Review ArticleVolume 2 Issue 2- : March 2017
J Forensic Sci & Criminal InvesCopyright © All rights are reserved by Lai Poh Soon
A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates
Lai Poh Soon1*, Khoo Lay See1, Nazni Wasi Ahmad2, Kharmila Abdullah3 and Ahmad Hafizam Hasmi4
1Department of Forensic Medicine, Hosp Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia2Department of Forensic Entomology, Institute of Medical Research (IMR), Malaysia3Department of Forensic Pathologist, University of Science Islamic Malaysia (USIM), Malaysia4Department of Forensic Medicine, Hosp Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Submission: February 02, 2017; Published: March 09, 2017
*Corresponding author: Lai Poh Soon, Forensic Scientific Officer, Department of Forensic Medicine, National Institute of Forensic Medicine, Hospital Kuala Lumpur Jalan Pahang 50586 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Tel: ; Email:
J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves 2(2): JFSCI.MS.ID.555584 (2017) 001
IntroductionPost-mortem interval can be estimated using several
methods such as entomological study, post mortem changes and taphonomic study, biochemistry of tissues or body fluids from the cadaver etc. The importance of the determination of cadaveric decomposition rate is to enable the forensic pathologist and forensic scientist in estimating the time since death also
known as post-mortem interval. With estimation of postmortem interval, the investigating officer could narrow down the search of witness and suspects for a scene of crime or during the death investigation. There are many factors affecting the cadaveric decomposition rate including environmental factors and non-environmental factors. Environmental factors including weather (temperature, humidity etc.), indoor or outdoor, burial
Abstract
Introduction: The importance of the determination of cadaveric decomposition rate is to enable the forensic pathologist and forensic scientist in estimating the time since death also known as post-mortem interval. There are many factors affecting the cadaveric decomposition rate including environmental factors and non-environmental factors. This scoping review is to explore the relationship between the delaying or accelerating factors and the decomposition rate. Methods: It was conducted using framework suggested by Arksey and O’Maley. Comprehensive search was performed to identify published works and literatures. Inclusion criteria for the search were articles in English published from 2007 to 2016 and related to taphonomic study as well as the decomposition process and/or rate.
Results: A total of 2,893 titles were extracted from electronic databases and other resources and 41 articles were selected based on inclusion criteria. The variables and decomposition rates were generally varied between studies. Accelerating factors were mostly related to higher temperature including the summer season, rainy season, urban and desert area, sun-exposed on ground area, burning effect, enclosed vehicle as well as exposure to insects and scavenger activities. Decelerating factors often relied on the effect of the lower temperature such as winter season, deep coastal marine, underwater, highland and shaded area. It might also depend on the burial effect and other physical barriers by using heavy clothing, wrapping, lime and cement as well as the chemical barrier likewise the organophosphate (OP) pesticide etc.
Conclusion: There were emerging evidences on the affecting factors of the decomposition rate, although it was still very limited in tropical countries including Malaysia. Findings of this scoping review demonstrated that insect activities and temperature were the main factors affecting the overall decomposition rates except in the presence of physical barriers which might have contributed some variations to the decomposition rates.
Keywords: Environmental factor; Non-environmental factor; Taphonomy; Cadaver; Carcass; Decomposition rate
Abbreviations: OP: Organophosphate; MOH: Ministry of Health; IMR: Institute of Medical Research; USIM: University of Science Islamic Malaysia; NMRR: National Medical Research Registry Malaysia; MREC: Medical Research and Ethics Committee; ADD: Accumulated Degree Days; TBS: Total Body Scoring System; ADD: Accumulated Degree Days
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.002
or underwater or above ground. Non-environmental factors including body mass/size, wrapping or unwrapped, clothing or unclothed and entomological effects.
There are factors delaying decomposition indicated by M Lee Goff [1] in which divided into physical, chemical and climatic barriers. A body buried in the soil does not decompose as quickly as one exposed on the surface due to the physical barriers. In a similar manner, a body enclosed in a sealed casket or placed into some form of sealed container will also exhibit a delayed decomposition. Embalming process is specifically and chemically designed to prevent the decomposition of the body, with natural body fluids being drained and replaced with various preservative fluids. Insecticides will not permanently delay the colonization of the body by insects. With regards to the climatic factors, at temperatures below 6oC most insect activity ceases but may resume once temperatures rise above this threshold. Wind speed in excess of 16 km/h will inhibit insect flight. Rainfall may also serve as a temporary barrier. Under conditions unfavourable for the colonisation of insects, such as concealment, low temperature or mummification, mites might become the most important or even the only arthropods on a dead body.
Zhou and Byard [2] have also describing the factors accelerating decomposition including exogenous and endogenous factors. Exogenous factors included exposure to elevated environmental temperatures, both outdoors and indoors, exacerbated by increased humidity or fires. Situations indoor involved exposure to central heating, hot water, saunas and electric blankets. Deaths within motor vehicles were also characterized by enhanced decomposition. Failure to quickly or adequately refrigerate bodies may also lead to early decomposition. Endogenous factors included fever, infections, illicit and prescription drugs, obesity and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. When these factors or conditions are identified at autopsy less significance should, therefore, be attached to changes of decomposition as markers of time since death. Therefore, the present review will explore the relationship between the delaying or accelerating factors and the decomposition rate. It is hoped that these findings will support future research on the decomposition changes and its affecting factors that might not been well-established to assist in the post-mortem interval estimation especially the homicidal cases.
Review objectives
The authors declared that there was no competing conflict of interests involved in this review. The review objectives were:
i. To identify significant factors affecting cadaveric decomposition rates.
ii. To determine the common indicators used in computing the cadaveric decomposition rates.
iii. To study the relationship between the contributing factors and decomposition rates.
MethodsThe design of the study is scoping review. Scoping review
aims to map rapidly the key concepts underpinning a research area and the main sources and types of evidence available especially when an area is complex or has not been reviewed comprehensively before. For the purpose of this topic, the scoping review is performed to identify the affecting factors, determine the indicators for decomposition rates and study relationships between both factors and decomposition rates. In this review, cadaver refers to the dead human bodies or animal carcasses that are left to the decomposition process whilst decomposition rate is defined as the time relapse from the first decomposition stage (fresh) to the final decomposition stage (skeletonisation) which based on the TBS scoring system or any of the observational systems. The 5 stages of the scoping review York Framework by Arskey and O’Maley include “Identifying the research questions”, “identifying relevant studies”, “study selection”, “charting the data” and “collating, summarising and reporting the results”. Consultation with reviewers from Ministry of Health (MOH), University of Science Islamic Malaysia (USIM) and Institute of Medical Research (IMR) are also conducted to enhance the review work undertaken by the research team members. The study was registered under the National Medical Research Registry Malaysia (NMRR) and the protocol was approved by the Medical Research and Ethics Committee (MREC) Malaysia (ID: NMRR-16-2310-33318).
Identifying the research questionsThe review questions were:
i. What are the major factors affecting cadaveric decomposition rates?
ii. How are the indicators used in computing the cadaveric decomposition rates?
iii. How the factors affecting the cadaveric decomposition rates?
Identifying the relevant studiesThe purpose of performing the scoping review was to
conduct a comprehensive search to identify primary studies (published work) and reviews. The research team members adopted a strategy for searching the evidence using different sources which included electronic databases and relevant research websites such as ProQuest, PubMed and Wiley. The searches also involved online journal articles and books focusing on taphonomic study in Forensic Science and Forensic Medicine. The researchers decided to set the coverage of the review based on the time span and language of the articles. Inclusion criteria for the search were articles in English from year 2007 till 2016 and studies that are consistent with research questions related
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.003
to taphonomic study as well as the decomposition process and/or rate are studied. The commencement date of 2007 was chosen in order to cover the recent 10 years findings and it was felt that the evidence on the decomposition rate was limited especially in Asian countries including Malaysia. Titles, abstracts and document text for eligibility were examined independently by the researchers. All type of studies were included in the search strategy. Unpublished articles or those written in the language other than English were excluded due to the cost and time that would be required to translate those documents. Studies that were irrelevant such as purely entomological methods and/or biochemical methods used were excluded. Key terms used in the search of articles were shown in Table 1 and Table 2.Table 1: PICO Table for MeSH term and text word term derivation.
PICO Initial Term MeSH Term Text Word Term
Population Cadaver Cadaver
Cadaver, Dead bod*, Animal*,
Carcass*, Corpse*, Carrion*
Intervention
Environment Environment Weather, Climate,
Temperature*, Humid*
Wrap*, Outdoor, Open area,
Indoor, Closed area, Burial,
Underground, Underground, Underwater, Under water,
Submerge, Immerse
Body mass, Body size,
Carcass mass, Carcass Size,
Cloth*, Cover*, Entomo*, Maggot*
non-
Environment
non-
Environment
Control Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
Outcome Decomposition Postmortem Changes
Postmortem change*,
Postmortem interval*,
Putrefact*, Decay*,
Taphonom*, Decompos*,
Decomposition rate,
Decomposition stage*
Table 2: Keywords/Search Terms/Strings.
Strings 1 String 2
decompos* OR postmortem change* OR postmortem interval*
OR putrefact* OR decay* OR taphonom* AND cadaver* OR
dead bod* OR carcass* OR animal*
decompos* OR postmortem change* OR postmortem interval*
OR putrefact* OR decay* OR taphonom* OR cadaver* OR dead
bod* OR carcass* OR animal*
Study selectionThe study selection is based on the objectives of the study.
The review is focused on documents related to the factors including environmental and non-environmental factors affecting cadaveric decomposition rates. Based on the eligible abstracts, copies of full articles were retrieved. The full articles is checked by the researchers as to whether appeared to answer the research questions of the study. Selected full articles were then read by the researchers in order to select the final full articles for the review.
Charting the dataGeneral and specific information about the studies is charted
which include authors(s), year of publication, types of affecting factors, objectives or aims of the study, country of study location, study population/sample, sample size including comparison group (if any), methods/instruments and indicators used in the study and findings that were relevant to the objectives of the review.
Collating, summarising and reporting the resultsThe characteristics of the results from the selected articles
from various countries are described based on the design, types and outcomes of each study. The findings of the review were presented in table. Table of evidence on the factors affecting the cadaveric decomposition rates and their relationships with measurements and indicators that are used to describe the various approaches or methods to determine the decomposition rate. Limitation of several studies and research gaps are also identified in order to generate useful knowledge on the taphonomy and post-mortem interval estimation.
ResultsTable 3 shoed a total of 2,893 titles were extracted from
the selected electronic databases and other resources using the search terms. As portrayed in Figure 1, 59 abstracts were included after the initial screening process and the rest were excluded as they were irrelevant with regards to the decomposition changes or rates, non-English articles, and duplicates. Among these 41 articles met the inclusion criteria in the review, environment factors and non-environmental factors were studied with total of 20 articles and 17 articles respectively. The rest of 4 articles were focus on mixed factors. The studies in this review were equally focus on both environmental factors and non-environmental factors. Most of the environmental aspects surveyed the climate
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.004
factors especially the temperate/tropical climate, dry and wet/rainy seasons, habitats/locations and burial effect. Additionally, researchers emphasize to explore the non-environment factors including the scavenger or insect effect, clothing, wrapping, lime or cement effect, burning effect. Countries of origin of the studies included Malaysia, Europe (United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Poland, Romania, and Belgium), America (United States, Canada, Colombia, and Brazil), Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Kuwait), South Africa, Australia and China. Table 3: Search History.
Database /Search Date
Coverage / Search terms (Year 2007 –
2016)
Total search / Total selected
ProQuest (20/11/16 6PM)
Document Textft(Cadaver, Dead Bod*,
Animal*,Carcass*, Corpse*)
AND ft((Postmortem change*, Postmortem interval*, Putrefact*, Decay*, Taphonom*
OR Decompos*, Decomposition rate,
Decomposition stage*))
56 titles /8 selected
PubMed (20/12/16 6PM)
Title / Abstract((decompos*[Title/
Abstract] OR postmortem
change*[Title/Abstract] OR postmortem
interval*[Title/Abstract] OR
putrefact*[Title/Abstract] OR decay*[Title/Abstract] OR
taphonom*[Title/Abstract])) AND (cadaver*[Title/
Abstract] OR dead bod*[Title/Abstract]
OR carcass*[Title/Abstract] OR
animal*[Title/Abstract])
2,236 titles /37 selected
Wiley(29/12/16 3PM)
Abstractdecompos* OR
postmortem change* OR postmortem
interval* OR putrefact* OR decay* OR
taphonom* in Abstract AND cadaver* OR dead
bod* OR carcass* OR animal*
601 titles /15 selected
Figure 1: Flow chart of scoping review.
All the articles in this review were using animal carcasses as subjects except Jeong Y et al. [3] using human cadavers to study on scavenger effects during summer season. Majority (26 articles) using swine / pig carcasses as subjects, followed by rabbit carcasses (10 articles) and minority were using monkey and other animal carcasses. The measurement of indicators for each studies were primarily on the comparison of time taken to different decomposition stages, however, some researchers were also using total body scoring (TBS) system in 6 articles as the decomposition scoring methods. Part of the studies utilised different approaches such as decomposition changes by observation, mass/weight loss, first colonisation of insects, insect richness, insect residency time, insect succession patterns and taxa variation. In this review, there were 14 full text articles, out of the 41 selected articles, available online and free for open access. The list of these articles was elucidated in a summary format as shown in the Table 4. In terms of environmental factors focusing on temperate climate variables, the decomposition rate have remarkably slowed down during winter season compared to the other three seasons. According to Meyer J et al. [4], summer season with greater temperature have enhanced the decomposition rate from triple to septuple to reach the dry remains or skeletonisation stage which consistent with the findings by Wang J et al. [5].
Some articles reported an extreme difference between summer and winter seasons whereby pig carcasses reached the dry stage within 8 days but still maintained in bloating stage at Day 133 [6]. Although first insect colonisation started after 15 weeks during winter season, the bacteria activity have actively occurred throughout the first 5 weeks of decomposition at low temperature. However some have reported pig carcasses reached the skeletonised stage at Day 60 in winter season compared to summer season at Day 27 with all the soft tissues completely lost by decomposition. There was no significant difference among spring, summer and fall seasons, yet faster decomposition rate and higher insect richness were encountered during summer season followed by spring and fall seasons for both pig and rabbit
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.005
carcasses. Rabbit carcasses which were in smaller size consumed 21 days and 28 days to reach the dry stage compared to 26 days and 42 days for pig carcasses during summer and spring seasons respectively. In some equatorial or tropical countries [7,8], the wet or rainy season have caused the more rapid decomposition
compared to dry season. It showed common decomposition rate for both seasons during the fresh and bloated stage, however the conversion of later decaying stages till the dry stage was relatively faster during the wet or rainy season.
No
Auth
ors
(Yea
r)St
udy
Titl
esAf
fect
ing
Fact
ors
Inde
pend
ent
Vari
able
sOb
ject
ives
/ Ai
ms
Stud
y Po
pula
tion/
Sa
mpl
e Si
ze/
Com
pari
son
Met
hods
/ In
stru
men
ts/
Indi
cato
rs
Rela
tions
hip
to
Deco
mpo
sitio
n Ra
tes/
Fin
ding
s
1Ia
ncu
L et
al
. [27
]
Usin
g b
acte
rial
an
d ne
crop
hago
us
inse
ct d
ynam
ics
for p
ost-
mor
tem
inte
rval
es
timat
ion
duri
ng
cold
seas
on:
Nov
el ca
se st
udy
in
Rom
ania
Envi
ronm
enta
l: Se
ason
(Win
ter v
s Sp
ring
)
Outd
oor
expe
rim
ent i
n te
mpe
rate
cl
imat
e re
gion
of
an
urba
n na
tura
l en
viro
nmen
t of
Buc
hare
st,
Rom
ania
.(N
ov
2012
- M
ay
2013
)
To
stud
y su
cces
sion
of n
ecro
phag
ous
inse
ct
spec
ies
and
bac
teri
al
com
mun
ities
in
habi
ting
the
rect
um a
nd m
outh
cavi
ties
n =
3 2
fem
ales
and
1 m
ale
swin
e ca
rcas
ses
(Sus
scro
fa
dom
estic
us)
15kg
eac
h a
nd b
eing
ab
out 3
mon
ths
old,
pu
t on
grou
nd
with
in ca
ges.
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e w
hen
first
co
loni
zing
or
gani
sm
arri
ved
Met
hods
:1.
N
ecro
phag
ous
Dipt
era
and
Cole
opte
ra
iden
tifie
d by
mor
phol
ogic
al
and
gene
tic
char
acte
riza
tion.
2. B
acte
rial
co
mm
uniti
es
iden
tifie
d by
de
natu
ring
gr
adie
nt g
el
elec
trop
hore
sis
(DGG
E)
and
16S
rRNA
gen
e fr
agm
ent
sequ
enci
ng.
The
first
co
loni
zing
w
ave,
pri
mar
ily
Calli
phor
idae
, was
obs
erve
d a
fter 1
5 w
eeks
whe
n th
e te
mpe
ratu
re in
crea
sed
to 1
3°C.
Fa
mili
es b
elon
ging
to
Col
eopt
era
Ord
er st
artin
g w
ith C
leri
dae
and
Silp
hida
e w
ere
obse
rved
at w
eek
18 w
hen
tem
per
atur
es ra
ised
ab
ove
18°C
.
Met
abol
ic
activ
ity o
f an
aero
bic
bac
teri
a be
ing
inhi
bite
d b
y th
e lo
w te
mp
erat
ures
. Th
ree
cold
-ada
pted
env
iron
men
tal
bac
teri
a P.
artic
us, P
. cib
ariu
s, P.
cryo
halo
lent
is w
hich
app
eare
d a
t the
be
ginn
ing
of th
e fr
eezi
ng p
erio
d (w
eeks
1-5
) may
cons
titut
e p
utat
ive
mic
robi
al m
arke
rs fo
r inv
estig
atio
ns
of p
ost-
mor
tem
inte
rval
dur
ing
the
cold
seas
on
Table 4: Environmental and non-environmental factors affecting the decomposition rates.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.006
2Ba
rrio
s M
et a
l. [2
8]
Initi
al
stud
y of
art
hrop
ods
succ
essi
on
and
pig
carr
ion
deco
mpo
sitio
n in
two
fres
hwat
er
ecos
yste
ms
in th
e Co
lom
bian
An
des
Envi
ronm
enta
l: A
stre
am
(lotic
) vs
an
artif
icia
l la
ke (l
entic
)
Fres
hwat
er
ecos
yste
ms
in th
e Co
lom
bian
And
es,
at a
n al
titud
eof
26
14m
.(J
an -
Apri
l 2
007)
To
estim
ate
the
post
-mor
tem
su
bmer
sion
in
terv
al in
two
fres
hw
ater
eco
syst
ems
n =
2 20
-kg
pig
carc
asse
s k
illed
w
ith a
bul
let
wou
ndto
the
thor
acic
zon
e fr
om a
9-
mm
fire
arm
an
d pl
ace
d 68
m
apar
t w
ithin
met
al
cage
s.
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e ta
ken
to sk
elet
al re
mai
ns
Stag
e of
de
com
posi
tion:
Su
bmer
ged
fres
h,
Early
Fl
oatin
g,
Floa
ting
Dec
ay,
Bloa
ted
Dete
rior
atio
n,
Floa
ting
Rem
ains
and
Su
nken
Rem
ains
.
Deco
mpo
sitio
n tim
e to
skel
etal
rem
ains
w
as 8
0 da
ys in
the
stre
am a
nd 7
4 da
ys in
th
e la
ke.
Subm
erge
d Fr
esh
(day
s 1-8
in th
e st
rea
m a
nd
1-5
in th
e la
ke)
Early
Flo
atin
g (d
ays 9
-24
in th
e st
ream
and
6-1
7 in
the
lake
)Fl
oatin
g de
cay
(day
s 25-
43 in
the
stre
am a
nd d
ays
18-4
0 in
the
lake
)Bl
oate
d de
teri
orat
ion
(day
s 44-
51
in th
e st
ream
an
d 4
1-48
in th
e la
ke)
Floa
ting
rem
ains
(day
s 52-
61 in
the
stre
am a
nd 4
9-60
in th
e la
ke)
Sunk
en re
mai
ns (d
ays 6
2-80
in th
e st
ream
and
61
-74
in th
e la
ke)
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.007
3Se
gura
NA
et a
l. [2
9]
Succ
essi
on
patt
ern
of
cada
vero
us
ento
mof
auna
in a
sem
i-r
ural
are
a of
Bo
gotá
, Col
ombi
a
Envi
ronm
enta
l: Cl
imat
e
Sem
i-rur
al
area
of
Bog
otá
at
2700
m a
bove
sea
-leve
l, a
vera
ge
tem
pera
ture
of
14°C
(3
°C-2
7°C)
, R
H 7
3.25
%
and
ann
ual
rain
fall
of 7
90m
m.
(Feb
20
06
- May
200
6)
To e
xam
ine
the
succ
essi
on
of in
sect
s co
loni
zing
ca
dave
rs
n =
4 Co
ntro
l = 1
(n
o ar
thro
pod
colle
cted
) and
Sa
mpl
es =
3.
12kg
pig
s (Su
s sc
rofa
) wer
e sh
ot a
nd p
ut
into
met
allic
m
esh
cage
s.
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e ta
ken
to d
ecom
posi
tion
stag
es.
Met
hods
: Sa
mpl
ing
was
don
e on
ce a
da
y du
ring
the
firs
t 18
days
an
d th
en e
ach
2 da
ys u
ntil
deco
mpo
sitio
n da
y 31
. It w
as th
en
carr
ied
out t
wic
e a
wee
k un
til d
ay 4
9 an
d th
en o
nce
a w
eek
until
de
com
posi
tion
day
97.
Arth
ropo
ds
wer
e co
llect
ed
from
abo
ve,
arou
nd a
nd b
elow
th
e ca
dave
rs
to a
naly
se
abun
danc
e of
the
all
arth
ropo
ds.
Egg
mas
ses a
nd 1
st st
age
Calli
phor
idae
larv
ae
wer
e as
soci
ated
with
the
fres
h st
age
of
deco
mpo
sitio
n (D
ay 1
-3),
1st a
nd 2
nd st
age
larv
ae o
f Cal
lipho
rida
e an
d Sa
rcop
hagi
dae
duri
ng ch
rom
atic
and
em
phys
emat
ous
stag
es (D
ay 4
-10)
, im
mat
ure
Chry
som
ya
albi
ceps
(Dip
tera
: Cal
lipho
rida
e), O
phyr
a sp
. (D
ipte
ra: M
usci
dae)
and
Oxe
llytr
um d
iscic
olle
(C
oleo
pter
a: S
ilphi
dae)
dur
ing
the
colli
quat
ive
stag
e (D
ay 1
1-20
) and
mai
nly
Cole
opte
ra
duri
ng th
e sk
elet
izat
ion
phas
e (D
ay 2
1-97
).
One
fact
or a
naly
sis o
f var
ianc
e sh
ared
th
at th
ere
wer
e no
stat
istic
ally
sign
ifica
nt
diffe
renc
es b
etw
een
the
abun
danc
e of
the
all a
rthr
opod
s col
lect
ed fr
om th
e th
ree
pigs
du
ring
the
deco
mpo
sitio
n (A
NOV
A, F
=0.
13,
df=2
, n =
5981
, P >
0.05
).
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.008
4
Shar
an-
owsk
i BJ
et a
l. [3
0]
Inse
ct
succ
essi
on
and
deco
mp-
ositi
on
patt
erns
on
shad
ed a
nd
sunl
it c
arri
on in
Sas
kat-
chew
an
in th
ree
diffe
rent
se
ason
s
Envi
ron-
men
tal:
Seas
on- (
spri
ng,
sum
mer
, fal
l) an
d H
abita
t (su
n vs
sh
ade)
Univ
ersi
ty o
f Sa
skat
chew
an
in S
aska
toon
, he
art o
f the
M
oist
Mix
ed
Gras
slan
d Ec
oreg
ion
of
the
Prai
rie
Ecoz
one
of
Cana
da. (
May
- O
ct 2
000)
To st
udy
inse
ct
succ
essi
on a
nd
deco
mpo
sitio
n pa
tter
ns
for f
utur
e ho
mic
ide
inve
stig
atio
ns
in S
aska
t-ch
ewan
regi
on
n =
18
Dom
estic
pig
ca
rcas
ses
(Sus
scro
fa
Linn
aeus
) w
eigh
ed 4
2-79
kg
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e ta
ken
to
deco
mpo
sitio
n st
ages
.
Met
hods
: Re
sear
ch w
as
cond
ucte
d ov
er
25 w
eeks
. For
ea
ch o
f the
3
seas
ons,
3 sh
aded
and
3
fully
sunl
it si
tes
wer
e se
lect
ed.
Site
s for
carc
ass
plac
emen
t wer
e ch
osen
on
frin
ge
area
s, w
ithin
sh
rubs
aw
ay
from
the
crop
s (s
hade
d si
tes)
, or
on
the
edge
s of
culti
vate
d la
nd
(sun
lit si
tes)
. Ea
ch si
te w
as
50m
aw
ay.
Fres
h (in
Sp
ring
day
s 0-1
for S
unlit
and
0-2
for S
hade
d); (
in S
umm
er
days
0 fo
r bot
h);
(in F
all d
ays 0
-2 fo
r Su
nlit
and
0-3
for
Sha
ded)
Bloa
ted
(in S
prin
g da
ys 2
-12
for S
unlit
and
3-1
5 fo
r Sh
aded
); (in
Sum
mer
day
s 1-4
for b
oth)
; (in
Fal
l day
s 3-
10 fo
r Sun
lit a
nd 4
-10
for S
hade
d)Ac
tive
Deca
y (in
Spr
ing
days
13-
30 fo
r Sun
lit
and
16-3
5 fo
r Sha
ded)
; (in
Sum
mer
day
s 5-
11 fo
r bot
h); (
in F
all d
ays 1
1->5
4 fo
r bot
h)Ad
vanc
ed D
ecay
(in
Spri
ng d
ays 3
1-42
for
Sunl
it an
d 36
-45
for S
hade
d);
(in S
umm
er d
ays 1
2-25
for b
oth)
Dry
(in S
prin
g da
ys 4
2->6
3 fo
r Sun
lit a
nd 4
6->6
3 fo
r Sha
ded)
; (in
Sum
mer
day
s 26-
>43
for b
oth)
Resu
lts in
dica
ted
that
hab
itat
was
onl
y a
fact
or in
the
deco
mpo
sitio
nal
rate
of c
arri
on in
the
spri
ng se
ason
. T
he a
mbi
ent t
empe
ratu
re
was
the
chie
f fac
tor d
eter
min
ing
the
seas
onal
va
riat
ions
in
deca
y ra
te.
Car
cass
es
plac
ed in
spri
ng a
nd fa
ll at
tra
cted
a
mor
e di
vers
e as
sem
blag
e of
inse
cts t
han
sum
mer
-pl
aced
ca
rrio
n.Su
n-ex
pose
d ca
rrio
n ha
d gr
eate
r var
iatio
n in
faun
a th
an
sha
ded
carr
ion
in sp
ring
and
fall.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.009
5An
ders
on
GS e
t al.
[31]
Deep
coas
tal
mar
ine
taph
onom
y:
inve
stig
atio
n in
to ca
rcas
s de
com
posi
tion
in
the
Saan
ich
Inle
t, Br
itish
Col
umbi
a us
ing
a ba
ited
cam
era.
Envi
ronm
enta
l: Di
ssol
ved
oxyg
en
leve
ls
Saan
ich
Inle
t, BC
, ove
r 3
year
s util
izin
g Oc
ean
Net
wor
k Ca
nada
’s VE
NUS
ob
serv
ator
y
To st
udy
the
carc
ass
deco
mpo
sitio
n in
dee
p co
asta
l mar
ine
envi
ronm
ent
n =
3 Pi
g ca
rcas
ses
(Sus
scro
fa)
Carc
ass 1
&
2 (t
oler
able
ox
ygen
leve
l)Ca
rcas
s 3
(ext
rem
ely
anoi
c)
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e ta
ken
to
skel
eton
ized
stag
e
Met
hods
: Eac
h ca
rcas
s was
de
ploy
ed in
la
te su
mm
er/
early
fall
at 9
9 m
un
der a
rem
otel
y co
ntro
lled
cam
era
and
obse
rved
se
vera
l tim
es a
da
y
Carc
ass 1
was
rapi
dly
scav
enge
d th
en
drag
ged
from
vie
w b
y Da
y 22
. Car
cass
2 w
as
scav
enge
d in
a si
mila
r fas
hion
. Exp
osed
tiss
ue
beca
me
cove
red
by O
rcho
men
ella
obt
usa
(Fam
ily L
ysia
nass
idae
) whi
ch re
mov
ed a
ll th
e in
tern
al ti
ssue
s rap
idly
. Car
cass
3 re
mai
ning
in
tact
, dev
elop
ing
a th
ick
filam
ento
us
sulp
hur b
acte
rial
mat
, unt
il Da
y 92
, whe
n it
was
skel
eton
ized
by
crus
tace
a. C
arca
ss 3
w
as d
eplo
yed
whe
n th
e w
ater
was
alr
eady
ex
trem
ely
anox
ic, w
hich
pre
vent
ed la
rger
cr
usta
cea
from
acc
essi
ng th
e ca
rcas
s.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0010
6Si
mm
ons
T et
al.
[17]
The
influ
ence
of
inse
cts o
n de
com
posi
tion
rate
in b
urie
d an
d su
rfac
e re
mai
ns.
Envi
ronm
enta
l: Bu
ried
vs s
urfa
ce
Pres
ton
PR1
2HE,
UK
(May
- Ju
ly
2008
)
To co
nduc
t co
mpa
rativ
e st
udy
of
deco
mpo
sitio
n ra
tes
n =
24
Wild
rabb
it (O
ryct
olag
us
cuni
culu
s). 6
for
each
cate
gory
(i)
to (i
v)
Indi
cato
rs: T
otal
Bo
dy S
core
(T
BS) e
very
c.
50 a
ccum
ulat
ed
degr
ee d
ays (
ADD)
Met
hods
: (i)
buri
ed (3
5 cm
de
pth)
afte
r ex
posu
re to
inse
ct
activ
ity, (
ii) b
urie
d w
ithou
t exp
osur
e,
(iii)
kept
abo
ve
grou
nd b
ehin
d an
in
sect
scre
en, o
r (iv
) con
tinuo
usly
ex
pose
d ab
ove
grou
nd in
a fi
eld
expe
rim
ent.
Resu
lts sh
owed
that
dip
tera
n ov
ipos
ition
oc
curr
ed co
nsis
tent
ly in
gro
ups i
and
iv
only
. Dec
ompo
sitio
n ra
tes o
f rab
bits
kep
t be
hind
the
scre
en a
nd th
ose
buri
ed w
ithou
t ex
posu
re sh
owed
no
diffe
renc
e (p
= 0
.450
). Th
is w
as si
gnifi
cant
ly sl
ower
than
thos
e bu
ried
afte
r exp
osur
e (p
= 0
.001
6) w
hich
w
as in
turn
sign
ifica
ntly
slow
er th
an th
ose
cont
inuo
usly
exp
osed
(p <
< 0.
001)
. Ins
ect
pres
ence
is th
e pr
imar
y ag
ent a
ffect
ing
deco
mpo
sitio
n ra
te v
ia ti
ssue
cons
umpt
ion
and
also
the
heat
they
gen
erat
e. R
esul
ts
show
ed si
gnifi
cant
diff
eren
ces (
p <<
0.0
01) i
n de
com
posi
tion
rate
s bet
wee
n ca
rcas
ses w
ith
and
with
out i
nsec
t acc
ess p
rior
to b
uria
l. An
ap
prox
imat
ely
30%
enh
ance
d de
com
posi
tion
rate
with
inse
cts w
as o
bser
ved.
7An
ders
on
GS [9
]
Impa
ct o
f Mar
ine
Subm
erge
nce
and
Seas
on
on F
auna
l Co
loni
zatio
n an
d De
com
posi
tion
of
Pig
Carc
asse
s in
the
Salis
h Se
a.
Envi
ronm
enta
l: Se
ason
(spr
ing
vs
fall)
and
Expo
sed
vs ca
ged
Mar
ine
Subm
erge
nce
in S
trai
t of
Geor
gia
(Feb
201
0 - O
ct
2013
)
To st
udy
the
impa
ct
of m
arin
e su
bmer
genc
e an
d se
ason
on
faun
al
colo
niza
tion
and
deco
mpo
sitio
n
n =
4 Pi
g ca
rcas
ses
depl
oyed
2 in
sp
ring
(exp
osed
+
cage
d) a
nd 2
in
fall
(exp
osed
+
cage
d)
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e ta
ken
to
skel
eton
ized
stag
e
Met
hods
: Pla
ced
on th
e se
abed
at
a de
pth
of 3
00 m
in
Oce
an N
etw
ork
Cana
da’s
Vict
oria
Ex
peri
men
tal
Net
wor
k un
der t
he se
a ob
serv
ator
y. On
e of
eac
h ca
tego
ry
fully
exp
osed
, the
ot
her c
over
ed in
a
barr
ed ca
ge to
pr
otec
t it f
rom
sh
arks
.
Imm
edia
tely
afte
r dep
loym
ent a
ll ca
rcas
ses,
in b
oth
spri
ng a
nd fa
ll, w
ere
very
rapi
dly
cove
red
in v
ast n
umbe
rs o
f lys
siana
ssid
am
phip
ods.
Thes
e st
udie
s hav
e sh
own
that
in
high
ly o
xyge
nate
d de
eper
wat
ers,
amph
ipod
s ha
d sk
elet
oniz
ed th
e ca
rcas
ses b
y Da
y 3
in fa
ll an
d Da
y 4
in sp
ring
.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0011
8Va
nin
S et
al
. [24
]
Deco
mpo
sitio
n an
d en
tom
olog
ical
co
loni
zatio
n of
ch
arre
d bo
dies
- a
pilo
t stu
dy.
Envi
ronm
enta
l: Se
ason
s (w
inte
r an
d su
mm
er)
Non
-en
viro
nmen
tal:
Burn
ing
Fiel
d in
the
outs
kirt
s of
Mila
n, in
w
inte
r and
su
mm
er 2
007.
To a
pply
fo
rens
ic
ento
mol
ogic
al
appr
oach
to
estim
ate
the
post
mor
tem
in
terv
al (P
MI)
in
burn
t rem
ains
.
n =
4 Co
ntro
l = 2
(u
nbur
nt) a
nd
Subj
ect =
2
(bur
nt)
60-k
g pi
g ca
rcas
ses (
Sus
scro
fa)
Indi
cato
rs:
Deco
mpo
sitio
n ch
ange
s and
fir
st co
loni
satio
n pe
riod
Met
hods
: Tw
o fo
r ea
ch e
xper
imen
t. On
e pi
g ca
rcas
s w
as b
urnt
unt
il it
reac
hed
the
leve
l 2-3
of t
he
Glas
sman
-Cro
w
scal
e, a
nd u
nbur
nt
as th
e co
ntro
l.
In th
e W
inte
r par
t of t
he e
xper
imen
t, th
e fir
st
inse
ct a
ctiv
ity o
n th
e bu
rnt c
arca
ss b
egan
in
the
Day
18 (C
allip
hora
vom
itori
a). O
n Da
y 26
, a cl
ear r
educ
tion
of th
e tis
sues
in se
vera
l bo
dy re
gion
s (he
ad, t
hora
x, a
nd a
bdom
en)
was
obs
erve
d. T
wo
mon
ths a
fter t
he e
xpos
ure
(Day
60)
, the
bon
es w
ere
clea
n an
d on
ly
a fe
w re
mai
ns o
f bur
nt sk
in a
nd m
uscl
es
wer
e st
ill p
rese
nt. C
ontr
ol p
igs w
ith in
itial
pu
tref
activ
e st
age
was
det
ecte
d at
the
end
of
the
seco
nd w
eek.
In th
ird
wee
k, a
mod
erat
e em
phys
emat
ic p
hase
in th
e he
ad re
gion
an
d di
scha
rge
of d
ecom
posi
tion
fluid
s fro
m
the
mou
th w
as o
bser
ved.
In th
e ab
dom
inal
re
gion
, the
beg
inni
ng o
f a co
lliqu
ativ
e ph
ase
was
obs
erve
d.
In th
e Su
mm
er p
art,
adul
t flie
s and
firs
t in
star
mag
gots
(Pho
rmia
regi
na) a
ppea
red
a fe
w m
inut
es/h
ours
. Fir
st co
loni
zatio
n w
ave
(Cal
lipho
rida
e) a
ppea
red
on b
urnt
and
cont
rol
pigs
at t
he sa
me
time.
Afte
r one
wee
k (D
ay 6
), th
e ca
rrio
n sh
owed
som
e cl
ear s
kele
toni
zed
area
s (he
ad, t
hora
x). A
fter t
he fi
rst w
eek,
the
rate
of s
kele
toni
satio
n an
d th
e ex
posu
re o
f bo
nes s
low
ed d
own.
In th
e fo
urth
wee
k (D
ay
27),
soft
tissu
es w
ere
alm
ost c
ompl
etel
y lo
st,
exce
pt fo
r lar
ge fr
agm
ents
of d
ry o
r bur
nt
skin
. Afte
r 6 w
eeks
, the
cont
rol p
ig sh
owed
ab
out 4
0% sk
elet
onis
atio
n.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0012
9Te
o CH
et
al. [
15]
Post
mor
tem
ch
ange
s in
rela
tion
to
diffe
rent
type
s of
clot
hing
Envi
ronm
enta
l: Gr
ound
vs B
uria
l at
30
cm d
epth
gr
aves
Non
-en
viro
nmen
tal:
Type
of c
loth
ing
(No
clot
hing
, lig
ht cl
othi
ng a
nd
heav
y cl
othi
ng)
Loca
tion
at
Univ
ersi
ti Ke
bang
san
Mal
aysi
a,
Bang
i, Se
lang
or
To st
udy
the
effe
ct o
f bur
ial
and
type
of
clot
hing
on
rate
of
deco
mpo
sitio
n,
whi
ch ca
n co
ntri
bute
to
estim
atin
g PM
I fo
r vic
tims
n =
12
Cont
rols
= 3
(g
roun
d) a
nd
Subj
ects
= 9
(b
urie
d) fo
r ea
ch cl
othi
ng
grou
ps.
Rabb
its
(Ory
ctol
agus
cu
nicu
lus)
w
eigh
ing
2-3k
g.
Indi
cato
rs: T
otal
Bo
dy S
core
(TBS
).
Met
hods
: Bur
ied
subj
ects
wer
e ex
hum
ed a
t 2nd
w
eek
(reb
urie
d),
4th
wee
k (r
ebur
ied)
and
6th
w
eek.
Cont
rol:
Day
3 an
d 4:
colo
nize
d by
ant
s.(i)
Hea
d an
d N
eck
regi
on -
Day
5: C
avin
g in
ap
pear
ance
; Day
6: B
one
expo
sure
. (ii
) Bod
y Tr
unk
regi
onDa
y 4:
Blo
ated
; Day
6: F
ur d
etac
hmen
t; Da
y 8:
Cav
ing
in a
ppea
ranc
e; D
ay 9
(sco
re to
stop
at
8/3
5): t
he sk
in u
nder
wen
t mum
mifi
catio
n w
ith d
ark
brow
n co
lour
slow
ly fa
ding
into
lig
ht b
row
n by
the
end
of th
e st
udy.
Full
skel
eton
isat
ion
of th
e bo
dy tr
unk
unde
r the
m
umm
ified
skin
with
no
inte
rnal
org
an.
(iii)
Fore
limb
and
Hin
dlim
b re
gion
,Da
y 5:
Bon
e ex
posu
re a
nd sm
all a
mou
nts o
f ha
rden
ed sk
in st
ill co
uld
be o
bser
ved
at th
e jo
ints
by
the
end
of st
udy;
Day
10:
TBS
scor
e w
as 3
0/35
. Su
bjec
t: Af
ter s
ix w
eek
to re
ach
aver
age
scor
e of
ove
r 30/
35.
SPSS
ana
lysi
s sho
wed
that
the
buri
al fa
ctor
w
as si
gnifi
cant
in a
ffect
ing
the
TBS
scor
e,
F(l,l
l)=12
.991
, p<0
.05
with
obs
erve
d po
wer
of D
ay*B
uria
l fac
tor w
as 0
.906
or
90.6
%. H
owev
er ty
pe o
f clo
thin
g di
d no
t sh
ow si
gnifi
cant
diff
eren
ces a
mon
g ty
pes
of cl
othi
ng, F
(2,9
)=0.
022,
p=0
.978
and
co
mbi
natio
n of
bur
ial a
nd ty
pe o
f clo
thin
g fa
ctor
s als
o w
as n
ot si
gnifi
cant
, F(2
,3)=
0.42
9,
p=0.
686.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0013
10
Scho
t-sm
ans
EM e
t al.
[32]
Long
-term
effe
cts
of h
ydra
ted
lime
and
quic
klim
e on
the
deca
y of
hum
an
rem
ains
usi
ng
pig
cada
vers
as
hum
an b
ody
anal
ogue
s: F
ield
ex
peri
men
ts
Non
-en
viro
nmen
tal:
Lim
e (C
a(OH
)2)
vs q
uick
lime
(CaO
)
Buri
ed m
icro
-en
viro
nmen
t of
shal
low
gra
ves
in sa
ndy-
loam
so
il in
Bel
gium
(F
eb 2
008
- Au
g 20
11)
To st
udy
the
effe
cts o
f lim
e on
the
deca
y of
hu
man
rem
ains
in
labo
rato
ry
cond
ition
s and
6
mon
ths o
f fie
ld
expe
rim
ents
n =
6 Co
ntro
l = 2
(u
nlim
ed) a
nd
Subj
ects
= 4
.Pi
g ca
rcas
ses
(Sus
scro
fa)
aged
bet
wee
n 10
and
12
wee
ks.
Indi
cato
rs:
Deco
mpo
sitio
n st
ages
upo
n ex
hum
atio
n
Met
hods
:1s
t set
(tim
e si
nce
deat
h 2
days
) w
as b
urie
d in
Feb
20
08. E
xcav
ated
in
Aug
201
1 (a
fter
42 m
onth
s).
2nd
set (
time
sinc
e de
ath
24h)
w
as b
urie
d in
Mar
20
10. E
xcav
ated
in
Aug
201
1 (a
fter
17 m
onth
s).
The
exte
nt o
f dec
ompo
sitio
n is
slow
ed
dow
n by
bur
ial w
ith b
oth
hydr
ated
lim
e an
d qu
ickl
ime.
The
lim
ed a
nd u
nlim
ed p
igs o
f th
e bu
rial
s rec
over
ed a
fter 4
2 m
onth
s wer
e to
tally
skel
eton
ised
with
out a
ny fr
agm
ents
of
soft
tissu
e le
ft. T
he ca
rcas
ses r
ecov
ered
af
ter 1
7 m
onth
s of b
uria
l wer
e in
an
adva
nced
st
age
of d
ecay
. Unl
imed
carc
ass A
21 e
xhib
ited
disi
nteg
ratio
n of
soft
tissu
e on
the
tors
o an
d sk
elet
onis
ed e
xtre
miti
es a
nd sk
ull.
Both
lim
ed
pigs
, B21
and
C21
, dis
play
ed li
quef
ying
soft
tissu
e at
the
tors
o an
d he
ad w
ith sk
elet
onis
ed
extr
emiti
es. T
he in
tern
al o
rgan
s wer
e no
lo
nger
dis
tingu
isha
ble.
The
upp
er su
rfac
e of
bot
h lim
ed p
igs d
ispl
ayed
a d
ark
brow
n co
lour
. Unl
ike
the
6 m
onth
bur
ials
, the
skin
w
as n
eith
er in
tact
nor
reco
gnis
able
any
mor
e.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0014
11Ab
d El
-ba
r MM
[2
6]
A pr
elim
inar
y in
vest
igat
ion
of in
sect
co
loni
zatio
n an
d su
cces
sion
on
rem
ains
of
rabb
its
trea
ted
with
an
orga
noph
osph
ate
inse
ctic
ide
in
El-Q
alyu
biya
Go
vern
orat
e of
Eg
ypt
Non
-en
viro
nmen
tal:
Orga
noph
osph
ate
(OP)
pes
ticid
e pi
rim
ipho
s-m
ethy
l (te
st)
Sum
mer
in a
ru
ral v
illag
e (u
ninh
abite
d ho
use)
in
El-Q
alyu
biya
Go
vern
orat
e (E
gypt
)(A
ugus
t to
Sept
20
08)
To co
mpa
re th
e ne
crop
hago
us
inse
cts
colo
nizi
ng th
e ca
dave
rs
n =
4 Co
ntro
l = 2
(k
illed
by
asph
yxia
); Te
st
Subj
ect =
2
(poi
sone
d by
OP
)M
ale
rabb
its
( Ory
ctol
agus
cu
nicu
llus
dom
estic
us L
.),
each
wei
ghtin
g 15
Kg.
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e ta
ken
to
deco
mpo
sitio
n st
ages
.
Met
hod:
Ad
min
istr
atio
n of
10m
l pur
e do
se o
f an
antic
holin
este
rase
OP
pes
ticid
e di
rect
ly in
ject
ed
into
the
apex
of
the
hear
t. W
ithin
10
min
of d
eath
, th
e fo
ur ca
rcas
ses
wer
e tr
ansf
erre
d in
to fo
ur se
para
te
cage
s wel
ded
with
w
ire
mes
h (1
cm).
They
wer
e th
en
plac
ed 1
m a
part
.
Fres
h (d
ays 0
-1 fo
r Tes
t Sub
ject
and
0-1
for
Cont
rol)
Bloa
t (da
ys 1
-3 fo
r Tes
t Sub
ject
and
1-2
for
Cont
rol)
Wet
Dec
ompo
sitio
n (d
ays 4
-10
for T
est
Subj
ect a
nd 2
-7 fo
r Con
trol
)Dr
y De
com
posi
tion
(day
s 10-
40 fo
r Tes
t Su
bjec
t and
7-1
9 fo
r Con
trol
)Sk
elet
al (d
efin
ed b
y co
mpl
ete
loss
of s
oft
tissu
es w
ith o
nly
bone
s, ca
rtila
ge a
nd h
air
rem
ains
pre
sent
)
Cont
rol r
emai
ns re
ache
d th
e sk
elet
al st
age
by 1
9 da
ys p
ost-
killi
ng. T
est s
ubje
cts h
ad
unde
rgon
e on
ly p
artia
l dec
ay e
ven
40 d
ays
follo
win
g OP
poi
soni
ng w
ith o
nly
the
low
er
part
s of t
he te
st ca
rcas
ses o
bvio
usly
dec
ayed
, w
hils
t the
ir u
pper
par
ts re
mai
ned
unch
ange
d.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0015
12M
atus
z-ew
ski S
et
al.
[33]
Effe
ct o
f bo
dy m
ass
and
clot
hing
on
carr
ion
ento
mof
auna
.
Non
-en
viro
nmen
tal:
Body
mas
s and
Cl
othi
ng
Gras
slan
d ha
bita
t of
Wes
tern
Po
land
(May
201
2 -
Nov
201
2)
To st
udy
sim
ulta
neou
s ef
fect
s of
carc
ass m
ass
and
clot
hing
n =
24
Dom
estic
pig
ca
rcas
ses
(Sus
scro
fa
dom
estic
a L.
) gr
oupe
d in
to
10.5
-24.
9°C
for
spri
ng, f
rom
16
.5-2
8.3°
C fo
r ea
rly su
mm
er,
and
from
9.1
-22
.0°C
for l
ate
sum
mer
Indi
cato
rs:
Num
ber o
f tax
a,
abun
danc
e an
d re
side
ncy
peri
od
of in
sect
s
Met
hods
: Fac
tori
al
bloc
k ex
peri
men
t w
ith 4
leve
ls o
f ca
rcas
s mas
s (s
mal
l car
cass
es
5-15
kg,
med
ium
ca
rcas
ses 1
5.1-
30
kg, m
ediu
m/l
arge
ca
rcas
ses 3
5-50
kg
, lar
ge ca
rcas
ses
55-7
0 kg
) and
2
leve
ls o
f car
cass
cl
othi
ng (c
loth
ed
and
uncl
othe
d)
Resu
lts d
emon
stra
te th
at in
sect
ass
embl
ages
ar
e m
ore
com
plex
, abu
ndan
t, an
d lo
ng-
last
ing
on la
rger
carc
asse
s, w
here
as cl
othi
ng
is o
f min
or im
port
ance
in th
is re
spec
t. On
ly
larg
e or
med
ium
/lar
ge ca
rcas
ses w
ere
colo
nize
d by
all
guild
s of c
arri
on in
sect
s, w
hile
smal
l or m
ediu
m ca
rcas
ses r
evea
led
high
und
erre
pres
enta
tion
of la
te-c
olon
izin
g in
sect
s. Re
side
ncie
s of a
ll fo
rens
ical
ly re
leva
nt
inse
cts w
ere
dist
inct
ly p
rolo
nged
(atle
ast
thre
e tim
es lo
nger
) on
larg
er ca
rcas
ses,
indi
catin
g th
at ca
dave
r mas
s is a
fact
or o
f gr
eat i
mpo
rtan
ce.
13H
eo C
C et
al
. [34
]
Stud
y of
inse
ct
succ
essi
on
and
rate
of
deco
mpo
sitio
n on
a p
artia
lly
burn
ed p
ig
carc
ass i
n an
oil
palm
pla
ntat
ion
in M
alay
sia.
Non
-en
viro
nmen
tal:
Part
ially
bur
ning
Oil p
alm
pl
anta
tion
near
a
pig
farm
in
Tanj
ung
Sepa
t, Se
lang
or
To co
mpa
re
the
stag
es o
f de
com
posi
tion
and
faun
al
succ
essi
on o
f pa
rtia
lly b
urnt
pi
g w
ith co
ntro
l
n =
2 Yo
ung
pigs
w
eigh
ed
appr
oxim
atel
y 10
kg
died
fro
m
pneu
mon
ia.
Indi
cato
rs:
Tim
e ta
ken
to
deco
mpo
sitio
n st
ages
Met
hods
: One
pi
g w
as p
artia
lly
burn
t by
1-lit
er
petr
ol w
hile
the
othe
r ser
ved
as
cont
rol.
Visi
ted
twic
e pe
r day
for
the
first
wee
k an
d on
ce th
erea
fter.
Fres
h (D
ay 1
-2),
Bloa
ted
(Day
3),
Activ
e De
cay
(Day
4-6
), Ad
vanc
ed D
ecay
(7-8
), Dr
y re
mai
ns
(9-1
6)
Resu
lts sh
owed
that
ther
e w
as n
o si
gnifi
cant
di
ffere
nce
betw
een
the
rate
of d
ecom
posi
tion
and
sequ
ence
of f
auna
l suc
cess
ion
on b
oth
pig
carc
asse
s. Bo
th ca
rcas
ses w
ere
com
plet
ely
deco
mpo
sed
to re
mai
n st
age
afte
r 9 d
ays.
The
only
diff
eren
ce n
oted
was
in th
e nu
mbe
r of
adul
t flie
s, w
here
by m
ore
flies
wer
e se
en in
th
e co
ntro
l car
cass
.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0016
14Be
nbow
M
E et
al.
[35]
Dela
yed
inse
ct a
cces
s al
ters
carr
ion
deco
mpo
sitio
n an
d ne
crop
hago
us
inse
ct
com
mun
ity
asse
mbl
y
Non
-en
viro
nmen
tal:
Dela
yed
inse
ct
acce
ss to
carr
ion
for 5
day
s
Mid
wes
tern
te
mpe
rate
fo
rest
hab
itat
surr
ound
ed
by a
gric
ultu
ral
field
s in
Xeni
a, O
hio,
US
A du
ring
tw
o su
mm
er
seas
ons,
2010
an
d 20
11
To st
udy
the
effe
ct o
f del
ayed
in
sect
acc
ess
n =
6 Sw
ine
carc
asse
s. 3
rand
om
carc
asse
s ex
pose
d to
in
sect
acc
ess
(ACC
). 3
carc
asse
s wer
e en
clos
ed in
Lu
mite
scre
en
cage
s to
excl
ude
necr
opha
gous
in
sect
Indi
cato
rs: T
ime
take
n to
dry
stag
e
Met
hods
: In
2010
, six
mal
e ca
rcas
ses r
angi
ng
from
10.
4 - 3
0.1
kg, e
utha
nize
d by
cr
ania
l blu
nt fo
rce.
In
201
1, u
sing
the
sam
e m
etho
ds, s
ix
carc
asse
s (th
ree
fem
ales
and
thre
e m
ales
) eut
hani
zed
from
5.0
–7.3
kg
Duri
ng th
e fir
st 5
day
s of d
ecom
posi
tion,
in
sect
exc
lusi
on ca
rcas
ses r
emai
ned
in b
loat
st
age
whi
le th
ose
natu
rally
colo
nize
d w
ere
wel
l adv
ance
d in
act
ive
deco
mpo
sitio
n.
In 2
010
the
inse
ct a
cces
s car
cass
es w
ere
appr
oach
ing
the
dry
stag
e w
ith ca
lliph
orid
la
rval
mas
ses c
over
ing
two
carc
asse
s, w
hile
for c
arca
ss th
ere
had
alre
ady
been
a
larv
al d
ispe
rsal
eve
nt b
y th
e en
d of
day
5.
Mea
nwhi
le, i
nsec
t exc
lusi
on ca
rcas
ses w
ere
in
the
bloa
t sta
ge o
f dec
ompo
sitio
n on
the
Day
5.
In 2
010,
inse
ct a
cces
s car
cass
es d
ecom
pose
d to
the
dry
stag
e be
twee
n th
e Da
y 6
and
7 of
dec
ompo
sitio
n; h
owev
er, i
n 20
11 th
ese
carc
asse
s wer
e in
the
dry
stag
e w
ithin
5 d
ays.
Duri
ng b
oth
2010
and
201
1, in
sect
exc
lusi
on
carc
asse
s wer
e in
dry
stag
e by
the
Day
9 of
de
com
posi
tion,
whi
ch co
rres
pond
ed w
ith th
e 4
days
of p
ost-
excl
usio
n in
sect
act
ivity
. Thi
s su
gges
ts th
at o
nce
inse
cts w
ere
allo
wed
to
colo
nize
the
reso
urce
it h
ad a
n ac
cele
rate
d de
com
posi
tion
proc
ess.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0017
Animal carcasses subjected to different habitats and localities would present different decomposition changes and insect colonisation. Although there was no significant difference of decomposition in a lake and a stream area, time taken to reach skeletonised stage of pig carcasses was three times longer (61 days) compared to in semi-rural area (21 days) according to the Colombian locality located over 2600 m above sea level. Canadian articles have reported that anoxic condition (very low oxygen level) under deep coastal marine environment would delay the skeletonisation as much as five times compared to moderately low oxygen level (22 days), however, it has taken only 4 days under submergence sea environment in the Strait of Georgia [9-11]. Also there would be a delay of 5 days in insect colonisation causing the delay of skeletonisation in indoor condition compared to outdoor environment. Voss SC et al. [12,13] have investigated into the enclosed vehicle environment in which they found that the higher temperature inside the vehicle have enhanced the decomposition rate by 3 to 4 days. In the Middle East taphonomic study of rabbit carcasses, researchers have reported that decomposition rate in urban area and desert area was double up. It has taken 5 days to reach the dry stage compared to coastal area and agricultural area (13 days). Silahuddin SA et al. [14] has encountered the similar results whereby rabbit carcasses undergone faster decomposition rate in rural or pasture area compared to jungle area and highland area.
Faria LS et al. [7] has also complied with their findings by using pig carcasses whereby insects bred more abundantly in the pasture area compared to forest area. Furthermore, sun-exposed carcasses underwent greater variation in fauna compared to shaded carcasses whilst more abundant on meadow compared to on the floor. From the burial factor perspective by using the total body scoring system, time taken to reach skeletonised stage with score of 30/35 TBS was within 42 days compared to period of 10 days for the ground control rabbit carcasses [15]. It was four times slower decomposition rate due to the burial factor and the SPSS analysis showed that the burial factor was significant in affecting the TBS score. Troutman L et al. [16] reported that deep and core buried subjects of burial were even more significantly slower than those of the shallow and mid-outer buried subjects. According to Simmons T et al. [17] stated that ground and buried rabbit carcasses that have been accessed by insects activity were scored 26/30 TBS after 300 and 400 accumulated degree days (ADD) respectively. In terms of non-environmental approaches, rabbit carcasses did not show significant difference among types of clothing. Combination of burial and type of clothing factors also was not significant.
However, pig carcasses have shown unclothed carcasses decomposing faster than clothed carcasses and presence of clothing markedly prolonged the wet decay stage as well as had larger visible maggot masses which moved more freely and took longer to be dried out. Clothing was the minor importance compared to the insect assemblages and body mass
factor. Spicka A et al. [18] mentioned that animal carcasses of a mass less than 20 kg decomposed more rapidly than larger carcasses. Insect exclusion carcasses were delayed at least two times to reach dry stage of decomposition (10 days) compared to the exposed carcasses (26 days). It was reported similarly with the presence of scavenging effects by King KA et al [19]. Nevertheless, physical barriers such as usage of wrapping, lime and cement had significantly more important than clothing effect. Ahmad A et al. [20] had reported that wrapping delayed the arrival of all fly species encountered the monkey carcasses, with the delay up to maximum 13 days. Cemented pig carcasses showed areas of mummification at the abdomen within a general context of initial putrefaction at the third month and showed wide adipocere formation after 6 months [21]. After 17 months of burial, unlimed carcass exhibited disintegration of soft tissue on the torso and skeletonised extremities and skull whilst limed pigs displayed liquefying soft tissue at the torso and head with skeletonised extremities [22].
Moreover, application of quicklime instigated an initial acceleration of decay. Microscopic changes may be delayed in presence of concrete and lime but not totally eliminates all the aerobic bacteria. On the other hand, burning pig carcasses greatly accelerated decomposition in contrast to unburnt carcasses. Physical modifications following burning such as skin discolouration, splitting of abdominal tissue and leathery consolidation of skin eliminated evidence of bloat and altered micro ambient temperatures [23]. It was supported by Vanin S et al. [24] whereby burning effect doubled up the decomposition rate compared to unburnt carcasses. In contrary, burning effect was still not statistically significant as examined by four of local and foreign researchers for both pig and rabbit carcasses. In certain rare condition which happened occasionally, Lynch-Aird J et al. [25] reported that hanging pigs reached advanced decomposition stages sooner, but lagged behind during the early stages. This delay is believed to result from lower variety and quantity of insects. Pig carcasses had undergone only partial decay even 40 days following organophosphate (OP) pesticide pirimiphos-methyl poisoning whilst the control remains reached the skeletal stage by 19 days post-killing [26]. They stated that only the lower parts of the test carcasses were obviously decayed, whilst their upper parts remained unchanged.
DiscussionBased on the evidence in this review, there were emerging
literatures for the past 10 years reporting the factors, including environmental and non-environmental, affecting the cadaveric decomposition rates by using animal carcasses in which majority were pigs and rabbits. Several important aspects of these affecting factors within animal carcasses have been identified: Firstly, the affecting factors on the decomposition rate could be further classified into enhancing or accelerating and delaying or decelerating factors which were regularly reported by the published studies [36]. Accelerating factors were mostly related
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0018
to higher temperature including the summer season (triple to septuple), rainy season, urban and desert area (double), sun-exposed on ground area, burning effect (double), enclosed vehicle as well as exposure to insects (at least double) and scavenger activities (double). Decelerating factors, on the other hands, often relied on the effect of the lower temperature such as winter season (3 - 7 times), deep coastal marine (5 times), underwater (3 times), highland and shaded area. It might also depend on the burial effect (4 times) and other physical barriers to prevent the access of insect activities by using heavy clothing, wrapping, lime and cement as well as the chemical barrier likewise the organophosphate (OP) pesticide etc. However, the variables and decomposition rates were generally varied between studies. There are several reasons for these inconsistent findings including the differences in the study design, sample size, sample type, location of study, choice of comparison groups and methods used to assess the relationship between the affecting factors and decomposition rate.
Some of these studies have implied combination of affecting factors which have made the analysis and comparison more complicated. Secondly, it appeared that the techniques of measurements used to evaluate the decomposition rate were also varied depending on the objectives of the respective studies in this review. Most of the researchers observed and recorded the time taken to reach each of the categorised decomposition stages which was also varied from one another. However, the start point (fresh stage) and the ending point (dry or skeletonised stage) of the decomposition changes were often similar among the studies and permit immediate comparison. Nonetheless, some researchers used different approaches such as time taken for first colonisation of insects, insect richness, insect residency time, insect succession patterns and taxa variation. Moreover, more systematic approaches such as total body scoring system (TBS), accumulated degree days (ADD) system and percentage of weight loss of the carcasses were also used to determine the decomposition rate. Again these were also varied from one another, for example, the maximum scores might be different from each articles and the measurements made at different period or by different point of time or at different ADD values [37-40]. The comparison, hence, might be very complex to certain extend in making inference and conclusion from this review.
Thirdly, findings from this scoping review have demonstrated that insect activities and temperature were the main factors affecting the overall decomposition rates except in the presence of physical barriers which might have contributed some variations to the decomposition rates. Apart from that, Simmons T et al. [17] have collected data from previous studies and recent experiments in which were then compared using simple conversions across multiple environments. The major effector of change in decomposition rate was the insect presence, regardless of depositional environment, species, or season. Body size of the animal carcasses chosen was only significant when carcasses
were accessed by insects. When insects were excluded, while bodies were indoors, submerged, or buried, then decomposition progresses at the same rate regardless of body size. Therefore, early differentiation of the carcass type and body size used by the researchers would definitely make the scoping review more applicable for comparison as the analogue to the human cadavers. This is due to the limitation of the ethics issues which have been extensively discussed for any taphonomic study using human cadavers [41].
To overcome this problem, researcher are recommended to compute the degree of the affecting factors and report the decomposition rate of animal carcasses in terms of either percentage or tuple order of the delaying effect or enhancing power. It could be also in the form of average TBS per day or ADD per day to tolerate for the application in any carcass type and body size used as the analogue to human cadavers. Finally, this scoping review also found that there was no extensive evidence on the decomposition rate in equatorial or tropical countries including Malaysia. Only a few taphonomy studies in Malaysia was identified which mainly focus in Kedah and Selangor area. However, there were in fact many other studies have been excluded owing to researchers reported only the entomological findings and biochemistry details of the carcasses without correlating with the decomposition rate. The limitation of this study was that the data was collected from certain selected resources without considering unpublished articles especially those minor studies conducted by undergraduate students. Some of the finite values of decomposition rate for each affecting factors were not fully concluded in this study due to the limitation of their study period whereby some of the carcasses might not be fully skeletonised. Therefore, future researches need to be conducted in a systematic ways in order to address the significant factors affecting the decomposition rate and more accurately estimate the postmortem interval in any of the death investigation [42].
Collaborative research effort between the Ministry of Health, universities and other international agencies is one of the strategies that need to be implemented to provide evidence on the relationship between the affecting factors and the decomposition rate which could be recognised world-widely later on. Trained professionals are also encouraged to conduct proper extensive studies and actively discuss with their international networking especially during any platform of research presentations. In conclusion, there were emerging evidences on the affecting factors of the decomposition rate, although it was still very limited in tropical countries including Malaysia. Findings of this scoping review demonstrated that insect activities and temperature were the main factors affecting the overall decomposition rates except in the presence of physical barriers which might have contributed some variations to the decomposition rates. It is hoped that these findings will support the planning of future researches in a more systematic and extensive way to enable more accurate estimation of postmortem
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0019
interval based on the delaying effects and enhancing factors on the decomposition rates [43].
AcknowledgementThe authors would like to thank the Director General,
Ministry of Health Malaysia for the permission to publish this paper. This scoping review was partially funded by the National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia to prepare for an experimental taphonomic study by using rabbit carcasses in Kuala Lumpur Hospital. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Mohd Shah Mahmood who acting as Director of the National Institute of Forensic Medicine and appreciate all the contributors who have involved directly or indirectly throughout this scoping review.
References1. Lee Goff M (2009) Early post-mortem changes and stages of
decomposition in exposed cadavers. Exp Appl Acarol 49: 21-36.
2. Zhou C, Byard RW (2011) Factors and processes causing accelerated decomposition in human cadavers - An overview. J Forensic Leg Med 18(1): 6-9.
3. Jeong Y, Jantz LM, Smith J (2016) Investigation into Seasonal Scavenging Patterns of Raccoons on Human Decomposition. J Forensic Sci Mar 61(2): 467-471.
4. Meyer J, Anderson B, Carter DO (2013) Seasonal variation of carcass decomposition and grave soil chemistry in a cold (Dfa) climate. J Forensic Sci 58(5): 1175-1182.
5. Wang J, Li Z, Chen Y, Chen Q, Yin X (2008) The succession and development of insects on pig carcasses and their significances in estimating PMI in south China. Forensic Sci Int 179(1): 11-8.
6. Li L, Wang J, Wang Y (2016) A comparative study of the decomposition of pig carcasses in a methyl methacrylate box and open air conditions. J Forensic Leg Med Aug 42: 92-95.
7. Faria LS, Paseto ML, Franco FT, Perdigão VC, Capel G, et al. (2013) Insects breeding in pig carrion in two environments of a rural area of the state of minas gerais, Brazil. Neotrop Entomol 42(2): 216-222.
8. Azwandi A, Abu Hassan A (2009) A preliminary study on the decomposition and dipteran associated with exposed carcasses in an oil palm plantation in Bandar Baharu, Kedah, Malaysia. Trop Biomed 26(1): 1-10.
9. Anderson GS, Bell LS (2016) Impact of Marine Submergence and Season on Faunal Colonization and Decomposition of Pig Carcasses in the Salish Sea. PLoS One 11(3): e0149107.
10. Anderson GS (2011) Comparison of decomposition rates and faunal colonization of carrion in indoor and outdoor environments. J Forensic Sci 56(1): 136-142.
11. Shaalan EA, El-Moaty ZA, Abdelsalam S, Anderson GS (2016) A Preliminary Study of Insect Succession in Al-Ahsaa Oasis, in the Eastern Region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. J Forensic Sci 62(1): 239-243.
12. Voss SC, Forbes SL, Dadour IR (2008) Decomposition and insect succession on cadavers inside a vehicle environment. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 4(1): 22-32.
13. Voss SC, Cook DF, Dadour IR (2011) Decomposition and insect succession of clothed and unclothed carcasses in Western Australia. Forensic Sci Int 211(1-3): 67-75.
14. Silahuddin SA, Latif B, Kurahashi H, Heo CC (2015) The Importance of Habitat in the Ecology of Decomposition on Rabbit Carcasses in
Malaysia: Implications in Forensic Entomology. J Med Entomol 52(1): 9-23.
15. Teo CH, Pawita AH, Khairul O, Atiah Ayunni AG, Noor Hazfalinda H (2013) Post mortem changes in relation to different types of clothing. Malays J Pathol 35(1): 77-85.
16. Troutman L, Moffatt C, Simmons T (2014) A preliminary examination of differential decomposition patterns in mass graves. J Forensic Sci 59(3): 621-626.
17. Simmons T, Cross PA, Adlam RE, Moffatt C (2010) The influence of insects on decomposition rate in buried and surface remains. J Forensic Sci 55(4): 889-892.
18. Spicka A, Johnson R, Bushing J, Higley LG, Carter DO (2011) Carcass mass can influence rate of decomposition and release of ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen into grave soil. Forensic Sci Int 209(1-3): 80-85.
19. Kama A King, Wayne D Lord, Heather R Ketchum, R Christopher O’Brien (2016) Postmortem scavenging by the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana): Impact on taphonomic assemblages and progression. Forensic Science International 266: 576.e1-576.e6.
20. Ahmad A, Ahmad AH, Dieng H, Satho T, Ahmad H, et al. (2011) Cadaver wrapping and arrival performance of adult flies in an oil palm plantation in northern Peninsular Malaysia. J Med Entomol 48(6): 1236-1246.
21. Gibelli D, Di Giancamillo A, Taborelli A, Porta D, Andreola S, et al. (2013) Burial of piglet carcasses in cement: a study of macroscopic and microscopic alterations on an animal model. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 34(1): 43-49.
22. Schotsmans EM, Denton J, Fletcher JN, Janaway RC, Wilson AS (2014) Short-term effects of hydrated lime and quicklime on the decay of human remains using pig cadavers as human body analogues: Laboratory experiments. Forensic Sci Int 238: 142.
23. Craig S McIntosh, Ian R Dadour, Sasha C Voss (2016) A comparison of carcass decomposition and associated insect succession onto burnt and unburnt pig carcasses. Int J Legal Med.
24. Vanin S, Zanotti E, Gibelli D, Taborelli A, Andreola S, et al. (2013) Decomposition and entomological colonization of charred bodies - a pilot study. Croat Med J 54(4): 387-393.
25. Lynch-Aird J, Moffatt C, Simmons T (2015) Decomposition Rate and Pattern in Hanging Pigs. J Forensic Sci 60(5): 1155-1163.
26. Abd El-bar MM, Sawaby RF (2011) A preliminary investigation of insect colonization and succession on remains of rabbits treated with an organophosphate insecticide in El-Qalyubiya Governorate of Egypt. Forensic Sci Int 208(1-3): e26-e30.
27. Iancu L, Carter DO, Junkins EN, Purcarea C (2015) Using bacterial and necrophagous insect dynamics for post-mortem interval estimation during cold season: Novel case study in Romania. Forensic Sci Int 254: 106-117.
28. Barrios M, Wolff M (2011) Initial study of arthropods succession and pig carrion decomposition in two freshwater ecosystems in the Colombian Andes. Forensic Sci Int 212(1-3): 164-172.
29. Segura NA, Usaquén W, Sánchez MC, Chuaire L, Bello F (2009) Succession pattern of cadaverous entomofauna in a semi-rural area of Bogotá, Colombia. Forensic Sci Int 187(1-3): 66-72.
30. Sharanowski BJ, Walker EG, Anderson GS (2008) Insect succession and decomposition patterns on shaded and sunlit carrion in Saskatchewan in three different seasons. Forensic Sci Int 179(2-3): 219-240.
31. Anderson GS, Bell LS (2014) Deep coastal marine taphonomy: investigation into carcass decomposition in the Saanich Inlet, British Columbia using a baited camera. PLoS One 9(10): e110710.
Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation
How to cite this article: Lai P S, Khoo L S, Nazni W A, Kharmila A, Ahmad H H. A Scoping Review on Factors Affecting Cadaveric Decomposition Rates. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 2(2): 555584.0020
32. Schotsmans EM, Fletcher JN, Denton J, Janaway RC, Wilson AS (2014) Long-term effects of hydrated lime and quicklime on the decay of human remains using pig cadavers as human body analogues: Field experiments. Forensic Sci Int 238: 141.
33. Matuszewski S, Frątczak K, Konwerski S, Bajerlein D, Szpila K, et al. (2016) Effect of body mass and clothing on carrion entomofauna. Int J Legal Med 130(1): 221-232.
34. Heo CC, Mohamad AM, Ahmad FM, Jeffery J, Kurahashi H, et al. (2008) Study of insect succession and rate of decomposition on a partially burned pig carcass in an oil palm plantation in Malaysia. Trop Biomed 25(3): 202-208.
35. Jennifer L Pechal, M Eric Benbow, Tawni L Crippen, Aaron M Tarone, Jeffery K Tomberlin (2013) Delayed insect access alters carrion decomposition and necrophagous insect community assembly. J Med Entomol 50(2): 440-450.
36. Mahat NA, Zainol-Abidin NL, Nordin NH, Abdul-Wahab R, Jayaprakash PT (2016) Patterns of oviposition and development of Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) on burned rabbit carcasses. Forensic Sci Int 260: 9-13.
37. Mashaly AM (2016) Entomofaunal Succession Patterns on Burnt and Unburnt Rabbit Carrion. J Med Entomol 53(2): 296-303.
38. Abouzied EM (2014) Insect Colonization and Succession on Rabbit Carcasses in Southwestern Mountains of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. J Med Entomol 51(6): 1168-1174.
39. Card A, Cross P, Moffatt C, Simmons T (2015) The Effect of Clothing on the Rate of Decomposition and Diptera Colonization on Sus scrofa Carcasses. J Forensic Sci 60(4): 979-982.
40. Al-Mesbah H, Moffatt C, El-Azazy OM, Majeed QA (2012) The decomposition of rabbit carcasses and associated necrophagous Diptera in Kuwait. Forensic Sci Int 217(1-3): 27-31.
41. Gruenthal A, Moffatt C, Simmons T (2012) Differential decomposition patterns in charred versus un-charred remains. J Forensic Sci 57(1): 12-18.
42. Anton E, Niederegger S, Beutel RG (2011) Beetles and flies collected on pig carrion in an experimental setting in Thuringia and their forensic implications. Med Vet Entomol 25(4): 353-364.
43. Kelly JA, van der Linde TC, Anderson GS (2009) The influence of clothing and wrapping on carcass decomposition and arthropod succession during the warmer seasons in central South Africa. J Forensic Sci 54(5): 1105-1112.
Your next submission with Juniper Publishers will reach you the below assets
• Quality Editorial service• Swift Peer Review• Reprints availability• E-prints Service• Manuscript Podcast for convenient understanding• Global attainment for your research• Manuscript accessibility in different formats
( Pdf, E-pub, Full Text, Audio) • Unceasing customer service
Track the below URL for one-step submission https://juniperpublishers.com/online-submission.php
This work is licensed under CreativeCommons Attribution 4.0 Licens