkis River. ........... 103
Fig. 35. An overall lenticular geometry of a sandstone package of facies
association 4 observed in the Cipamingkis River. Figure circled for
scale. ............................................................................................................. 104
Fig. 36. A thick sandstone package of facies association 5 observed in the
Cileungsi River. Figure circled for scale. ..................................................... 105
Fig. 37. Inverse grading in the lower interval of the thick-bedded sandstone
package of facies association 5 observed in the Cipamingkis River.
Naked boy for scale is kid. ........................................................................... 106
vii
Fig. 38. Very thick-bedded sandstones of facies association 5, which are
sharply underlain by slump deposits (arrow) observed in the Cileungsi
River. Figure circled for scale. ..................................................................... 106
Fig. 39. Highly bioturbated fine-grained sandstones of facies association 5
including Planolith ichnofacies. ................................................................... 107
Fig. 40. Type 5-A lithofacies representing intense bioturbation and
obliterated current-ripple cross-lamination in the Cipamingkis River.
Pencil = 15 cm. ............................................................................................. 107
Fig. 41. Climbing-ripple cross-lamination and overlaying parallel lamination
in the type 5-B lithofacies observed in the Cipamingkis River. ................... 108
Fig. 42. Sandy siltstones and overlaying sandstones of facies association 6
in the Cipamingkis River. Hammer = 30 cm. ............................................... 108
Fig. 43. A skeletal limestone bed with trough cross-stratification encased
within sandy siltstones of facies association 6 observed in the
Cipamingkis River. Scale = 10 cm. .............................................................. 109
Fig. 44. Thick-bedded limestones with local intercalations of calcareous
siltstones of facies association 7 observed in the Cileungsi River. Figure
circled for scale. ............................................................................................ 109
Fig. 45. Limestone cliff of the Klapanunggal Formation and the Cileungsi
River Valley observed from the Nanggareng area facing to the north. ........ 110
Fig. 46. Head coral boundstone of the Klapanunggal Formation observed in
the Cileungsi River in the Nambo area. Scale = 10 cm. ............................... 110
Fig. 47. Stratigraphic cross-section of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal
formations, illustrating lateral variation in thickness of the carbonate
rocks and an onlap termination pattern of the basal sandy siltstones of
the upper Jatiluhur Formation, which leveled out the undulating
topographic irregularity of the carbonate reefal deposits. The base of
reefal carbonate rocks is a sequence boundary, which separates the
underlying FSST deposits that are characterized by a prograding
succession of the lower–middle Jatiluhur Formation and the overlying
LST deposits of reefal carbonate and its correlative shelf-margin
viii
deposits that are considered to have developed in response to an early
rise in relative sea level. ................................................................................ 111
Fig. 48. Boundstone facies of carbonate horizon in the middle part of the
Jatiluhur Formation, which is sharply underlain by stratified skeletal
grainstone-packstone observed in Cileungsi River. Figure for scale. .......... 112
Fig. 49. Rudstone, characterized by poorly sorted, angular to sub-angular
rudite-fragments of facies association 7 observed in the Cileungsi River. ... 112
Fig. 50. Skeletal grainstone with prominent Cycloclypeus of facies
association 7 observed in the Cipamingkis River. Coin diameter = 2.6
cm. ................................................................................................................ 113
Fig. 51. Skeletal grainstone with prominent Lepidocyclina, showing an open
framework in the lower part that gradationally passes up into a close
framework observed in the Cipamingkis River. Pencil = 15 cm. ................. 113
Fig. 52. Cross-bedded packstone underlain by boundstone facies observed in
the Cileungsi River. Pencil = 15 cm. ............................................................ 114
Fig. 53. Siltstones intercalated with thin sandstone beds of the upper
Jatiluhur Formation, which show lithofacies features quite similar to
those of facies association 1 and abruptly overly the limestones of the
middle part in the Cipamingkis River. .......................................................... 114
Fig. 54. Panorama photograph illustrating geometry of the Klapanunggal
Formation limestone taken from the Cilalay area facing to the west ........... 115
Fig. 55. Massive limestone of the Klapanunggal Formation, with locally
intercalation of dark grey packstone facies observed in the Cilalay area.
Figure circled for scale. ................................................................................ 116
Fig. 56. Coral fragment of boundstone of the Klapanunggal Formation
observed in the Cileungsi River, Nambo area. ............................................. 116
Fig. 57. Autochthonous limestone of the Klapanunggal Formation,
characterized by well-cemented, sub-parallel arranged coralline crust
boundstone observed in the Nambo area. ..................................................... 117
Fig. 58. Clinoform of coral bioclastic limestone, indicating progradation of
a coral reef during relative sea-level stillstand observed in the Cilalay
area. ............................................................................................................... 118
ix
Fig. 59. Eustatic sea-level change and temporal variation in sediment
discharge during the Miocene as an allogenic framework for the
deposition of the Jatiluhur Formation. The diagrams are modified from
Miller et al. (2005), Westerhold et al. (2005), and Clift and Plumb
(2008). ........................................................................................................... 119
Fig. 60. Schematic reconstruction of a prograding slope–shelf succession of
the Jatiluhur Formation. The lower Jatiluhur Formation is thought to
have formed during a falling stage in relative sea level as a response to
high sediment influx from the hinterland during the middle Miocene.
The carbonates in the middle part of the formation developed during the
ensuing lowstand in relative sea level. FA 1–7 and Type 3-A and Type
3-B denote facies association described in the text. ..................................... 120
Fig. 61. Shoaling-up parasequences sets of carbonate reefs of the
Klapanunggal Formation as response to the stepped rising of relative
sea level during a lowstand stage observed in the Cilalay area. Figure
circled for scale. ............................................................................................ 121
Fig. 62. Major petrographic facies of the Jatiluhur Formation. (A)
Feldspathic arenite, (B) Feldspathic wacke, (C) Bioclastic grainstone,
and (D) Mixed bioclastic and siliciclastic detritus. ...................................... 121
Fig. 63. Classification of sandstones on the basis of three mineral
components: Quartz, feldspars, and total rock fragments. The term
arenite is restricted to sandstones essentially free of matrix (< 5%).
Sandstones containing matrix are wackes. The classification scheme is
from Dott (1964). .......................................................................................... 122
Fig. 64. Sample locations of sandstone samples for the petrographic
analyses. The dot line is the boundary between the middle and late
Miocene successions of the Jatiluhur Formation. ......................................... 122
Fig. 65. Petrographic features of the Jatiluhur Formation sandstones. (A)
The middle Miocene Jatiluhur Formation is commonly characterized by
grain-supported texture with quartz and feldspar, and less rock
fragments. (B) Muddy-matrix-supported texture of the late Miocene
x
Jatiluhur Formation sandstones, characterized by coarser grains with a
large number of plagioclase grains. .............................................................. 123
Fig. 66. Ternary plot diagram of detrital components from sandstones of the
Jatiluhur Formation based on the classification scheme of Dickinson et
al. (1983). (A) Quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments (Q, F, L). (B)
Monocrystalline quartz, feldspar, total lithic grains (Qm, F, Lt). Qt =
Total quartz (polycrystalline quartz + monocrystalline quartz); F =
Feldspar (K-feldspar + plagioclase); L = Rock fragment; Qm =
Monocrystalline quartz; Lt = Rock fragment + polycrystalline quartz. ...... 123
Fig. 67. Representative petrographic features of the late Miocene Jatiluhur
Formation sandstones. (A) Coarse-grained intraclasts are commonly
found within siliciclastic fragments. (B) Increased relative abundance of
glaucony and plagioclase. (C) Volcanic rock fragments. (D) Plagioclase
zoning. .......................................................................................................... 124
Fig. 68. Paleogeographic setting of the southern margin of the Sundaland
during the middle Miocene (after Martodjojo, 1993; Atkinson et al.,
1993; Purantoro et al., 1994). The study area was a slope–shelf system
that received clastic sediments mainly from the continent in the north. ...... 125
Fig. 69. Paleogeographic setting of the southern margin of the Sundaland
during the late Miocene (after Martodjojo, 1993; Atkinson et al., 1993;
Purantoro et al., 1994). Carbonate reefs of the Klapanunggal Formation
in the study area are thought to have developed as rimmed-reef
carbonate that developed in a shelf margin of the NW Java Platform
during an early rise in relative sea level. During the late Miocene time,
the northern part of the Bogor Trough may also have received some
volcanic materials directly or indirectly from the contemporaneous
volcanic provenances in the south. ............................................................... 126
Fig. 70. Fine-grained slump-scar-fill deposit of facies association 3 (Type 3-
A). (A) Lenticular geometry of slump-scar-fill deposits observed in the
Cipamingkis River. (B) Measured sections of the slump-scar-fill deposit
in A. Note intense bioturbation. 1–6 indicate locations of measured
sections in A. ................................................................................................. 127
xi
Fig. 71. Coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposit of facies association 3 (Type
3-B). (A) Lenticular geometry of coarse-grained, slump-scar-fill deposit
observed in the Cipamingkis River. (B) Measured sections of slump-
scar-fill deposit in A. Note multi stacking of coarse-grained lenticular
deposits and tractional structures. 1–6 indicate locations of measured
sections in A. ................................................................................................. 128
Fig. 72. Fine-grained sandstones of slump-scar-fill deposits that draped on
the surface of concave-up discordant observed in the Cipamingkis River,
underlain by interlaminated siltstone, sandy siltstone and fine-grained
sandstone. ...................................................................................................... 129
Fig. 73. Concave-up discordant surface below thick-bedded, fine-grained
sandstones of a slump-scar-fill deposit observed in the Cipamingkis
River. ............................................................................................................ 129
Fig. 74. Schematic illustration of the formative processes of a slope channel
from an initial seabed irregularity induced by a slump scar (A), through
type 3-A and type 3-B deposition (B–C), and finally to channel
formation and infilling (D–E) in the prograding slope–shelf succession
of the Jatiluhur Formation. ........................................................................... 130
Fig. 75. Comparison of thickness and width of slump-scar-fill deposits of
this study, compared with those of previously published examples. ............ 130
Fig. 76. Shallow-water carbonate-reefs of Klapanunggal Formation
observed in Pasir Cagak. ............................................................................... 131
Fig. 77. Schematic summary of allogenic control of the development of the
Jatiluhur Formation in the northern part of the Bogor Trough, mainly in
terms of the interaction between eustatic sea-level changes and basin
subsidence induced by loading of the volcanic massifs in the Southern
Mountains. .................................................................................................... 132
xii
List of tables
Table 1. Description and interpretation of carbonate facies in the middle
part of the Jatiluhur Formation ............................................................................ 133
Table 2. Comparison of major features of slump-scar-fill deposits and
channel-fill deposits in the lower part of the Jatiluhur Formation. ...................... 134
xiii
Abstract
This study intends to elucidate lithofacies and sequence architecture, initiation of
slope channel, and controlling factors of carbonate reef development in mixed
siliciclastic and carbonate deposits of the Jatiluhur Formation, in terms of the interaction
between eustasy, temporal variation in sediment discharge, and basin subsidence during
the middle to late Miocene in the northern part of the Bogor Trough, West Java. The
formation is characterized by moderately and locally intensely bioturbated siltstones
interbedded with very fine- to very coarse-grained sandstones, with local intercalations
of slump deposits, slump-scar-fill deposits, and channel-fill deposits in the lower part.
Intensely bioturbated sandy siltstones become dominant in the transitional horizon to
the carbonate-dominated middle part as well as in the horizon that contains skeletal
carbonate beds in the upper part. The limestone-dominated lithosome in the middle part
laterally changes into carbonate reef deposits (i.e. Klapanunggal Formation) to the north.
The lower and middle Jatiluhur Formation are interpreted to have formed in response to
overall southward progradation of a slope–shelf system during the middle Miocene, and
represent a falling stage system tract. The middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation and the
Klapanunggal Formation are overlain, in turn, by the upper part of the Jatiluhur
Formation, which is represented by lithofacies assemblages quit similar to the lower–
middle Jatiluhur Formation. The limestones in the middle part of the Jatiluhur
Formation and its age-equivalent Klapanunggal carbonate reef deposits were developed
in response to the ensuing early rise in relative sea level and represent a lowstand
systems tract. The base of the upper Jatiluhur Formation is thought to be a flooding
surface, and the initial deposition of the upper part may have been induced by an
ensuing rise of relative sea level as a response to active basin subsidence.
xiv
Petrographic features of the Jatiluhur Formation can be categorized into 4
petrographic facies: (F1) Feldspathic arenite, (F2) Feldspathic greywacke, (F3)
Limestone, and (F4) Mixed siliciclastic and carbonate. The framework composition
indicates that their major provenance was a continental source, that is, the Sundaland in
the north. This interpretation is also supported by the south- to southwestward-directed
paleocurrent data. The late Miocene deposits also suggest an additional supply of
volcanogenic sediments directly or indirectly from contemporaneous volcanic terranes
to the south and are characterized by glaucony, which suggests the decline in active
supply of siliciclastic sediments from the northern hinterlands. These petrographic
features are considered to have been in harmony with the development of carbonate
reefs.
Slump-scar-fill deposits generally show concave-up, lenticular geometry, with
around 180–460 m in width and 40–160 cm in maximum thickness. Although most of
these deposits are fine- to very fine-grained sandstones, some slump-scar-fill deposits
consist of medium- to coarse-grained sandstones with tractional structures and distinct
erosional bases. Together with the slump-scar-fill deposits, lenticular sandstone
packages of up to 3.6 m thick are also observed and are interpreted to be channel-fill
deposits. The incident link of coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposits and channel-fill
deposits in the prograding slope–shelf succession suggests that some slump scars
initiated seabed irregularities on a slope that may have played an important role in the
subsequent development of slope channels.
1
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
The geology of West Java (Fig. 1) has been investigated by many researchers since
the early 20th century. They, however, have discussed mainly regional-scale tectonic
and stratigraphic evolution of only a part of the Java Island and/or Indonesian
Archipelago (e.g., van Bemmelen, 1949; Baumann et al., 1973; Katili, 1975; Sujanto
and Sumantri, 1977; Hamilton, 1979; Martodjojo, 1984; 2003; Hall, 1996; 2002;
Clements and Hall, 2007; 2011), and also the practical implications of the datasets to
explorations of hydrocarbons and mineral deposits (e.g., Arpandi and Patmosukismo,
1975; Atkinson et al., 1993; Marcoux et al., 1993; Purantoro et al., 1994; Marcoux and
Milési, 1994; Milési et al., 1999; Rosana and Matsueda, 2002). In contrast, any
comprehensive study on sedimentology and genetic stratigraphy of the stratigraphic
successions, which should also be important for the exploration and development of oil
and gas in Indonesia, has not yet been conducted. In particular, outcrop-based studies on
three-dimensional (3D) lithofacies variations and sequence architecture should be
conducted for the better understanding of the evolution of the Java-Sunda arc-trench
system during the late Cenozoic.
In southern and southeastern Asia, a huge volume of sediment discharge, which is
interpreted to have responded to the intensification of monsoon-related precipitation
superimposed by active uplifting of the northern mountains, such as the Himalaya
Mountains, was identified during the early through the middle Miocene, and
2
subsequently declined during the late Miocene (Clift, 2006; Clift and Plum, 2008). At
the same time, this region was a part of the most extensive Cenozoic equatorial
carbonate development in the world, typified by extensive carbonate production in
shallow-marine seas (Wilson, 2002). The interaction of these two aforementioned
background geologic and paleoclimatic settings in and around the study area seems to
have been documented in the Neogene stratigraphic records of the region, including the
Neogene stratigraphic successions of the Bogor Trough, West Java.
The mixtures of carbonate and siliciclastic materials are observed in both modern
and ancient shallow-marine environments. Their stratigraphic records are characterized
by a successions that consists of limestones, sandstones, and mudstones, and commonly
formed in the middle and low latitude shelves (e.g., Mount, 1984; McNeill et al., 2004;
Lubeseder et al., 2009; Gischler et al., 2010). Mount (1984) identified four major
processes that are responsible for the mixing of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments: (1)
punctuated mixing, (2) facies mixing, (3) in situ mixing, and (4) source mixing.
Although the previous studies have documented spatial and temporal lithofacies
variations in the Neogene stratigraphic successions in West Java, on the basis mainly of
subsurface or surface mapping (e.g., Sudjatmiko, 1972; Effendi, 1974; Arpandi and
Patmosukismo, 1975; Burbury, 1977; Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977; Turkandi et al.,
1992; Achdan and Sudana, 1992; Atkinson et al., 1993; Purantoro et al., 1994;
Reksalegora et al., 1996 Posamentier et al., 1998; Martodjojo, 1984; 2003), the
interaction between temporal variation in sediment discharge, basin and hinterland
tectonics, and eustatic sea-level, and paleoclimatic fluctuation has not yet been
discussed elsewhere in terms of the wide spread development of carbonate factory
3
within a siliciclastic basin setting in the southwest Asia during the middle to late
Miocene.
During the Neogene, the Bogor Trough was the east–west elongated trough in the
central area of West Java, and was developed as a back-arc of an arc-trench system
along the southwestern margin of the Eurasian Plate (i.e., Sundaland), which has been
affected by the subduction of the Indian-Australian Plate to the north (Hall and Morley,
2004). This trough is considered to have received sediments from both continent crustal
materials in the north and volcanic-rich detritus in the south (Martodjojo, 1984; 2003;
Clements and Hall, 2007; 2011). In the northern part of the Bogor Trough, a continue
succession of Miocene mixed siliciclastic and carbonate deposits defined as the
Jatiluhur Formation is well exposed. The formation is well distributed from the
Purwakarta City area in the east to the Bogor City area in the west (Sudjatmiko, 1972).
In the study area, this formation represents the sediments delivered from the continent in
north as indicated by the south- to southwestward-directed paleocurrents. The internal
and external controlling factors, which should have been responsible for the
development of mixed siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks in the Bogor
Trough still remains controversial. A detailed observation of spatial and temporal
variations in lithofacies assemblages and in sequence architecture of the Miocene
Jatiluhur Formation can permit a better understanding of the interaction between
eustatic sea-level changes, temporal variation in sediment discharge, and tectonic
activity in the Bogor Trough in the development of a mixed siliciclastic and carbonate
sedimentary succession of up to 1000 m in thickness.
4
The aims of this study are (1) to clarify lithofacies organization and geometry of the
mixed siliciclastic and carbonate succession of the middle–late Miocene Jatiluhur
Formation; (2) to identify the external and internal controlling factors for the
development of the mixed siliciclastic and carbonate succession in terms of genetic
stratigraphy in response to the interaction between eustatic sea level fluctuation, tectonic,
and the supply of terrigenous clastic sediments; (3) to reconstruct the sequence
stratigraphic framework and a paleogeographic setting of the middle–late Miocene
Jatiluhur Formation; (4) to identify the processes of channel formation in a slope
setting; and (5) to clarify the provenance of sediments of the Jatiluhur Formation.
1.2. Research area and datasets
The selected study area is located some 25 km from Bogor City to the northeast,
and covers an area of about 20 km x 10 km (Figs. 2 and 3). The four major riverside
cliffs allow detailed observation of lithofacies successions of the Jatiluhur Formation
along the Cipamingkis, Cipatujah, Cileungsi and Cihowe Rivers. In the northwestern
part of the study area, the exposures of the carbonate reefs defined as the Klapanunggal
Formation are also well exposed in the cliffs of some riversides and a hill, especially in
a quarry area for cement industries, and also in several roadside cliffs.
All rivers in the study area have somewhat N–S orientation, crossing to the E–W
trending Miocene basin configuration, and the structural lineaments are induced by the
younger compression tectonic regime. The Jatiluhur Formation in the study area has
several key horizons that are defined by planktonic foraminifer zones and also by local
5
correlation of several turbiditic sandstone beds using the meandering of the rivers. In
addition to these key horizons, repetitive folding of the strata in the study area permits a
3D analysis of lithofacies variations within the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal Formations.
Sections totalling 4495 meters of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal Formations from
the four river sections and some roadside cliffs were measured and analyzed for
elucidating the three-dimensional (3D) variations in lithofacies associations and
sequence architecture of these formations. A complete set of each facies association in
very good quality exposures of the Jatiluhur Formation can be observed along the
Cipamingkis River, especially the geometry and internal organization of
slump-scar-infill deposits are well observed along the riverside cliffs of the river.
Although some additional good exposures can also be found in the other rivers, lateral
continuity of the outcrops is commonly limited, except for a few exceptional locations
along the Cileungsi River. Whole outcrops data analyzed in this study were collected
during four dry seasons from 2009 to 2012.
In general, the studied successions become older towards the south, and are
characterized by the east–west strike and dip to the north. The brief descriptions of
outcrop condition from the riverside and roadside cliffs are as follows: (1) the Cileungsi
River section located in the western area is represented by a continuous succession of
slope and shelf-margin deposits of up to 1025 m in thickness, (2) the Cipatujah River
section consists of two sections bounded by a fold axis attaining the total thickness of
810 m, (3) the Cipamingkis River section, in the central area of the studied succession
has the best exposure of lithofacies associations and provides a key section for the
lithofacies interpretation. There are 4 major sections in the Cipamingkis River, with
6
total thickness of up to 1200 m, and each section is bounded by fold axis and/or faults.
Key markers and biostratigraphic dating are well identified in the four sections and they
can be precisely correlated with each other, (4) the Cihowe River section in the eastern
part is the most difficult to access the outcrops. There are 3 sections with a total
thickness of up to 990 m, and each section is also bounded by folds and faults, (5) Some
composite sections are available from roadside cliffs and a river in the Nambo area,
where a complete section of carbonate reef deposits of the Klapanunggal Formation is
available in the northern part and siltstone dominated deposits, which are interbedded
with thick-bedded limestone and thin-bedded sandstone, are in the southern part of a
fold axis. The total thickness of both sections is up to 470 m.
Hand specimen samples were taken from the outcrops of the Jatiluhur and
Klapanunggal Formations for biostratigraphic and petrographic analyses. Because
biostratigraphic analyses for the foraminiferal zonation of the studied successions have
been conducted by previous researchers (e.g., Hardjawidjaksana, 1981; Nurani, 2010;
Zahara, 2012), and these studies covered sections of the whole study area, the present
study basically refers to the results of the previous works for the age determination of
the studied successions. A total of 12 samples were also selected for additional
biostratigraphic analyses in order to fill the gap of samples from the previous works,
especially additional samples from the Cipatujah and Cihowe river sections were
collected. The result of the additional analyses, however, cannot clearly reveal
well-defined datum markers except for the age zonation. Petrographic examination
using a polarizing microscope was conducted for petrofacies analyses of siliciclastic and
carbonate deposits. A total of more than 100 samples of siliciclastic and carbonate rocks
7
have been selected and prepared for identifying mineral composition and faunal features
by using a polarization microscope. But only 36 selected samples from sandstone beds
were examined for provenance study using modal analysis of the Gazzi-Dickinson
method.
1.3. Research contribution
As described above (in the section on the aims of this study), this research focused
basically on sedimentology and genetic stratigraphy of the middle–late Miocene
Jatiluhur Formation, for elucidating one type of variations of stratal formation in a
slope–shelf succession documented in the area, which covers the southern part of NW
Java Basin and the northern part of the Bogor Trough. The major outcomes of this study
are (1) clarification of one type of the formative processes of slope channels and (2)
clarification of possible external controlling factors, which may have been responsible
for the development of a carbonate factory in Java and its adjacent areas during the late
Miocene.
The practical use of continuous outcrop belts along riverside cliffs provides an
opportunity to conduct detailed observation and analyses of the geometry and formative
processes of slump-scar-fill deposits and channel-fill deposits in the slope environment.
This leads to the clarification of the incident link of incipient slope channel from seabed
irregularity. Some slump scars initiated irregularities on a slope that may have played an
important role in the subsequent development of slope channels. The present example
8
from a prograding succession of the Jatiluhur Formation can provide one type of
variations in channel formation in a slope setting.
The reef carbonate of the Klapanunggal Formation in the northwestern part of the
study area was developed in a shelf margin during late Miocene. It confirms that the
Neogene carbonate platform of the NW Java Basin is a rimmed shelf platform, where
the reefal carbonates of the Klapanunggal Formation (and other carbonates build-up
described from the subsurface data) were also rimmed reefs that were distributed along
the shelf-margin area of the Bogor Trough. The development of the Klapanunggal
Formation carbonate reefs in the study area is considered to have been a result of the
interaction between eustatic sea-level changes, temporal variation in sediment discharge
from the northern hinterlands, and basin subsidence. The Klapanunggal Formation
carbonate reefs are interpreted to have developed in response to an early rise in relative
sea level, which was likely induced by active tectonic subsidence superimposed on
gradual fall in eustatic sea level and the decrease in siliciclastic sediments discharges
from the northern hinterlands into the Bogor Trough. The continued rise in relative sea
level was the major control on the subsequent drowning of the Klapanunggal Formation
carbonate reefs. The rate of relative sea level rise likely exceeded the vertical
accumulation rate of carbonate.
The middle–late Miocene Jatiluhur Formation was commonly interpreted as a
nearly equivalent sedimentary succession of the Upper Cibulakan Formation, which
represents a subsurface lithostratigraphic unit in the NW Java Basin. The former widely
accepted interpretations of these formations are that (1) they are age-equivalent and (2)
they formed in a nearly equivalent depositional environment (e.g., Reksalegora et al.,
9
1996; Martodjojo, 2003). From the present study, it is clear that the sedimentary
succession of the Jatiluhur Formation can be divided into three parts (informally defined
as the lower, middle, and upper parts in this study) based on vertical changes in
dominate lithofacies associations and sequence-stratigraphic organization of the
succession. The lower part comprises mostly of slope deposits, characterized by
siltstone-dominated strata with local intercalations of thin-bedded sandstones, slump
deposits, slump-scar-fill deposits, channel-fill deposits and thick-bedded fine-grained
sandstones. The middle part represents the shelf-margin deposits that consist of sandy
siltstones intercalated with thin- to very thin-bedded sandstones and thick-bedded
limestone. The limestone-dominated horizon in the middle part of the Jatiluhur
Formation is a lateral facies equivalent to the shallow-marine carbonate reefs of the
Klapanunggal Formation to the north. The upper part of the Jatiluhur Formation is
typified by sandy siltstones, which are locally interbedded with sandstones and
limestone, and has lithofacies features quite similar to those of the uppermost part of the
lower part, and indicating a transgressive deposit. The whole succession of the Jatiluhur
Formation was formed in response to one cycle of relative sea level fall and rise in the
slope and shelf-margin environments. The middle Miocene Jatiluhur Formation is
overlain conformity by the late Miocene carbonate reefs of the Klapanunggal Formation,
which are mainly a source of limestone horizon in the middle part of the Jatiluhur
Formation.
The outcomes of this study also contribute to the refinement of a regional geologic
framework, because the study area is the ―bridge‖ between the NW Java Basin to the
north and the Bogor Trough to the south. This study clarified the boundary area between
10
the NW Java Basin and the Bogor Trough, which is assigned to a depositional setting
characterized by a slope–shelf-margin environment.
11
2. Geologic Setting of the Bogor Trough
2.1. Tectonic framework
The Jatiluhur Formation is one of the Neogene infill sediments of the Bogor Trough
that deposited mainly during the middle Miocene (Sudjatmiko, 1972; Sujanto and
Sumantri, 1977). It is the oldest sedimentary rock that is exposed in the study area, in
the northern part of the Bogor Trough, typified by siliciclastic and carbonate
sedimentary rocks (Sudjatmiko, 1972). The Bogor Trough was infilled mainly by thick
strata of deep-water volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks that were delivered from the south
and attain a maximum thickness of up to 7000 m (Martodjojo, 1984; 2003). However,
the nature and configuration of the basement has not yet been clearly defined, because
the seismic surveys have not yet penetrated into the basement due to a thick covering of
recent volcanic products and the underlying sedimentary rocks (Smyth et al., 2005).
The Bogor Trough lies on the southern margin of the Sundaland (Hall, 2002; Hall
and Morley, 2004). It is an accreted-assemblage of continental blocks on the southern
rim of the Eurasia plate (Metcalfe, 1996; 2011; Hall, 2011; 2012), and the Bogor
Trough was developed in a backarc setting during the early–late Miocene (Martodjojo,
1984; Hall and Morley, 2004), as a response to the volcanic arc loading (Waltham et al.,
2008) (Fig. 4). The Bogor Trough had initially formed as a forearc basin in response to
the incipient subduction of the Indian-Australian plate beneath the Eurasian plate along
the Sunda–Java Trench during the Eocene through Oligocene (Katili, 1975; Hall, 1996;
Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1998; Martodjojo, 2003). Since the Pliocene, the basin has been a
part of a volcanic arc in the Sunda–Java arc-trench system, and has been influenced by
12
an overall compressional tectonic regime that has been responsible for the formation of
the east–west trending thrust faults and fold axes (Martodjojo, 2003). The Sunda–Java
arc-trench system is an active subduction zone of the Indian-Australian plate and
Eurasian plate, which extends for about 5000 km (Hamilton, 1979).
Martodjojo (1984; 2003) defined the Bogor Trough as an area where the deep-water
deposition from sediment gravity flows occurred in West Java. The trough includes two
physiographic provinces, the Bogor and Bandung zones in the north, as defined by van
Bemmelen (1949), and a part of the Southern Mountains to the south. In West Java, the
northern boundary of the Bogor Trough and the NW Java Basin area is nearby Cibinong
in the west and in Purwakarta in the east, which trends parallel to the northern coastal
line of Java Island, while its southern boundary is located in an offshore of the Indian
Ocean. The Bogor Trough basically occupies a western part of the Bogor–North
Serayu–Kendeng Anticlinorium zone, which was a place of deep-water sedimentation
and intensively deformed during the Plio–Pleistocene convergent tectonic period. The
anticlinorium extends from the Rangkasbitung area in the western part of Java to the
Madura Strait, and to the south of Kangean Island in the east (Sujanto and Sumantri,
1977; Satyana and Armandita, 2004). The NW Java Basin area, which consists of
non-marine and shallow-marine sediment, and the Southern Mountains, an uplifted
mountain range of volcanic and carbonate deposits, are adjacent to the Bogor Trough in
the north and in the south, respectively. The trough-fill successions are overlain
elsewhere by Quaternary volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Figs. 5 and 6).
The Northwest Java Basin, to the north of the Bogor Trough, is a relatively stable
platform, where the N–S Paleogene old structural trends are well defined from seismic
13
sections as bounding faults of low and high blocks of a rift basin (Patmosukismo and
Yahya, 1974; Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977) (Fig. 6). The thickness of sedimentary rocks
in the deepest area of the rift is up to 4000 m (Arpandi and Patmosukismo, 1975), and
the rocks are characterized by Paleogene volcanic and fluvio-deltaic sediments in the
lower part, which was gradationally covered by the early Miocene carbonate defined as
the Baturaja Formation. The Neogene successions of the Northwest Java Basin consist
mainly of shelf to shallow-marine deposits of siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary
rocks. During the Miocene, when the Jatiluhur Formation was deposited, the boundary
of the Bogor Trough and the NW Java Basin is considered to have been defined by a
shelf–slope margin.
To the south, the uplifted region, which is known as the Southern Mountains (Fig.
6), is characterized by rugged topography and morphology with high reliefs, which are
structurally complex and are characterized by N–S-trending block faulting and E–
W-trending thrusting and folding. The Southern Mountains consist of Oligo–Miocene
volcanic materials, late Miocene littoral sediments, and Pliocene to Quaternary
pyroclastic materials (Baumann et al., 1973). The Oligo–Miocene volcanic deposits (the
Old Andesite Formation of van Bemmelen, 1949) are interpreted as the first geologic
signal of the development of the Later Paleogene/Early Neogene magmatic belt in Java
Island. The belt is relatively parallel with the southern coastal line, and was represented
by the subduction-related calc-alkaline volcanic rocks (Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1998;
Soeria-Atmadja and Noeradi, 2005). During the Miocene, the boundary between the
Southern Mountains and the Bogor Trough to the north is considered to have been
represented also by a slope dipping to the north.
14
2.2. Stratigraphy and age
The Jatiluhur Formation is the oldest sedimentary rocks, which is exposed in the
study area, even though some older lithostratigraphic units of the Neogene
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks are also commonly found farther to the south. The
Jatiluhur Formation is well exposed around the Purwakarta City area to the east and the
Bogor City area to the west, which have been covered elsewhere by Quaternary
siliciclastic and volcaniclastic deposits (Sudjatmiko, 1972; Effendi, 1974) (Fig. 7). The
formation was defined as a succession, which consists of interbedded quartz sandstone
and marl, siltstone, claystone, limestone, basalt and tuffaceous breccia (Sudjatmiko,
1972) , and was deposited during the middle Miocene (Sudjatmiko, 1972; Sujanto and
Sumantri, 1977). To the south, this formation is overlain by volcaniclastic succession of
the Cantayan Formation, while towards the north, it is overlain conformably by
carbonate reef deposits of the Klapanunggal Formation and marine shales of the Subang
Formation (Sudjatmiko, 1972; Effendi, 1974; Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977).
Two other names have been given to the succession, which is equivalent to the
Jatiluhur Formation: (1) the Upper Cibulakan Formation or the Cibulakan Formation
(Martodjojo, 1984, 2003), which has commonly been used as a subsurface
lithostratigraphic unit, and has been common and also a very important stratigraphic
unit in the NW Java Basin as a hydrocarbon-bearing formation (e.g., Arpandi and
Patmosukismo, 1975; Purantoro et al., 1994; Reksalegora et al., 1996; Martodjojo,
2003), and (2) the Annulatus Sedimentary Complex (van Bemmelen, 1949), which
represents the oldest strata exposed in the region between Bogor and Purwakarta.
15
Among geologists of the oil companies, especially those working in the Northwest
Java Basin, the Klapanunggal Formation in the study area is also well known as the
Parigi Formation. This formation developed during the late Miocene (Burbury, 1977;
Bukhari et al., 1992) on stable shallow-marine platforms as a buildup reef complex
associated with an adjacent paleohigh. The paleohigh is not necessarily correlated with
the older structure or basement highs (Burbury, 1977; Yaman et al., 1991). The Parigi
Formation is distributed both onshore and offshore, and has the general strike of N–S in
the north and that of NE–SW trend in the south with a maximum thickness of up to 450
m in the southern part (Yaman et al., 1991). To the north, this build-up of the reef
complex tends to have low relief and seems to have developed in an enclosed
environment, while in the south (onshore Java) the build-up developed higher relief,
which is characterized by carbonate with coral-algal frameworks (Yaman et al., 1991).
The outcrops of this formation are well observed not only in this study area, but also in
the Pangkalan area, Karawang, about 25 km to the east of the study area.
The Cantayan Formation is the youngest Neogene volcaniclastic turbidite
succession in the Bogor Trough, derived mainly from the southern volcanic islands, and
consists of claystone interbedded with thick- to very thick-bedded polymictic breccia
(Martodjojo, 2003). The breccia contains pebble- to boulder-sized fragments of igneous
rocks, sandstone, limestone and corals embedded within a medium to coarse-grained
sandstone matrix. The thickness of each breccia unit is 1–2 m (Martodjojo, 2003). This
formation is up to 675 m in maximum thickness as exposed in the Cicantayan River and
was deposited during the late Miocene (N16–N18) (Sudjatmiko, 1972; Sujanto and
Sumantri, 1977; Martodjojo, 2003).
16
The Subang Formation, which is also known as the Cisubuh Formation in the
subsurface lithostratigraphy, is characterized by thick bluish-grey to greenish-grey
calcareous-shale, which is overlain conformably by the carbonate of both the
Klapanunggal and Jatiluhur Formations. The thickness of the Subang Formation in the
Karawang area is 516 m, and the formation was deposited during the late Miocene
(Sudjatmiko, 1972; Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977; Martodjojo, 2003).
Cenozoic stratigraphic evolution in West Java was first discussed on the basis of
sedimentary rocks older than the middle Eocene (van Bemmelen, 1949; Schiller et al.,
1991; Martodjojo, 2003; Clements and Hall, 2007), which are exposed in the Ciletuh
Bay area, and represent the oldest sedimentary succession over the basement. The
middle Eocene sedimentary rocks are defined as the Ciletuh and Ciemas Formations
(Clements and Hall, 2011). The Ciletuh Formation is interpreted to have been deposited
in a deep-marine forearc setting, while the Ciemas Formation was deposited in a
relatively shallow-water environment, such as a shelf-edge environment (Clements and
Hall, 2007). Both the formations are closely exposed to each other in the same location,
possibly due to thrust-related dislocation of the formations (Clements et al., 2009).
The late Eocene sedimentary rocks in West Java are characterized by a
fluvio-deltaic succession of the Bayah Formation (Martodjojo, 2003; Clements and Hall,
2007). It consists of coarse-grained siliciclastic sediments deposited predominantly by a
fluvial system (Martodjojo, 2003; Clement and Hall, 2007). Martodjojo (2003)
interpreted that the Bayah Formation developed in a meandering fluvial system, but
Clement and Hall (2007) suggested that this formation was developed in a braided
fluvial system. The exposures of the Bayah Formation are distributed from the
17
Malingping area in the west to the Sukabumi area in the east, and have more than 1000
meters in total thickness (Clement and Hall 2007). Martodjojo (1984, 2003) interpreted
that this formation was underlain by a deep-marine accretionary succession defined as
the Ciletuh Formation as a result of overall regression over the accretional system in
West Java. The Bayah Formation is represented by an overall coarsening upwards trend,
and this trend is represented to have been a result of a progradation of a delta system to
the south (Clements and Hall, 2007).
The Bayah Formation is overlain unconformity by the late Oligocene succession of
the Batuasih Formation. The unit is characterized by a mudstone-dominated interval in
the lower part with interbeds of quartz sandstone, which passes upward into a marl- and
limestone-dominated interval in the upper part. The uppermost part of this formation
laterally intertongues with reef carbonate of the Rajamandala Formation (Martodjojo,
2003). Overall, the Paleogene successions in West Java are characterized by quartz-rich
sediments and these deposits are interpreted to have been delivered from the northern
continental provenances (Clements and Hall, 2011).
Martodjojo (1984) interpreted that there was a significant tectonic event between
Paleogene and Neogene in the Bogor Trough, and this event was indicated by the
distinct change in framework composition of sedimentary rocks from quartz-rich
Paleogene sediments derived mainly from the north to the unconformably overlying
turbiditic volcaniclastic-rich sediments, which were delivered from the southern
volcanic provenance. In the Jampang area (south Sukabumi), the proximal
volcaniclastic turbidites of the Early Miocene Jampang Formation unconformably
overlies the Bayah Formation.
18
The Citarum Formation, which is nearly age-equivalent to the Jampang Formation,
is typically characterized by distal volcaniclastic turbidites (Martodjojo, 2003). This
formation conformably overlies the carbonate reefs of the Rajamandala Formation in
both the Sukabumi and Rajamandala areas (Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977; Martodjojo,
2003). Consequently, the Neogene stratigraphic successions of the Bogor Trough and
the adjacent areas in West Java consist largely of volcaniclastic turbidites (Fig. 8).
These volcaniclastic turbidites are interpreted to have been derived from the southern
volcanic sources, which document the development of a calc-alkaline magmatic arc in
relation to the frontal subduction of the Indian-Australian Plate beneath the Eurasian
Plate along the Sunda–Java Trench (Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1998; Soeria-Atmadja and
Noeradi, 2005).
The Neogene volcaniclastic succession of the Bogor Trough seems to prograde
towards the north due to thrusting (Martodjojo, 2003; Clements et al., 2009). The
Cantayan Formation, to the south of the study area, is the youngest volcaniclastic
turbidite in the Bogor Trough that sourced from the south.
19
3. Prograding Slope–Shelf Succession
3.1. Lithology and structures
The siliciclastic and carbonate succession of the Jatiluhur Formation in the study
area is up to 1000 m thick and is represented by moderately and locally intensely
bioturbated siltstones interbedded with very fine- to very coarse-grained sandstones in
the lower part. Sandy siltstones become dominant in the horizon that makes passage into
the carbonate-dominated middle part, and also in a horizon that contains skeletal
carbonate beds in the upper part of the formation (Fig. 9).
In the lower part of the formation, siltstone-dominated deposits are locally
interbedded with slump deposits, slump-scar-fill deposits, channel-fill deposits, and
thick- to very thick-bedded fine-grained sandstones. Slump deposits are very well
exposed in the Cipamingkis River, where the deposits formed in a lower-slope
environment, while slump-scar-fill deposits and channel-fill deposits are well observed
in the upper slope deposits in the northern area. Thick-bedded sandstones can be found
in all river sections in the study area (Fig. 10).
In the middle part of the formation, the succession consists of sandy siltstone
intercalated with siltstones, thin- to very thin-bedded sandstones, and thick-bedded
limestone. This limestone-dominated horizon passes laterally into siltstones that contain
slump deposits and slump- scar-fill deposits towards the south. To the north, this
horizon is characterized by thick reef carbonate of the Klapanunggal Formation up to
240 m thick (as measured in the Nambo area) or more (Effendi, 1974). The
thick-bedded limestone in the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation represents a
20
thickening- and shallowing-upward pattern, which was abruptly overlain by laminated
sandy siltstones interbedded with sandstones and limestone of the upper part of the
formation (Figs. 3 and 10).
The slump deposits progressively become thicker towards the south and thin out
towards the north. Slump-scar-fill-deposits are more common in the upper horizons of
the lower part of the formation in the northern area (Fig. 11). Together with the
channel-fill deposits, the slump-scar-fill deposits are seated in the updip of the same
horizons of the slump deposits in the lower slope deposits. Thick-bedded sandstones are
commonly found in the lower part of the succession in the downslope area.
The siltstone-dominated strata in the lower part of the formation pass up
gradationally into sandy siltstones of the middle part of the formation. This
coarsening-upward succession is interpreted to have formed in response to the overall
southward progradation of a slope–shelf system during the middle Miocene. The
carbonate horizon in the middle part and carbonate reefs of the Klapanunggal Formation
were formed by the ensuing rise in relative sea level, which was followed by
subsequence transgression of the upper part of the formation. The prograding slope–
shelf succession of Jatiluhur Formation in the southern margin of Sundaland may have
occurred during the middle Miocene through the earliest late Miocene.
Paleocurrents data were also collected during fieldwork and were subsequently
analyzed. The dominant paleocurrent directions in the study area were toward the south
and southwest based on the measurement of the inclination of lamina- and
bedding-planes of current-ripple cross-lamination and cross-bedding, and restored
21
trends of parting lineation of fine- to very fine-grained, parallel-laminated sandstones
(Fig. 9).
3.2. Biostratigraphic analyses
Biostratigraphic analyses of the Jatiluhur Formation in this study area have been
conducted independently by previous researchers (e.g., Hardjawidjaksana, 1981; Nurani,
2010; Zahara, 2012). Nurani (2010) studied planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy of
the formation along the Cipamingkis River, and Hardjawidjaksana (1981) and Zahara
(2012) also did biostratigraphic studies of the formation in the Cileungsi River and a
part of the Klapanunggal Formation in the north of the present study area. Planktonic
foraminifera are commonly found in the Jatiluhur Formation in the Cileungsi and
Cipamingkis rivers, and several datums (N12–N16) were defined on the basis of some
distinctive species, such as Globorotalia siakensis, Globorotalia fohsi, Globorotalia
acostaensis and Globigerinoides subquadratus (van Gorsel, 1988) (Fig. 12). In contrast,
any datum has not been clearly defined in the formation exposed along the Cipatujah
and Cihowe rivers. On the basis of the datums, a prograding slope–shelf succession of
the Jatiluhur Formation in the studied area is interpreted to have been deposited during
the latest middle Miocene–earliest late Miocene (N12–N16). Together with the
planktonic foraminiferal zonation, several key horizons, which are defined by local
correlation of turbiditic sandstone beds, were used for the correlation of measured
sections of the Jatiluhur Formation in the study area (Fig. 10).
22
The Jatiluhur Formation in the study area is interpreted to be equivalent to the
Cibulakan Formation in the Karawang areas, about 25 km northeast of the study area
(Martodjojo, 2003), or the Upper Cibulakan Formation of the subsurface
lithostratigraphic unit of the NW Java Basin (Arpandi and Patmosukismo, 1975;
Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977) (Fig. 8). The Upper Cibulakan Formation in the NW Java
Basin is considered to have formed during the N12–N15 of the planktonic foraminifera
zones of Blow (1969, 1979) (van Gorsel, 1988) and the NN4–NN9 of the calcareous
nannoplankton zones of Martini (1971) (Reksalegora et al., 1996).
3.3. Facies associations and depositional environments
A prograding slope–shelf succession of the Jatiluhur Formation shows distinct
lithofacies variations along both the depositional-strike and depositional-dip directions
(Fig. 10). Siltstone-dominated strata intercalated with thin- to medium-bedded
sandstones, with local associations of slump deposits, slump-scar-fill deposits,
channel-fill deposits, and thick- to very thick-bedded sandstones in the lower part pass
up gradationally into a siltstone- and sandy siltstone-dominated succession, which is
intercalated with very thin- to thin beds of sandstone and limestone. In general, slump
deposits are not laterally continuous along the depositional-strike direction and are most
commonly found in the Cipamingkis River section, where the thickest slump deposits
developed downdip (Figs. 10 and 11). In association with the slump deposits, slump
scars are also commonly observed updip in the Cipamingkis River section (Fig. 11).
Together with the slump deposits and slump-scar-fill deposits, seven major lithofacies
23
associations were identified, on the basis of their grain size, sedimentary structures,
composition, and geometry (Fig. 13).
3.3.1. Facies association 1: Siltstone and sandy siltstone
Description: This facies association hosts the slumps and slump-scar-fill deposits in the
Jatiluhur Formation. It is dominated by moderately and locally intensely bioturbated
siltstones. They gradationally coarsen upwards into sandy siltstones in a horizon that is
transitional to the overlying carbonate-dominated, middle part of the formation. Benthic
foraminiferal faunas found in the siltstones indicate a bathyal environment (Nurani,
2010; Zahara, 2012). Overall, siltstones are intercalated with very coarse-grained silt
and very fine-grained sand laminae (Figs. 14–17) and also with very fine- to
medium-grained sandstones (beds 2–10 cm thick) (Figs. 16–17). The intercalated
sandstone beds commonly show a lenticular geometry and internally contain the Bouma
Tab, Tbc, and Tc divisions (cf. Bouma, 1962). The thickness and frequency of
intercalated sandstone beds increase upsection in the lower Jatiluhur Formation. The
sandy siltstones are commonly intensely bioturbated and their internal structures, such
as intercalation of sandy laminae and very thin-bedded sandstones, are destroyed in the
upper part of the lower Jatiluhur Formation.
Interpretation: The siltstones of facies association 1 are interpreted to represent a
background sedimentation in a bathyal environment, and to have developed as
hemipelagites, although some of them possibly formed as turbiditic siltstones (e.g.,
Piper and Stow, 1991; Stow and Tabrez, 1998). The intercalated sandstone laminae and
beds can be interpreted as deposits from turbidity currents, and the lenticular geometry
24
of sandstone beds can indicate that these sandy deposits may have been trapped in
depressions in a slope environment. Overall coarsening- and thickening-upward patterns
of intercalated sandstones upsection, in association with the upward increase in sandy
siltstones compared with siltstones, are interpreted to be a response to progradation of a
slope–shelf-margin system to the south.
3.3.2. Facies association 2: Slump deposits
Description: This facies association characterizes the lower Jatiluhur Formation, and is
most commonly observed along the Cipamingkis River (Figs. 10 and 11). The
lithologies involved in slumps are mainly those of facies associations 1. The thickness
of slump deposits varies between 0.5 and 70 m, and increases in the downdip direction
to the south. In contrast, the slump deposits thin updip, and also to both the east and
west (Fig. 10). This facies association contains folded muddy deposits, in local
association with low-angle reverse faults and internal discordant surfaces (Figs.18–20).
The original bedding and sedimentary structures of the component deposits are well
preserved, except for local pinching out of sandstone beds. The folded muddy deposits
show sharp contacts with the underlying and overlying host deposits of facies
association 1 and also locally with facies association 5 deposits.
Interpretation: The folded muddy deposits of facies association 2 can be classified as
slump deposits formed by the mass-transport of semi-consolidated muddy deposits on
an unstable seafloor, such as in a slope setting (e.g., Maltman, 1994; Strachan, 2008;
Oliveira et al., 2009). Internal discordances can correspond to the basal slide planes of
single mass-transport deposits that stack to build large mass-transport complexes.
25
Alternatively, they coincide with slip planes, which may have formed under the
compressional stress regime that usually develops in the toe of a larger-scale,
mass-transport complexes.
3.3.3. Facies association 3: Slump-scar-fill deposits
Description: Facies association 3 deposits are typically found updip from the slump
deposits of facies association 2 (Figs. 10 and 11), and represent an overall concave-up
lenticular geometry (Fig. 21). Good exposures of this facies association are observed in
the Cipamingkis River section. The infill deposits are 0.4–1.6 m thick, and extend
laterally for 460 m or more. The contact into underlying strata represents discordance
basal surfaces (Fig. 22). The deposits can be classified into two major types (Types 3-A
and 3-B). Type 3-A is represented by intensely bioturbated very fine-grained sandstones
and silty sandstones, and does not show any distinct original physical sedimentary
structures (Figs. 23–25). Coarse-grained skeletal fragments are locally scattered and do
not show any preferred orientation in the type 3-A deposits.
Type 3-B is characterized by slightly normally graded coarse-grained sandstones
with mud clasts in the lower part, which is overlain by interbedded medium- and
coarse-grained sandstones with gently inclined (up to 12° to the southeast) stratification,
cross bedding, and local intercalations of shallow-marine molluscan shell fragments in
the middle part, and finally by structureless coarse-grained sandstones in the upper part
(Figs. 26 and 27). Although the type 3-A sandstones show sharp contacts with the
surrounding muddy deposits of facies association 1 on both the basal and upper surfaces,
sharp discordant surfaces parallel to the base of sandstones are also observed in the
26
underlying muddy deposits within a zone of 1–10 cm interval below the base of
sandstones (Fig. 28), and these discordant surfaces are generally sealed by thin
mudstone streaks (Fig. 29). In contrast, the base of the type 3-B sandstones is erosional
(Fig. 30), and locally incises 10–20 cm or more into the underlying muddy deposits to
erode away any discordant surfaces. The type 3-B sandstones also developed locally on
the type 3-A sandstone with erosional basal surfaces (Fig. 31)
Interpretation: The lenticular geometry of both the type 3-A and 3-B sandstones
reflects the infills of depressions in a slope environment. Because facies association 3
represents a deposit, which formed mainly updip of the slump deposits of facies
association 2, these depression are interpreted to have formed as slump scars (e.g., Laird,
1968; Clari and Ghibaudo, 1979; Shultz et al., 2005). The discordant surfaces
underlying the sandstones are thought to represent slip faces, which may have formed
when the depression developed. Alternatively, the discordant surfaces may represent
secondary mass movement after the deposition of the sandstones in the depression under
an unstable slope condition.
Intense bioturbation in the type 3-A sandstones may indicate slow sedimentation in
the depressions by turbidity currents, and may also have destroyed evidence of multiple
sedimentation events in the depressions. In contrast, locally observed erosional basal
surfaces of the type 3-B sandstones indicate active erosion of the surface of the
developing depression by turbidity currents, which may have been more energetic than
those depositing the type 3-A sandstones. Locally observed, gently inclined bedding
may represent lateral accretion surfaces in an incipient sinuous channel (e.g., Wynn et
al., 2007) that formed in the depression. Alternatively, this inclined bedding may be
27
associated with bars formed in a less sinuous channel (e.g., Hein and Walker, 1982).
Although migration of bedforms can also develop cross stratification, the present cross
stratification is defined by a flat upper surface and does not show any evidence of the
migration of bedforms. Locally observed erosional basal surfaces of the type 3-B
sandstones over the type 3-A sandstones indicate that more energetic currents associated
with the type 3-B deposits may have created a secondary depression, which was
subsequently transformed into a slope channel.
3.3.4. Facies association 4: Channel-fill deposits
Description: This facies association is exclusively found encased in muddy deposits of
facies association 1, and is identified only in the Cipamingkis River section. It is
composed of interbedded coarse-grained sandstones and very coarse-grained sandstones
in the lower part with trough cross- and planar-bedded sedimentary structures (Figs. 32
and 33). Intercalations of mud clasts and discontinuous thin mudstone strata (up to 3 cm
thick) are also locally observed in the lower part. Medium- to fine-grained sandstones
(beds 20–35 cm thick) with current-ripple cross-lamination (Fig. 34), which locally pass
upward into siltstone lenses, characterize the middle and upper parts. The maximum
thickness of this package is 360 cm, and it shows an overall fining-upward pattern in the
uppermost 100 cm, and passes gradationally upward into the muddy deposits of facies
association 1. The base of the package is sharp or locally erosional, and burrows are
commonly observed in its middle and upper parts. The package also shows an overall
concave-up basal surface, which is quite similar to that of the slump-scar-fill deposits
(Fig. 35).
28
Interpretation: Together with the overall lenticular geometry of the package, the
erosional basal surface and fining-upward pattern in the upper part suggest a channel-fill
deposit (e.g., Mutti and Normark, 1991). Multiple stacking of sandstone beds and
distinct bioturbation in the middle and upper parts, in association with siltstone lenses,
suggest that the package formed in response to multiple depositional events by turbidity
currents, with interviewing slack stages. Alternatively, the siltstone intercalations and
burrowing are interpreted to have formed in response to lateral accretion of point bars in
a submarine channel, although gently inclined bedding is not clearly identified in the
limited outcrops.
3.3.5. Facies association 5: Thick-bedded sandstones
Description: This association is composed of fine- to very-fine grained sandstones and
intercalated siltstones, although medium-grained sandstones also locally occur. These
deposits form packages of 1.3–11.5 m thick (Fig. 36), and each package shows inverse
and normal grading in its lower and upper parts (Fig. 37). The basal and upper contacts
with the surrounding muddy deposits of facies association 1 are typically gradational,
except for some sharp contacts with the slump deposits of facies association 2 (Fig. 38).
Internally, this association can be classified into two types (Types 5-A and 5-B). Type
5-A sandstones are intensely bioturbated with Planolites-, Diplocraterion-,
Ophiomorpha-, and Thalassinoides-type burrows (Fig. 39), and generally lack distinct
sedimentary structures, except for locally observed current-ripple cross-lamination in
the upper part. Furthermore, siltstone lenses (1 cm thick) are also found locally in the
type 5-A sandstones (Fig. 40). In contrast, the type 5-B sandstones show distinct
29
sedimentary structures, such as current-ripple cross-lamination, climbing-ripple
cross-lamination, and parallel lamination (Fig. 41). These sedimentary structures are
better developed in the middle part of sandstone packages. Overall, current-ripple
cross-lamination indicates southward-directed paleocurrents.
Interpretation: The gradational basal and upper contacts, inverse-to-normal grading,
and tractional sedimentary structures of the sandstone packages of facies association 5
indicate an overall increase-to-decrease in flow velocities in association with
intermittent multiple depositional events, which may have been influenced by
fluctuating bottom currents (e.g., Stow et al., 2002; Martin-Chivelet et al., 2008; Stow
and Faugères, 2008). Intense bioturbation is also considered to be one of the diagnostic
features of long-term bottom current activity in a deep-water environment (e.g., Wetzel
et al., 2008). Alternatively, because the dominant paleocurrents derived from
current-ripple cross-lamination show downslope direction in the south and do not
necessarily indicate a contour-current pattern, the inverse-to-normal grading in the
packages may also have been influenced by sustained, flood-related discharges of
turbidity currents (i.e., hyperpycnal flows) in a slope environment (e.g., Mulder et al.,
2003; Zavala et al., 2011).
3.3.6. Facies association 6: Sandy siltstones intercalated with skeletal limestones
Description: This facies association is represented by sandy siltstones, which are
intercalated with very thin- to thin-bedded, very fine- to fine-grained sandstones with
parallel and current-ripple cross-laminations, which are commonly intensely bioturbated
to the point that their finer structures are destroyed (Fig. 42). Locally, sandy siltstones
30
also contain skeletal limestone beds (beds up to 35 cm thick) with silt and very fine- to
fine-grained sand matrix. The skeletal limestone beds are graded, and locally show
trough cross-stratification in the lower part of single beds (Fig. 43). Sandy siltstones
also locally show hummocky cross-stratification.
Interpretation: Intense bioturbation is common in a shallow-marine environment (e.g.,
de Raaf et al., 1977; Plint, 2010), and the intercalated skeletal limestone beds were
probably formed by storm-related currents. Locally observed hummocky
cross-stratification also suggests the deposition under oscillatory-dominated,
combined-flow conditions in a shallow-marine environment (e.g., Cheel and Leckie,
1993). Trough cross-bedding in the basal part of skeletal limestone beds, together with
parallel- and current-ripple cross-laminations in sandstone interbeds, indicate that the
deposition of sandstone and skeletal limestone beds may have occurred under
unidirectional currents in a shallow-marine environment (e.g., Snedden and Nummendal,
1991). Because facies association 6 represents a transitional horizon between facies
associations 1 and 7, these deposits may alternatively be interpreted as having formed in
a shelf-margin environment.
3.3.7. Facies association 7: Limestone and interbedded calcareous siltstones
Description: Facies association 7 is characterized by the combination of four different
types of limestones, which locally contain calcareous siltstones or are encased in thicker
calcareous siltstones (Fig. 44). To the north of the studied area, a thicker limestone
succession (the Klapanunggal Formation) of up to 240 m in thickness developed (as
measured in the Nambo area) (Figs.45–47). On the basis of the foraminiferal
31
biostratigraphy of the middle–late Miocene successions in the Bogor Trough
(Hardjawidjaksana, 1981; Martodjojo, 1986), the Klapanunggal Formation is considered
to be age-equivalent to the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation, which is represented
by the facies association 7 deposits. Following the classification scheme of Dunham
(1962) and Embry and Klovan (1971), the limestones of facies association 7 are: (A)
boundstone, (B) bioclastic rudstone, (C) bioclastic grainstone, and (D) bioclastic
packstone (Figs. 48–51; table 1). In general, the four types of limestones develop
successions from bioclastic grainstone, through bioclastic packstone and rudstone, to
boundstone, followed in turn, by a reverse succession from bioclastic packstone and
rudstone to bioclastic grainstone. Locally, bioclastic grainstone and packstone show
trough cross-bedding, current-ripple cross-lamination, and parallel lamination (Fig. 52).
Away from the Klapanunggal Formation in the north, the thickness and grain size of the
limestones and the relative abundance of boundstone decrease, and limestones start to
be intercalated in calcareous siltstones, which gradationally overlie the intensely
bioturbated, sandy siltstones of facies association 6. The calcareous siltstones are also
intensely bioturbated and locally contain molluscan shell fragments and sandstone beds
(beds 1–3 cm thick). Facies association 7 deposits and the limestone succession of the
Klapanunggal Formation are overlain by siltstones intercalated with very thin-bedded
sandstones, which have lithological features quite similar to those of facies association 6,
and a sharp basal contact (Fig. 53).
Interpretation: The combination of autochthonous and allochthonous limestones and
the succession from allochthonous, through autochthonous, and back to allochthonous
limestones in facies association 7 indicate that some part of the facies association 7
32
deposits, in particular those which are close to the Klapanunggal Formation, formed as a
carbonate reef or shoal in a shallow-marine environment (e.g., Tucker and Wright,
1990; James et al., 1999; Schlager, 2005). Locally observed sedimentary structures in
allochthonous limestones indicate erosion and subsequent transportation of carbonate
fragments by currents and/or waves in a shallow-marine environment. The highly
bioturbated calcareous siltstones were most likely deposited on a subtidal shelf or in a
lagoonal environment (e.g., Pratt, 2010).
3.4. Klapanunggal carbonate reef
The late Miocene carbonate of the Klapanunggal Formation is well observed in the
northwestern part of the study area (Figs. 3 and 10). It is well exposed in riverside and
roadside cliffs in the Nambo area, and massive rugged topography reaching the
maximum height of over 100 m or more are developed in the Cilalay area. Locally, the
margin of the formation is defined by fault escarpment in the Leuwikaret area (Figs. 45
and 54). Logged sections have been commonly obtained in the Nambo area, because the
outcrops in this area gently dip and continuous outcrop belts, which have locally been
affected by a fold under the youngest E–W compressional tectonic regime in the
southern Nambo area, are available along the riverside and roadside cliffs. The dip of
bedding surfaces of the carbonate succession varies from nearly horizontal to 30º in the
Nambo area, and the dip directions are considerably variable between the locations.
The Klapanunggal Formation is considered to have formed as carbonate reefs,
which are characterized mainly by thick and massive reefal limestone with large
33
foraminifers and other types of shell fragments, such as mollusks and echinoderms
(Effendi, 1974). The formation is well exposed in the areas of Nambo, Klapanunggal,
Gunung Karang, and Leuwikaret, and its distribution covers an area of more than 42
km2 (Fig. 3). This carbonate formation conformably overlies the Jatiluhur Formation in
the study area, and also represents a lateral facies equivalent with late Miocene
carbonate-dominated horizon in the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation. The reefal
carbonate of the Klapanunggal Formation is surrounded by sandy siltstones interbedded
with very thin-bedded sandstones and thick-bedded limestones of the middle Jatiluhur
Formation in the western part of the study area, and is covered unconformably by the
Quaternary deposits elsewhere.
The development of the Klapanunggal carbonate reefs took place mostly during the
late Miocene (Sujanto and Sumantri, 1977; Burbury, 1977; Martodjojo, 1996; Yaman et
al., 1991) at the shelf margin of the NW Java platform. In general, the carbonate is
characterized by faintly bedded massive limestone that consists of coral boundstone and
rudstone, skeletal-rich grainstone, and locally dark grey wackestone and packstone (Figs.
55–57). The thickness of this formation is up to 500 m (van Bemmelen, 1949)
(Effendi, 1974). The outcrops of the Klapanunggal carbonate reefs constitute high
rugged topography, except for some locations in the Nambo area.
A complete measured succession of the Klapanunggal Formation at the Nambo area
is up to 240 m in thickness. This formation shows a sharp contact to the underlying
sandy siltstones intercalated with thin-bedded sandstones of the uppermost lower
Jatiluhur Formation and is overlain by sandy siltstones with a sharp contact, which is
the equivalent to the upper Jatiluhur Formation.
34
The lowermost part of the Klapanunggal Formation is characterized by thick,
faintly bedded skeletal grainstone of up to 40 m thick, and passes upward gradationally
into a faintly bedded thick platy coral-dominated boundstone with local concentration of
head coral, and finally passes up into the middle part of the formation. The middle part
of the Klapanunggal Formation is characterized by thin dark grey muddy limestone that
grades upward gradationally into platy coral- and/or head coral-dominated boundstone
and, in turn, farther into dark grey mudstone or wackestone, indicating a
shoaling-upward pattern.
The external configuration of the reefal carbonate of the Klapanunggal Formation,
in general, is difficult to be recognized in the field due to the combination of vegetation
covers and intensely weathered surface, except in some parts as in the Cilalay area that
represents a lateral extension of coral bioclastic distribution towards the north (Fig. 58).
This feature is interpreted to have been formed when the carbonate developed laterally
due to currents during a relative stillstand of sea level (e.g., Vail et al., 1977).
The overlying sandy siltstones have a fining- and thinning-upward pattern of a
50-m-thick interval with intercalations of 2 beds of bioclastic carbonate, and was finally
completely covered with deeper siltstone-dominated deposits (see Appendix, log section
E). The intercalated beds of bioclastic carbonate (grainstone) are 3.1 m and 0.5 m in
thickness and contain Cycloclypeus-dominated skeletal fragments.
35
3.5. Sequence stratigraphy
The various sedimentary rocks of up to 1000 m thick of the Jatiluhur Formation in
the study area, which are composed of a mixed siliciclastic and carbonate deposits of
the slope–shelf system, can be interpreted to have formed in response to a single relative
sea level cycle. Log sections of the Jatiluhur Formation in the study area represent a
time span between the N12–N16 planktonic foraminiferal zones and the duration was
approximately 3.7 million years. Thus, the one depositional cycle is classified as a
third-order stratigraphic cycle in terms of Vail et al. (1991). Although the base of the
Jatiluhur is not exposed in the study area, the succession clearly depicted a shallowing
upward in the lower–middle parts of the formation, which were overlain, in turn, by a
deeper succession of the upper part of the formation as a response to fall and rise in
relative sea level. The lower–middle part of Jatiluhur Formation is characterized by a
prograding siltstone-dominated slope and shelf-margin successions, while the upper part
is typified by a transgressive siltstone-dominated shelf-to-slope succession.
The lower–middle Jatiluhur Formation represents an overall shallowing-upward
succession of slope and shelf-margin siliciclastic deposits and the overlying
shallow-marine carbonate with the total thickness of up to 700 m. The overall
shallowing-upward succession is considered to have formed as a response to the
southward progradation of a slope–carbonate-shelf system (to the Bogor Trough)
developed at the southern margin of the Sundaland during the middle to late Miocene.
Being a shelf succession, it lacks any indications of fluvial incision. The progradation
may have occurred during a highstand stage (i.e., normal regression in the sense of
Posamentier et al., 1992).
36
Alternatively, the succession may have been formed in a broad, low-gradient shelf
unaffected by fluvial incision and it was developed in response to the creation of
subaerial accommodation space (Woolfe et al., 1998). This type of physiographic
setting may develop during falling and lowstand stages of a relative sea level, when the
slope of the exposed shelf is lower than that of the surrounding river valleys (e.g., Miall,
1992; Schumm, 1993). During the middle–late Miocene, the boundary between the deep
sea of the Bogor Trough and the shelf of the NW Java Basin was characterized by the
deposition of sandy siltstones strata of the middle part of the formation that formed in a
shelf-margin environment. Paleogeographic reconstruction of the middle–late Miocene
reveals that the Miocene shelf was wide and had a very low gradient. In combination
with an overall fall in eustatic sea level during the middle–late Miocene (ca. 13–9 Ma),
as proposed by previous reserachers (e.g., Miller et al., 2005; Westerhold et al., 2005)
(Fig. 59), the progradational succession of the lower–middle Jatiluhur Formation can be
interpreted as having formed in response to an overall forced regression during a falling
stage of a relative sea level. This period was represented by slope and shelf-margin
deposits that consist of siltstone-dominated lithofacies association 1 and its local
association facies (slump deposits, slump-scar-fill deposits, channel-fill deposits, and
thick- to very thick-bedded sandstones) belonging to the lithofacies associations of 2, 3,
4, and 5, respectively (Fig. 60).
Although shallowing-up of parasequence sets are not well observed within the
falling stage systems tract deposits, a gradual change from siltstone-dominated lower
interval into sandy siltstone-dominated upper interval indicates an increase in sediment
supply to the deep-marine settings (e.g., Hunt and Tucker, 1992; Helland-Hansen and
37
Gjelberg, 1994; Plint and Nummedal, 2000) before it was overlain latter by the
carbonate-dominated middle part of the formation. The aforementioned interpretation is
in line with the results of previous biostratigraphic studies that also revealed a
shallowing-up event as indicated clearly from faunal analyses of benthic foraminifera in
the lower part of the Jatiluhur Formation. The analyses clarified a bathymetric change
from bathyal to shelf environments (Zahara, 2012).
A bounding surface, which was formed at the lowest point of relative sea level has
been defined as a sequence boundary (i.e., unconformity), and its correlative conformity
is commonly formed within a marine environment to define that of a marine
stratigraphic surface between the falling-stage and lowstand systems tracts (sensu Hunt
and Tucker, 1992). In the case of the Jatiluhur Formation, the correlative conformity can
be assigned to the base of limestone-dominated horizon in the middle part of the
formation. Therefore, even during the lowest relative sea level stage, the study area was
a marine realm where the forced regressive shoreline did not fall below the shelf edge of
the NW Java Basin.
For the development of the carbonate deposits in the midle part of the formation,
togeher with the build-up of reefal carbonate of the Klapanunggal Formation, new
creation of accommodation space may have been required. Consequently, a rise in
relative sea level for the creation seems to have occurred after the forced regression, and
the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation is considered to represent a lowstand systems
tract (sensu Plint and Nummedal, 2000).
In the measured section of the Klapanunggal Formation carbonate reef, stacking of
shoaling-upward cycles in the middle part of the formation are thought to represent a
38
parasequence that formed as a result of repetition of the cycles in relative sea level
changes, generally in an order of 20,000 to 50,000 years (e.g., Tucker and Wright, 1990).
Although the thickness of the parasequence varies, it is commonly more than 15 m, and
their upper most parts is represented by thick-bedded platy coral boundstone
interbedded with head coral dominated boundstone. Each parasequence is interpreted as
a product of aggrading carbonate sedimentation in response to stepped rise in relative
sea level in association with shorter still stand stages. Relative sea-level rise is thought
to have been initially very rapid and the reef growth kept pace then with the rise.
The thickening-upward patterns of limestone beds in the middle part of the
Jatiluhur Formation and the shoaling-up parasequence sets of the Klapanunggal
Formation carbonate reefs are interpreted to have formed in response to the intermittent
rise in relative sea level during the lowstand stage (Fig. 61).
Because the eustatic sea level remained at a lower level after 10 Ma than that of the
period between 13 and 10 Ma (Westerhold et al., 2005), the rise of relative sea level,
which created accommodation space necessary for the deposition of the limestones,
must have been induced by active basin subsidence. The development of limestones in
the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation also corresponds to an ephemeral decline in
sediment discharge from the northern hinterlands at about 10 Ma (Clift and Plum, 2008)
(Fig. 59).
The abrupt transition from limestones to sandy siltstones in the upper Jatiluhur
Formation leveled out the undulating topography associated with the carbonate mounds
as the upper-part siltstones onlapped onto the irregular limestone surface of the middle
Jatiluhur Formation (Fig. 47). Because the sandy siltstones of the upper Jatiluhur
39
Formation is interpreted to represent deeper deposits similar to those in the lower
section of the middle part, the replacement can indicate a transgression over the
lowstand systems tract and the base of the upper Jatiluhur Formation can be defined as a
transgressive surface (sensu van Wagoner et al., 1988).
Back-stepping parasequences, which were formed when the rate of relative sea
level rise was greater than that of sediment supply, are not clearly evident. The whole
succession of the upper part of the formation, however, is interpreted to have formed in
response to relative sea level rise during an ensuing transgression based on the fact that
the sandy siltstone-dominated strata in the lower part of the upper Jatiluhur Formation
changed gradationally into finer-grained, siltstone-dominated strata upsection. This
interpretation is also supported by benthic foraminifera records, which indicate an
increase in paleowater depth toward the top of the formation (Zahara, 2012).
40
4. Petrography and Textural Analyses
4.1. Petrographic facies
The Jatiluhur Formation, as originally defined by Sudjatmiko (1972), consists of
interbeds of quartz sandstones and marl, siltstones, claystones, limestone, basalt and
tuffaceous breccias. Basalt and tuffaceous breccias are not observable in the study area.
This formation was deposited during the middle–late Miocene in the northern part of the
Bogor Trough, which indicates that the sediments were delivered mainly from the north
as well documented by the south- and southwestward-directed paleocurrents.
Although the formation is characterized by siltstones- and
sandy-siltstones-dominated lithofacies assemblages, sandstone beds are intercalated at
almost all stratigraphic levels of the Jatiluhur Formation. Sandstones have variations in
grain size, thickness, lithofacies features, and composition, especially those in the
lower–middle parts of the formation. The sandstones comprise both extrabasinal and
intrabasinal grains, typified by quartz, feldspar, sedimentary and volcanic rock
fragments, skeletal fragments, mud chips, glaucony, and carbonate fragments.
On the basis of mineral composition as revealed from petrographic analysis, the
petrographic features of the Jatiluhur Formation can be classified into 4 petrographic
facies as follow: (F1) Feldspathic arenite, (F2) Feldspathic greywacke, (F3) Limestone,
and (F4) Mixed siliciclastic and carbonate (Figs. 62 and 63). The analyzed samples
were taken from unweathered fine- to coarse-grained sandstones and limestones.
Limestone samples were taken mainly from the late Miocene carbonate horizon in the
41
middle part of the formation. The following is descriptions of the 4 major petrographic
facies of the Jatiluhur Formation.
(F1) Feldspathic arenites (Dott, 1964; Boggs, 2009) contain less than 90% quartz
grains, more feldspar than unstable rock fragments, and minor amounts of other
minerals, such as micas and heavy minerals. Quartz is the most common framework
mineral of the sandstone beds of the Jatiluhur Formation, but volumetrically less than 90
percent. Feldspar has a moderate abundance ( <40%), while the rock fragments has the
least abundance (<10%). The sandstones are represented by grain-supported texture
with carbonate cement in the matrix, and are poorly to moderately sorted (Fig. 62A).
Preferred grain orientation is locally observed in association with thin mud layers.
Coarse-grained skeletal detritus are occasionally observed together with planktonic
foraminiferal test, glaucony, and mud chips.
(F2) Feldspathic greywacke is compositionally similar to F1, except for that its
matrix is more abundant than that of F1. The feldspathic greywacke samples were taken
from thick-bedded sandstones intercalated in muddy sandstone deposits (Fig. 62B).
(F3) Limestone is typically characterized by grain-supported bioclasts (Fig. 62C),
in local association with boundstone, and is poorly to moderately sorted. It primarily
comprises coarse- to very coarse-grained skeletal fragments of larger benthic
foraminifera, coralline algae, and others with lime mud matrix and cement, and
represented by grain-supported texture. Some samples show matrix-supported texture
with fine to very coarse-grained skeletal fragments, which are floated and embedded
within the lime mud matrix and calcite cement. Neomorphism is commonly found in
this petrofacies. Cementing material is blocky and fibrous calcite, and this facies
42
varies from boundstone to wackestone. Small amounts of siliciclastic fragments, less
than 5%, are occasionally found in several samples, which contain fine-grained detritus
of quartz and feldspar.
(F4) Mixed siliciclastic and carbonate petrographic facies is also observed in a few
samples of late Miocene carbonate-dominated horizon of the middle part the Jatiluhur
Formation. This petrofacies largely comprises coarse-grained siliciclastic detritus and
very coarse-grained skeletal fragments within carbonate cement (Fig. 62D). The
framework detritus composition of both siliciclastic and carbonate skeletal fragments is
in the range of 30–70%; the amount of carbonate skeletal fragments is commonly higher
than that of siliciclastic fragments. Coarse-grained glaucony and mud chips are also
commonly found in this petrofacies, and are typically rounded to subrounded, having
matrix- supported texture.
4.2. Framework composition
A total of 36 samples of fine- to coarse-grained sandstones were selected and
prepared for petrographic examination under a polarizing microscope for clarifying the
framework mineral composition (modal analysis). The modal analysis was performed
by the counting of more than 450 points per thin section using the Gazzi- Dickinson
method (Ingersoll et al., 1984). The counted mineral in the thin sections are mostly
more than 0.063 µm in size. This study used 25 samples from the lower Jatiluhur
Formation (i.e., middle slope Miocene deposits) distributed mainly in the southern part
of the study area and 11 samples from the middle Jatiluhur Formation (i.e., late Miocene
43
shelf-edge and shelf deposits) distributed mainly in the center part of the study area. The
boundary between those sample points is presenting a W-E line that is interpreted to be
the shelf-edge of the NW Java platform (Fig. 64).
Sandstones are commonly grain-supported, except for some limited numbers of
muddy-matrix-supported samples with an open framework within lime mudstones from
the late Miocene deposits. The size and shape of component grains are variable, from
fine- to coarse-grained, angular to subrounded, and poorly- to moderately-sorted. Most
samples consist largely of quartz, potassium feldspar, plagioclase, and rock fragment as
the extrabasinal arenaceous components (Fig. 65A). In contrast, glaucony and
intraclasts (mud chips) represent the intrabasinal arenaceous component. Mica and
organic fragments also occasionally observed in the sandstone samples.
Quartz grains are commonly monocrystalline, and are subrounded to subangular
with locally developed strained features and overgrowth. Undulatory extinction, a
pattern of sweeping extinction as the stage is rotated, is also observed in a few quartz
grains, which are referred as undulose quartz grains. Although quartz occurs
preferentially as individual sand-size crystals (monocrystalline quartz), detrital
polycrystalline quartz grains are also locally observed. Polycrystalline quartz, also
called composite quartz, is quartz made up of aggregates of two or more crystals. The
individual crystals within a polycrystalline grain are mostly equant, very fine-grained,
and almost the same size, and have crystal boundaries that are relatively straight or
sutured in various degrees. Quartz content ranges from 3 to 72% of the studied thin
sections with a mean of 34.6%. In the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation (i.e., the
44
late Miocene deposits), the content of quartz drastically decreases upsection, and the
relative abundance of plagioclase grains increase.
Feldspars are the most common framework mineral following quartz, especially in
the the middle Miocene samples of the Jatiluhur Formation, and became the most
dominant framework mineral in the late Miocene samples. Two main groups of feldspar,
alkali feldspars (potassium feldspars) and plagioclase feldspars, are present in all
samples. Potassium feldspars are generally more abundant than plagioclase feldspars,
except for a few samples of the late Miocene deposits. The plagioclase grains were
possibly derived from volcanic rocks in the southern volcanic mountains. Although
feldspars can be distinguished from quartz, in some cases they can appear very similar
in thin sections, this study did not use a staining method and clouded and twins are
distinctive features useful for the separation of feldspar from quartz minerals. Many
plagioclase grains are characterized by distinctive albite twinning, with straight and
parallel twin lamellae (Fig. 65B). When such twinning or zoning are present,
plagioclase is easily distinguished from quartz and other feldspars. Unfortunately, not
all the plagioclase show twinned or zoning structures. Plagioclase mineral are
commonly replaced partly by carbonate and clay minerals. Feldspar contents in the
analyzed samples range from 31 to 91%, with a mean of 56.2%.
Rock fragments are rounded to subrounded, and are relatively less abundant than
quartz and feldspar. Metamorphic rock fragments are the most dominant rock fragments
in the studied samples. Volcanic rock fragments are also abundant in some late
Miocene samples. These volcanic rock fragments are coarse-grained, and are angular to
sub-angular. They are texturally porphyritic and commonly contain plagioclase
45
phenocrysts within carbonate and plagioclase microlite groundmass. The groundmass
commonly contains volcanic glass and has locally been replaced by carbonate micrite.
This volcanic glass in the groundmass has also locally been altered into clay minerals
and carbonates. The rock fragment content of the selected samples ranges from 2 to
25%, with a mean of 9.2%
The framework composition of the Jatiluhur Formation, both the middle and late
Miocene samples, indicates that the sediment particles were derived from the
provenance terranes, which consist of nearly the same geologic composition. The
geological interpretations of possible provenance on the basis of petrographic analysis
of the Jatiluhur Formation in study area are summarized as follows:
1. The framework composition of the Jatiluhur Formation is represented largely by
quartz, feldspar, and small amounts of rock fragments, and indicates that the
major sources were continent blocks (Fig. 66). As supported by paleocurrent
data, the Sundaland in the north and/or farther northern mountains were the most
possible source areas, from which actively shedded siliciclastic sediments were
transported and delivered through the shelf margin of the NW Java shelf into the
Bogor Trough to the south. These possible provenances are considered to have
played an important role in the deposition of the Paleogene sedimentary
successions in Java. (cf. Clements and Hall, 2011).
2. The dominance of monocrystalline quartz grains indicates that the sediments
were derived from a granitic igneous source (Blatt et al., 1980), or may have
been the result of disaggregation of original polycrystalline quartz as a result of
long-distance transport from a metamorphic source. In addition, small numbers
46
of quartz grains with undulatory extinction and polycrystalline grain aggregation
suggest that those quartz grains were delivered from a metamorphic terrane
(low-rank metamorphic quartz in first-cycle sands; Basu et al., 1975). The
presence of moderately abundant feldspars in sandstone samples also suggests
local delivery of the sediments from crystalline source rocks. K-feldspars are an
essential constituent of felsic igneous rocks, pegmatites, and felsic and
intermediate gneisses (Krainer and Spöt, 1989).
3. In general, the mineral grains of the late Miocene samples tend to be coarser as
compared with those of the middle Miocene samples and are poorly sorted.
Furthermore, the late Miocene samples are texturally less mature then the middle
Miocene samples, and suggest an activation of volcanic terranes in the south
(Fig. 67A).
4. Although glauconite (a potassium iron aluminosilicate) are found in almost all
thin sections, the relative amounts and size of glauconite grains in the late
Miocene samples are larger than the middle Miocene samples (Fig. 67B).
Because glauconite tends to form in marine-shelf environments under starvation
of active sedimentation, the late Miocene succession is considered to have
formed in response to the reduction of an active supply of siliciclastic sediments
from the hinterlands. This condition may also have been required for the
development of the Klapanunggal carbonate reefs. Alternatively, the
development of shelf and shelf-margin sytems in the northern margin of the
Bogor Trough may have provided a suitable condition for the formation of
glouconite in marine sediments during the late Miocene. This period is
interpreted to have been starved in the shedding of clastic sediments from the
47
northern mountain hinterlands, i.e., low discharge of extrabasinal siliciclastic
detritus (Clift and Plumb, 2008).
5. The late Miocene deposits of the Jatiluhur Formation are also characterized by
sandstones, which contain some volcanic rock fragments, compared with those
of the lower Miocene deposits. The volcanic rock fragments are texturally
porphyritic, having plagioclase phenocrysts within carbonate and plagioclase
microlite groundmass (Fig. 67C). Locally, the phenocrysts and volcanic glass
matrix were replaced by carbonate and clay minerals. The increase in relative
abundance of volcanic fragments in the late Miocene deposits of the Jatiluhur
Formation also clearly documents the activation of the shedding of pyroclastic
and volcaniclastic sediments from the southern volcanic provenances. Moreover,
plagioclase quantity commonly exceeds both quartz and K-feldspar grains
upsection in the late Miocene deposits. The plagioclase is coarse- to very
coarse-grained, and subhedral with carlsbad and albite twins and locally
developed zoning, which is quite common in feldspar formed in igneous rocks
(Pittman, 1970). Although plagioclase feldspars may also be common in some
plutonic igneous and metamorphic rocks (Krainer and Spöt, 1989), the increase
in relative abundance of plagioclase grains in the late Miocene Jatiluhur
Formation is also interpreted to have responded to active shedding of pyroclastic
and volcaniclastic sediments from the southern volcanic provenances. The
Neogene magmatic activities in Java is represented by the following three
phases: (1) island arc tholeiitic magmatism in the Oligocene–Miocene, (2)
eruption of tholeiitic pillow basalt at the beginning of the late Miocene, and (3)
calc-alkaline magmatism in the Pliocene and Quaternary (Soeria-Atmadja and
48
Noeradi, 2005; Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1994). In addition, because the magmatic
belt in Java Island is thought to have shifted to the north since the late Miocene
(Soeria-Atmadja and Noeradi, 2005), the proximity of the volcanic provenance
for the Bogor Trough may also have increased during the late Miocene.
6. Although the grain sizes are variable from very fine to very coarse, the dominant
extrabasinal framework components are commonly very fine grained (around
0.063 mm in diameter) in most of the middle Miocene samples. Finer grain sizes
of most of the extrabasinal clastic fragments, compared with grain sizes of
volcanic fragments and skeletal fragments, also suggests that these extrabasinal
fragments may have experienced a long-distance transport from their
provenance and subsequently mixed with intrabasinal and volcanic fragments in
coastal and shallow-marine environments in and around the Bogor Trough.
49
5. Depositional History
The mixed siliciclastic-carbonate succession of the Jatiluhur Formation in the
northern part of the Bogor Trough was formed in response to the interplay between the
falling and ensuing rising stages of relative sea level and the fluctuation in sediment
discharge from the hinterlands in slope and shelf-margin environments. The high
discharge of sediments from the hinterlands in the north (e.g., Clift and Plum, 2008)
promoted active progradation of the slope–shelf-margin system to the south during the
middle Miocene. The progradation was subsequently followed by the development of
reefal carbonate as a response to the decrease in sediment discharge superimposed by
relative rise in sea level during the late Miocene.
In general, the various lithofacies associations of the Jatiluhur Formation can be
divided into slope deposits in the southern part of the study area and shelf-margin and
shallow-marine deposits in the northern part. The slope deposits consist of lithofacies
association 1 to 5 (Figs. 13–41), which largely constitute the lower part of the formation.
The shelf-margin deposits, which consist of lithofacies association 6 and 7 (Tables 1;
Figs. 42–58), together with shallow-marine carbonate reef deposits of the Klapanunggal
Formation, represent the middle part of the formation.
During the middle Miocene (Fig. 68), the sediments were transported southward
through the broad shelf of the NW Java Basin into the deep-water Bogor Trough. Some
large intraclasts in several coarse-grained sandstone beds in the lower part of the
Jatiluhur Formation were likely derived from reefal carbonate that constitute the middle
part of the Upper Cibulakan Formation during relative sea level fall (e.g., Arpandi and
Patmosukismo, 1975). An accumulation of carbonate detritus in shallow marine area of
50
the NW Java shelf retransported incidentally, possibly by storm currents and/or turbidity
currents, into the Bogor Trough to the south. The punctuated mixing of siliciclastic and
carbonate detritus took place during the middle Miocene in the Bogor Trough.
Carbonate reefs of the Klapanunggal Formation developed in the shelf margin (Fig.
69), which are interpreted to be the source of thick-bedded limestone in the middle part
of Jatiluhur Formation. The facies mixing of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments
occurred in the middle part of Jatiluhur Formation The development of both types of
deposits took place during the late Miocene in response to an early rise in relative sea
level. On the basis of the reconstruction of distribution patterns of carbonate built-up
forms from the subsurface data, it is clear that the shelf margin was typically rimmed by
a semi continuous barrier of reefs. The available subsurface data indicates that this
shelf margin was far away from the hinterlands in the north and the carbonate build-ups
developed low relief for developing a protected calm shallow-sea environment, where
carbonate sediments characterized by a coral-algal framework developed, in particular
along the southern margin (Sujanto, 1982; Yaman et al., 1991). The carbonate rimmed
NW Java shelf is thought to have been more than 100 km wide (cf. Atkinson et al.,
1993; Purantoro et al., 1994).
Although the major causal mechanism of the development of the wide and
carbonate-rimmed shelf sea still remains controversial, the interplay between the
relative rise in sea level and the decline of active shedding of siliciclastic sediments
from the northern hinterland seems to have played an important role in the formation of
the carbonate factory in the shallow sea behind the Bogor Trough to the north during the
late Miocene.
51
Because any karstification of exposed carbonate is not observed within the
Klapanunggal Formation carbonate-reef succession, the stepped rising in relative sea
level, which was documented in the stacking of shoaling-upward carbonate cycles (i.e.,
parasequences) during the lowstand stage followed by the subsequent rise in relative sea
level, is interpreted to have developed a deeper depositional environment (Zahara,
2012). Conseqeuntly, any shorter-term fall in relative sea level is not evident in the
carbonate succession.
Finally, the upper part of the Jatiluhur Formation passes upward into a siltstone-
and claystone-dominated strata that is formally defined as the Subang Formation. This
formation is a widely exposed unit in the onshore Bogor Trough and represents the final
stage sedimentation in the trough, characterized by deepening again in the trough
(Sudjatmiko, 1972; Effendi, 1974; Djuri, 1995). The subsurface equivalent of this unit,
known as the Cisubuh Formation, has been reported to occur in the offshore area of the
NW Java basinal area (Arpandi and Patmosukismo, 1975; Suyono et al., 2005).
52
6. Slope Channel Formation
6.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the initiation of submarine channels from slump scars in a
slope setting that was documented in a prograding slope–shelf succession of the
middle–late Miocene Jatiluhur Formation in the Bogor Trough, West Java, Indonesia.
Among the various structures related to sediment failures, slump scars have commonly
been used to identify upper-slope and shelf-margin environments in stratigraphic
successions (e.g., Mutti and Lucchi, 1978; Mutti and Normark, 1991). However, the
overall geometry of slump scars and lithofacies of the slump-scar-infills deposits have
not yet clearly been documented, apart from a few cases in superb outcrop exposures
(e.g., Laird, 1968; Clari and Ghibaudo, 1979; Shultz et al., 2005).
The origin of channels in the deep-water environment remains controversial (e.g.,
Syvitski et al., 1996; Imran et al., 1998; Hall et al., 2008). It has been suggested that
sometimes any initial depression or seabed irregularity, such as large-scale flute
structures, which are induced by preceding deposition, may develop an area of
sediment-gravity flow convergence (i.e., Kneller's (1995) accumulative flows) that can
be converted locally into submarine channels (e.g., Clark and Pickering, 1996; Elliott,
2000; Grecula et al., 2003; Fildani et al., 2006; Armitage et al., 2009; Alves and
Cartwright, 2010). In particular, in a slope setting, seabed irregularities, which have
been induced by slump scars and by mass-transport deposits, are commonly observed in
both modern and ancient deep-water depositional systems (e.g., Field et al., 1999; Lee
et al., 2007; Surpless et al., 2009). These irregularities are thought to have evolved
locally into channels, and to have also controlled the geometry of turbidite and other
53
sediment-gravity-flow deposits (e.g., Shor and Piper, 1989; Shultz et al., 2005; King et
al., 2007; Armitage et al., 2009; Alves and Cartwright, 2010).
Within the prograding slope–shelf succession of the Jatiluhur Formation in the
study area, slump-scar-fill deposits occur in the lower and middle parts of the formation
that developed during relative sea level fall. This well-exposed succession provides an
opportunity to describe in detail the geometry and internal lithofacies organization of
slump-scar-infill deposits, and to better understand the incipient stage of channel
formation in a slope setting as one type of variations in channel formation.
6.2. Incipient processes of slope channel formation
The slump-scar-fill deposits in the study area are generally concave-up with a
lenticular geometry, around 180–460 m in width with a maximum thickness of 40–160
cm. They can be grouped into two types: fine-grained slump-scar-fill deposits and
coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposits (Figs. 70 and 71). Lithofacies features of these
deposits are given in Chapter 3.
The lenticular geometry of the sandstone beds indicates that they may have formed
as a slump-scar-fill deposit in conjunction with their discordant and concave basal
contacts to the host muddy deposits. The sandstones are fine- to very fine-grained and
highly bioturbated, and lack their original sedimentary structures. These lithofacies
features suggest that they were formed from slow-settling of fine-grained sediment
particles of low-density turbidity currents (Fig. 72). The infill deposits drape the surface
of discordance (Fig. 73); consequently, it appears that the genesis of concave
54
discordance corresponds with the slump deposits on the lower slope, as that concave
discordance mostly developed on the upper slope. The following evidence was found in
the lower part of the sandstone bed: (1) erosional scours on the surface of the
discordances are absent except for coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposits; (2) although
the infill deposits in this discordance differ from the surrounding sediments, in the lower
part of the infill deposits drape the surface of the discordance; and (3) coarse-grained
slump-scar-fill deposits did not only scour the underlying layers, but locally also eroded
the draped fine-grained sediments over the discordance surface (Fig. 31).
Because coarse-grained infill deposits of slump scars (Type 3-B of facies
association 3) developed at the northern margin of the Cipamingkis River area, and are
associated with the channel-fill deposits of facies association 4, the local erosion in
depressions, which had originally formed as slump scars, appears to have developed
into slope channels in the studied succession. Thus, the incident link of slump scars and
slope channels documented in the lower Jatiluhur Formation can represent one type of
variations in channel formation in a slope setting.
On the basis of geometry, bounding surfaces, and lithofacies features of
slump-scar-fill deposits and channel-fill deposits (Table 2 and Figs. 70–71), the possible
formative processes of a slope channel from a slump-scar can be summarized as follows
(Fig. 74). (A) An initial seabed irregularity in an upper-slope environment is induced by
the development of a slump scar as a discordant concave-up surface. (B) The depression
is initially draped by finer-grained sediments form low-density turbidity currents, which
do not cause any distinct erosion on the scar surface. (C–D) Later, more erosive,
higher-density turbidity currents locally or completely erode out the finer-grained
55
sediments and incise into the underlying host sediments to develop a channel. (E)
Finally, the channel is infilled with coarser-grained sediments with tractional structures.
6.3. Distribution and dimension of slump-scar-fill deposits
Analysis of the 3D distribution of the slump and slump-scar-fill deposits indicates
that they are not always present in the Jatiluhur Formation slope succession, but are
mainly restricted to the Cipamingkis River area, although some are also recorded near
the Cileungsi and Cipatujah river areas (Figs. 9 and 10). Well-preserved slump-scar-fill
deposits (17 examples in total) are observed mainly at the northern margin of the
Cipamingkis River area (13 examples), with only 4 examples near the Cileungsi River
area (Fig. 10). However, the thickness and width of the infill deposits could only be
measured at 10 sites. At the northern margin of the study area, between the Cileungsi
and Cipamingkis rivers, and also farther east of the study area (subsurface data: Sobarin,
O with PT. Bumi Parahyangan Energy, personal communication, 2012), a thick
limestone succession of the Klapanunggal Formation is well developed. That is, the
slump- and slump-scar-fill deposits are better developed away from the carbonate
depocenters along the E-W trending depositional-strike directions (Fig. 60). Thus,
active shedding of siliciclastic sediments in the southern offshore area between the
carbonate depocenters during the progradation of the slope–shelf system of the Jatiluhur
Formation appears to have been responsible for the uneven distribution of the slump-
and slump-scar-fill deposits in the study area.
56
Although narrow slump-scar-fill deposits are thinner than wider ones, the width and
thickness of these deposits do not show any distinct relationship. Previously illustrated
slump scars, which are characterized by infills of fine-grained sediments quite similar to
the surrounding deposits, are thicker than the present examples (e.g., Laird, 1968; Clari
and Ghibaudo, 1979) (Fig. 75). Although the variation in geometry of slump scars and
slump-scar-fill deposits has not yet clearly been understood, slump scars represent
retrogressive failure due to footwall unloading in association with downslope
movements of slumps, which show variation in size and volume from a few tens of
centimeters to several thousand cubic kilometers (Jansen et al., 1987; Martinsen, 1994).
Consequently, the size and geometry of slump scars should also vary as a response to
the size and volume of the associated slumps. Furthermore, retrogressive failures also
show variation in size and geometry in local association with tributaries (e.g., Martinsen,
1994; van Weering et al., 1998; Krastel et al., 2012), and the angle of inclination of
slump scar surfaces is interpreted to be controlled by the value of void ratio, which is a
function of the amount and type of clay minerals in the host sediments (Sturm, 1971).
Therefore, the variation in geometry of slump-scar-fill deposits most likely reflects
variations in the size and geometry of retrogressive failures, and also in lithologies in
the host sediments.
57
6.4. Triggering of slump scars as incipient depressions for channel
formation
Active progradation of part of the slope–shelf system may have developed a more
steeply inclined and unbalanced clinoform profile during falling stage in relative sea
level (e.g., Brown and Fisher, 1977; Thorne and Swift, 1991; Flemings and
Grotzinger, 1996). Because eustatic sea level was generally higher in the middle
Miocene than in the Holocene and tended to fall (e.g., Miller et al., 2005; Westerhold et
al., 2005), the instability of the clinoform may have been controlled by both sea-level
change and active shedding of siliciclastic sediments onto the shelf margin from the
Sundaland (Fig. 59), possibly the sequel of Paleogene sediments (cf. Clements and Hall,
2011). During the middle Miocene, the monsoon climate is thought to have intensified
(e.g., Clift, 2006), and the long-term major delivery of siliciclastic sediments during
rainy seasons seems to have occurred at the southern margin of the Sundaland (cf. Clift
and Plum, 2008). Thus, climatic change, superimposed on active tectonic movements in
the Bogor Trough also appears to have influenced the development of slump scars,
which subsequently, in part, played an important role in the development of slope
channels in the Jatiluhur Formation.
58
7. Controlling Factors of Carbonate Development
The carbonate deposits of the Klapanunggal Formation are represented by
components of shallow-water carbonate reefs (Fig. 76) that developed during the late
Miocene as a rimmed reef in the shelf margin of the NW Java platform (Fig. 69).The
reefs also played an imporntat role as the source of carbonate fragments of the
carbonate-dominated horizon in the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation. The delivery
of carbonate fragments from the reefs is considered to have been induced by
stom-related shelf currents. The wave-swept platform top in the shelf-edge is the
preferred location of frame builders, which is responsible for the formation of barrier
reef rims. The organic reef structures are further strengthened by abiotic cementation
that is particularly extensive there because of high primary porosity and the pumping
effect of heavy seas (Schlager, 2005).
Although subsurface data indicates that the development of reef carbonate of the
Klapanunggal Formation was not necessarily related to a paleohigh or any swell of old
tectonic structure (Burbury, 1977), the distribution of reefal limestone of the
Klapanunggal Formation is considered to have preferentially developed on a
topographic high, on the basis of spatial and temporal distribution patterns of slumps
and slump scars of the lower–middle Jatiluhur Formation, as discussed above (Chapter
3) (Fig. 10). Furthermore, because shallow-water corals grow faster than deeper forms
and the siliciclastic sedimentation rate may be reduced at higher areas, where extensive
supply of terrigenous clastic and volcaniclastic detritus can be excluded (Tucker and
Wright, 1990; Jones and Desrochers, 1992). The combination of the development of
initial topographic highs in a shelf margin along the northern rim of the Bogor Trough
59
and the relative rise in sea level may have developed a suitable depositional condition
for the building up of reefal carbonate, as discussed above, although the eustatic sea
level shows gradual falling during the middle through late Miocene (e.g., Miller et al.,
2005; Westerhold et al., 2005), and the long-term tectonic subsidence appears to have
induced a relative rise in sea level, which may have been interrupted by several still
stands every 20,000 to 100,000 years or more (4th and 5th order cycles in terms of
Vail et al., 1991),
The continued rise in relative sea level is interpreted to have been the major control
on the drowning of the Klapanunggal carbonate reefs. That is, if relative sea level rise
exceeds vertical accumulation rate of carbonate, the platform will be submerged below
the euphotic zone, resulting in termination of active production and accumulation of
carbonate by photosynthetic organisms (Schlager, 2005). The carbonate succession of
the Klapanunggal Formation is characterized by reefal carbonate, which were overlain
abruptly by sandy siltstones locally interbedded with Cycloclypeus-rich grainstone that
represents deeper deposits in an open shelf sea with a paleowater depth of 60–150 m
(e.g., Tsuji, 1993). The incipient drowning (in the sense of Read, 1985) possibly
occured before all of the reefs were completely drowned.
In addition, an overall decline in active shedding of clastic sediments from the
northern hinterlands in Southeast Asia occurred during the late Miocene (Clift and
Plumb, 2008). The temporal reduction of sediment discharges into the Bogor Trough
from the Sundaland may also have played an important role in the development of
carbonate factories not only in the northern rim of the Bogor Trough but also in other
60
areas of the Indonesian shallow-marine sedimentary basins, such as the Sunda Basin,
and in other countries as well.
61
8. Conclusions
The study area is located about 25 km northeast of Bogor City and covers an area of
about 200 km2 where four major riverside cliffs allow detailed observation of lithofacies
successions of the Jatiluhur Formation along the Cipamingkis, Cipatujah, Cileungsi, and
Cihowe rivers. In the northwestern part of the study area, the exposures of the
Klapanunggal carbonate reefs are also well exposed in the cliffs of riverside and hills,
especially in a quarry area of a cement industry and in some roadside cliffs.
The prograding slope–shelf succession of the Jatiluhur Formation in the study area
is represented by moderately and locally intensely bioturbated siltstones interbedded
with very fine- to very coarse-grained sandstones. Intensely bioturbated sandy
siltstones become dominant in the transitional horizon to the carbonate-dominated
middle part and also in the horizon that contains skeletal carbonate beds in the upper
part. The formation is also represented by intercalations of slumped deposits and
slump-scars-fill deposits in the lower and middle parts. The deposits of the lower and
middle Jatiluhur Formation are interpreted to have formed in response to the overall
progradation of a slope–shelf system to the south during the middle Miocene, while the
upper part was formed by the ensuing transgression, which submerged the reefal
carbonates of the middle part, followed by the subsequent progradation of a slope–shelf
system, which may have occurred during the latest middle Miocene through the earliest
late Miocene.
The Jatiluhur Formation shows distinct lithofacies variations along both the
depositional-strike and depositional-dip directions. On the basis of grain size,
sedimentary structures, composition, and geometry, seven major lithofacies associations
62
were identified in the study area. They are as follow: (1) siltstone and sandy siltstone,
(2) slump deposits, (3) slump-scar-fill deposits, (4) channel-fill deposits, (5)
thick-bedded sandstones, (6) sandy siltstones intercalated with skeletal limestones, and
(7) limestone and interbedded calcareous siltstones.
The various sedimentary rocks of up to 1000 m thick (formally known as the
Jatiluhur Formation) that developed in the slope–shelf systems can be interpreted to
have formed in response to a single relative sea level cycle (third order). The lower–
middle Jatiluhur Formation represents an overall shallowing-upward succession of slope
siliciclastic deposits and shallow-marine carbonate with the thickness of up to 700 m.
These deposits were formed as a response to the southward progradation of a slope–
carbonate-shelf system. The progradational nature of the lower–middle Jatiluhur
Formation is interpreted as having formed in response to an overall forced regression
during a falling stage in relative sea level. The limestone in the middle part of the
Jatiluhur Formation, and its equivalent Klapanunggal carbonate reefs, were developed
in response to the ensuing early rise in relative sea level and represents a lowstand
systems tract (sensu Plint and Nummedal, 2000). The rise of relative sea level was
induced by active basin subsidence. The development of limestones in the middle part
of the Jatiluhur Formation also corresponded to an ephemeral decline in sediment
discharge from the northern hinterlands at about 10 Ma. The abrupt transition from
limestones to sandy siltstones in the upper Jatiluhur Formation leveled out the
undulating topography associated with the carbonate mounds, and the upper-part
siltstones onlapped onto the irregular limestone surface of the middle Jatiluhur
63
Formation. The base of the upper Jatiluhur Formation can be seen as a transgressive
surface (sensu van Wagoner et al., 1988).
The boundary of the NW Java Basin and the Bogor Trough during the middle
Miocene time was the boundary of depositional environments represented by shelf
margin deposits and carbonate reefs to the north and slope deposits to the south. The
Miocene shelf-break was a zone between these deposits and it has E–W direction.
Based on mineral composition from petrographic analysis of sandstone samples, the
petrographic features of the Jatiluhur Formation can be classified into 4 petrographic
facies as follow: (F1) Feldspathic arenite, (F2) Feldspathic greywacke, (F3) Limestone,
and (F4) Mixed siliciclastic and carbonate. Sandstones are commonly represented by
grain supported texture, except for limited samples of mud-matrix-supported texture
from late Miocene samples that represents open framework arrangement within lime
mudstone. The framework fragments are represented by monocrystalline quartz,
potassium feldspar, plagioclase, and rock fragment as the extrabasinal arenaceous
component, and intrabasinal arenaceous component of glaucony and mud chips. Mica
and organic fragments are also occasionally observed.
The sediments of the Jatiluhur Formation indicate that they were derived mainly
from a continental source, including the Sundaland in the north, which is considered to
have been the most possible source area for the Paleogene sediments. Paleocurrent data
also support this interpretation. The dominance of monocrystalline quartz grains
indicates that the sediments were derived from a granitic igneous source, or may be the
result of the disaggregation of original polycrystalline quartz as a result of long distant
transport of sediments from the metamorphic source. The increase in relative abundance
64
of glauconite grains was observed in the late Miocene samples, and this may document
the starvation of active sediment supply, which may have promoted the development of
carbonate reefs. The increase in relative abundance of volcanic fragments was
documented in the late Miocene samples and this suggests that the late Miocene
deposits of the Jatiluhur Formation seem to have also received some sediments directly
or indirectly from the contemporaneous volcanic provenances to the south. The delivery
of the volcanic fragments is interpreted to have been both recycle from a northwestern
shallow-marine and coastal area or direct supply as volcanic ash fall related volcanic
eruptions in the south. The skeletal fragments of the lower part of the Jatiluhur
Formation are considered to have been derived from limestone beds within the Upper
Cibulakan Formation in the NW Java basin.
Slump-scar-fill deposits are generally concave-up with a lenticular geometry,
around 180–460 m in width with a maximum thickness of 40–160 cm. Although these
deposits are typically characterized by intensely bioturbated, fine- to very fine-grained
sandstones, some slump-scar-fill deposits consist of medium- to coarse-grained
sandstones with tractional structures and distinct erosional bases. The incident link of
coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposits and channel-fill deposits in the prograding
slope–shelf succession of the lower–middle Jatiluhur Formation suggests that some
slump scars initiated seabed irregularities on a slope that may have played an important
role in the subsequent development of slope channels. The present example can provide
one type of variations in channel formation in a slope setting.
Carbonate reefs of the Klapanunggal Formation developed in the shelf margin
during the late Miocene. It was the source of thick-bedded limestone in the middle part
65
of the Jatiluhur Formation. Such double roles of the reefal limestone of the
Klapanunggal Formation imply that the carbonate platform of the NW Java Basin was a
rimmed shelf platform that was developed in response to an early rise of relative sea
level superimposed by the ephemeral decline sediment discharge from the northern
hinterlands including the Sundaland. Figure 77 is a summary of major controlling
factors responsible for the development of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal formations in
terms of the interaction between eustatic sea-level fluctuation and tectonic activity in the
northern part of the Bogor Trough.
66
9. Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude, especially to Professor Makoto Ito, for
his kind support and guidance through my doctoral project in Chiba University, both
academically and personally. I truly appreciate the dedication in supporting me with
advice, ideas and encouragement for my life activities in Japan, research and thesis. I
feel very lucky for the last several years that I could make an intensive interaction with
him to do research together in the Bogor Trough, West Java.
I would also like to thank my thesis committee Professor Takahiro Miyauchi,
Professor Nobuhiro Kotake and Associate Professor Koji Kameo for their excellent
advice and constructive comments.
My deep gratitude also goes to Directorate general of higher education (Dikti),
Ministry of national education, Indonesia, for providing the scholarship during my stay
at Chiba University, and to Professor Hendarmawan, Dean of Faculty of Geology,
Padjadjaran University, who has always supported me personally and administratively
during my time in both Japan and Indonesia.
I should express my sincere thanks to all my colleagues at Faculty of Geology,
many friends and students in Padjadjaran University for their support during four dry
seasons of fieldwork in the Bogor Trough. Furthermore, I want to thank all my office
mates throughout the years here in the Sedimentology and Genetic Stratigraphy
Laboratory, Faculty of Science, Chiba University.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife, children and relatives, for their patients and
endless supports.
67
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Fig. 1. Plate-tectonic framework of Indonesia and adjacent area. Rectangular box indicates Western Java, where the study area is
located in the southern margin of the Sundaland. Modified from Hall (1996).
80
Fig. 2. Geographical setting of the study area. The rectangular box indicates the study area, about 60 km from Jakarta to the south.
Modified from http://www.streetdirectory.com/indonesia/jawa_barat/---
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Fig. 3. Geological sketch map of the study area representing the distribution of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal Formations. The
numbers denote the locations of log sections that are used in this study (Jatiluhur Formation and Klapanunggal Formation).
82
Fig. 4. Present-day tectonic setting of Indonesian region, showing the Sunda–Java arc-trench system where the Australian plate subducts
beneath the Sundaland–Eurasian continent to the north (Hall, 1997). The rectangular red box indicates the study area. The blue-color
part represents mainly shallow marine, continental shelves, and the zebra pattern indicates distribution of ophiolithic areas.
83
Fig. 5. Sketch map of the distribution of onshore and offshore basins in Java Island. The Bogor Trough is located in the western part of
the Bogor-North Serayu-Kendeng anticlinorium zone, a place where Neogene deep water sedimentation occurred and the deposits were
intensively deformed during the Plio–Pleistocene tectonic event (Sujanto and Sumatri, 1977; Satyana and Armandita, 2004).
84
Fig. 6. Tectonic elements of the west Java, which comprise two major structural grains. The older N–S structural trend is distributed in
the north, whereas the younger E–W structural trend is situated largely in the southern area. The E–W structures represent a young
compressional tectonic regime in the Sunda–Java arc-trench system. The rectangular box indicates the study area. Modified mainly after
Sujanto and Sumantri (1977) and Martodjojo (2003)
85
Fig. 7. Geological sketch map of the northern part of the Bogor Trough modified mainly after Sudjatmiko (1972). The Jatiluhur
Formation occupies the central area and extends parallel to the young E–W structural trend. A younger compressional tectonic regime
caused the uplift and outcrops of the Neogene formations, which are distributed in the West Java Basin. The Jatiluhur Formation is
conformably overlain by the Klapanunggal Formation in the west, and by the Cantayan Formation in the south.
86
Fig. 8. Stratigraphic classification and ages of the Cenozoic stratigraphic successions in the studied and adjacent areas (after Sujanto and
Sumantri, 1977; Martodjojo, 2003; Suyono et al., 2005).
87
Fig. 9. E–W stratigraphic cross-section in the strike section of the Jatiluhur
Formation. The red dashed lines indicate datums based on the planktonic
foraminifera biostratigraphy, and the red solid lines represent bed-to-bed correlations
of same key sandstones beds. In general, paleocurrents indicate sediment-transport
directions to the south and southwest.
88
Fig. 10. 3D stratigraphic cross-section of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal Formations. Both the western and eastern areas contain shelf
and carbonate deposits. Carbonate horizon in the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation tends to thin away from the carbonate-reef of
Klapanunggal Formation. The slump deposits thickening toward the south (basin), and well distributed in the center part, where the shelf
margin deposits (FA 6) is thin. It is suggested that the slope is steeper in the center part.
89
Fig. 11. Stratigraphic cross-section from a N–S transect along the Cipamingkis River,
illustrating the pinching out of slump deposits in the updip direction.
90
Fig. 12 Biostratigraphic datums of the Jatiluhur Formation along the Cileungsi and
Cipamingkis rivers. The age of the Jatiluhur Formation in this study area is in the
range between N12 and N16 (Nurani , 2010; Zahara, 2012).
91
Fig. 13. Summary of the seven major facies associations of the Jatiluhur Formation.
92
Fig. 14. Laminated siltstones and intercalated sandstones beds of facies association 1
in the Cipatujah River. Figure for scale
Fig. 15. Close-up of siltstones intercalated with very thin-bedded, fine-grained
sandstones with current-ripple cross-lamination in the Cipatujah River
93
Fig. 16. Close-up of facies association 1, which is represented by thin- to very thin-
bedded sandstones with parallel lamination and current-ripple cross-lamination in the
Cileungsi River.
Fig. 17. Laminated siltstone overlaid by very thin-bedded, fine-grained sandstones in
the Cihowe River.
94
Fig. 18. Thick slump deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River
Fig. 19. Folded and low-angled reverse faults in interbedded thin sandstones and
siltstones of slump deposit of facies association 2 in the Cipamingkis River. Pencil =
15 cm.
95
Fig. 20. Close-up of slump deposits representing folded very thin-bedded sandstones
in the Cipamingkis River
96
Fig. 21. Lenticular geometry of a sandstone bed, identified as a slump-scar-fill deposit, observed in the Cipamingkis River. Figure
circled for scale.
97
Fig. 22. Concave-up discordant surface below the sump-scar-fill deposit observed in
the Cipamingkis River. Figure for scale.
Fig. 23. Structureless fine-grained sandstones of slump-scar-fill deposits, which
developed over a discordant surface observed in the Cipamingkis River. Scale = 10
cm.
98
Fig. 24. Highly bioturbated, fine-grained sandstones of slump-scar-fill deposits
containing Rhizocorallium ichnofacies observed in the Cipamingkis River.
Fig. 25. Burrows commonly found in the lowermost part of fine-grained, slump-scar-
fill deposits.
99
Fig. 26. Lateral-accretion surface in the coarse-grained, cross-bedded, slump-scar-fill
deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River.
Fig. 27. Close-up of gently inclined cross stratification of coarse-grained, slump-
scar-fill deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River
100
Fig. 28. Sealed discordant surface (yellow arrow) in siltstones below the infill
deposits observed in the Cipamingkis River. Dotted line is the bottom surface of
fine-grained slump-scar-fill deposits. Scale = 10 cm.
Fig. 29. Discordance surface sealed by thin mudstone streaks observed in the
Cipamingkis River. Scale = 10 cm.
101
Fig. 30. The base of the coarse-grained, slum-scar-infill deposits, which incises into
the underlying discordance surface in the Cipamingkis River. Hammer = 30 cm.
Fig. 31. The base of coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposits, (1) which incises the
underlying fine-grained sediments of infill deposits (type 3-A), (2) concave-up
discordance, the surface of slump scars. Scale = 10 cm.
102
Fig. 32. A package of coarse- and very coarse-grained sandstones, with trough cross-
and planar bedding of facies association 4 observed in the Cipamingkis River. Figure
circled for scale.
Fig. 33. Close-up of locally observed mud clasts and medium- to coarse-grained
sandstones with cross-bedding in the middle part of channel-fill deposits in the
Cipamingkis River. Pencil = 15 cm.
103
Fig. 34. Close-up of the surface of medium- to fine-grained sandstones with current-
ripple cross-lamination observed in the Cipamingkis River.
104
Fig. 35. An overall lenticular geometry of a sandstone package of facies association 4 observed in the Cipamingkis River. Figure circled
for scale.
105
Fig. 36. A thick sandstone package of facies association 5 observed in the Cileungsi River. Figure circled for scale.
106
Fig. 37. Inverse grading in the lower interval of the thick-bedded sandstone package of
facies association 5 observed in the Cipamingkis River. Naked boy for scale is kid.
Fig. 38. Very thick-bedded sandstones of facies association 5, which are sharply
underlain by slump deposits (arrow) observed in the Cileungsi River. Figure circled for
scale.
107
Fig. 39. Highly bioturbated fine-grained sandstones of facies association 5 including
Planolith ichnofacies.
Fig. 40. Type 5-A lithofacies representing intense bioturbation and obliterated current-
ripple cross-lamination in the Cipamingkis River. Pencil = 15 cm.
108
Fig. 41. Climbing-ripple cross-lamination and overlaying parallel lamination in the
type 5-B lithofacies observed in the Cipamingkis River.
Fig. 42. Sandy siltstones and overlaying sandstones of facies association 6 in the
Cipamingkis River. Hammer = 30 cm.
109
Fig. 43. A skeletal limestone bed with trough cross-stratification encased within sandy
siltstones of facies association 6 observed in the Cipamingkis River. Scale = 10 cm.
Fig. 44. Thick-bedded limestones with local intercalations of calcareous siltstones of
facies association 7 observed in the Cileungsi River. Figure circled for scale.
110
Fig. 45. Limestone cliff of the Klapanunggal Formation and the Cileungsi River Valley
observed from the Nanggareng area facing to the north.
Fig. 46. Head coral boundstone of the Klapanunggal Formation observed in the
Cileungsi River in the Nambo area. Scale = 10 cm.
111
Fig. 47. Stratigraphic cross-section of the Jatiluhur and Klapanunggal formations, illustrating lateral variation in thickness of the
carbonate rocks and an onlap termination pattern of the basal sandy siltstones of the upper Jatiluhur Formation, which leveled out the
undulating topographic irregularity of the carbonate reefal deposits. The base of reefal carbonate rocks is a sequence boundary, which
separates the underlying FSST deposits that are characterized by a prograding succession of the lower–middle Jatiluhur Formation and
the overlying LST deposits of reefal carbonate and its correlative shelf-margin deposits that are considered to have developed in
response to an early rise in relative sea level.
112
Fig. 48. Boundstone facies of carbonate horizon in the middle part of the Jatiluhur
Formation, which is sharply underlain by stratified skeletal grainstone-packstone
observed in Cileungsi River. Figure for scale.
Fig. 49. Rudstone, characterized by poorly sorted, angular to sub-angular rudite-
fragments of facies association 7 observed in the Cileungsi River.
113
Fig. 50. Skeletal grainstone with prominent Cycloclypeus of facies association 7
observed in the Cipamingkis River. Coin diameter = 2.6 cm.
Fig. 51. Skeletal grainstone with prominent Lepidocyclina, showing an open
framework in the lower part that gradationally passes up into a close framework
observed in the Cipamingkis River. Pencil = 15 cm.
114
Fig. 52. Cross-bedded packstone underlain by boundstone facies observed in the
Cileungsi River. Pencil = 15 cm.
Fig. 53. Siltstones intercalated with thin sandstone beds of the upper Jatiluhur
Formation, which show lithofacies features quite similar to those of facies association
1 and abruptly overly the limestones of the middle part in the Cipamingkis River.
115
Fig. 54. Panorama photograph illustrating geometry of the Klapanunggal Formation limestone taken from the Cilalay area facing to the
west
116
Fig. 55. Massive limestone of the Klapanunggal Formation, with locally intercalation
of dark grey packstone facies observed in the Cilalay area. Figure circled for scale.
Fig. 56. Coral fragment of boundstone of the Klapanunggal Formation observed in the
Cileungsi River, Nambo area.
117
Fig. 57. Autochthonous limestone of the Klapanunggal Formation, characterized by
well-cemented, sub-parallel arranged coralline crust boundstone observed in the
Nambo area.
118
Fig. 58. Clinoform of coral bioclastic limestone, indicating progradation of a coral reef during relative sea-level stillstand observed in
the Cilalay area.
119
Fig. 59. Eustatic sea-level change and temporal variation in sediment discharge during the Miocene as an allogenic framework for the
deposition of the Jatiluhur Formation. The diagrams are modified from Miller et al. (2005), Westerhold et al. (2005), and Clift and
Plumb (2008).
120
Fig. 60. Schematic reconstruction of a prograding slope–shelf succession of the Jatiluhur Formation. The lower Jatiluhur Formation is
thought to have formed during a falling stage in relative sea level as a response to high sediment influx from the hinterland during the
middle Miocene. The carbonates in the middle part of the formation developed during the ensuing lowstand in relative sea level. FA 1–7
and Type 3-A and Type 3-B denote facies association described in the text.
121
Fig. 61. Shoaling-up parasequences sets of carbonate reefs of the Klapanunggal
Formation as response to the stepped rising of relative sea level during a lowstand
stage observed in the Cilalay area. Figure circled for scale.
Fig. 62. Major petrographic facies of the Jatiluhur Formation. (A) Feldspathic arenite,
(B) Feldspathic wacke, (C) Bioclastic grainstone, and (D) Mixed bioclastic and
siliciclastic detritus.
122
Fig. 63. Classification of sandstones on the basis of three mineral components: Quartz,
feldspars, and total rock fragments. The term arenite is restricted to sandstones
essentially free of matrix (< 5%). Sandstones containing matrix are wackes. The
classification scheme is from Dott (1964).
Fig. 64. Sample locations of sandstone samples for the petrographic analyses. The dot
line is the boundary between the middle and late Miocene successions of the Jatiluhur
Formation.
123
Fig. 65. Petrographic features of the Jatiluhur Formation sandstones. (A) The middle
Miocene Jatiluhur Formation is commonly characterized by grain-supported texture
with quartz and feldspar, and less rock fragments. (B) Muddy-matrix-supported texture
of the late Miocene Jatiluhur Formation sandstones, characterized by coarser grains
with a large number of plagioclase grains.
Fig. 66. Ternary plot diagram of detrital components from sandstones of the Jatiluhur
Formation based on the classification scheme of Dickinson et al. (1983). (A) Quartz,
feldspar, lithic fragments (Q, F, L). (B) Monocrystalline quartz, feldspar, total lithic
grains (Qm, F, Lt). Qt = Total quartz (polycrystalline quartz + monocrystalline quartz);
F = Feldspar (K-feldspar + plagioclase); L = Rock fragment; Qm = Monocrystalline
quartz; Lt = Rock fragment + polycrystalline quartz.
124
Fig. 67. Representative petrographic features of the late Miocene Jatiluhur Formation
sandstones. (A) Coarse-grained intraclasts are commonly found within siliciclastic
fragments. (B) Increased relative abundance of glaucony and plagioclase. (C) Volcanic
rock fragments. (D) Plagioclase zoning.
125
Fig. 68. Paleogeographic setting of the southern margin of the Sundaland during the middle Miocene (after Martodjojo, 1993; Atkinson et
al., 1993; Purantoro et al., 1994). The study area was a slope–shelf system that received clastic sediments mainly from the continent in
the north.
126
Fig. 69. Paleogeographic setting of the southern margin of the Sundaland during the late Miocene (after Martodjojo, 1993; Atkinson et al.,
1993; Purantoro et al., 1994). Carbonate reefs of the Klapanunggal Formation in the study area are thought to have developed as rimmed-
reef carbonate that developed in a shelf margin of the NW Java Platform during an early rise in relative sea level. During the late Miocene
time, the northern part of the Bogor Trough may also have received some volcanic materials directly or indirectly from the
contemporaneous volcanic provenances in the south.
127
Fig. 70. Fine-grained slump-scar-fill deposit of facies association 3 (Type 3-A). (A) Lenticular geometry of slump-scar-fill deposits
observed in the Cipamingkis River. (B) Measured sections of the slump-scar-fill deposit in A. Note intense bioturbation. 1–6 indicate
locations of measured sections in A.
128
Fig. 71. Coarse-grained slump-scar-fill deposit of facies association 3 (Type 3-B). (A) Lenticular geometry of coarse-grained, slump-scar-
fill deposit observed in the Cipamingkis River. (B) Measured sections of slump-scar-fill deposit in A. Note multi stacking of coarse-
grained lenticular deposits and tractional structures. 1–6 indicate locations of measured sections in A.
129
Fig. 72. Fine-grained sandstones of slump-scar-fill deposits that draped on the surface
of concave-up discordant observed in the Cipamingkis River, underlain by
interlaminated siltstone, sandy siltstone and fine-grained sandstone.
Fig. 73. Concave-up discordant surface below thick-bedded, fine-grained sandstones of
a slump-scar-fill deposit observed in the Cipamingkis River.
130
Fig. 74. Schematic illustration of the formative processes of a slope channel from an
initial seabed irregularity induced by a slump scar (A), through type 3-A and type 3-B
deposition (B–C), and finally to channel formation and infilling (D–E) in the
prograding slope–shelf succession of the Jatiluhur Formation.
Fig. 75. Comparison of thickness and width of slump-scar-fill deposits of this study,
compared with those of previously published examples.
131
Fig. 76. Shallow-water carbonate-reefs of Klapanunggal Formation observed in Pasir Cagak.
132
Fig. 77. Schematic summary of allogenic control of the development of the Jatiluhur Formation in the northern part of the Bogor
Trough, mainly in terms of the interaction between eustatic sea-level changes and basin subsidence induced by loading of the volcanic
massifs in the Southern Mountains.
133
Table 1. Description and interpretation of carbonate facies in the middle part of the Jatiluhur Formation
Facies Description Thickness and contact Component Depositional
environments
A:
Boundstone
Massive, well-cemented limestone, with
sub-parallel and random arrangement of
coralline crusts. Some components show
preferred orientation parallel to bedding
surface (i.e. bindstone).
0.9–3.6 m thick in the
Cipamingkis and Cipatujah
rivers, and up to tens of
meters in the Cileungsi
River. Sharp and/or
gradational basal and upper
contacts.
Platy coral and
coralline alga are
dominant, in
association with
various biodetritus.
Autochthonous
carbonate deposited in
a platform margin.
B: Bioclastic
rudstone
Poorly sorted, rudite fragments in skeletal
grainstone matrix. Fragments are angular
to subangular, and locally subrounded,
and show no preferred orientation.
22 cm in the Cipamingkis
River and up to 2.2 m in the
Cileungsi River. Sharp basal
and upper contacts.
Rudite fragments
are dominant in
grainstone matrix.
Disaggregation of
allochthonous
components by waves
and/or currents close
to a reef.
C: Bioclastic
grainstone
Poorly sorted, coarse-grained biodetritus
and pellets in association with fine-
grained siliciclastic fragments. Planar-
and cross-bedding are commonly
observed.
Single beds are 0.2–3.4 m
thick and some composite
beds are up to 8 m thick.
Sharp basal and upper
contacts.
Cycloclypeus,
lepidocyclina,
brachiopods, and
platy coral
fragments.
Active wave and/or
current processes in
area close to a reef
and/or shoal.
D: Bioclastic
packstone
Poorly sorted and clasts supported texture
with medium- to coarse-grained
biodetritus. Locally, lime muds are
dominant and show matrix-supported
texture. Current-ripple cross-lamination
and bioturbation are locally observed.
Siliciclastic detritus are also locally
contained.
Single beds are 20–175 cm
thick and sharp and
gradational basal and upper
contacts are common.
Planktonic
foraminifera,
fragmented large
foraminifera,
gastropods, and
coralline alga.
Wave influenced
lagoon.
134
Table 2. Comparison of major features of slump-scar-fill deposits and channel-fill
deposits in the lower part of the Jatiluhur Formation.
Slump-scar-fill deposits Channel-fill deposits
Geometry Lenticular Lenticular
Thickness Up to 160 cm 360 cm
Grain size Very fine- to fine-grained
sandstone
Coarse- to very coarse-grained
sandstone
Sedimentary
structure
Lack of original sedimentary
structure, except for coarse-
grained infills
Trough and planar cross
bedding, current-ripple cross-
lamination
Bioturbation Highly bioturbated, except for
coarse-grained infill
Moderately bioturbated in the
middle and upper part
Basal contact Drape of discordant surfaces
with sharp contacts, except for
coarse-grained infills with
local erosional contacts
Erosional basal contacts
incising into the underlying
host sediments.
Stacking pattern No distinct pattern, except for
coarse-grained infills with
fining-upward patterns
Composite bed sets and fining-
up pattern
Environment Upper and middle Upper
