A STUDY OF THE LAND - VRO | Agriculture...

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TC – 14

By A J Pitt

Victoria, Australia, 1981

SOIL CONSERVATION AUTHORITY

378 Cotham Road, Kew, VictoriaAustralia 3101

Chairman:

A. Mitchell, M.Agr.Sc., D.D.A.

Deputy Chairman:

D.N. Cahill, B. Agr. Sc., Dip.Ag.Ex.

Member:

J. S. Gilmore

Secretary:

D. M. Aughterson

ISBM 0 7241 1908 6

CONTENTS

FOREWORD .......................................................................................................................................................................7SUMMARY..........................................................................................................................................................................8ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................91. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................................11

Methods of Study.............................................................................................................................................................112. CLIMATE ..................................................................................................................................................................12

Rainfall12Average Annual Rainfall .............................................................................................................................................12Seasonal Distribution...................................................................................................................................................12Intensity .......................................................................................................................................................................12Temperature.................................................................................................................................................................14Effects on Plant Growth...............................................................................................................................................14Frost .............................................................................................................................................................................14Seasonal Moisture Availability....................................................................................................................................16

3. GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY ...............................................................................................................18Mesozoic Sedimentation..................................................................................................................................................18

Tertiary Developments ................................................................................................................................................18The Wangerrip Group Equivalents ..............................................................................................................................18Continental deposits.....................................................................................................................................................19Heytesbury Group and equivalents..............................................................................................................................19Pliocene Lateritization .................................................................................................................................................19Tectonic Movements ...................................................................................................................................................20

Quaternary Developments ...............................................................................................................................................20Basaltic Extrusions ......................................................................................................................................................20Lake Deposits ..............................................................................................................................................................21Alluvial Terraces .........................................................................................................................................................21Coastal Land Forms.....................................................................................................................................................21Surface Sediments .......................................................................................................................................................22

4. SOILS .........................................................................................................................................................................23Soils of Uniform Texture.................................................................................................................................................23

Soils with Gradational Profile Forms ..........................................................................................................................24Soils with Duplex Profile Forms..................................................................................................................................27Miscellaneous Soils .....................................................................................................................................................28

Physical and Chemical Analyses .....................................................................................................................................30Particle Size Analysis ..................................................................................................................................................30Soil Reaction................................................................................................................................................................30Electrical Conductivity ................................................................................................................................................30Organic Carbon and Nitrogen......................................................................................................................................31Free Ferric Oxide.........................................................................................................................................................31Phosphorus...................................................................................................................................................................31Potassium.....................................................................................................................................................................31Exchangeable Cations..................................................................................................................................................31

5. NATIVE VEGATION ...............................................................................................................................................32Closed Forest ...................................................................................................................................................................32

Nothofagus cunninghamii and associated species. ......................................................................................................32Leptospermum juniperinum and associated species.....................................................................................................32

Tall Open Forest ..............................................................................................................................................................32Eucalyptus regnans and associated species .................................................................................................................32Eucalyptus cypellocarpa and associated species .........................................................................................................33Eucalyptus globulus and associated species ................................................................................................................33Eucalyptus viminalis and E. obliqua............................................................................................................................34

Open Forest......................................................................................................................................................................34Eucalyptus obliqua and associated species..................................................................................................................34Eucalyptus baxteri and associated species...................................................................................................................35Eucalyptus ovata and associated species .....................................................................................................................35Eucalyptus aromaphloia and associated species .........................................................................................................36Eucalyptus sideroxylon and associated specie .............................................................................................................36Eucalyptus pauciflora and associated species .............................................................................................................36

Low Open Forest .............................................................................................................................................................37Melaleuca lanceolata and associated species ..............................................................................................................37

Woodland ........................................................................................................................................................................37Eucalyptus radiata and associated species ..................................................................................................................37

Eucalyptus camaldulensis and associated species ....................................................................................................... 37Eucalyptus leucoxylon and associated species............................................................................................................. 37Eucalyptus viminalis.................................................................................................................................................... 38

Low Woodland ................................................................................................................................................................ 38Eucalyptus nitida and associated species..................................................................................................................... 38Eucalyptus kitsoniana and associated species ............................................................................................................. 38Casuarina littoralis and associated species ................................................................................................................. 38

Other Species................................................................................................................................................................... 39Closed Scrub.................................................................................................................................................................... 39

Melaleuca squarrosa and associated species............................................................................................................... 39Leptospermum lanigerum and associated species........................................................................................................ 39

Open Scrub ...................................................................................................................................................................... 39Low Shrubland ................................................................................................................................................................ 40Grasslands and Herbfields ............................................................................................................................................... 40

6. LAND USE................................................................................................................................................................. 41Agriculture....................................................................................................................................................................... 41Forestry............................................................................................................................................................................ 42Water Supply................................................................................................................................................................... 43Nature Conservation........................................................................................................................................................ 43Recreation........................................................................................................................................................................ 46Residential Uses .............................................................................................................................................................. 46Extractive Industries........................................................................................................................................................ 46

7. LAND SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................................................................... 47Tabular Descriptions ....................................................................................................................................................... 477.1 Aire Land System ................................................................................................................................................ 497.2 Anglesea Land System ........................................................................................................................................ 517.3 Bald Hills Land System....................................................................................................................................... 537.4 Barongarook Land System .................................................................................................................................. 557.5 Barrabool Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 577.6 Barwon River Land System................................................................................................................................. 597.7 Beech Forest Land System .................................................................................................................................. 617.8 Bellbrae Land System.......................................................................................................................................... 637.9 Birregurra Land System....................................................................................................................................... 657.10 Bunker Hill Land System .................................................................................................................................... 677.11 Cape Otway Land System ................................................................................................................................... 697.12 Carlisle Land System........................................................................................................................................... 717.13 Chapple Vale Land System ................................................................................................................................. 737.14 Connewarre Land System.................................................................................................................................... 757.15 Deepdene Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 777.16 Ferguson Hill Land System ................................................................................................................................. 797.17 Forrest Land System............................................................................................................................................ 817.18 Freshwater Creek Land System........................................................................................................................... 837.19 Gellibrand River Land System ........................................................................................................................... 857.20 Gherang Gherang Land System........................................................................................................................... 877.21 Hordern Vale Land System ................................................................................................................................. 897.22 Junction Track Land System ............................................................................................................................... 917.23 Kawarren Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 937.24 Kennedys Creek Land System............................................................................................................................. 957.25 Lorne Land System.............................................................................................................................................. 977.26 Moggs Creek Land System.................................................................................................................................. 997.27 Mooleric Land System....................................................................................................................................... 1017.28 Mount Mackenzie Land System ........................................................................................................................ 1037.29 Mount Sabine Land System............................................................................................................................... 1057.30 Paraparap Land System ..................................................................................................................................... 1077.31 Pennyroyal Land System’................................................................................................................................. 1097.32 Point Roadknight Land System ......................................................................................................................... 1117.33 Porcupine Creek Land System........................................................................................................................... 1137.34 Redwater Creek Land System ........................................................................................................................... 1157.35 Rivernook Land System .................................................................................................................................... 1177.36 Simpson Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 1197.37 Thompson Creek Land System.......................................................................................................................... 1217.38 Tomahawk Creek Land System......................................................................................................................... 1237.39 Waarre Land System ......................................................................................................................................... 1257.40 Winchelsea Land System................................................................................................................................... 127

7.41 Wonga Land System..........................................................................................................................................1297.42 Yahoo Creek Land System ................................................................................................................................1317.43 Yeodene Land System .......................................................................................................................................133

8. SOIL CONSERVATION ........................................................................................................................................135Types of Deterioration...................................................................................................................................................135

Sheet erosion..............................................................................................................................................................135Gully erosion .............................................................................................................................................................135Mass movement .........................................................................................................................................................136Salting........................................................................................................................................................................136Soil nutrient decline...................................................................................................................................................137Soil structure decline .................................................................................................................................................137Wind erosion..............................................................................................................................................................137Deterioration of streams.............................................................................................................................................137

Soil Conservation and Land Use ...................................................................................................................................138Grazing ......................................................................................................................................................................138Cropping ....................................................................................................................................................................139Forestry......................................................................................................................................................................139Residential use ...........................................................................................................................................................139Recreation..................................................................................................................................................................140Roads and tracks ........................................................................................................................................................140Extractive industries ..................................................................................................................................................141Water supply protection.............................................................................................................................................141

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................................142

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 – Maximum rainfall (mm) in 24 hours at selected stations.................................................................................12Table 2 – Average February, July and Annual Temperature (0o C) ................................................................................14Table 3 – Soils of the Otway Range and Adjacent Plains................................................................................................29Table 4 – Agricultural Land Uses, Pasture Species and Fertilizer requirements of the Land System .............................44

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 – Study area.......................................................................................................................................................10Figure 3 – Seasonal distribution of rainfall at selected sites ............................................................................................12Figure 2 – Average Annual Rainfalls ..............................................................................................................................13Figure 4 – Occurrence of Frosts ......................................................................................................................................15Figure 5 – Comparisons of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration .....................................................................17

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX I – Analytical Data for Soil Profiles..........................................................................................................144APPENDIX II – Methods of Soil Analysis ...................................................................................................................154APPENDIX III – Soil Profile Descriptions ...................................................................................................................155APPENDIX IV – Minor Components of Land Systems................................................................................................165APPENDIX V – Floristic List .......................................................................................................................................167

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The stability of land, and hence its sustained productivity depends on its nature as well as its use and management. Somekinds of land withstand drastic modification by Man, while others degenerate under slight pressure.

Inherent feature – the climate, geology, topography, vegetation and soils – largely determine the forms of soildeterioration occurring in an area; for example, erosion by water, wind and gravity, salting, waterlogging, nutrient declineand structure decline. Such deterioration will, in turn, affect the quality and regulation of surface and undergroundwaters.

In order to develop a systematic approach to soil conservation, we need information on the inherent features of the land,their interrelations and their interactions.

These interactions affect the nature of the land, the processes of land deterioration and the responses to land management.

Integrated surveys of land to provide such information have been carried out by the Soil Conservation Authority since1952. They have evolved from ecological principles put forward by Downes (1949), Christian and Stewart (1953),Costin (1954), Gibbons and Downes (1964) and others. Techniques of survey have been developed over the years. Arecent account of the principles and techniques is given by Gibbons and Haans (1976).

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This study examine the nature and interactions of the features of the natural environment. It covers the land both in andsurrounding the Otway Range, a total area of 3,685 km2.

The climate is generally cool and wet. Annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 2,000 mm, with a strong seasonal peak inwinter. Coastal areas reflect a maritime influence – they have fewer frosts and less variation between winter and summertemperatures.

The Otway Range is a prominent feature of the landscape, rising some 500 – 700 m above sea level. It comprises LowerCretaceous sandstones and mudstones and, except for some of the higher parts, has been deeply dissected into a ruggedseries of valleys and ridges. Surrounding foothills and plains to the east, west and north have been formed largely fromtertiary sands and clays, with smaller areas of marl, limestone and siltstone. Flows of Quaternary basalt have formedplains in the extreme north and east.

Soils vary widely, but show certain broad trends. Deep friable profiles are found in the higher parts of the Otway Rangeon the relatively nutrient-rich Cretaceous sandstones. In contrast, fertile sands are common on the Tertiary sediments.Sodic duplex soils predominate in the drier areas, and most profiles on the basaltic plains have heavy-textured subsoils.

Tall open forests of Eucalyptus regnans and other species cover much of the Range. The surrounding foothills carry lowopen forests of E. baxteri and E. nitida. A great diversity of vegetation structural formations and species colonize theexposed coastal localities.

Agriculture is the predominant land use on the northern plains and in the more fertile foothills, while forestry dominatesin the Range. Large parts of the Range serve as domestic water supply catchments. Coastal areas are used principally forrecreation and holiday developments.

The hazard of soil deterioration is severe in certain landscapes, but the resultant damage that has occurred varies. Theform and intensity of land use, together with management methods, are important in determining the damage to sensitiveareas. Landslips and sheep erosion are widespread on cleared land. Gullying and soil salting are common on the drierplains to the north and east. Wind erosion occurs on coastal dunes.

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Grateful acknowledgment is made of the support of the Soil Conservation authority and of the keen interest expressed bythe Chairman, Mr A. Mitchell.

The compilation and production of this report would not have been possible without the enthusiastic assistance of manypeople. Within the staff of the Authority, Mr. F. R. Gibbons and Mr A. A. Thornley (now with Town & CountryPlanning Board) did much of the initial field work and collected many soil samples for laboratory analysis. They haveboth provided valuable comments for the preparation of this report. Mr J. N. Rowan has examined the technical materialand provided many constructive comments. Mr T. I. Leslie directed the laboratory analyses and prepared Appendix II.

Field assistance was provided by Messrs P. Jeffrey, B. Evans, A. Jakimoff and P. Klutke. Miss L. Caruana re-drew theblock diagrams for publication. Mr B. A. Young prepared the bibliography and the land system legend and co-ordinatedthe production of successive drafts. Mr A. R. Beasley co-ordinated the printing and publishing details. Mr R. Noonanprepared the photographs for publication.

Mrs Y. Roberts acted as technical editor. Mr J. LasGourgues of the Ministry for Conservation prepared map anddiagrams for publication. Mr A. Conley, Department of Agriculture, provided pasture species recommendations and MrD. Linforth, Bureau of Meteorology, provided the average annual isohyets. Many other people, too numerous to mention,have helped in both the collection and compilation of the data presented in the report.

The assistance and encouragement of all these people is gratefully acknowledged.

Figure 1 – Study area

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The Otway Range is a major feature of the landscape in south-western Victoria. Bass Strait forms its southern boundary,and inland a series of hills, dissected plateaux and alluvial plains separates it from the basaltic landscapes further north.The inland limits of the study area have been defined as the catchment boundaries of the Gellibrand River, the BarwonRiver upstream from Winchelsea and Thompson Creek (see Figure 1).

Methods of StudyThe information presented in the following chapters has been derived from several sources. Land systems have beendelineated (as shown on the map), and described according to the methods outlined in the land system chapter.Information on the native vegetation and soils, including detailed profile descriptions, has been collected in the area.Much of the geological information has been collated from a review of the literature and published maps, with someminor alterations to that of the more remote areas after field examination. Descriptions of the climatic characteristics ofthe area are based on records from the Bureau of Meteorology. Land use and soil conservation chapters are partly derivedfrom field observations and partly from discussions with officers of the Soil Conservation Authority and the Departmentof Agriculture in Victoria.

In the following pages the environmental features are described both separately in separate chapters and together in theland system, further details of each characteristic may be obtained by referring to the relevant chapter. Conversely, thetabular descriptions outline the interactions between the characteristics.

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Rising some 500 –700 m above sea level directly inland from the coast, the Otway Range exerts a major influence on thispart of Victoria. Wide variations in climate are associated with the changes in topography – from the coast to the highestparts of the Range and to the flat extensive plains further inland. Accompanying changes in the dependent variables ofsoil and vegetation can be observed.

Rainfall

Average Annual RainfallThe study area is well serviced by rainfall stations, and the records illustrate the marked variation in annua rainfall, asshown in Figure 2. The main ridge receives an annual average in excess of 1,800 mm, with some areas receiving close to2,000 mm. Off the main ridge the amount drops rapidly, and in some areas the average halves within a distance of only10 km. To the north-east lies a marked rainshadow (Linforth 1977), with Winchelsea receiving less than 600 mm. Afurther rainshadow is formed by the smaller ridge extending north through Barongarook to Colac. This ridge sheltersBarwon Downs and Gerangamete Flats from moisture-bearing southerly and westerly air streams.

Seasonal DistributionRainfall varies according to the season at most stations, with the wettest month being August (sometimes July in coastallocalities) and the driest being January (see Figure 3). The strongest trends occur in the wetter localities such asWeeaproinah, Forrest, Cape Otway and Simpson. The depression of seasonal trends in June at some stations iscommonly found in coastal areas in Victoria.

IntensityAlthough summer rainfall is relatively low, heavy rain can fall during this part of the year. The warmer atmosphere insummer can hold more moisture, and heavy rain results when a rain-producing mechanism does occur (Linforth 1977).The heaviest rainfalls in any 24-hour period occur during the summer months at most recording stations, as shown inTable 1. Coastal areas appear to be particularly susceptible to these summer storms.

Table 1 – Maximum rainfall (mm) in 24 hours at selected stations

Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov DecAireys Inlet 69 170 80 52 80 74 36 85 50 80 101 44Barwon Heads 55 61 65 56 62 38 66 51 63 54 51 69Beech Forest 102 108 117 98 152 99 82 101 80 87 72 75Birregurra 47 70 52 36 43 32 36 56 50 58 59 59Camperdown 88 51 57 50 41 47 34 49 51 39 30 38Cape Otway 92 55 93 61 43 61 42 36 48 68 90 44Colac 69 81 48 50 55 34 35 51 40 34 61 56Forrest 51 118 72 81 93 68 51 54 52 54 95 94Geelong 73 89 67 48 114 68 63 61 66 33 52 74Irrewillipe East 127 46 44 43 41 82 47 52 41 81 40 40Lorne 71 180 73 93 124 61 86 61 71 152 115 116Pennyroyal 63 118 56 89 111 123 55 122 53 51 69 72Port Campbell 114 50 79 74 46 47 38 51 55 46 41 70Princetown 102 65 78 57 41 65 36 47 51 51 39 41Winchelsea 51 76 71 29 60 44 47 74 59 43 69 70

Italicized figures are the highest values for each station.Source: Central Planning Authority 1957, 1971.

Figure 3 – Seasonal distribution of rainfall at selected sites

Figure 2 – Average Annual Rainfalls

TemperatureClimatic stations that record temperatures are to be found at Forrest, Gellibrand, Cape Otway and Lorne (Pier Head).Table 2 lists the averages from these, from several stations outside the study area and from three discontinued stations.

In summer, inland areas experience higher temperatures than coastal areas. During winter the converse applies, withinland areas being generally 2o C cooler.

Extreme maxima in excess of 40o C do occur on rare occasions in summer, when warm air spreads over the entire areaand sea breezes have no effect (Linforth 1977). All stations have recorded such maxima, with the exception of BeechForest. This station is the only site from which temperature data for the higher parts of the Otway Range have beenrecorded. The records show a marked lowering of the temperature with the increased elevation.

Effects on Plant GrowthEach species has its own minimum, maximum and optimum temperature requirements, and thus it is difficult to specifygeneralized values for these. Some temperate grass species show signs of growth when the temperature is below 0o C,while some tropical plants practically cease growth at temperatures below 16o C. However, a generally accepted valuebelow which active growth of cool temperate pasture and crop species ceases is 6o C (Martin and Leonard 1967). Thevalue of 10o C has been accepted in southern Australia as the borderline between moderate and slow growth (Trumble1939).

Most of the survey area experiences slow growth n the three winter months, as sown on the land system tables in Chapter7. At coastal localities the period below 10o C is restricted to July. Only the most elevated parts of the Otway Rangehave average monthly temperatures below 6o c.

FrostFrost is likely to have little effect on the native vegetation, which is usually well adapted to it (Foley 1945). However itmay result in death or severe damage to the introduced pastures and crops.

Estimating the occurrence of frost from measured screen temperatures is not simple. The relation between groundtemperatures and screen temperatures varies widely between different climatic stations. Caution is required ininterpreting regional temperatures figures for predicting local frost damage. Other factors, such as the drainage of coldair to local depressions ad the placement of windbreaks that may disrupt and ‘pond’ the movement of cold air, have amajor influence. Aspect is also important, as fast thawing on north- and east-facing slopes is more dangerous to the planttissues than slow thawing.

Despite these variations, screen temperatures of 2o C provide a fair general basis for prediction of light to moderate frostsat ground level, while a screen temperature of 0o C may be adopted to indicate a heavy frost on the ground. Figure 4indicates the occurrence of light and heavy frosts for each month of the year for several stations. Coastal areas such asCape Otway and Lorne are almost frost-free. Frost frequency increases with distance from the coast. A similar tendwould be likely with increasing altitude, but no minimum temperature figures are available for the higher parts of theRange.

Table 2 – Average February, July and Annual Temperature (0o C)

Monthly AveragesStationFeb Jul

Annual average

�Apollo Bay 18.2 10.2 14.1�Beech Forest (Forestry camp)

(Jan)*Camperdown 20.0 8.5 13.7Cape Otway 17.6 9.9 13.6*Colac 17.5 7.6 12.6Forrest 18.3 7.2 12.4*Geelong (Cheetham Salt Works) 18.9 8.7 13.8Gellibrand 18.2 7.8 12.6Lorne (Pier Head) 19.5 10.9 14.8�Lorne 17.6 9.7 13.7*Point Londsale 18.8 9.7 14.1*Terang 19.3 8.4 13.4

�Discontinued stations*Stations adjacent to surveyed areaSource: Bureau of Meteorology 1977

Figure 4 – Occurrence of Frosts

Seasonal Moisture AvailabilityEstimates of the availability of soil moisture for plant growth can be made from the rainfall, the potential rate ofevapotranspiration and the capacity of the soil to store water within the root zone. A number of empirical methods existfor the calculation of evapotranspiration from meteorological data (Thornthwaite 1948, Leeper 1950, Fitzpatrick, 1963).Fitzpatrick’s method uses constants derived from comparison with measured evaporation rates from class ‘A’ pans. Thismethod, together with evaporation data from Wurdiboluc, has been used to derive the potential monthlyevapotranspiration for climatic stations at Apollo Bay, Beech Forest, Colac, Cape Otway, Gellibrand, Forrest, Geelongand Lorne, as shown in Figure 5. These monthly rates are compared with the monthly rainfall to derive estimates ofseasonal moisture availability.

Rainfall generally exceeds evapotranspiration in the autumn. At first this excess recharges soil moisture storage, butduring the winter months it either enters drainage lines as run-off or replenishes groundwater reserves. Its magnitude is ameasure of the potential of an area to supply run-off for water supply catchments. During spring, the potentialevapotranspiration again rises and exceeds precipitation. Moisture remains available for plant growth for some time afterthis happens, as the soil moisture stored above wilting point is used up.

At moister sites with deep soils likely to store more than 200 mm of water, for example around Beech Forest, deep-rootedspecies do not normally suffer moisture stress. By contrast, the shallow soils, or sands with low water-holding capacities,will not support plant growth into the summer. In the drier north around Colac the soils have adequate water-holdingcapacities, but pastures, being shallower-rooted than native perennials, tend to dry off in November or December.

Figure 5 – Comparisons of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration

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The geology and geomorphology of the Otway Range and adjacent plains form the basis of many of the land systemseparations. This chapter gives a chronology of the area in terms of sedimentation, tectonic movements, major climaticchanges and igneous activity, all of which have an important influence on the present nature of the landscape.

Mesozoic SedimentationIn the Lower Cretaceous epoch some 100 – 140 million years ago, the southern parts of south-eastern Australia arethought to have been a vast depositional plain, with rapid sedimentation keeping pace with subsidence and resulting inseveral thousand metres of interbedded sandstones and mudstones (Edwards and Baker 1943). Douglas (1969) suggestedthat these sediments were ‘largely deposited on extensive flood plains with braided streams contributing homogeneoussands and clays, possibly supplemented by volcanism’. The environment of sedimentation probably resembled thatexisting today on the riverine plain north of the Great Divide in south-eastern Australia.

These Lower Cretaceous sediments outcrop in various parts of Victoria, the most notable areas being the South GippslandHighlands, the Merino Tablelands, the Barrabool Hills and the Otway Range. The sediments of the study area were laiddown in the eastern part of the Otway Basin and these have been described and analysed by Edwards and Baker (1943),and reviewed by Douglas et al. (1976). They are composed mainly of fine- to medium-grained feldspathic sandstonesinterbedded with dark, dense mudstones and minor associated sediments. Quartz content is low in comparison with theolder Palaeozoic rocks in Victoria, and the matrix cement is mainly chlorite with small amounts of calcite. Chemicalanalyses show that these sediments are moderately well endowed with most cations required for plant nutrition and evencontain detectable levels of phosphates (Edwards and Baker 1943).

Towards the end of the period, a slight but significant change in the nature of the sediments occurred. Defined by Baker(1950) as the Moonlight Head beds, these sediments are exposed on the northern and western margins of the OtwayRange. Douglas (1969) considers that they were laid down in large swamplands. The beds are characterized by fine-grained highly feldspathic sandstone inter-bedded with light-coloured mudstones. Their major mineralogical differencesfrom the older beds are higher levels of feldspar and possibly of phosphates. They tend to weather more rapidly then theolder beds and are usually present as friable, light-coloured, weathered sandstones and mudstones in surface exposuresand have high clay contents.

Tertiary DevelopmentsMarginal marine conditions at the close of the Mesozoic era signalled the commencement of successive transgressionsand regressions of the sea, resulting several depositional cycles (Abele et al. 1976, Bock and Glenie 1966).

The Wangerrip Group EquivalentsThe oldest series of these marine transgressions and regressions has been associated with deposition of unconsolidatedsands, silts, clays and gravels of the Wangerrip Group and equivalents. The most widespread deposits are those of theDilwyn Formation and the Eastern View Formation, which occupy much of the western and eastern margins of the Rangerespectively. Deposition ranged from Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene times in a variety of marine and continentalenvironments. Some coal deposits were laid down in the continental phase of the Eastern View Formation. Grain size isvariable in these sediments, and the outcrops of fine or coarse material have influenced the location of land systemboundaries (see the map).

Reserves of coal in the Eastern View Formationto the east of the Range are actively mined atAnglesea.

Fringing the western margin of the Lower Cretaceous surface exposures, sediments with moderate levels of clay and siltsize particles with copious rounded quartz pebbles are found. Adjacent to these sediments, unconsolidated quartz sandand occasional gravel predominate in a wide belt stretching from Chapple Creek to Lardner Creek, with many outcrops inother localities. Slightly further west again and to the south, from Mount Mackenzie to the lower reaches of theGellibrand River, the sediments have moderate to high levels of clay and silt size particles, moderate amounts of sand,and little gravel. These finer deposits also dominate the outcrops at Ferguson Hill and along the top of the ridgeseparating Tomahawk Creek and the Gellibrand River.

To the north of the Lower Cretaceous surface exposures, outcropping unconsolidated sediments of the Wangerrip roupcontainer intermixed beds of finer and coarser material. No areas exist where sand or finer material dominates.

Immediately adjacent to exposures of Lower Cretaceous sediments on the eastern margin of the Range, clays, silts andsilica-cemented siltstones predominate around Moggs Creek. Further east and apparently overlying these finer beds arethe coarse quartz sands of the Bald Hills. In the central section of the Range, flat-topped hills in the Redwater Creek areaare capped with deposits of coarse quartz sand and gravel. They shallowly overlie the Lower Cretaceous sandstones at arelatively even depth of about 6 m.

Continental depositsDuring the early Eocene epoch, the sea retreated and some continental deposition with associated erosion and dissectionbecame widespread. Basaltic extrusions occurred in restricted areas around Gellibrand during this continental phase.

Heytesbury Group and equivalentsThe second major Tertiary depositional cycle began in the late Eocene epoch and, with minor oscillations, the sea reachedits maximum advancement in the early Miocene. By the end of late Miocene the sea had regressed. Sediments laid downduring tis cycle are referred to as the Heytesbury Group in the western part of the study area and as the Demons BluffFormation and the Torquay Group in the east.

Sediments from this second cycle are found further from the main body of the Range. In the west, widespreadunconsolidated clays, silts and sands are found in the catchment of Kennedys Creek and further south towardsPrincetown. Around Princetown itself are found calcareous clays, marls and limestone belonging to the Gellibrand Marl.This formation is exposed on in the south-western corner of the study area, but is widespread in the neighbouringcatchments of Scotts and Cooriemungle Creek (Pitt, Jakimoff & Evans, internal report).

On the eastern side of the Range a similar pattern emerges. The Anglesea Member of the Demons Bluff Formationcontains carbonaceous clay, silt and very fine sand, with thin coarse quartz sand and gravel beds that were apparentlydeposited in a marine-marginal environment. Further from the Range lie sediments of the Torquay Group includingcalcareous clays, marls and limestone, these being exposed along the valleys of Spring Creek and Jan Juc Creek. TheAngahook Member of the Demons Bluff Formation contains basalt, tuffs and volcanic breccias together with clays andsand (Abele et al. 1976).

West and east of Cape Otway, a similar pattern again occurs, with unconsolidated clays, silts and sands dominating theexposures of Tertiary sediments. Some remnants of Tertiary sediments have been uplifted to moderately high elevations.A complex pattern of marls and limestones is found in the lower part of the former depositional basin at Hordern Vale.

Pliocene LateritizationDuring the Lower Pliocene epoch, climatic conditions promoted widespread lateritization over western Victoria (Gill1964). The Timboon Surface is well preserved in plateau remnants near Simpson, where deeply weathered profilescomprise an indurated ironstone layer up to a metre thick overlying kaolinitic mottled zones. A layer of siliceous sand isoften present below the lateritic profile, possibly representing the initial stages of a minor marine transgression. Theupper fine sediments have been altered by the lateritic weathering.

To the north and east of the Range, other lateritic remnants may belong to this same Timboon Surface. They are commonto the south and east of Birregurra, and to the north of Anglesea. Flat or gently undulating lateritic landscapes wereprobably continuos over most of the study area. Rejuvenation of these landscapes with subsequent dissection has leftonly minor lateritic plateau remnants.

Some areas apparently related to the Timboon Surface exhibit deep weathering, but do not possess indurated ironstonelayers. Examples can be found near Irrewillipe, Barwon downs, Birregurra and Paraparap.

Coarse quartz sand and gravel from distinctive road cuttingsalong the Gellibrand River valley. This one shows windscalding, scree slopes and original bedding.

Tectonic MovementsUplift of the Otway Range has continued since the Cretaceous period. However, it is likely that the largest period ofuplift occurred during the major tectonic movements in south-eastern Australia in Upper Pliocene times, referred to as theKosciusko Uplift. Major movements occurred along the Chapple Vale, Bambra, Johanna and many other Faults, givenrise to the main structure of the Otways. These movements resulted in rejuvenation of the landscape. Rapid downcuttingremoved many hundreds of metres of Tertiary unconsolidated sediments and Lower Cretaceous sandstones andmudstones, to form deep, steep-sided valleys with rapidly flowing creeks and numerous waterfalls. Some pockets ofTertiary sediments remain high up on the Range, in localities such as Lorne, Cape Patton, Benwerrin and Lavers Hill.

In some central parts of the Otways, down-cutting and deep dissection have not yet advanced back to the old surfacedeveloped before uplift. Undulating landscapes with rounded rolling hills remain, similar to the high plains of the Alps ineastern Victoria and southern New South Wales. These rolling hills are well preserved between Lavers Hill and BeechForest, and they continue as isolated patches north-east to Gentle Annie Hill and south towards Cape Otway,

Movement along the Love Creek and Bunker Hill Faults has exposed Lower Cretaceous sediments to the north of theGellibrand River. Landscape with unconsolidated sands and clays on the higher parts and interbedded sandstones andmudstones in the lower positions occur intermittently along the northern margin of the Range from west of Bunker Hill toeast of Wormbete Creek. Further from the Range, less dramatic faulting has occurred in the Tertiary sediments. ThePaaratte Fault west of Princetown has exposed areas of fresh limestone. The Bambra Fault forms the northern edge of thelateritic plateau inland from Anglesea and marks the edge of an old elongate alluvial plain (Currey 1964).

Quaternary Developments

Basaltic ExtrusionsVolcanic activity increased towards the close of Tertiary times. Soil weathering properties indicate that three majorperiods of activity occurred.

The most weathered and thus probably the oldest flow is that in the northern parts of the Thompson Creek catchment.Only occasional outcrops of weathering basalt remain, although east of Mount Duneed some retreating scarps are found.

Apparently younger flows extend from near Mount Gellibrand to Winchelsea. Here the soils are deep but not highlyweathered (see Chapter 4). Occasional retreating scarps are present in a gently undulating landscape.

The youngest flows are those found south of Mount Gellibrand. They are chracterized by numerous stony rises, withbasaltic wash filling depressions between these. The soils are often shallow and are not deeply weathered (Leeper,Nicholls and Wadham 1936).

The Otway Range contains many steep and narrow valleys, often withpicturesque waterfalls.

The retreating scarp of the PaaratteFault, west of Princetown

Lake DepositsCurrey (1964) postulated that basalt flows east of Winchelsea were instrumentalin the formation of a vast inland lake during the Pleistocene by blocking the pathof the Barwon River. He suggests that the river formerly flowed along thefluviatile plain to the north of the eastern part of the Bambra Fault, and wasresponsible for deposition of the lateritic alluvium referred to above. Basaltvalley flows have since obliterated most remnants of its former course.

The almost flat plain to the north-east and north-west of Birregurra comprises the remnants of the sediments laid down inthis lake. Eventually the lake overflowed and cut a new path to the north of the Barrabool Hills, and the alluvium leftbehind has been mainly derived from basalt with some influence from surrounding Tertiary sediments. Slightrejuvenation and mild dissection have occurred. These high-level calcareous lake deposits are in sharp contrast tosurrounding siliceous deposits of Tertiary marine or Recent alluvial origin.

Alluvial TerracesAlluvial terraces are common in the upper reaches of the Barwon River system, and along the Gellibrand River,particularly at Carlisle River and Gellibrand. Here terraces at different levels can be found. Weathering patterns in soilson the highest terraces indicate considerable age. In addition, some apparently alluvial material is found occasionallyperched as terrace remnants on sides of hills, suggesting deposition before the last major tectonic movements.

Coastal Land FormsAt Cape Otway an to the west, including Johanna Beach and the Princetown coastline, elevated area of aeolian dune sandhave been variably lifted by internal deposition of calcium carbonate. The degree of cementation of this calcarenitedepends on the proportion of calcareous material in the parent sand (Bird 1976). A basement of calcarenite also exists inthe dune system between Torquay and Breamlea, but elsewhere it is rare.

To the west of Cape Otway, the calcarenite often form cliffs almost 100 m high, or overlies buried soils developed onolder Tertiary deposits. The weathering pattern of the palaeosols supports the theory that this coastline emerged duringPleistocene times (Abele et al. 1976). Cliff erosion has left the coastal dune deposits high above the present sea level.

Most of the seaward slopes of the Lower Cretaceous sediments have been steepened by wave undercutting and are thusprone to landslides (Joyce and Evans 1976). Emerged shore platforms with overlying boulder beds and colluvium foundat intervals along the coasts are also inherently unstable.

Coastal erosion of unconsolidated Tertiary sediments has often been even more active, producing vertical cliffs, massivelandslides and earth flows at various localities along the coastline, particularly near Anglesea. The development of adune system in front of some of these landslides indicates temporary stability.

Further modifications of land forms in the coastal vicinity have been initiated by minor fluctuations in sea level (Bird1976, Gill 1977). Recent rises in sea level have drowned the river mouths of the Gellibrand, Aire, Barham and AngleseaRivers and Thompson Creek, creating extensive estuaries.

The Otway Range has been formed onCretaceous sandstones and mudstones, whichhave been uplifted and deeply dissected to form asteep and rugged terrain.

Calcarenite cliffs are common along the coast to the west of CapeOtway; here, a layer of buried soil or palaeosol lies between thecalcarenite and underlying Tertiary sediments.

The most notable is at Thompson Creek, where tidal salt marches have developed on the lee side of the coastal dunesystem. Occasional higher surfaces in this salt marsh are thought to be due to deposition under previous higher sea levels,some 1-2 m above the present level.

Surface SedimentsWidespread redistribution of coarse surface material by both wind and water is commonly observed. In the eastern parts,deep sand sheets overlie older soils, particularly north and west of Torquay. In the west, deposits are usually thinner andoverlie an older deeply weathered profile. A hardpan often develops between the two layers (see Chapter 4).

444... SSSOOOIIILLLSSS

The nature of the soils reflects the interactions of the various soil-forming factors, such as climate, parent material,position in the landscape, age of formation and vegetation. Variations in these factors have led to a wide range of soils inand adjacent to the Otway Range.

In the wetter areas of the Range, strongly acid, well-drained gradational profiles with high levels of organic matter arefound. Textures on Cretaceous sandstones and mudstones are moderately heavy, while soils on Tertiary sediments rangefrom sands to clay loams.

On the surrounding plains, soils may be acid, alkaline or close to neutral, but their organic matter contents are low. Mostof them possess duplex properties and have heavy or medium clay subsoils. Those developed on basalt, or alluviumderived from basalt, have the heaviest textures and the lowest permeabilities.

The soils developed on Cretaceous sediments have moderate levels of most plant nutrients, although calcium is often lowand high acidities decrease the availability of these nutrients for plant growth. Deficiencies of phosphorus, potassium andnitrogen are widespread on Tertiary sediments, with occasional exceptions. Minor and trace elements such as copper,molybdenum, zinc, cobalt and selenium are also often required for active plant growth. Phosphate fertilizers are requiredon the basaltic plain in the north.

Soils recognized as entities in the field have been given descriptive names based on subsoil colour and the nature oftextural change with depth. Other features may also be used, as described in Appendix III. When linked with parentmaterial, these grouping serve to differentiate soils at the series level (U.S.D.A. 1951). The soils are listed in Table 3,together with their place in the classifications of Northcote (1974) and Stace et al. (1968).

Altogether, 48 soils have been recognized, some widespread and other localized. They are described below in terms oftheir occurrence, organic content, soil reaction trend (Northcote 1974), drainage characteristics and other aspects relevantto land use.

Soils of Uniform Texture

1. Yellow calcareous sandsoils. Inherently unstable coastal dunes formed for aeolian sand and shell grit possessoils with little or no profile development. Most areas regularly receive or lose sand through the action of strong onshorewinds. Apart from occasional darkening by organic matter, yellow coarse sands and grit of high alkalinity are foundthroughout. Permeabilities are high and water-holding capacities low, presenting a generally unfavourable medium forplant growth. On exposed sites, coastal winds also severely restrict plant growth.

2. Brown calcareous sand soils. On stable coastal dunes, organic matter has accumulated and some weatheringhas occurred. Dark-brown loamy sand A horizons overlie brown or yellowish brown calcareous sands at about 30 cmdepth. Moderate levels of organic matter in the A horizons improve the moisture-holding capacity and fertility of thesealkaline sands, but conditions are still unfavourable for plant growth.

3. Red-yellow calcareous sand soils. Older coastal dunes with well-differentiated soil profiles are found at CapeOtway and to the west of the Aire River mouth. Black loamy sand A horizons about 30 cm deep overlie B horizons ofreddish yellow or light-red sands. At about 1 m, deeply weathered yellow sands are encountered. In some areas,calcarenite replaces the yellow sand C horizons. Profiles usually have alkaline trends and are again excessively drained,with low water-holding capacity and low fertility.

4. Stony black calcareous sand soils. Old coastal dunes to the east of Torquay overlie calcarenite. Where it isexposed on some of the steeper slopes, shallow stony soils have developed. They are known to occur elsewhere alongVictoria’s coastline (Gibbons and Downes 1964). Surface horizons are black loamy sands interspersed with calcarenitestones and gravel. At about 20 cm there is a gradual change to brown sands with carbonate deposition around rootchannels. Infiltration is restricted by the stone layers near the surface, and rapid surface run-off with resulting severesheet erosion occurs in areas without protective vegetation.

5. Grey sand soils. Freely drained slopes of Tertiary sand with these soils are widespread throughout the studyarea, and are particularly common along the western edge of the Range. Profiles are well differentiated and consist ofblack loamy sands some 30 cm thick overlying bleached grey sand A2 horizons. In drier areas, particularly where thesand appears to be partly aeolian in origin, the B horizons are weakly developed and non-columnar.

Permeabilities are high, with soil water draining through the grey sand channels separating the B horizon columns. Thereaction is acidic, with particularly low pH values at the surface. Low nutrient levels in the parent material and intenseleaching of the permeable profiles have led to severe nutrient deficiencies. Limitations to plant growth also come fromlow water-holding capacities.

6. White sand soils. On the coarser Tertiary deposits in high-rainfall areas, practically all traces of iron andorganic compounds have been leached from the subsoils. Black or dark-grey coarse loamy sands, rich in organic matter,overlie light-grey or white bleached coarse sands at about 20 cm. These A2 horizons continue for several metres,occasionally with weak silica cementation at about 1.5 m depth.

The reaction is acidic throughout and severe nutrient deficiencies occur. Water-holding capacity below the A1 horizon isvery low and drainage is excessive.

7. Grey sand soils with hardpans. Hardpans, rich in iron and organic compounds, have been formed in outcropsof coarse Tertiary deposits. Dissection has brought many of them close to the surface. They are usually covered by awash of sand approximately 60 cm deep. The surface horizon comprises black loamy sand, which overlies mildlybleached dark-grey sands at about 25 cm. An organic-rich loamy sand about 15 cm thick is encountered just above thehardpan. Cemented sand and gravel varies in thickness from 30 cm to several metres, and below this are yellow sand andgravel layers.

8. Yellow sand soils. Steep slopes on corse Tertiary deposits have yellow sand with only weak surface darkeningdue to organic matter accumulation. They appear to be formed on B horizons exposed by erosion of adjacent uniformlytextured grey sand soils. Brownish yellow loamy sands at the surface merge to yellow or yellowish red sands at about 1m. Organic matter levels and water-holding capacities are low. Despite high permeabilities, the reaction trend is neutralwith a mildly acidic surface reaction and this appears to be reflected in the nutrient supply. The native vegetation isnoticeably taller with a dense crown cover than in surrounding areas of uniformly textured grey sand soils.

9. Black sand soils. Where water accumulates in landscape on Tertiary sand deposits, a permanent anaerobicenvironment causes organic matter to accumulate. These conditions exist in many drainage lines around the borders ofthe Otway Range, and on flat hilltops in higher-rainfall areas where weakly developed hardpans impede the profiledrainage. Silty loam O horizons with up to 30% organic matter overlie black loamy sand A1 horizons at about 20 cm. Indrainage lines, layers of sand a peat alternate at depths greater than 60 cm. Elsewhere the black sands continue to a depthof 1 m or so, underlain by a weakly cemented hardpan developed in yellow sand. These hardpans do not appear tosignificantly impede root penetration or permeability. Plant nutrient levels are sometimes high, but the strong acidity (pHvalues are frequently below 4) decreases their availability.

High levels of sulphide are found in the most acidic horizons of these soils. They can have corrosive effects on concreteor metal structures.

10. Red sandy loam soils. Iron-rich Tertiary sediments outcrop in the southern and western part of the study area.Some of these outcrops have soils with black sandy loam surface horizons overlying dark-red sandy loam or sandy clayloam B horizons. These merge into permeable yellow sands, frequently with ferruginous gravel or stones, at about 1 m.The reaction trend is usually acidic, and the relatively vigorous growth of native vegetation indicates a better supply ofplant nutrients than is usually found in light-textured highly permeable soils.

11. Grey calcareous sodic clay soils. The basaltic plains in the north possess many complicated patterns ofmicrorelief. Solution of calcium carbonate in the lowers parts of the landscape is the most probably reason for thedevelopment of ‘sink holes’ some 5 – 12 m across south of Mount Gellibrand and north-east of Birregurra. Water tendsto pond in these descriptions for long periods after rain.

The soils are weakly structured gleyed clays with prominent oxidation along root channels. Textures range from siltyclays at the surface to heavy clays at about 50 cm. Levelling of paddocks in many areas had led to a layer of lighter-textured material from surrounding duplex soils being deposited over the surface. Soil reaction trends are usuallyalkaline. Restricted permeability and the low position in landscape result in poor drainage and waterlogging severelyrestricting plant growth.

12. Black calcareous clay soils are found on the basaltic plains in the north, often demarcated by the presence ofthistles. They occur on gentle scarps and crests of ancient lava flows and around the periphery of ‘stony rises’. Surfacehorizons are dark brownish grey self-mulching clays. Black heavy clays are found below 15 cm and these merge togreyish yellow clays with soft accumulations of free lime. Gilgai microrelief is common, with a vertical variation ofabout 40 cm. Textures are slightly lighter in the shelf position. Apart from phosphorus, nutrient levels are moderate, butpermeability is low. Soil depth, although variable, is usually about 120 cm, with basalt floaters throughout the profile.Leeper, Nicholls and Wadham (1936) termed these soils ‘mooleric clay’.

Soils with Gradational Profile Forms14. Brown gradational soils with weak structure are the more common soils on the alluvial plains, particularly inareas where much of the alluvium is derived from Cretaceous sediments. Surface textures range from fine sandy loams toclay loams, which merge into dark-brown silty clay loams or light clay at about 50 cm depth. Structure in the subsoil isweak or absent, but the surface has a moderate to strong crumb structure. Nutrient levels are relatively high, as the parent

material is mainly derived from Cretaceous sediments. However, soil reaction is acidic, calcium levels are low andcarbon-nitrogen ratios are unfavourable high.

15. Grey gradational soils. On flood plains throughout the study area, and extending back up many river valleys tonarrow drainage lines, alluvial deposits derived from Tertiary sediments have poorly drained heavy-textured soils. Verydark-brown sandy clay loams at the surface grade into slowly permeable medium or heavy clays, which are usually greywith yellow mottles. Seasonally high water tables lead to weak coarse structural development. Nutrient levels aremoderately low.

16. Mottled yellow and grey gradational soils. High alluvial terraces and lower slope positions in the west haveprofiles that are relatively well structured and well drained when compared with the adjacent soils of the above-mentioned grey gradational soils. Dark greyish brown sandy loams overlie mildly bleached A2 horizons. Yellow andgrey mottled clays occur from 50 to 120 cm, below which are alluvial deposits of sandy clays and silts. The reaction isusually acidic. Permeability is moderate, but the subsoils tend to be dispersible and some gully erosion occurs underagricultural use.

17. Yellow gradational soils with weak structure. On steep outcrops of Tertiary clays, silts and sands, profileswith weak differentiation and minimal structure development are encountered. They occur around the margins of theRange and are particularly common near Mount Mackenzie and Bunker Hill in the west, and the Bald Hills in the east.The A1 horizons are grey sandy loams of variable depth. Loamy sand A2 horizons are sometimes present. Yellow oryellowish brown sandy loam B horizons occur at 5 – 50 cm depth, and these grade into sandy clay loams of highpermeability at about 1 m. Floaters of ironstone are common throughout the profile. Sandy loam C horizons are foundbelow approximately 150 cm.

Profiles are acidic and water-holding capacities are low, particularly in the A horizons. Soil nutrient levels are moderatein the western areas with notably high available phosphorus values, frequently concentrated into the surface 10 cm. In theBald Hills area, nutrient levels are extremely low, with particularly low values for potassium and calcium and a highcarbon-nitrogen ratio.

18. Stony yellow gradational soils. Where outcropping Tertiary sediments contain a large proportion of quartzgravel, profiles are weakly structured ad weakly differentiated. They are most common near the Gherang Camp in theeast, but are also found in isolated areas to the north-west of the Otway Range and on steep exposures of quartziticsandstones and siltstones near Moggs Creek. Textures are dominated by the gravel fraction, moisture-holding capacity islow. On steep slopes, and particularly where they overlie impermeable sandstones and siltstones, the weak structuredsurface soils are prone to sheet erosion.

19. Red gradational soils with weak structure, in association with the weakly structured yellow gradational soils,occur in the iron-rich Tertiary sediments near Mount Mackenzie, Ferguson Hill and other locations west of the Range.The distribution of the two soils may be related to the form and quantity of iron oxide in the parent material. Textures ofthe red soils are often somewhat heavier. Black or dark-brown sandy loams into light clay B horizons. Below about 130cm, yellowish red sandy loams are usually encountered, but along Pipeline Road to the west of the Gellibrand Riverlayers of ironstone are found. Profiles are permeable, with moderate nutrient levels.

20. Pale-brown gradational soils with weak structure. On Tertiary sediments just inland from Cape Otway, highpoints in the landscape have poorly drained gradational soils supporting rare stands of Eucalyptus kitsoniana. The parentmaterial is silty clay, containing high proportions of kaolin. Surface horizons are black silty loams with high organicmatter content. These grade into pale-brown silty clay loams with marked oxidation of root channels and gleying,indicating high seasonal water tables. Both surface and subsoils have low mechanical strength, tending to form a slurrywhen disturbed. Nutrient levels and permeabilities are low.

21. Grey-brown gradational soils with well-developed B horizons are found surrounding Ferguson Hill and onsome steeper concave slopes further east. Dark-grey sandy loam A1 horizons overlie greyish brown sandy loam A2horizons. Textures grade through sandy clay loams at about 30 cm to fine-structured grey clays with brown and yellowmottles. Red mottles occur at depth. Sandy clay C horizons occur at about 120 cm. The reaction is mildly acidic, andprofiles are well drained.

22. Mottled yellow and red gradational soils with ironstone have formed on weathered remnants of Tertiarylateritic profiles on coastal plains in moderately high-rainfall areas. The main areas are around Simpson, with isolatedpockets near Hordern Vale and Rivernook. A1 horizons of shallow greyish brown sandy clay loams overlie brownstructureless clay loams, grading into yellow and red mottled silty clays at about 40 cm. Very stable fine angular blockystructures are characteristic of the B horizons. Ironstone gravel is present throughout and, at approximately 150 cmdepth, horizontal bands of sheet ironstone alternating with bands of kaolinitic clay restrict water movement through thesoil. Soil reaction is acidic and intense leaching has resulted in low levels of many plant nutrients. High sesquioxidelevels lead to fixation of applied phosphate.

23. Mottled yellow and red gradational soils occur at comparable levels in the landscape to previous soils; theirprofiles are similar but lack ironstone. They are found in the moderately high-rainfall areas in the west near WongaRoad, Ferguson Hill, Barongarook and Kawarren and also on the highest alluvial terraces at Carlisle River andGellibrand. The variation in ironstone context may be due to variation in parent material or weathering history. Below150 cm red, yellow and grey mottled clays continue to indefinite depths. Profiles are acidic and fertility is again low.

24. Yellow-brown gradational soils with coarse structure. Along the hillslopes into Tomahawk Creek, KennedysCreek and other tributaries of the Gellibrand River closer to the coast, the intensely weathered mottled clays mentionedabove have been stripped away. This has exposed less-weathered underlying Tertiary sands and clays and occasionallysome gently sloping outcrops of Cretaceous sandstones. Very dark grey fine sandy loams overlying greyish brown sandyloams merge into yellowish brown clay B horizons, with grey mottles at about

26. Brown gradational soils are the most common ones in the study area, occurring on steep slopes and crests ofthe Otway Range under a wide variety of rainfall. At rainfalls of about 1,000 mm they are confined to the wetter southernand eastern aspects, while in the highest-rainfall areas they are often associated with more resistant strata where the depthof weathering is comparatively shallow. Although mainly on Cretaceous sediments, they also occur on Tertiary claysnear Hordern Vale and Cape Otway.

Dark-brown loam surface soils grade into brown or yellowish brown medium clays or silty clays at 20 cm. Weatheringparent material is encountered between 80 and 130 cm depth. Structure is well developed and rock floaters are commonon Cretaceous sediments. The reaction trend is acidic and nutrient levels are relatively high by Australian standards.Although soil permeability is moderate, heavy rainfall leads to considerable surface run-off and erosion of surface soillayers when disturbed. Landslips are common on steep slopes, even under native vegetation.

27. Brown friable gradational soil. Deep profiles have developed on gentle crests in the high-rainfall parts of theRange, particularly on the more weathered outcrops of Cretaceous sediments. A continuum exists between these profilesand the previous soils. Well-structured dark-brown loams or clay loams about 30 cm deep grade into friable dark-brownlight clay B horizons, continuing to depths of more than 2 m in places. Brown clay loams or light clays with evidence oforiginal bedding constitute the C horizons. The reaction is acidic. Organic matter levels and fertility are high. Good sitedrainage and high permeability contribute to the salinity of these soils for plant growth.

28. Dark-brown gradational soils. Most of the minor drainage lines and many of the larger streams and rivers inthe Otway Range are bounded by colluvial-alluvial slopes of variable grade. The soils contain varying amounts of graveland stones, with occasional boulders. Textures range from black loams or clay loams at the surface to dark-brown lightclays below about 30 cm. Below about 120 cm, parent material occurs as chaotic mixtures of soil, gravel and stone.Although most plant nutrients have high levels, acidic reactions restrict their availability. Profiles are permeable, butwater tables are close to the surface for much of the year.

29. Stony brown gradational soils. On drier exposures of Cretaceous sediments, steep slopes prone to soil losshave young profiles developed on colluvium. The coastal parts of the Range and the steep slopes near Yahoo Creek arethe main areas of occurrence. Surface horizons are thin dark-brown fine sandy loams overlying weakly structuredyellowish brown sandy clay loams with varying amounts of gravel and stone. Profiles are shallow and weatheringsandstones frequently occur within 60 cm of the surface. On some slopes, clay layers are found below the mantle ofcolluvium. Levels of organic matter and soil nutrients are notably lower than in other soils on Cretaceous sediments.Reaction is acidic and moisture holding capacity is also low.

30. Stony red gradational soils. On the edges of some of the lateritic plateaux, steep concave scarps have colluvialdeposits of ironstone with shallow stony or gravelly soils. Such soils are found around the edge of the Timboon Surface(Gill 1964), along the top of the scarp west of the Gellibrand River at Carlisle River, and in some of the coastal areas nearAnglesea.

Profiles consist of dark reddish brown sandy loams with gravel overlying weakly structured red gravelly clay loams andlight clays at about 30 cm depth. Lateritic ironstone underlies the soils at depth ranging from 60 to 120 cm. The drierareas near Anglesea have frequent ironstone outcrops. Lower down the scarps, unconsolidated Tertiary sedimentsunderlie the soils. Fertility and moisture-holding capacity are low, although the frequent emergence of springs fromaquifers below the laterite often promotes good growth of deep-rooted native vegetation.

31. Stony red-brown gradational soils are widespread on the scarps and stony rises of basaltic landscapes south ofMount Gellibrand. Pockets of soil between basalt outcrops consist of dark-brown loams overlying rock or reddish brownclay loams and clays. Depth varies, but seldom exceeds 40 cm. Deeper profiles do occur on some of the isolated Tertiarybasalt outcrops in the higher-rainfall areas near Gellibrand. The reaction is neutral and nutrient levels are moderatelyhigh. Shallowness and stoniness are the main limitations for most uses.

32. Red calcareous gradational soils. Outcrops of Tertiary limestone near Bellbrae and of calcarenite east ofTorquay have red gradational soils on well-drained sites. Surface horizons consist of brown sandy clay loams grading towell-structured red clays at about 15 cm. Weathering limestone occurs at depths of 30 – 80 cm. The reaction is alkalinealthough the surface is usually neutral. Nutrient levels are moderate, but the shallow depths result in low water-holdingcapacities.

33. Black calcareous gradational soils. Exposures of limestone and calcareous clays occur on steep well-drainedslopes near Hordern Vale and along Curdies Fault north of Princetown. The soils are shallow black fine sandy clay loamsor light clays overlying dark-brown clays. Structure is strong throughout and aggregates are stable. At a depth of 40 – 80cm weakly consolidated limestone and marl occur. The reaction trend is alkaline, although the surface soil is close toneutral. Fertility is moderate, but the shallowness leads to low moisture-holding capacity.

Soils with Duplex Profile Forms34. Yellow sodic duplex soils. The lower positions of the landscape on Tertiary and Quaternary sediments in thenorth and east are frequently occupied by colluvial-alluvial deposits on which strongly differentiated soils havedeveloped. Surface horizons are usually dark-grey sandy loams overlying bleached sandy loam or sandy clay loam A2horizons at about 15 cm. Ironstone nodules may occur at the base of the A2 horizon. Yellow or yellowish brown clayswith earthy fabric and occasional brown and grey mottles are found at 30 cm. Strong mottling in some profiles indicatespoor drainage. At about 110 cm, sandy clay parent material is encountered. The reaction has a strong alkaline trend,ranging from acidic at the surface to a pH greater than 8 in the subsoils.

Most of these soils occur in reasonably well-drained positions, and soluble salts tend to accumulate in the subsoil. Theyare sodic, sodium comprising as much as 30% of total exchangeable cations. Rising groundwater may tend to concentratethese salts at the surface. The clay subsoils are dispersible and are thus also susceptible to gully and tunnel erosion.

35. Red-yellow duplex soils. In the steeply dissected hills on the eastern margin of the Range, Tertiaryunconsolidated sediments with some areas of silica-cemented quartzitic siltstones and sandstones have well-differentiatedduplex profiles. The main occurrence is in the catchment of Moggs Creek. Profiles are well drained, and consist of dark-brown fine sandy loams overlying mildly bleached greyish brown sandy loam A2 horizons at about 10 cm depth. Surfacestructure is weak. Weakly mottled reddish yellow clays of moderate dispersibility are encountered at 25 cm depth andcontinue with increased mottling to about 90 cm. These B horizons have moderate structure and an earthy fabric. The Chorizons are apedal silty clays, frequently containing quartzitic siltstones and sandstones.

The reaction trend is acidic, becoming close to neutral in the subsoil. Nutrient levels are moderately low, but these soilshave not been as intensively weathered and leached as other older soils on Tertiary sediments.

36. Brown duplex soils are widespread on Cretaceous sediments in drier parts of the Range. The Barrabool Hillshave similar profiles. Along the coastal strip of the Range, the effect of high atmospheric salt levels passing through thesoil appears to have extended the range of duplex profiles into higher-rainfall areas.

Surface soils are well-structured black loams to fine sandy clay loams, overlying sporadically bleached loams or clayloams at about 15 cm depth. On gentle less freely drained slopes such as those of the Barrabool Hills, these A2 horizonsare often absent. At 30 cm depth, brown or yellowish brown medium to heavy silty clays with strongly developedstructure and low dispersibility are encountered. Weathering sandstones and mudstones are found at a depth ofapproximately 1 m. Profiles are acidic and fertility levels moderate.

37. Grey calcareous sodic duplex soils with coarse structure characterise large parts of the basaltic plains inwestern Victoria, and within the study area they occur on gentle slopes and flat plains in the north and east. Dark-greyfine sandy loam to clay loam surface horizons overlie mildly bleached grey fine sandy clay loam to clay loam A2 horizonsat 15 cm. Ironstone gravel is abundant at the base of the A2 horizon and the top of the B horizon. At approximately 35cm depth there is an abrupt change to grey, yellow and black mottled heavy clays with coarse angular blocky pedsseparated by large shiny ped faces. Paler B2 horizons with more mottled and less ironstone gravel are often present. Softaccumulations of calcium carbonate are visible at 70 cm and may become abundant with depth. These accumulations aremore prominent in the stony rise landscapes south of Mount Gellibrand. Weathering basalt floaters are common and theparent rock is usually encountered between 1 and 3 m depth.

The reaction trend is alkaline, with mildly acidic surface soils. The plains are usually gilgaied and may be interspersedwith unusual microrelief features such as sink holes. Plant growth is limited by the low permeabilities of the clays,leading to seasonal waterlogging.

38. Yellow-brown calcareous sodic duplex soils with coarse structure occur on calcareous clays in ancient lakedeposits around Birregurra and on deeply weathered Tertiary sediments at Bellbrae. Surface horizons are black mildlyacidic fine sandy loams. Near Birregurra, dark-grey sandy clay loam A2 horizons are present. An abrupt change toyellowish brown medium or heavy clays occur at between 25 and 35 cm. The heavier textures occur where the parentmaterial has been derived from basalt, and here the soils are gilgaied. The B horizons have coarse angular blocky peds

with shiny faces and these clays are quite dispersible. At about 120 cm, calcareous clay parent material is encountered.The B horizons are sodic and the permeability is low. Seasonal waterlogging occurs on the flat or gently sloping sites.Nutrient levels are generally low.

39. Yellow-brown sodic duplex soils with coarse structure. On more siliceous deposits of clay and silt in theeastern and north-central parts of the study area, well-differentiated duplex soils are again encountered. They havesimilar profiles to the previous soils, but the B horizons are not calcareous. The reaction trend is alkaline with mildlyacidic surfaces. Yellow and red sandy clays are found below yellow, brown and grey mottled heavy clays at about 170cm. Permeabilities of the dispersible sodic clays are low.

40. Yellow-brown duplex soils with coarse structure occur on similar parent material to the previous soils, but onbetter-drained foothill slopes of the Range near Pennyroyal an Anglesea. Dark-brown fine sandy loams overlie greyishbrown A2 horizons at about 10 cm. An abrupt change to heavy clay B horizons with coarse structures occurs at 30 cm.Sandy clays, or sometimes sandstones, are generally encountered below 120 cm, although sandstones may be as shallowas 60 cm. The dispersible clays have slow permeabilities and the reaction trend is usually acidic. Nutrient levels are low.

41. Brown duplex soils with coarse structure. On high parts of the landscapes at Bellbrae and Princetown,strongly differentiated soils have developed on the base of former lateritic profiles developed from calcareous material.Black fine sandy loams overlie strongly bleached loamy sand or sandy loam A2 horizons. Abrupt boundaries mark thechange to brown dispersible medium clays with coarse structures and large shiny ped faces at approximately 35 cm.Below about 1 m, red and grey mottled become abundant and the soil reaction changes from mildly acidic to alkaline.Ironstone gravel and stone occurs in this B2 horizon, which merges into structureless mottled zones below 2 m.Permeability is restricted by the dense nature of the clay B horizons and fertility levels are low.

42. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils. Older soils with finely structured subsoils are encountered on highergentle parts of the landscape in the eastern and north-central plains. They occur on Tertiary sediments, alluvium anddeeply weathered basalt. Shallow brown sandy loam A1 horizons overlie bleached sandy loams or loamy sands, oftenwith ironstone gravel. Finely structured yellow and red mottled clays are encountered at approximately 40 cm, themottling becoming stronger and coarser with depth. The clays are prone to slaking, but seldom disperse readily. At about140 cm depth, the structure becomes weaker and mottled red and grey sandy clays or mottled weathered basalt continueindefinitely.

43. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils with ironstone similar to the previous soils, but with lateritic ironstonethroughout, are encountered on remnants of lateritic plateaux on the north and east of the Range. Large blocks ofironstone may form a discontinuous layer at about 90 cm. More commonly, abundant ironstone gravel occurs in the Bhorizons, merging to horizontal bands of sheet ironstone with while kaolinitic lay in the interstices below 120 cm.Permeabilities are often severely restricted by the ironstone layers.

Miscellaneous Soils44. Grey sand soils with weak-structured clay underlay. As mentioned in the discussion of geomorphology,surface redistribution of sand has been common in many parts of the Gellibrand catchment, and to a lesser degree in thecentral and eastern parts of the study area. Dark-grey sandy loam A1 horizons with abundant organic matter overlie greyloamy sand A2 horizons at about 25 cm depth. Depths of the sand vary, but at about 50 cm depth a weak hardpan hasfrequently developed.

The underlying weakly structured layers are yellow and grey mottled clays and clay loams. They merge into structurelesssandy clays and sandy clay loams with depth. Permeability is often restricted by the clay layers, and this combines withbad site drainage to result in seasonal waterlogging.

45. Grey sand soils with structured clay underlay are found mainly in the Gellibrand catchment and again owetheir origin to redistribution of sand. However, the clays are well structured and the overlying hardpans are more stronglydeveloped. These buried clays frequently resemble the subsoils of the mottled yellow and red gradational soils.

Black sandy loams, rich in organic matter, overlie dark-grey sandy loam A2 horizons at about 15 cm depth. Shallowhardpans about 20 cm thick are found from 25 to 60 cm below the surface. These hardpans are cemented by iron andorganic matter forming coffee rock, or ‘wombat’ as it is locally known. Dense well-structured clays are found below thehardpan.

The reaction trend is acidic with highly acidic surface horizons. Nutrient levels are low, with slight concentrations at thetop of the hardpan as well as at the surface. Carbon-nitrogen ratios are particularly unfavourable. The hardpans oftenseverely restrict drainage, and waterlogging is common in the wetter months. During summer, however, the hardpansserve to hold water within the root zone.

46. Grey sand soils with kaolinitic clay underlay. The Tertiary sediments outcropping in the Bald Hills west ofAnglesea are particularly variable. Some beds appear to consist of kaolinitic clays that weather to pale-brown clay

horizons. The surface horizons consist of coarse sandy loams or loamy sands of variable depth. The absence ofsignificant quantities of sand in the kaolinitic clays indicates that this sand is sheet wash derived from sands furtherupslope. Abrupt boundaries mark the change to B horizons, which contain large weakly developed peds. Roots appearunable to penetrate the peds and confined to the cracks between them. Nutrient levels are extremely low in these soils, asis the case with other soils in the Bald Hills.

47. Variable sodic duplex soils. In some coastal areas, accretions of aeolian calcareous sand and continualleaching with salt spray have resulted in partial salting of soils of variable organic morphology. This has occurred mostwidely along cliff tops and seaward-facing slopes of the Anglesea area and on similar outcrops of Tertiary clays nearCape Otway. Surface horizons are black sandy loams, rich in organic matter, and these persist to about 25 cm wherevariably coloured, mottled and structured clays are found.

The reaction ranges from highly alkaline at the surface to neutral in the subsoil. Clay subsoils, and often surfacehorizons, have high levels of sodium on the exchange complex and are highly dispersible. Levels of soluble salts are alsohigh.

48. Saline soils occur in estuarine swamps along the coast and in isolated saline lakes and drains in the northernparts of the study area. The major examples are at the mouths of Thompson Creek, Painkalac Creek, Aire River andGellibrand River. Grey and yellow mottled silty clays high in organic remains and lacking structure occur throughout.The surface may show polygonal cracking when dry.

Table 3 – Soils of the Otway Range and Adjacent Plains

ClassificationSoil Parent Material Sampled ProfileNo.

(Appendix I)Northcote (1974) Stace et al. (1968)

Soils of uniform texture1. Yellow calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand - Uc1.13, Uc1.11 Calcareous sands2. Brown calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand 415 Uc5.11 Calcareous sands3. Red-yellow calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand - Uc5.114. Stony black calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand - Uc5.12 Lithosols5. Grey sand soils Tertiary sand 742 Uc2.33, Uc2.31, Uc2.32 Podzols6. White sand soils Tertiary sand 426 Uc2.2 Siliceous sands7. Grey sand soils with hardpans Tertiary sand 608 Uc4.33, Uc4.32, Uc3.32 Humus podzols8. Yellow sand soils Tertiary sand 740 Uc5.11 Yellow earths9. Black sand soils Recent alluvium, plant

remains609,739 Uc4.0 Peaty podzols

10. Red sandy loam soils Tertiary sands and clay - Uc6, Uc5.21 Red earths11. Grey calcareous sodic clay soils Recent alluvium plaint

remains- Uc6.4 Grey clays

12. Black calcareous clay soils Quaternary basalt - Uc5.14 Black earths13. Brown sandy loam soils Recent alluvium - Uc1.23 Alluvial soils

Soils with gradational profile forms14. Brown gradational soils, weakstructure

Recent alluvium 607 Gn2.41, Gn2.44, Um5.52 Prairie soils

15. Grey gradational soils Recent alluvium 733 Gn4.52 Wiesenboden16. Mottled yellow and grey gradationalsoils

Tertiary sand and clay,alluvium

- Gn4.55 Yellow podzolic soils

17. Yellow gradational soils, weakstructure

Tertiary sand and clay 497, 741 Gn2.51, Gn1.41, Gn2.44 Yellow podzolic soils

18. Stony yellow gradational soils Tertiary sandstone,gravel

- Gn1.24, Gn2.21, Gn2.44 Lithosols

19. Red gradational soils, weak structure Tertiary sand and clay 749 Gn2.11, Gn4.11 Red podzolic soils20. Pale-brown gradational soils, weakstructure

Tertiary sand and silt,plain remains

- Gn2.84 Humic greys

21. Grey-brown gradational soils Tertiary sand and clay - Gn4.52, Gn4.55 Yellow podzolic soils22. Mottled yellow and red gradationalsoils with ironstone

Tertiary lateritized sandand clay

782 Gn3.94, Gn3.51 Lateritic podzolicsoils

23. Mottled yellow and red gradationalsoils

Tertiary sand and clay 746 Gn3.94, Gn3.51, Gn3.54,Gn3.841

Lateritic podzolicsoils

24. Yellow-brown gradational soils,coarse structure

Tertiary sand and clay,Cretaceous sediments

750 Gn3.54, Gn3.24, Gn4.71 Yellow podzolic soils

25. Brown calcareous gradational soils,coarse structure

Tertiary marl, limestoneand calcareous clay

784 Gn2.21 Chernozems

26. Brown gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone,Tertiary clay

414, 416, 748 Gn3.51, Gn3.91, Gn3.54 Brown podzolic soils

27. Brown friable gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone

418, 736 Gn4.31 Brown podzolic soils

28 Dark-brown gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone

428 Gn4.71 Brown podzolic soils

29. Stony brown gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone

732 Gn2.41, Gn2.81 Lithosols

ClassificationSoil Parent Material Sampled ProfileNo.

(Appendix I)Northcote (1974) Stace et al. (1968)

30. Stony red gradational soils Tertiary lateritized sandand clay

- Gn2.11 Lithosols

31. Stony red-brown gradational soils Quaternary basalt - Gn4.12 Lithosols32. Red calcareous gradational soils Tertiary limestone and

marl, Quaternarycalcarenite

489 Gc2.21 Terra rossa soils

33. Black calcareous gradational soils Tertiary limestone andmarl

- Gc2.21 Redzinas

Soils with duplex profile forms34. Yellow sodic duplex soils Tertiary sand and clay,

alluvium734 Dy5.33, Dy5.32, Dy5.43 Solodic soils

35. Red-yellow duplex soils Tertiary sand, silt, clayand sandstone

- Dy5.21, Dy5.31m Dy4.21 Red podzolic soils

36. Brown duplex soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone

424, 735 Db3.31, Db3.21, Db4.21 Yellow podzolic soils

37. Grey calcareous sodic duplex soils,coarse structure

Quaternary basalt - Db4.23 Solodic soils

38. Yellow-brown sodic duplex soils,coarse structure

Tertiary calcareous claysand marl

490, 743 Db4.23, Dy5.23 Solodic soils

39. Yellow-brown sodic duplex soils,coarse structure

Tertiary clay and sand,alluvium

606 Dy5.22, Db4.31, Db4.22 Solodic soils

40. Yellow-brown duplex soils, coarsestructure

Tertiary clay, sand andsandstone

499 Db4.31, Dd4.22, Dy5.22,Dd4.21

Soloths

41. Brown duplex soils, coarse structure Tertiary lateritized sandand clay

783 Db4.43, Db4.33 Solodic soils

42. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils Tertiary clay and sand 492, 744 Dd4.41, Dy5.41, Dy5.31,Dy5.21, Db4.31

Lateritic podzolicsoils

43. Mottled yellow and red duplex soilswith ironstone

Tertiary lateritized sandand clay

601 Dy5.21, Dy5.31, Db4.21 Lateritic podzolicsoils

Miscellaneous soils44. Grey sand soils, weakly structuredclay underlay

Quaternary sand,Tertiary sand and clay

- Uc4.1/Gn2.8 (polygenetic soils)

45. Grey sand soils, structured clayunderlay

Quaternary sand,Tertiary clay and sand

737 Uc4.1/Gn3 (Polygenetic soils)

46. Grey sand soils, kaolinitic clayunderlay

Quaternary sand,Tertiary clay

500 Uc4.1/Dy4.21, Dy4.21 (polygenetic soils)

47. Variable sodic duplex soils Recent aeolian sand,Tertiary clay and sand

- Db4.32, Db4.33 Solodic soils

48. Saline soils Recent marine clay andsilt, plant remains

- - Solonchaks

Physical and Chemical AnalysesA range of representative profiles was sampled for laboratory analysis. In an attempt to achieve a standard unmodifiedconditions, samples were taken from sites where the soils and native vegetation had had little disturbance, usually onCrown land. The results of the analyses and descriptions of the profiles are given in Appendices I and III respectively.Appendix II lists the laboratory techniques.

Particle Size AnalysisThere is general agreement between particle size analyses and field textures. The main departures are in the surfacehorizons of many of the poorly drained sands, where high levels of organic matter impart a loamy or silty feel.

Fine-sand fractions generally exceed coarse-sand fractions except in the infertile Tertiary deposits to the east and west ofthe Range. Coastal dune sands are also dominated by the coarse fraction. Extreme changes in the coarse sand, or thefine-sand fraction down the profile, can indicate polygenesis. The soils developed on Cretaceous sandstones andmudstones tend to have high silt contents, and the lateritic profiles have the highest clay contents of the soils examined.

Soil ReactionMany of the soils in the high-rainfall areas are sufficiently acidic to strongly restrict the availability of plant nutrients andto impede plant germination and growth. Some of the poorly drained sand soils have exceptionally low values (pH 4 orlower). Concrete and metal structures need to be heavily protected for durability in these areas.

High pH values are encountered in calcareous sands and in areas subject to soil salting in the northern and western partsof the study area.

Electrical ConductivityValues in excess of 500 – 1,000 microsiemens per cm will reduce the growth of many plants and favour salt-tolerantspecies with values of about 12,000 microsiemens per cm and in the lower parts of the variable sodic duplex soils. Metalstructures corrode rapidly in these areas.

Isolated patches of secondary soil salting occur in the drier parts of the study area on soils of low permeability or on areasreceiving saline seepage and drainage.

High electrical conductivity in the subsoils of the Anglesea area indicates the sensitivity of this area to soil salting.

Organic Carbon and NitrogenMany of the soils have low organic carbon levels. Those with high levels have high carbon-nitrogen ratios, indicatingstrong competition between plant roots and micro-organisms for the available nitrogen.

Biological activity by micro-organisms tends to decrease the organic matter; they use the organic carbon to provideenergy and release it as carbon dioxide. This activity depends on the soil environment. As the soils become wetter inhigh-rainfall areas and soil temperatures fall, the biological activity declines and organic matter levels increase. Thistrend can be observed in the general increase in organic carbon with elevation in the soils on Cretaceous sediments, fromthe brown duplex soils through brown gradational soils to the friable brown gradational soils.

The taller and more luxuriant vegetation on these last soils supplies plant litter at a higher ate for decay.

Other trends in organic matter can also be related to the soil environment. High water tables decrease the oxygen supplyfor soil microorganisms and lead to a build up of organic matter in poorly drained areas. High electrolyte concentrationin the surface soil along the coast are presumed to restrict biological activity, resulting in high organic matter levels,particularly in soils on seaward-facing slopes.

Free Ferric OxideSome of the soils developed on lateritic profile remnants show extremely high values of free ferric oxide. Associatedhigh levels of sesquioxide clays and ironstone combine with these to make the soils particularly prone to fixation ofapplied phosphate into complex insoluble compounds.

With the exception of the leached sands, the more acidic soils tend to have higher levels of free ferric oxide.

PhosphorusValues of available phosphorus below 10 parts per million (ppm) are considered to be generally limited to plant growth.These apply in the surface horizons of many soils in the study area. Of particular note are the very low values for soils inthe Bald Hills and surrounding areas near Anglesea. Soil developed on remnants of lateritic profiles are also verydeficient in phosphorus.

Comparatively high values of available phosphorus are found in soils developed on Cretaceous sediments, particularly inthe higher-rainfall areas. The reserves of phosphorus, as indicated by the hydrochloric acid extract, are generally higherthan in the soils developed on surrounding Tertiary sediments.

The soils of the alluvial flats of the Gellibrand River that have been analysed have shown some exceptionally high valuesof available phosphorus.

PotassiumPotassium is present in the soil in soluble salts and as exchangeable cations on colloidal clays and organic complexe3s.Both forms are available to plants. It is generally considered that levels of available potassium below 200 ppm will limitplant growth. Again, many soils in the study area have values below this in the surface horizon.

Very low values of available potassium are found on leached sands on the eastern and western flanks of the Range. Soilsdeveloped on lateritic profile remnants also have very low values.

The soils developed on Cretaceous sediments are marginally deficient in the lower- and middle-rainfall areas, butavailable potassium is high in the wetter areas. Alluvial soils are also well supplied. Some of the highest values arefound on the calcareous soils at Bellbrae and Princetown.

Exchangeable CationsExchangeable cations are generally available for plant growth and are a guide to fertility. High exchangeable sodiumadversely affects soil structure and permeability. Most of the sand soils in the study area have very low cation exchangecapacities, organic complexes in the surface horizons providing almost the entire source of colloidal particles. They areusually almost saturated with hydrogen ions.

Soils developed on lateritic profile remnants and those on Cretaceous sediments in high-rainfall areas are also virtuallyhydrogen-ion-saturated. Calcium is often limiting and this deficiency may be corrected by adding lime and raising thepH, the amount required being dependent on the cation exchange capacity.

555... NNNAAATTTIIIVVVEEE VVVEEEGGGAAATTTIIIOOONNN

The wettest areas of the Otway Range with fertile soils, the dry basaltic plains in the north and infertile sands to the eastand west carry a wide diversity of vegetative communities. Tall open forest with trees almost 100 m high and closedforests with dense mesophytic understoreys in adjacent drainage lines are characteristic of the uncleared land aroundBeech Forest. Eucalyptus regnans abounds on these sites, but E. obliqua is the most common dominant stratum speciesfound throughout the Otway Range and adjacent plains. Various stunted communities such as the open scrubs ofLeucopogan parviflorus along the coast or the low woodland of E. nitida and E. baxteri on the acidic sands havedeveloped where adverse environments prevail.

Field investigations have yielded data on the nature of the vegetative communities and their correlation with soils, sitedrainage, climate, aspect, geology and other features. The structural classification used is based on the height and crowncover of the dominant stratus (Specht 1970). The different species present in each structural formation are discussedbelow.

Closed ForestThese communities are dominated by trees with a crown cover greater than 70%. The dense foliage filters out most of theincident light, and understorey species are usually mesophytic shrubs or herbaceous creepers and ferns in a fairly opencommunity.

Nothofagus cunninghamii and associated species.In the wetter parts of the Range and on the southern side of the major ridge, closed forests dominated by N. cunninghamiicommonly colonize drainage lines and valley floors. These communities sometimes spread to sheltered middle and lowerslopes in the wettest areas, preferring sites that are permanently moist with fertile soils. Tree heights are generally about30 m, although some trees may have attained heights of 60 m (Parsons et al 1977).

Acacia melanoxylon is almost co-dominant and some pure strands are found along minor drainage lines in the Aire Rivercatchment. E. regnans may also be present. The understorey tends to be open and contains ferns, staghorns, creepers andmesophytic shrubs.

Leptospermum juniperinum and associated species.Closed forests of L. juniperinum in the upper reaches of Redwater Creek catchment occupy sites that are almostpermanently moist. Soils have low to moderate fertility and are highly acidic. Stands growth to about 15 m and arenormally pure, although some colonization by Melaleuca sparrosa does occur. The understorey is usually sparse, butmoisture-loving ferns such as Blechnum nudum are found. In adjacent areas, unusually tall stands of L. juniperinumcontinue as a second tree stratum below tall open forests of eucalypts.

Tall Open ForestThe dominant stratus of tall open forests comprises trees taller than 30 m with elongated interlacing crowns. A shrublayer of mesophytic species may or may not be present, but a continuous ground cover of ferns, creepers, grasses andherbs with copious litter is always present. The communities are found in areas highly favourable to plant growth.

Eucalyptus regnans and associated speciesE. regnans forms pure stands of tall open forests in those parts of the Range with an annual rainfall above 1,500 mm.Fertile, well drained soils are preferred. The heights of mature trees invariably exceed 30 m, and reports list some trees asbeing more than 100 m (Thornley 1974). Trees growing today in the Arkins Creek catchment and parts of the CalderRiver catchment certainly approach this height.

Tall open forest formation containing mainly E. regnans. This regrowth standnear Mount Cowley contains some old stags, manifesting the former height ofsome of the older forests.

Understorey species of Acacia melanoxylon, Phebalium squameum, Bedfordia salician, Olearia argophylla, Hedycaryaangustifolia and many others. Blecnum nudum and Microsorium diversifolium, among other species, form a denseground cover. Dicksonia antarctica and Cyathea cunninghamii are also very common, the latter occupying the moistersites.

Mixed stands are not uncommon, and combinations of E. regnans with E. obliqua, E. cypellocarpa and E. viminalis canall be found. Associations between E. regnans and E. obliqua exhibit widespread hybridization, these hybrids beinglocally known as ‘Otway messmate’.

The occurrence of E. regnans growing on quartz sand in the Redwater Creek area is possibly unique. Here it is presumedto gain its nutrients through deep roots that penetrate below the layers of quartz sand into the more fertile weatheringCretaceous sandstones and mudstones. By extracting nutrients from this lower depth and returning them to the soilsurface by leaf litter drop and decay, it probably performs an indispensable function in maintaining soil fertility atmoderate levels – much higher than would otherwise be found on deposits of quartz sand.

Where weak hardpans have developed, leaching of these nutrients is impeded to some degree and the build-up in fertilitylevels has led to the invasion by shrubs such as Bossiaea cinerea, Plutenaea muelleri and Acrotriche serrulata.Elsewhere, however, where the sands are deeper and coarser, and where hardpans are not present, intense leaching in thishigh-rainfall environment remove most nutrients as quickly as they are released from the decaying organic matter. Thedensity of E. regnans and other tall and fast-growing eucalypts on these sites is much reduced, and open forests of E.baxteri with occasional taller trees occur.

During the early years of settlement, clearing of these tall open forests for agriculture or purely for their timber waswidespread. Many of the partially cleared areas have been allowed to regenerate to native vegetation. However, E.regnans needs full sunlight and no initial dominance in order to regenerate, and several communities of A. melanoxylonhave become established in its place. It would require clear-felling or wildfire together with seeding to produce theoriginal climax community.

Eucalyptus cypellocarpa and associated speciesMore widespread through the Otway Range, and penetrating into lower-rainfall areas then E. regnans, are the tall openforests of E. cypellocarpa. This eucalypt is very common in the medium-rainfall parts of the Range. It is alsowidespread in some of the drier parts, where its presence delineates exposures of Lower Cretaceous sediments.(Exceptions to this occur near Hordern Vale and Moggs Creek, where presumably the Tertiary sediments are of higherfertility than normal). E. cypellocarpa shows a strong preference for freely drained soils of high or moderate fertility withmoderate to high annual rainfalls. In the lower-rainfall range of its occurrence, it is confined to moister sites as drainagelines and southern aspects.

Tree heights occasionally exceed 60 m, particularly in the wetter areas. However, in the lower-rainfall parts of itsdistribution it often occurs in open forest formations. Understorey species include a wide range of mesophytic shrubs andsmall trees. Ferns and mosses are also abundant. Pure stands are found, such as along Grey River, but generally it growsin mixed stands with E. obliqua, E. regnans, E. viminalis, E. globulus and E. ovata. There is evidence of hybridization atcertain sites between E. cypellocarpa and the last two species (Parsons, Kirkpatrick and Carr 1977).

Eucalyptus globulus and associated speciesThe distribution of E. globulus in this part of Victoria has been closely studied (Kirkpatrick 1971). The species growsalmost exclusively on soils derived from Cretaceous sediments in a narrow climatic range along the coastal sections ofthe Otway Range. Its only known occurrence on Tertiary sediments is in the Hordern Vale area just north of RottenPoint.

Its general ecological requirements in this study area are well-drained soils of high fertility, moderate high annualrainfalls, and a mild climate (essentially maritime in the study area). It should be noted that in the more inland frost-prone parts of the Otway Range, E. globulus is replaced by E. cypellocarpa.

Tree heights may occasionally exceed 50 m, but an average of 35 – 40 m is more normal. One some of the exposed sitenear the coast, salt pruning has stunted growth to an open forest or low open forest formation. It often occurs in purestands, but in drainage lines and most other sites it usually shares dominance with E. cypellocarpa, E. ovata, E. obliqua,Acacia melanoxylon or, to a lesser extent any other of the many eucalypt species that occur in the study area.

Tall open forest, with moisture-loving species in the understoreyand a continuous ground cover of ferns and creepers.

Kirkpatrick (1971) revealed that the whole population in the Otway Range is itself a cline between E. globulus subsp.globulus and E. globulus subsp. pseudoglobulus. Trees close tot he coast are closely related to subsp. globulus, whilethose further inland possess variable characteristics often intermediate between the two subspecies. E. globulus is alsoknown to hybridize with E. cypellocarpa in some areas (Parsons, Kirkpatrick and Carr 1977).

Understorey species are closely related to fire history. In coastal areas, it is common to find and open understorey withonly occasional shrubs such as Cassinia aculeata and Acacia verniciflua. Danthonia spp. and Stipa spp. form a denseground cover. In moister sites, particularly along drainage lines, mesophytic species invade the understorey and shadeout these grasses.

Eucalyptus viminalis and E. obliquaE. viminalis and E. obliqua often dominate tall open forest formations in the Otway Range and along the flood-plains ofthe Barwon and Gellibrand Rivers. It is interesting to note that E. viminalis is confined to the western parts of the Rangedespite the presence of similar sites in the eastern parts. Heights up to 40 m for both species are not uncommon. Themain requirement for luxurious growth of E. viminalis appears to be a plentiful supply of moisture within rooting depth.In the Chapple Vale area, E. viminalis will colonize deep acidic sands immediately adjacent to alluvial flood-plains with awater table close to the surface. Higher up the landscape, E. viminalis quickly disappears as the depth to the water tablethrough the sand increases.

Open ForestOpen forests cover a wide ecological range. Towards the wetter limit, they contain dense, tall mesophytic species in theunderstorey and the dominant stratum contains trees usually with a single main stem and well-developed interlacingcrowns. Towards the drier limit, trees are lower and spreading, with sclerophyllous understoreys. Soil characteristics,exposure to coastal winds, aspect and fire history as well as annual rainfall determine the structure and floristics.

Eucalyptus obliqua and associated speciesE. obliqua is the most commonly encountered tree species in the study area. It occurs both in the high rainfall parts of theRange and in areas that receive only 600 m of rainfall, such as the flat-topped hills just inland from Torquay. It is notablycommon on phosphate-fixing soils exhibiting lateritic weathering. In such areas E. obliqua normally dominates, but E.baxteri is common and the two species frequently hybridize. On heavier, coarse-structured soils in adjacent areas, E.obliqua is again either dominant or co-dominant, but commonly associated with E. viminalis and E. ovata. The onlyareas where E. obliqua is not found are on excessively drained sands and on heavy-textured poorly drained soils.

Open forests formation of E. obliqua and E. viminalis is one of the rare remnants of the Heytesbury forest.

Eucalyptus baxteri and associated speciesE. baxteri occurs in areas of moderate rainfall on soils developed from Tertiary sediments. It is widespread on theoutcrops of Tertiary sediments to the west of the Otway Range, and also grows in the Moggs Creek and Anglesea areasand near Hordern Vale and Redwater Creek. Its occurrence is favoured by acidic soils of low natural fertility.

The absence of E. baxteri on soils developed from Cretaceous sediments suggests that it is unable to capatilize on thesebetter growing conditions to the same extent as other eucalypts such as E. obliqua. A change in dominance from E.obliqua to E. baxteri in many parts of the study area is frequently associated with changes in soil properties – such aslightening of texture, poorer internal drainage or an increase in acidity. Development of hardpans in polygenetic soils inthe northern parts of the Gellibrand River catchment creates a combination of all three.

Heights are generally around 18 m; rarely, trees reach 30 m on particularly favourable sites. Along the ridge to the westof the Gellibrand River near Carlisle River are found tall woodlands of E. baxteri and E. obliqua. Other eucalyptscommonly occurring with E. baxteri are E. radiata and E. viminalis, although E. obliqua is the most common. Purestands are found near Carlisle River, Ferguson Hill and Mount Mackenzie, usually in a woodland formation. Openwoodlands and low woodlands also occur on poorly drained acidic sands with hardpans in the Chapple Vale area.Understorey species include Spyridium parvifolium, Acacia verticillata, Leptospermum juniperinum, Platylobiumobtusangulum, Epacris impressa and Prostanthera lasianthos.

Eucalyptus ovata and associated speciesE. ovata is also widespread, but its occurrence in any area is usually confined to either heavily textured, coarse-structuredsoils or low positions in the landscape that are frequently waterlogged. It grows on both acidic soils (near Paraparap) andon calcareous soils (near Princetown and Bellbrae).

Heights sometimes exceed 30 m in the higher-rainfall limits of its occurrence in the Otway Range, but most are closer to20 m.

E. ovata is very rarely found in pure stands and is often the subordinate species in an association dominated by othereucalypts such as E. viminalis and E. obliqua. In very waterlogged drainage lines, however, pure stands do occur, oftenin a woodland formation (near Barongarook and Yeodene). Understorey species in these formations include Melaleucasquarrosa, Leptospermum juniperinum and other shrubs tolerant of poor drainage. Elsewhere, understorey species varyfrom site to site and are similar to those found under E. obliqua associations on hillslopes, while some mesophytic speciesoccur in drainage lines.

Eucalyptus aromaphloia and associated speciesE. aromaphloia is found on the older terraces along the Gellibrand River, on exposures of Cretaceous sediments nearYahoo Creek and, occasionally, on some of the older soils on Tertiary sediments around the margins of the Otway Range.On these sites it is seen to prefer heavy-textured soils with poor drainage and moderate to high annual rainfall. Wherefree water frequently ponds at the surface, however, E. aromaphloia rarely occurs, other species such as E. ovata beingmore common.

Tree heights are normally 20 m, with a few specimens reaching more than 25 m. On the tablelands, inland fromAnglesea, heights are considerably lower than 20 m, reflecting the low fertility of the soils there.

Understoreys consist of typical sclerophyllous shrubs such as Acacia verticillata, A. mucronata, A. myrtifolia andLeptospermum juniperinum. Other eucalypts commonly associated with E. aromaphloia are E. obliqua, E. ovata and E.baxteri.

On dry north- and west-facing slopes, sclerophyllous scrubs formopen understoreys in open forests.

Eucalyptus sideroxylon and associated specieOpen forests of E. sideroxylon occur in the eastern section of the Otway Range and extend along the coastal plains as faras Bells Beach near Torquay. These environments range from north-facing slopes of Cretaceous sediments east of Lornewith shallow stony gradational soils to more sheltered valley floors and drainage lines inland from Point Addis. Thus atthe higher-rainfall limits of distribution the driest sites are colonized, while at the lower-rainfall limits the species prefersmoist sites.

Freely drained soils of low natural fertility are preferred, and many of the soils on which E. sideroxylon thrives are highlysodic. Seaward-facing slopes near Anglesea exposed to salt-laden coastal winds carry stunted communities including E.sideroxylon.

Heights of trees are generally around 20 m. Pure stands are most common, but associations between E. sideroxylon, E.obliqua and E. baxteri are common in fringe areas. East of Lorne, associations between E. sideroxylon and E. globulusare common with the former dominating the northern aspect and the latter dominating the southern.

Understoreys are usually quite open, with Acacia vernicuflua common in the shrub stratum and Poa spp., Danthonia spp.and Themeda australis forming a ground cover.

Eucalyptus pauciflora and associated speciesE. pauciflora can be found at several sites in the Paraparap area, and was probably originally reasonably common. Itoccurs on phosphate-fixing duplex soils of low fertility with light-textured topsoils and moderate drainage. The averageannual rainfall is about 650 mm.

One clump of trees south of Lake Modewarre suggests a former pure stand, but elsewhere the species grows inassociation with E. ovata and E. viminalis. Tree heights are around 20 m with a spreading habit. Understoreycommunities have become greatly modified, but Banksia marginata may have been common.

Low Open ForestUnder environmental stress, tree heights and crown cover are reduced. Low communities with a moderate crown cover(about 30%), where the dominant stratum consists of a species with an obvious main stem and little or no branching closeto the ground, are classified as low open forests. The environmental stress is seldom related to strong competitionbetween species. Factors such as highly calcareous soils, proneness to waterlogging, exposure to severe winds and saltspray are responsible for the reduced mature height. Factors related to competition, such as extremely low fertility or lowmoisture availability, seem to result in decreased crown cover as well as lower heights.

Melaleuca lanceolata and associated speciesM. lanceolata is most commonly encountered on coastal dunes, but is also colonizes the most exposed seaward-facingslopes of various Tertiary outcrops. Although it is frequently found on excessively drained soils, the particularenvironmental characteristics that give M. lanceolata and associated species their advantages over other colonists aretheir abilities to withstand intense salt pruning and to survive on highly calcareous soils.

Some trees in forest remnants to the east of Torquay reach 12 m, but average heights are around 6 m. On the mostexposed sites, trees become almost prostrate, hugging the ground surface at less than 1 m and leaning sharply away fromthe direction of the salt-laden winds.

Other species commonly found in association with M. lanceolata and Leucopogon parviflorus, Leptospermum laevigatumand Acacia longifolia. In fringe area, M. lanceolata may share dominance with such species as E. obliqua, Casuarinastricta and E. sideroxylon. Understoreys are usually sparse, with large areas of leaf litter and bare ground. Theunderstorey species that do grow vary considerably, but Helichrysum paralium, Tetragonia tetragoniodies and Spyridiumparvifolium are common.

WoodlandWoodlands have less than 30% crown cover and the trees are more spreading, with rounded crowns emanating frombranching and typically crooked trunks. The branching occurs closer to the ground than in open forest formations.Understoreys are usually dense because of the higher light penetration through the more open crown, and consist of eithersclerophyllous shrubs or native trees.

Eucalyptus radiata and associated speciesE. radiata woodlands are common on the foothills of the Range, where well-drained soils of low fertility have developedon Tertiary sediments. The acidic sands in the west, which suffer severe moisture stress in summer, are mainly colonizedby E. radiata in association with E. nitida, E. obliqua and E. baxteri.

In many areas, E. radiata exists as a minor member of open forest associations, particularly those dominated by E.obliqua. It may attain heights of 20 m or more in open forests, but in woodland communities it seldom reaches more than15 m. Understoreys are usually moderate dense and include Leptospermum juniperinum, L. myrsinoides, Banksiamarginata, Xanthorrhoea australis, Platylobium obtusangulum, Dillwynia glaberrima and Hakea ulicina. In drier areas,Acacia suaveolens, Epacris impressa and Leucopogon glacialis become common.

Eucalyptus camaldulensis and associated speciesE. camaldulensis was formerly common in the northern drier parts of the study area, but most stands have been clearedfor agriculture. It is confined to either basaltic plains or alluvial flats largely derived from basalt. It normally occupiespoorly drained duplex soils with heavy clay subsoils, but is also observed in well-drained soils on river banks. It is notfound in areas with annual rainfall above 650 mm, where other eucalypts such as E. ovata and E. viminalis become toocompetitive.

E. camaldulensis usually attains heights of about 20 m and has a spreading habit. Pure stands are most common,although at times E. ovata may occur in association with it, particularly on alluvial plains. Original understoreysprobably consisted mainly of native grasses such as Themeda australis, Danthonia spp. and Stipa spp. Open woodlandformations with dense grass ground cover were probably originally common around Winchelsea.

Eucalyptus leucoxylon and associated speciesIn the north-eastern part of the study area, woodlands of E. leucoxylon were formerly common. Most of these areas havebeen cleared and the species is now confined to road reserves and occasional clumps in agricultural land, notably onslowly permeable heavy soils with coarse-structured subsoils with alkaline reaction trends. Annual rainfalls here are inthe vicinity of 700 mm.

The tallest trees reach about 15 m and are found on the edges of Thompson Creek, but more stunted ones are normallyencountered. E. leucoxylon appears to be very sensitive to salt spray and trees south of Thompson Creek severalkilometres from the sea are severely salt-pruned. Understorey species include Acacia pycnantha, which is particularlycommon in the few remaining communities in road reserves. Associated species in the dominant stratum include E. ovataand Casuarina stricta, but it is likely that pure stands of E. leucoxylon were formerly common.

Woodlands typically contain trees with crooked trunks,which branch close to ground level.

Eucalyptus viminalisPure stands of E. viminalis in woodland formation are found on calcareous dunes at Cape Otway. The excessivelydrained soils of these areas contrast with those at other sites with taller stands of E. viminalis, where plentiful moistureseems to be required. A ground cover of native grasses with occasional shrubs such as Bursaria spinosa occupies theunderstorey.

Low WoodlandLow woodland communities occur on sites that experience fairly extreme environmental stress. The tree stratum consistsof twisted, stunted and branching specimens exerting little or no shading effect on the understorey. Competition for lightis not crucial, as other factors such as severe seasonal moisture stress, high acidity or alkalinity, or very low inherent soilfertility are the important ones to overcome for survival.

Eucalyptus nitida and associated species.E. nitida occurs widely in association with E. radiata; they hybridize often, so it is difficult to distinguish between them.However, at the environmental extreme of acidic excessively drained soils with extremely low fertility, E. nitida isdominant and may form pure stands. As such, it is widespread on the acidic sands of the Bald Hills, and in similarlandscapes between Gellibrand and Chapple Vale. Other areas include Bunker Hill, the catchment area of PorcupineCreek and the foothills east of Forrest.

E. nitida tolerates a wide range of adverse environments. As well as colonizing excessively drained acidic sands, it alsogrown on sites where hardpans persist close to the surface. Severe waterlogging restricts growth during winter and springon these sites, and then water stress further impedes survival during summer. Heavy-textured calcareous soils exposed tosalt-bearing winds near Princetown also support E. nitida, and it is occasionally encountered on shallow stony gradationalsoils in the eastern part of the study area.

Trees usually reach only around 6 m and often lack a main stem. Taller trees have been observed, and in the OtwayRange south of Bambra one stand of E. nitida – E. radiata hybrids reaches 15 m. Understoreys contain all those speciespreviously listed with E. radiata, but Leptospermum juniperinum and Xanthorrhoea australis are particularly common.These associations between E. nitida and E. radiata occasionally contain E. baxteri on moister sites.

Eucalyptus kitsoniana and associated speciesConfined to only three recorded areas in Victoria, E. kitsoniana occupies swampy sites with moderately textured acidicsoils near Cape Otway. Trees generally grow to about 9 m, but some achieve heights of up to 15 m. Pure stands are mostcommon, although fringe areas possess associations of E. baxteri. The tall understoreys are thick impenetrable strands ofMelaleuca ericifolia, which also seems to be confined to these communities in this part of Victoria.

Casuarina littoralis and associated speciesC. littoralis occupies widely different environments in the study area. As a tree in low woodland formations it grown ondry steep slopes with shallow infertile soils near Moggs Creek. It also occurs in similar formations near Paraparap,although its occurrence there has probably increased since settlement.

Tree heights are around 8 m, and understorey specimens include Hakea ulicina, Leucopogon glacialis and Isopogonceratophyllus. Associated species are quite variable, the most notable being C. stricta and E. nitida. C. littoralis is also acommon member of the closed scrub formations found on the black acidic sands in parts of the Gellibrand catchment. Itshabit here is quite different, as the trees spread into a number of main erect stems close to the ground and rarely growhigher than 4 m.

Other SpeciesEucalyptus obliqua, E. baxteri and even E. ovata have also been observed to grow in low woodland formations. Of someinterest are the low woodlands of E. gonioclayx in the study area at sites just north of the Anglesea coal mine and nearDemons Bluff.

Closed ScrubClosed scrubs in the study area consist of dense communities of branching, erect, moisture-loving species. Restrictions toplant growth come from a permanently high water table, and sometimes high acidity. Competition for light is strong, andonly a few species such as mosses and ferns exist beneath the canopy.

Melaleuca squarrosa and associated speciesM. squarrosa is common in all the wetter sites on Tertiary sediments, and is most common in the Gellibrand Rivercatchment to the west of the Otway Range. It occupies wet sites with black acidic sand soils. The nutrient status is oftenhigh, except for strong deficiencies of calcium.

These communities grow to about 4 m. Pure stands are rare, and associated species include Leptospermum juniperinum,Casuarina littoralis, Gleichenia circinnata and Bauera rubioides. L. juniperinum is suppressed on the wetter sites, whilehillside swamps prone to occasional drying out have closed heath formations containing some of the above species butalso Sprengelia incarnata, Xanthorrhoea australis and Aotus ericoides.

Leptospermum lanigerum and associated speciesMore localized than the M. squarrosa associations are the occurrence of L. lanigerum, found in wet, broad drainage linesin three areas – Princetown, Hordern Vale and the Bald Hills. The soils are heavily textured with the water table at thesurface for much of the year. Tree heights are between 4 and 6 m. Pure stands are most common although L.juniperinum and E. ovata may be present.

Like sentinels on perpetual guard, the flowering stems of Xanthorrhoea australis dominate the understorey of thislow woodland of E. nitida.

Open ScrubOn exposed coastal sites, salt pruning of the vegetation severely restricts growth and the range of species. Trees andshrubs that do survive are often twisted and branch close to the ground. They usually lean strongly away from thedirection of prevailing winds, forming a salt-planed surface due to successive dieback on the windward side. Manyspecies such as Eucalyptus obliqua, E. nitida, E. sideroxlyon and E. baxteri persist right to the edge of coastal cliffs or thebase of sand dunes, but the habit of the trees differs markedly from that normally exhibited further inland.

The more open communities caused by dieback permit the invasion of many other salt-spray-tolerant species notnormally found in associations, such as Melaleuca lanceolata, Casuarina stricta, Leucopogon parviflorus and a richlydiverse heath stratum. These vegetative communities are sensitive to disturbance and difficult to re-establish in theseharsh environments. Care is needed in management of these areas.

Coastal dunes have various associations of species adapted to living on calcareous, infertile excessively drained sands.Of those in the study area, the most common dominant species is Leucopogon parviflorus, but others are Helichrysum

paralium, Alyxia buxifolia, Melaleuca lanceolata and Leptospermum laevigatum. These form stunted salt-pruned openscrubs and open heaths on the leeward side of the primary dune and on most secondary dunes. Communities aregenerally around 3 m in height, although some species may achieve heights of up to 10 m in sheltered areas.Understoreys are usually very open with large areas of bare ground, the most common species being Tetragoniatetragonioides.

Salt-pruned open scrubs are often very sensitive todisturbance

Low ShrublandLow shrublands occur in extremely adverse environmental conditions. Crown cover is sparse, usually below 30%, andplants are generally below 2 m in height with semi-succulent leaves.

The estuarine swamps near Breamlea and in other isolated parts of the coastline support communities of Arthrocnemumarbusculum, often in pure stands. The height of the community depends on microrelief and hence on the elevation abovemean tide level, with the tallest communities reaching 2 m. Samolus repens and Frankenia pauciflora become morecommon on lower parts of the swamp. Inland, where the waters are less saline, Gahnia filum becomes dominant.

Grasslands and HerbfieldsGrasses and halophytic plants less than about 1 m in height form various grasslands or herblands. Individual plants areoften in such close contact that their canopies interlace. Conditions – such as shifting sands subject to salt spray andhigh-velocity sand-laden winds, high water tables or soils prone to excessive shrinking and swelling – are unfavourablefor the growth of woody plants.

Swampy depressions on the basalt plains support sedgeland communities containing Juncus spp., Ranunculus spp. andothers. The heavy clay soils are strongly alkaline, only rarely dry out and are strongly gleyed right to the surface.Anaerobic conditions presumably restrict the root development necessary for colonization by larger vegetation. Leeper,Nicholls and Wadham (1936) studied these communities in some detail, but now little remains of them because oflevelling of paddocks, draining of larger swamps and pasture improvement.

Spinifex hirsutus is confined to shifting coastal dunes, where it has the ability to survive an actively grow on excessivelydrained infertile sands regularly blasted by sand and salt spray. Spreading by rhizomes, it quickly colonizes recent sandaccretions to the dunes. However it is susceptible to damage by trampling, the roots breaking easily under the loose sand,and many areas have become devoid of this valuable stabilizing species. The stability of coastal dunes has beenmaintained by hand planting of the vegetatively propagated Ammophila arenaria, introduced to Australia from WesternEurope. Other primary colonists of these unstable dunes are Tetragonia tetragonioides and Carpobrotus rossii.

666... LLLAAANNNDDD UUUSSSEEE

Tow major periods of settlement occurred in and around the Otway Range in the 19th Century. In the 1840s, squattersrealized the grazing potential of the plains west of Geelong, and large holdings of 8,000 – 10,000 ha were established(Thornley 1974). Within a decade most of the land had been taken up. The Otway Range, however, continued to remaina remote area, where the only two settlements, at Apollo Bay and Loutit Bay, depended mainly on ships for supplies.

Towards the end of the gold rush era in the 1860s and 1870s, men leaving the diggings created a strong demand for land.With most of the land on the plains locked up by squatters, the selectors were forced to other areas. In the 1870s and1880s, vast areas of the Otway forests were opened up for selection (Thornley 1974).

Many of the selectors faced enormous problems. Most of them bought blocks site-unseen, and when they arrived at theirselection they were confronted with impenetrable forest, non-existent transport and often extremely steep slopes. Apromised railway did not eventuate until 1902. After 1980, the Crown started to resume blocks of land that wereunoccupied and these were subsequently permanently reserved for forest production.

At the beginning of the 20th Century, transport services in the Otways improved dramatically. This allowed agriculturalindustries such as dairying and potato-growing to develop, and resulted in a boom in timber production. Some of the lessproductive farms were abandoned by farmers joining the timer industry, and in 1930 the Forests Commission purchasedmuch of the abandoned farmland in the Aire valley and planted it to softwoods.

Beef cattle grazing on recentlycleared land in the HeytesburySettlement area.

The most recent major development was initiated in 1956 when the Rural Finance and Settlement Commission (then theSoldier Settlement Commission) began to clear 50,000 ha of the Heytesbury forest to be developed as dairy farms.

The main forms of land use at present depend in part on the history of settlement, but more importantly on the nature ofthe land. The steep hills of the Otway Range are mainly used for forestry, water supply, nature conservation andrecreation. The adjacent plains and some flatter areas on top of the Range mainly support agriculture. The coastal areascater for recreation and residential subdivision. Minor areas throughout the study area are used for the extraction ofminerals, service easements, refuse disposal and water storage.

AgricultureWell over half the farms in the study area are dairy farms, particularly in the higher-rainfall districts. Milk is sold bothfor manufacturing and as whole milk for the large residential populations of Colac and Geelong. Supplementary feedingis practised – generally with hay and silage, but fodder crops of oats, rape, turnip and millet are also grown. Pastures arebased on perennial grass-legume mixtures. The main grass species are Lolium perenne, Dactylis glomerata, Phalaristuberosa and Festuca arundinacea cv. Demeter, while the main legumes are Trifolium repens, T. pratense and T.subteraneum (see Table 4). Most farms rely on natural rainfall to maintain vigorous pasture growth, but some of thosealong the Gellibrand River do supplement summer growth by irrigation. Some dairy-farmers run a sideline beefenterprise to supplement their income.

Sheep and beef cattle grazing are normally combined, as these enterprises tend to make the best use of pastures. Sheepare grown for both wool and prime lamb production. Wool growing is the main industry in the drier northern areas on thebasalt plains, while the prime lamb industry is concentrated in the medium-rainfall belt north of the Otway Range. Someof the farms on the steep hill country in and around the Range are primarily beef producers. In the high-rainfall country,breeding cows produce calves that are sold as vealers. Further north, beef production relies on the calves being kept untilone and a half to two years of age and sold as mature beef. Fodder conservation is practised on most farms.

The Victorian Department of Agriculture has recommended fertilizer requirements and pasture species for different areas.As a rule, phosphorus, potassium and molybdenum are necessary for vigorous pasture growth. Nitrogen is also lacking,but the inclusion of legumes in pasture mixtures has overcome the need to apply nitrogen fertilizers. Although copper insoils is at a sufficiently high level for plant growth, it is often not sufficient for animal nutrition and is included infertilizer recommendations. Lime is required for pasture establishment on the highly acidic soils and is mainly appliedwith the superphosphate at sowing time or as lime-coating on inoculated clover seed.

The high rainfall, cool climate and free-draining soils are highlyregarded for their capacity to produce seed potatoes.

Both the highest-rainfall areas at Beech Forest and the middle- and lower-rainfall areas to the north and east of the OtwayRange support cropping. Potatoes are grown at Beech Forest, where the isolation, soils and climate confer decidedadvantages for the production of disease-free tubers. Pears are grown near Winchelsea, Deans Marsh and Birregurra on acontract basis for frozen-food companies. The area sown to oilseed crops such as rape, linseed, sunflowers and mustardincreases each year with large enterprises around Birregurra.

ForestryHardwood forestry. The Forest Commission manages large areas of reserved forest in the Otway Range for hardwoodproduction. Some additional hardwood supplies come from the clearing of privately owned land during pine conversionoperations. The tall open forests supply the best timber, preferred species being Eucalyptus regnans, E. obliqua, E.cypellocarpa and E. globulus. Sawlogs are used for general construction purposes such as house-framing, whilepulpwood is used for the production of paper and hardwood. Growth rates are high. The drier parts of the Range and thesurrounding foothills support slower-growing open forests of E. obliqua, E. viminalis, E. baxteri, E. cypellocarpa, E.globulus, E. sideroxylon and E. ovata. Sawlogs and pulpwood are the main products. Harvesting of E. baxteri andLeptospermum juniperinum saplings for ‘tea tree’ stakes is a minor industry. The infertile sands on the eastern andwestern sides of the Range support low open forests suitable only for use as fuel.

Softwood forestry. The Forests Commission manages softwood plantations in the Aire valley and at Webster Hill,Boonah and Forrest. Pinus radiata is the main species planted, although significant areas carry P. laricio, Pseudotsugamenziesii and Picea sitchensis in the Aire valley. Harvested timber supplies both sawlogs and pulpwood.

Private softwood companies operate mainly on disused farmland. Collectively, they control a more extensive area forpresent and future plantings of softwoods than government-owned plantations. Their operations are located throughoutthe Otway Range, mainly on the steep hills and upper gentle slopes of the Cretaceous sediments and, less commonly, onthe outlying foothills of the Tertiary sediments.

Softwood plantations are being established by private companies on both disusedfarmland and privately owned forested land.

Water SupplyDifferent parts of the study area vary in their potential a water supply catchments, as shown in Figure 5. At Beech Forest,in the middle of the Otway Range, the excess of precipitation over potential evapotranspiration is far greater than at anyother site. Here groundwater stored during winter can continue to supply creeks during the summer, thus maintainingflow. In other areas, only major rivers that lie deep in the landscape at levels below the regional water table continue toflow during the summer, but at a much reduced rate.

Many towns draw supplies of water from the Range for domestic and industrial uses. The Upper Barwon dam at Forrestcontributes to Geelong’s water supply, with additional reserves being tapped when needed from several north-flowingcreeks to the east of the dam. Birregurra, Winchelsea, Forrest, Anglesea, Torquay and settlements on the BellarinePeninsula also derive their water from this Geelong Waterworks Trust system.

The Gellibrand catchment is another major source of domestic water. Colac is supplied from dams on the WestGellibrand River and Olangolah River, while Warrnambool, Cobden, Camperdown, Terang and several other towns aresupplied from offtake on Arkins Creek and on the middle reaches of the Gellibrand River.

The townships of Lorne, Apollo Bay, Skenes Creek and Wye River derive their water from creeks and rivers on thesouthern side of the main ridge. Only Lorne has a supply that includes a reservoir.

Water quality from these supply systems varies. The water in the Gellibrand River is discoloured and turbid and willeventually require expensive treatment as usage increases. The black sand soils in many of the drainage lines in themiddle and lower reaches of the catchment impart organic stains to the water. Thus the high organic content of thesesoils, although it helps to mains perennial flow, also imparts undesirable colour.

Contour ripping and planting has recently been tried in some pineconversion programs on an experimental basis in an effort to reducesurface run-off and associated erosion.

Nature ConservationSome areas of land provide habitats for rare and endangered species. Forexample the hills west of Chapple Vale provide one of the few nesting sites

for the rare ground parrot, Pezoporus wallicus, and the sheltered gullies of the Parker River catchment from the majorhabitat for Victoria’s endemic tree fern, Cyathea marcescens (Land Conservation Council 1976).

Other areas have been reserved as parks where people can enjoy the spiritual wealth of the natural environment. Closelyrelated areas with landscape conservation values have scenery of exceptionally high standard. The study area containslarge park reserves at Lorne and Aireys Inlet. Smaller flora and fauna reserves exist at localities such as Bambra,Anglesea and Gellibrand.

The Olangolah Weir supplies good-quality water to Colac.

The coastal margins of thestudy are provide manyexceptional views

Tabl

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eter

Mai

nly

T. su

bter

rane

umbu

t als

o T.

frag

iferu

man

d T.

repe

ns

Supe

rpho

spha

te,

poss

ibly

pot

ash,

copp

er, m

olyb

denu

m

P. e

scul

entu

m

Cap

e O

tway

900

– 1,

100

mm

Bro

wn

calc

areo

us sa

nd so

ils,

unifo

rm te

xtur

e; re

d-ye

llow

calc

areo

us sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rmte

xtur

e

Gra

zing

P. tu

bero

saD

. glo

mer

ata

L. p

eren

neT.

subt

erra

neum

T. in

carn

atum

Med

icag

o sa

tiva

Supe

rpho

spha

te, p

otas

h,co

pper

, mol

ybde

num

Ken

nedy

s Cre

ek,

Sim

pson

, Tom

ahaw

kC

reek

, Waa

reB

aron

garo

ok,

Kaw

arre

n, C

arlis

le,

Hor

dern

Val

e, M

ount

Mac

kenz

ie, W

onga

750

– 1,

100

mm

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

; coa

rse

stru

ctur

e; b

row

nca

lcar

eous

gra

datio

nal s

ols,

coar

se st

ruct

ure;

mot

tled

yello

w, r

ed g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls;

mot

tled

yello

w, r

edgr

adat

iona

l soi

ls w

ithiro

nsto

ne; m

ottle

d ye

llow

,gr

ey g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls

Dai

ryin

g, g

razi

ngL.

per

enne

D. g

lom

erat

aF.

aru

ndin

acea

cv

Dem

eter

P. tu

bero

saT.

repe

nsT.

subt

erra

neum

T. fr

agife

rum

Supe

rpho

spha

te,

pota

sh, c

oppe

r,m

olyb

denu

m

R. e

scul

entu

mR

ubus

spp.

Lan

d Sy

stem

sA

nnua

l Rai

nfal

lM

ajor

Soi

lsM

ain

Agr

icul

tura

lL

and

Use

sPa

stur

e Sp

ecie

sFe

rtili

zer

Req

uire

men

tsM

ain

Wee

ds

Dee

pden

e, P

arap

arap

,Pe

nnyr

oyal

, Bar

rago

ol,

Bel

lbra

e, T

hom

pson

Cre

ek, F

resh

wat

erC

reek

, Birr

egua

rra

600

– 75

0 m

m(s

ome

area

up

to1,

000

mm

)

Mot

tled

yello

w, r

ed d

uple

xso

ils; m

ottle

d ye

llow

, red

dupl

ex so

ils w

ith ir

onst

one;

yello

w-b

row

n du

plex

soils

,co

arse

stru

ctur

e; y

ello

wbr

own

sodi

c du

plex

soils

,co

arse

stru

ctur

e; y

ello

w so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils; y

ello

w-b

row

nca

lcar

eous

sodi

c du

plex

soils

,co

arse

stru

ctur

e; g

rey

calc

areo

us so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils,

coar

se st

ruct

ure.

Gra

zing

, dai

ryin

g,ve

geta

ble

crop

ping

,oi

lsee

d cr

oppi

ng

L. p

eren

neD

. glo

mer

ata

P. tu

bero

saF.

aru

ndin

acea

cv

Dem

eter

T. su

bter

rane

umT.

repe

nsT.

frag

iferu

m

Supe

rpho

spha

te,

pota

sh, c

oppe

r,m

olyb

denu

m

Agro

stis

spp

Moo

leri

c, W

inch

else

a55

0 –

650

mm

Bla

ck c

alca

reou

s cla

y so

ils,

unifo

rm te

xtur

e; g

rey

calc

areo

us so

dic

clay

soils

,un

iform

text

ure;

yel

low

-br

own

calc

areo

us so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure;

grey

cal

care

ous s

odic

dup

lex

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

e; st

ony

red-

brow

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls.

Gra

zing

; cer

eal a

ndoi

lsee

d cr

oppi

ngL.

per

enne

P. tu

bero

saF.

aru

ndin

acea

cv.

Dem

eter

T. su

bter

rane

umT.

frag

iferu

m

Supe

rpho

spha

teSi

lybu

m m

aria

num

Cir

sium

vul

gare

Car

duus

tenu

iflor

us

Bar

won

Riv

er,

Gel

libra

nd R

iver

,ot

her

drai

nage

line

san

d al

luvi

al fl

ats

600

– 1,

000

mm

Bro

wn

sand

loam

soils

,un

iform

text

ure;

bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

, wea

kst

ruct

ure;

gre

y gr

adat

iona

lso

ils.

Dai

ryin

gL.

per

enne

P. tu

bero

saF.

aru

ndin

acea

cv

Dem

eter

T. su

bter

rane

umT.

frag

iferu

m

Supe

rpho

spha

teAg

rost

is sp

p.Ju

ncus

spp.

Car

ex sp

p.

Ghe

rang

Ghe

rang

,A

ngle

sea

600

– 80

0 m

mM

ottle

d ye

llow

, red

dup

lex

soils

with

iron

ston

e; y

ello

w-

brow

n du

plex

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

e, y

ello

w-b

row

n so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure;

mot

tled

yello

w, r

edgr

adat

iona

l soi

ls.

Gra

zing

D. g

lom

erat

aL.

per

enne

F. a

rund

inac

ea c

v.D

emet

erP.

tube

rosa

T. su

bter

rane

um

Supe

rpho

spha

te,

pota

sh, c

oppe

r,m

olyb

denu

m

P. e

scul

entu

m

Sour

ce:

D. C

onle

y, D

epar

tmen

t of A

gric

ultu

re, C

olac

Cost cutting development methods in sensitive coastal areas threatento destroy the natural landscape that prospective owners of holidayhomes seek to capture.

RecreationRecreational pursuits include bushwalking, camping, picnicking, pleasure driving, fishing, water sports, all-terrain vehicledriving. The last category is often incompatible with other pursuits and can cause severe damage to tracks andvegetation, with resulting soil deterioration. It may involve trail bikes, dune buggies and four-wheel-drive vehicles.

The most popular recreational areas are along the coast, particularly the eastern parts, which are closer to the populationcentres of Geelong and Melbourne. However, people use the whole of the Otway Range in a variety of pursuits. Theplains to the north also provide for picnickers and pleasure drivers.

Residential UsesThe larger towns are Anglesea, Lorne, Torquay, Winchelsea, Birregurra, Forrest, Apollo Bay and Simpson. Some ofthese have large transient populations during the holiday season. However, holiday homes are not confined to townships;any are built along the coastal strip from Apollo Bay to Breamlea, with particular concentrations between Lorne andAireys Inlet. Because of the scattered nature of these communities, normal services such as reticulated water, sewerage,roading and fire protection are not adequately supplied.

Extractive IndustriesMany of the Tertiary deposits of sand and gravel on the western and eastern flanks of the Otway Range have beendeveloped as extraction sites. The material is mainly used for road construction, although some deposits have been testedand used for glass-making. Other sources of gravel come from colluvial lateritic ironstone. Many disused pits have notbeen properly reclaimed, and remain as scars on the landscape. The compacted sand in many pits have been deeplyscoured by run-off waters, which had led to siltation problems elsewhere.

Coal reserves at Anglesea are at present being mined by open cut. A former mine also exists at Wensleydale, andreserves have been located at Benwerrin, Deans Marsh and Kawarren (Land Conservation Council 1976).

Other extractive industries include the mining of bentonite just south of Gellibrand, calcarenite near Princetown andCretaceous sandstone at Lorne.

Large extraction pits are common in the unconsolidated Tertiarysands and gravels.

777... LLLAAANNNDDD SSSYYYSSSTTTEEEMMMSSS

Land systems are areas of land each with a characteristic pattern of the environmental variables climate, geology,topography, soil and vegetation.

They comprise land components, within which these five variables have uniform values within narrow limits. Changes inthe dependent variables of soil and native vegetation usually distinguish land component boundaries. The different landsystems are distinguished by a change in the pattern or nature of the land components, usually accompanied by a majorchange in one or more of the independent variable such as geology and topographic pattern.

The land systems of the study area have been delineated by a combination of aerial photo interpretation and fieldexamination. Black and white aerial photographs at a scale of 1:80,000 were examined stereoscopically to revealgeomorphic patterns. Each areas was examined in the field to check the accuracy of the aerial photo interpretation and tocollect data on the nature of the soils, the native vegetation, the angle and shape of slopes and the nature of the parentmaterial. With the addition of climatic data, correlations were made to draw up a full representation of each land system.Representative sites were chosen for each of the most commonly occurring land components to examine in detail thenature of the soils, the structure and floristics of the associated native vegetation, and their interrelations with othervariables.

The 43 land systems recognized in the study area range in size from 8 sq km to 762 sq km. Some of the smaller ones nearthe edge of the study area are widespread in adjacent regions.

Aerial photo show land systems near the junction of the Gellibrand and Carlisle RiversThis air photograph is Crown Copyright and has been reproduced by courtesy of the Director, Division of National Mapping, Department of NationalDevelopment, Canberra.

Dendritic drainage patterns are a typical feature of the Otway landsystem.

Tabular DescriptionsData collected on each land system are presented in tabular form.

Components are allotted numbers to aid in identification. Representative parts of each land system have been mapped onphotomosaics at a scale of approximately 1:15,000 to measure the areas of the individual components. These areas have

been extrapolated to give an estimation of the relative proportions of each component. For land systems near the edge ofthe study area, these proportions may not be relevant to adjacent areas. Components of minor occurrence are listed inAppendix IV.

Bureau of Meteorology data show the annual rainfall for each land system, including the range from its driest to itswettest parts. The wettest month and the driest month, with the average precipitations received then, are also given.

Temperature data refers to average daily value and not to extreme maximums and minimums. The annual range on amonthly basis lists the average temperature for July (coldest month) and February (hottest month).

Major climatic limitations to plant growth are listed in Chapter 2. Restrictions to potential plant growth occur to varyingextents in winter, due to low temperatures, an in summer, due to lack of available water. It should be noted that soilmoisture storage extends the growing season beyond the point where potential evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation.

Local relief is a measure of the average change in elevation from the top of a hill or ridge to the nearest drainage linewithin the land system. Aerial photographs and large-scale topographic maps have been used to determine drainagepatterns (Thornbury 1969) and their density.

The native vegetation has been classified according to the structure of the dominant stratum (Specht 1970). The speciescommonly found in the dominant stratum are listed in their normal order of abundance.

A five-class system has been used for the estimation of permeability based on profile characteristics such as porosity andtexture. The estimate refers to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the solum, which is limited by the least-permeablehorizon. Sands with no compacted layers have very high permeabilities while clays, with few pores or cracks, have verylow ones. Soil depth refers to the distance below the surface to solid rock or to a cemented layers that severely restrictsroot penetration and water movement.

The main existing land uses have been listed. Active recreation includes the use of vehicles such as trail bikes, dunebuggies and four-wheel drive vehicles. Passive recreation refers to less potentially destructive pursuits such aspicnicking, camping and bushwalking.

The forms of soil deterioration found to occur in each component, the critical features of the landscape and the processesleading to these forms of soil deterioration are outlined.

7.1

Air

e La

nd S

yste

m

The

stee

ply

diss

ecte

d sp

urs

and

ridge

s in

the

wet

ter p

arts

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge c

ompr

ise

the

Aire

Lan

d Sy

stem

, the

larg

est

land

sys

tem

in

the

stud

y ar

ea.

Rap

id d

ownc

uttin

g of

stre

ams

follo

win

g up

lift

of t

he R

ange

has

bee

nre

spon

sibl

e fo

r for

min

g th

is ru

gged

land

scap

e, w

ith m

any

slope

s m

ore

than

60%

and

clif

fs a

nd b

luff

s in

the

cent

ral

part

north

of A

pollo

Bay

.

The

soils

are

you

ng a

nd m

oder

atel

y fe

rtile

. Ta

ll op

en fo

rest

s of

Euc

alyp

tus

regn

ans

reac

h he

ight

s ap

proa

chin

g 10

0m

in th

e C

alde

r Riv

er c

atch

men

t, bu

t mos

t of t

he ta

llest

tree

s hav

e no

w b

een

mill

ed.

E. o

bliq

ua a

nd E

. cyp

ello

carp

aar

e al

so c

omm

on, w

hile

E. v

imin

alis

occ

urs i

n th

e w

est a

nd E

. glo

bulu

s is f

ound

clo

se to

the

coas

t.

Pine

for

ests

cov

er l

arge

are

as o

f th

is l

and

syst

em a

nd o

ther

par

ts h

ave

been

cle

ared

for

agr

icul

ture

. T

he m

ain

haza

rds

to la

nd u

se a

re la

ndsl

ips

and

shee

t ero

sion

. Lo

sses

in o

rgan

ic m

atte

r an

d so

il st

ruct

ure

are

ofte

n ap

pare

ntfo

llow

ing

clea

ring.

Som

e ar

eas o

f the

Air

e la

nd sy

stem

hav

e be

en c

lear

ed fo

r agr

icul

ture

, bu

t the

terr

ain

is di

ffic

ult t

o m

anag

e an

d m

any

area

s hav

e be

com

e co

vere

d in

bra

cken

an

non-

prod

uctiv

e sc

rub.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

AIR

EA

rea:

762

km

21

10%

280

%3

10%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 1

,100

– 1

,750

, low

est J

anua

ry (6

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (17

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

1, lo

wes

t Jul

y (7

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

6)T

empe

ratu

re: l

ess t

han

10o C

(av.

) May

– S

epte

mbe

rSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

Dec

embe

r – F

ebru

ary

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s fel

dspa

thic

sand

ston

e an

d m

udst

one

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eD

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

hills

of t

he O

tway

Ran

geEl

evat

ion,

m90

– 5

60Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

165

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Trel

lis p

atte

rn w

ith is

olat

ed ra

dial

are

asD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

4.7

Land

form

Hill

Land

form

ele

men

tC

rest

Upp

er a

nd m

iddl

e sl

ope

Low

er sl

ope,

dra

inag

e lin

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

20 (5

-30)

40 (2

5-80

)25

(5-4

0)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Tall

open

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

to ta

ll cl

osed

fore

stD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

obl

iqua

, E. c

ypel

loca

rpa,

E. r

egna

ns, E

. ova

ta,

E. g

lobu

lus,

E. v

imin

alis,

Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

E. r

egna

ns, E

. cyp

ello

carp

a, E

. obl

iqua

, E. o

vata

,E.

vim

inal

is, E

. glo

bulu

sE.

re

gnan

s, E.

ob

liqua

, Ac

acia

m

elan

oxyl

on,

Not

hofa

gus

cunn

ingh

amii,

E.

cype

lloca

rpa,

E.

ovat

a, E

. vim

inal

is, E

. glo

bulu

sSO

ILPa

rent

mat

eria

lIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckA

lluvi

um a

nd c

ollu

vium

Des

crip

tion

Bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Dar

k br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Loam

Loam

Loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Mod

erat

eM

oder

ate

Hig

hD

epth

, m1.

41.

2>2

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

cant

lings

, pos

ts, p

ole

and

pulp

woo

d; so

ftwoo

d pl

anta

tions

for s

awlo

gs a

nd p

ulpw

ood;

nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

wat

ersu

pply

; pas

sive

recr

eatio

n.M

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Bee

f cat

tle g

razi

ng a

nd d

airy

farm

ing

on m

ainl

y im

prov

ed p

astu

res;

row

cro

ppin

g on

gen

tler s

lope

s.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZAR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

, for

ms

Hig

h ra

infa

ll, m

oder

ate

perm

eabi

lity

and

leac

hing

plus

loss

of o

rgan

ic m

atte

r and

soil

stru

ctur

e up

ondi

stur

banc

e le

ad

to

nutri

ent

decl

ine

and

soil

com

pact

ion,

als

o sh

eet e

rosi

on o

n st

eepe

r slo

pes.

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

n st

eep

slop

es s

ubje

ct to

per

iodi

csa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s. S

teep

slo

pes a

repr

one

to s

heet

and

rill

ero

sion

. H

igh

rain

fall,

mod

erat

e pe

rmea

bilit

y an

d le

achi

ng p

lus

loss

of

orga

nic

mat

ters

an

d so

il st

ruct

ure

upon

dist

urba

nce

lead

to

nu

trien

t de

clin

e an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n.

Rap

id s

urfa

ce r

un-o

ff f

rom

adj

acen

t hill

s le

ad to

scou

r gu

llyin

g,

silta

tion

and

flood

ing.

Hig

hra

infa

ll, h

igh

perm

eabi

lity

and

leac

hing

plu

s lo

ssof

or

gani

c m

atte

r an

d so

il st

ruct

ure

upon

dist

urba

nce

lead

to

nu

trien

t de

clin

e an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n.

7.2

Ang

lese

a La

nd S

yste

m

Stre

tchi

ng in

land

from

the

coas

t bet

wee

n B

ells

Bea

ch a

nd M

oggs

Cre

ek li

es a

dis

sect

ed p

lain

on

Terti

ary

sedi

men

ts.

Long

stra

ight

slo

pes

eman

ate

from

spu

rs a

nd r

idge

s. T

he c

oast

al m

argi

ns a

re r

etre

atin

g an

ofte

n ab

ut th

e se

a in

stee

p cl

iffs o

r mas

sive

land

slip

s and

ear

thflo

ws.

The

pare

nt m

ater

ial

is v

ery

varia

ble,

ran

ging

fro

m l

ater

itize

d se

dim

ents

on

the

ridge

s to

rel

ativ

ely

unw

eath

ered

allu

vium

in th

e dr

aina

ge li

nes.

Thu

s the

soils

are

par

ticul

arly

var

iabl

e.

In g

ener

al, p

lant

nut

rient

leve

ls a

re lo

w a

nd s

urfa

ce h

oriz

ons

are

wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed.

Plan

t com

mun

ities

are

mai

nly

open

for

ests

les

tha

n 15

m i

n he

ight

; th

e he

ight

dec

reas

es t

owar

ds t

he c

oast

und

er t

he i

nflu

ence

of

salt-

bear

ing

win

ds.

The

area

is h

ighl

y re

gard

ed f

or it

s di

vers

ity o

f flo

ra.

Som

e pa

rts h

ave

been

cle

ared

for

agr

icul

ture

. Th

em

ain

haza

rds t

o la

nd u

se a

re g

ully

ero

sion

and

shee

t ero

sion

.

Exp

osed

coa

stal

site

s car

ry sa

lt-pr

uned

ope

n sc

rubs

that

are

sens

itive

to d

istu

rban

ce, a

nd re

vege

tatio

n of

ero

ded

area

s is d

iffic

ult.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

AN

GL

ESE

AA

rea:

74

km2

125

%2 5%

310

%4

30%

5%

25%

6 2%7 3%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 6

00 –

800,

low

est J

anua

ry (3

5), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (80

)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 14

, low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(17)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

uly

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n m

id O

ctob

er –

ear

ly A

pril

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Hig

hly

varia

ble

Eoce

ne se

dim

ent c

onsi

stin

g m

ainl

y of

unc

onso

lidat

ed c

laye

y si

lt, sa

ndT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Mod

erat

ely

diss

ecte

d hi

lls ly

ing

belo

w a

nd o

n th

e se

awar

d si

de o

f the

late

ritic

pla

teau

xEl

evat

ion,

m0

- 195

Loca

l rel

ief,

m50

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Rec

tang

ular

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

21.

6La

nd fo

rmH

illLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Expo

sed

coas

tal s

lope

Slop

e, c

rest

Low

er

slop

, dr

aina

gelin

eM

iddl

e sl

opU

pper

slop

e, c

rest

Stee

p sl

opLa

ndsl

ip

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %20

(5-4

5)2

(5-1

5)8

(1-1

5)15

(5-3

5)10

(1-2

0)45

(25-

55)

(5-9

0)Sl

ope

shap

eLi

near

/irre

gula

rLi

near

Con

cave

Con

vex

Con

vex

Line

arIr

regu

lar

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

scru

bW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Low

woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

ob

liqua

, C

asua

rina

stri

cta,

E. s

ider

oxyl

onE.

vim

inal

is, E

. rad

iata

, E.

baxt

eri

E. si

dero

xylo

nE.

obl

iqua

E. si

dero

xylo

nE.

obl

iqua

E. o

bliq

uaE.

si

dero

xylo

n,

E.ba

xter

i

E. o

bliq

ua,

E. b

axte

ri,

E.si

dero

xylo

nE.

side

roxy

lon

E. o

bliq

uaM

elal

euca

la

nceo

lata

,C

asua

rina

stri

cta

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cal

care

ous s

and,

cla

ysi

lt, sa

nd a

nd g

rave

lSa

nd a

nd g

rave

lC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Slay

, silt

and

sand

,sa

ndst

one

Dee

ply

wea

ther

ed c

lay,

silt

and

sand

Late

ritic

iron

ston

e,sa

ndst

one

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

nd; s

ome

aeol

ian

sand

Des

crip

tion

Var

iabl

e so

dic

dupl

exso

ilsG

rey

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Yel

low

-bro

wn

sodi

cdu

plex

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

e

Yel

low

-bro

wn

dupl

exso

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

ddu

plex

soils

Ston

y re

d gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsV

aria

ble

sodi

c du

plex

soils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amLo

amy

sand

Fine

sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yM

oder

ate

Ver

y hi

ghV

ery

low

Ver

y lo

wM

oder

ate

Ver

y hi

ghM

oder

ate

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

>20.

2>2

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: N

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; a

ctiv

e an

d pa

ssiv

e re

crea

tion;

land

scap

e co

nser

vatio

n; g

rave

l ext

ract

ion

Cle

ared

are

as:

Bee

f cat

tle g

razi

ng o

n m

ainl

y un

impr

oved

pas

ture

s; re

side

ntia

l; ac

tive

recr

eatio

nSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

sens

itive

to sa

lt pr

unin

gan

d di

stur

banc

e. H

ighl

ydi

sper

sibl

e so

ils o

n st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet

eros

ion,

gul

ly e

rosi

onan

d tu

nnel

ero

sion

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yan

d hi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.

Sodi

c, h

ighl

y di

sper

sibl

esu

bsoi

ls a

re p

rone

togu

lly a

nd tu

nnel

ero

sion

.

Hig

hly

disp

ersi

ble

soils

are

pron

e to

gul

ly a

ndtu

nnel

ero

sion

. W

eakl

yst

ruct

ured

surf

ace

soils

over

slow

ly p

erm

eabl

esu

bsoi

ls o

n st

eep

slop

esar

e pr

one

to sh

eet

eros

ion.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity,

phos

phor

us fi

xatio

n an

dle

achi

ng o

f per

mea

ble

Aho

rizon

s lea

d to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Ston

y sh

allo

w so

ils w

ithlo

w o

rgan

ic c

onte

nt, w

eak

stru

ctur

e an

d lo

w w

ater

-ho

ldin

g ca

paci

ty o

n st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet

eros

ion.

Nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

sens

itive

to sa

lt pr

unin

gan

d di

stur

banc

e. M

arin

eun

der-

cutti

ng o

f hig

hly

disp

ersi

ble

soils

mai

ntai

nsac

tive

land

slip

s and

ear

thflo

ws.

7.3

Bal

d H

ills L

and

Syst

em

Inla

nd f

rom

Ang

lese

a is

a d

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

land

scap

e w

ith v

ery

stun

ted

nativ

e ve

geta

tion,

ref

erre

d to

as

the

Bal

dH

ills.

The

Ter

tiary

sed

imen

ts e

xpos

ed h

ere

incl

ude

both

san

ds a

nd c

lays

and

are

cha

ract

eriz

ed b

y so

ils o

f ext

rem

ely

low

ferti

lity.

Hea

ths

and

low

woo

dlan

ds a

re fo

und

on th

e up

per p

arts

of t

he la

ndsc

ape,

whe

re th

e sa

nd s

oils

tend

to p

redo

min

ate.

Xan

thor

rhoe

a au

stra

lis is

par

ticul

arly

com

mon

and

tend

s to

dom

inat

e on

site

s w

ith h

ardp

ans

deve

lope

d in

the

soil

prof

ile.

Low

er d

own

in th

e la

ndsc

ape,

low

fore

sts o

r ope

n fo

rest

s of E

ucal

yptu

s niti

da a

nd E

. obl

iqua

tend

to o

ccur

.

Prod

uctiv

e la

nd u

ses

are

limite

d to

the

min

ing

of s

and

and

grav

el in

num

erou

s sh

allo

w e

xtra

ctio

n pi

ts, a

nd m

inin

g of

coal

nea

r Ang

lese

a. N

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n an

d re

crea

tion

are

othe

r for

ms o

f lan

d us

e.

Low

ope

n wo

odla

nds o

f E. n

itida

with

Xan

thor

rhoe

a au

stra

lis in

the

unde

rsto

rey

typi

fy th

is

land

syst

em, h

ardp

an a

reas

bei

ng d

emar

cate

d by

the

abse

nce

of th

e tr

ee st

ratu

m.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

ons o

f lan

d sy

stem

BA

LD

HIL

LS

Are

a: 9

2 km

21

10%

225

%3

10%

440

%5

15%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 7

00 –

1,0

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(35)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

100)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) m

id Ju

ne –

mid

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n N

ovem

ber -

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPa

laeo

cene

unc

onso

lidat

ed q

uartz

sand

, gra

vel a

nd c

laye

y si

lt.T

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

0 –

210

Elev

atio

n, m

90Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

patte

rn2.

1D

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

Hill

Val

ley

floor

Land

form

Upp

er sl

ope,

cre

stU

pper

slop

e, c

rest

Bro

ad, s

light

ly d

epre

ssed

are

a of

impe

ded

drai

nage

Low

er sl

op-

Land

form

ele

men

t7

(3-1

5)15

(2-3

5)7

(3-1

2)19

(10-

35)

1 (1

0-3)

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %C

onve

xC

onve

xC

onca

veLi

near

Con

cave

Slop

e sh

ape

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eLo

w w

oodl

and

Low

ope

n w

oodl

and

Clo

sed

heat

hO

pen

fore

stC

lose

d sc

rub

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. n

itida

E. n

itida

Xant

horr

hoea

aus

tral

is, C

asua

rina

pusi

lla, P

laty

lobi

um o

btus

angu

lum

,Le

ptos

perm

um m

yrsi

noid

es

E. o

bliq

uaE.

niti

daE.

ova

ta, L

epto

sper

mum

juni

peri

num

, Lep

tosp

erm

umla

nige

rum

, Aca

cia

vert

icill

ata

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Kao

liniti

c si

lty c

lay;

surf

ace

laye

rsof

qua

rts sa

nd

Qua

rtz sa

nd a

nd g

rave

lQ

uartz

sand

and

gra

vel

Sand

, silt

and

cla

yPl

ant r

emai

ns; a

lluvi

al si

lt, sa

nd a

ndgr

avel

Des

crip

tion

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, k

aolin

itic

clay

unde

rlay

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eG

rey

sand

soils

with

har

dpan

s,un

iform

text

ure

Yel

low

gra

datio

nal s

ols,

wea

kst

ruct

ure

Gre

y gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amLo

amy

sand

Loam

y sa

ndLo

amy

sand

Silty

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Low

Ver

y hi

ghLo

wH

igh

Ver

y lo

wD

epth

, m>2

>20.

6>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

ext

ract

ion

of g

rave

l an

sand

; act

ive

and

pass

ive

recr

eatio

n; so

me

atte

mpt

s at p

ine

esta

blis

hmen

t.M

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Min

ing

for c

oal.

Som

e gr

azin

gSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

e so

ils a

ndsl

owly

per

mea

ble

subs

oils

on

mod

erat

e sl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

tan

d ril

l ero

sion

. C

lay

subs

oils

subj

ect t

o pe

riodi

c sa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

d hi

ghpe

rmea

bilit

y le

ad to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Ste

eper

slop

es w

ithco

mpa

cted

soils

are

pro

ne to

shee

t,ril

l and

gul

ly e

rosi

on (s

cour

ing)

.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y w

ithso

me

leac

hing

of p

erm

eabl

e su

rfac

eso

ils le

ads t

o nu

trien

t dec

line.

Impe

rmea

ble

hard

pans

pre

vent

verti

cal d

rain

age

lead

ing

to se

ason

alw

ater

logg

ing.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e. S

teep

er sl

opes

with

wea

kst

ruct

ured

surf

ace

soils

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e le

ads t

ow

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

Rap

id ru

n-of

f fro

m a

djac

ent h

ills

lead

s to

flood

ing,

silta

tion

and

gully

eros

ion.

7.4

Bar

onga

rook

Lan

d Sy

stem

Nor

th o

f For

rest

and

ext

endi

ng to

war

ds C

olac

, und

ulat

ing

plai

ns w

ith o

ften

deep

ly w

eath

ered

soils

are

foun

d. T

hege

olog

y is

mai

nly

Terti

ary

clay

with

min

or o

utcr

ops

of s

and.

R

edis

tribu

tion

of s

urfa

ce s

and

has

resu

lted

inpo

lyge

netic

soi

ls o

ver

muc

h of

the

land

scap

e, w

ith w

eak

hard

pan

deve

lopm

ent a

nd im

pede

d dr

aina

ge.

Surf

ace

soils

seem

to b

e na

tura

lly lo

w in

pla

nt n

utrie

nts.

Man

y ar

eas

rem

ain

uncl

eare

d an

d su

ppor

t op

en f

ores

ts d

omin

ated

by

Euca

lypt

us o

bliq

ua a

nd E

. ra

diat

a.

E.ba

xter

i is n

otab

ly a

bsen

t in

this

slig

htly

drie

r reg

ion.

Oth

er a

reas

hav

e be

en c

lear

ed fo

r agr

icul

ture

or c

onve

rted

topi

nes.

The

mai

n ha

zard

s to

land

use

are

loss

of s

oil s

truct

ure,

by

com

pact

ion,

and

leac

hing

of n

utrie

nts.

Poor

site

dra

inag

e an

d lo

w so

il pe

rmea

bilit

y le

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d pu

ggin

g of

the

soil

by st

ock

in m

any

part

s of t

his l

and

syst

em.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

ons o

f lan

d sy

stem

BA

RO

NG

AR

OO

KA

rea:

92

km2

1 8%2

55%

315

%4

15%

5 7%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

100

– 9

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(40)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

80)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– A

ugus

tSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

late

Oct

ober

– e

arly

Apr

ilG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPl

ioce

ne u

ncon

solid

ated

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndR

ecen

t san

d ve

neer

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eG

ently

und

ulat

ing

to ro

lling

pla

in in

the

wes

tern

par

ts o

f the

Bar

won

cat

chm

ent

Elev

atio

n, m

120

–280

Loca

l rel

ief,

m30

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

1.2

Land

form

Und

ulat

ing

plan

Land

form

ele

men

tSt

eep

slop

eC

rest

, upp

er sl

ope

Upp

er a

nd m

iddl

e sl

ope

Low

er sl

ope

Dra

inag

e lin

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

25 (1

5-40

)5

(0-1

0)5

(0-1

0)7

(1-1

5)1

(10-

2)Sl

ope

shap

eLi

near

Con

vex

Con

vex

Line

arC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dW

oodl

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E. v

imin

alis

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, occ

asio

nally

E. o

vata

, E. v

imin

alis

E. ra

diat

a, E

. obl

iqua

, E. n

itida

E. ra

diat

a, E

. niti

daE.

ova

ta, E

. rad

iata

occ

asio

nally

E.

arom

aphl

oia

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

nd w

ith q

uartz

sand

vene

erC

lay,

silt

and

sand

with

qua

rtz sa

ndve

neer

Allu

vium

Des

crip

tion

Yel

low

gra

datio

nal s

oils

, wea

kst

ruct

ure

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

d gr

adat

iona

lso

ilsG

rey

sand

soils

, stru

ctur

ed c

lay

unde

rlay

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, w

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

clay

und

erla

yM

ottle

d ye

llow

and

gre

y gr

adat

iona

lso

ilsSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eSa

ndy

loam

Loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Hig

hM

oder

ate

Low

Low

Mod

erat

eD

epth

, m>2

>2>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Shee

p an

d be

ef c

attle

gra

zing

; dai

ry fa

rmin

g.U

ncle

ared

are

as:

Har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r saw

logs

, pos

t and

pol

es; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; a

ctiv

e an

d pa

ssiv

e re

crea

tion;

softw

ood

fore

stry

; for

est g

razi

ng.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Stee

per s

lope

s with

wea

k-st

ruct

ured

surf

aces

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.Lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

dph

osph

orus

fixa

tion

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

with

leac

hing

of p

erm

eabl

e su

rfac

e ho

rizon

s lea

dto

nut

rient

dec

line.

Low

per

mea

bilit

y an

d se

ason

alpe

rche

d w

ater

tabl

e le

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

il co

mpa

ctio

n.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e le

ads t

ow

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

7.5

Bar

rabo

ol L

and

Syst

em

Rol

ling

hills

with

fer

tile

soils

to th

e w

est o

f G

eelo

ng li

e m

ainl

y to

the

north

of

the

pres

ent s

tudy

are

a, b

ut a

sm

all

sect

ion

form

s th

e no

rther

n pa

rt of

the

cat

chm

ent

of T

hom

pson

Cre

ek.

The

se h

ills

are

on L

ower

Cre

tace

ous

sand

ston

es a

nd m

udst

ones

sim

ilar

to th

ose

outc

ropp

ing

exte

nsiv

ely

in th

e O

tway

Ran

ge, b

ut th

e la

ndsc

ape

is m

ore

subd

ued

and

the

rain

fall

is si

gnifi

cant

ly lo

wer

.

The

orig

inal

stru

ctur

e an

d sp

ecie

s co

mpo

sitio

n of

the

nativ

e ve

geta

tion

are

diff

icul

t to

dete

rmin

e.

The

are

has

been

exte

nsiv

ely

clea

red

for

crop

ping

and

gra

zing

and

sub

divi

ded

into

som

ewha

t sm

alle

r pa

ddoc

ks t

han

the

less

fer

tile

area

s to

the

sout

h. F

rom

the

pres

ence

of i

sola

ted

trees

, Euc

alyp

tus

glob

ulus

and

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa

form

ed p

art o

f th

eor

igin

al v

eget

ativ

e co

mm

unity

, and

it is

pro

babl

e th

at E

. rad

iata

was

als

o co

mm

on.

Thes

e ro

lling

hill

s hav

e be

en e

xten

sive

ly c

lear

ed, a

nd o

nly

sing

le

tree

s rem

ain

as in

dica

tors

of t

he fo

rmer

nat

ive

vege

tatio

n.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

port

ion

of la

nd sy

stem

sB

AR

RA

BO

OL

Are

a: 1

7 km

2

110

%2

60%

325

%4 5%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 6

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(30)

, hig

hest

Sep

tem

ber (

60)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

14,

low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(19)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

- Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n an

d O

ctob

er –

ear

ly A

pril

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Terti

ary

and

Qua

tern

ary

clay

, silt

and

sand

capp

ings

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s fel

dspa

thic

sand

ston

e an

d m

udst

one

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eR

ollin

g H

ills

Elev

atio

n, m

100

-170

Loca

l rel

ief,

m25

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

3.1

Land

form

Hill

Val

ley

Floo

rLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Cre

st, u

pper

slop

eC

rest

, slo

peLo

wer

slop

e-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %4

(1-5

)11

(1-1

5)8

(2-1

0)2

(10-

4)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

vata

, E. v

imin

alis

E. g

lobu

lus,

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa

E. g

lobu

lus,

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa

E. v

imin

alis

, E. c

ypel

loca

rpa

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed sa

ndst

one

and

mud

ston

eC

ollu

vial

wea

ther

ed sa

ndst

one,

mud

ston

eA

lluvi

al

silt,

cl

ay,

sand

, sa

ndst

one,

mud

ston

eD

escr

iptio

n(V

aria

ble

soils

)B

row

n du

plex

soils

Bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ilsG

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amLo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

clay

loam

Cla

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yH

igh

to m

oder

ate

Mod

erat

eM

oder

ate

Low

Dep

th, m

>21.

01.

4>2

LA

ND

USE

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g; c

ropp

ing;

bee

f and

cat

tle g

razi

ng.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sLo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

d hi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.St

eepe

r slo

pes a

re p

rone

to sh

eet e

rosi

on.

Stee

per s

lope

s are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.R

un-o

ff f

rom

adj

acen

t hi

lls m

ay r

esul

t in

gully

ero

sion

. H

igh

seas

onal

wat

er t

able

lead

s to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

il co

mpa

ctio

n.

7.6

Bar

won

Riv

er L

and

Syst

em

The

flood

-pla

ins

of th

e B

arw

on R

iver

and

its

tribu

tarie

s ex

tend

from

the

foot

hills

of t

he n

orth

ern

side

of t

he R

ange

toth

e ba

salt

plai

ns n

ear

Win

chel

sea

and

enco

mpa

ss a

com

para

tivel

y w

ide

clim

atic

var

iatio

n.

The

vege

tatio

n re

flect

sth

ese

chan

ges,

with

tall

open

fore

sts

of E

ucal

yptu

s vi

min

alis

and

E. o

vata

occ

urrin

g in

the

sout

h an

d w

oodl

ands

of E

.ca

mal

dule

nsis

dom

inat

ing

in th

e no

rth.

The

soils

als

o sh

ow a

gra

dual

tran

sitio

n fr

om a

cid,

free

ly d

rain

ed p

rofil

es to

heav

ier n

eutra

l soi

ls a

s the

influ

ence

of b

asal

t-der

ived

allu

vium

incr

ease

s tow

ards

the

north

.

Floo

ding

and

silt

atio

n ar

e co

mm

on o

n th

ese

plai

ns.

Wat

erlo

ggin

g of

soi

ls is

a p

robl

em, p

artic

ular

ly o

n lo

w-ly

ing

area

s suc

h as

cut

-off

mea

nder

s and

infil

led

swam

ps.

Gul

ly e

rosi

on a

nd st

ream

-ban

k er

osio

n ar

e al

so c

omm

on.

Gul

ly e

rosi

on a

nd st

ream

-ban

k er

osio

n ar

e pa

rtic

ular

ly c

omm

on o

n th

ese

allu

vial

pla

ins,

whe

re st

ream

s em

erge

from

the

foot

hills

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

BA

RW

ON

RIV

ER

Are

a: 1

15 k

m2

1 5%2

85%

310

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

600

– 1

,000

, low

est J

anua

ry (3

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (80

)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (9

)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust (

Als

o Se

ptem

ber i

n hi

gher

-rai

nfal

l are

as)

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pot

entia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n O

ctob

er –

Apr

il in

low

er-r

ainf

all a

reas

Nov

embe

r – M

arch

in h

ighe

r-ra

infa

ll ar

eas

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Rec

ent a

lluvi

um –

sand

, silt

, cla

y an

d gr

avel

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eA

lluvi

al fl

ood

plai

n of

the

Bar

won

Riv

er a

nd it

s trib

utar

ies w

ith n

umer

ous c

ut-o

ff m

eand

ers

Elev

atio

n, m

90 -

150

Loca

l rel

ief,

m3

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Der

ange

d w

ith m

ajor

mea

nder

ing

chan

nel

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

21.

6La

nd fo

rmPl

ain

Land

form

ele

men

tR

ise

Plai

nSt

ream

bank

, inf

illed

mea

nder

sSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

4 (1

-6)

1 (0

-2)

2 (1

-8)

Slop

e sh

ape

Con

vex

Stra

ight

Con

vex

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eW

oodl

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

vata

, E. v

imin

alis

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

, in

north

E. c

amal

dule

nsis

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Sand

y al

luvi

umC

laye

y al

luvi

umSa

ndy

allu

vium

Des

crip

tion

Bro

wn

sand

y lo

am so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eG

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Bro

wn

sand

y lo

am so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y cl

ay lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y hi

ghM

oder

ate

Ver

y hi

ghD

epth

, m>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g; c

ropp

ing;

shee

p an

d be

ef c

attle

gra

zing

.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZAR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

, for

ms

Hig

h pe

rmea

bilit

y an

d le

achi

ng le

ad to

nut

rient

dec

line.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tab

le l

eads

to

wat

erlo

ggin

g, s

oil

com

pact

ion

and

salti

ng.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls a

repr

one

to g

ully

and

tunn

el e

rosi

on.

Hig

h di

scha

rge

rate

sal

ong

som

e w

ater

cour

ses l

ead

to fl

oodi

ng a

nd si

ltatio

n.

Hig

h di

scha

rge

rate

s an

d w

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

soi

ls le

ad to

stre

amba

nk e

rosi

on a

nd s

iltat

ion.

H

igh

seas

onal

wat

erta

bles

lead

to w

ater

logg

ing.

7.7

Bee

ch F

ores

t Lan

d Sy

stem

Alo

ng th

e cr

est o

f the

wet

ter p

arts

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge li

es a

rol

ling

plai

n w

ith ro

unde

d hi

lls a

nd s

hallo

w v

alle

ys.

This

are

a ha

s one

of t

he h

ighe

st a

nnua

l rai

nfal

ls in

Vic

toria

, ave

ragi

ng a

lmos

t 2,0

00 m

m a

t Wee

apro

inah

.

Prio

r to

set

tlem

ent l

ate

last

cen

tury

, tal

l ope

n fo

rest

s of

Euc

alyp

tus

regn

ans

and

asso

ciat

ed s

peci

es d

omin

ated

the

land

scap

es, b

ut n

ow m

ost a

reas

hav

e be

en c

lear

ed fo

r agr

icul

ture

. So

me

stan

ds o

f tim

ber d

o re

mai

n an

d ot

her a

reas

are

bein

g re

gene

rate

d to

form

clim

ax c

omm

uniti

es o

f E. r

egna

ns.

Agr

icul

tura

l use

s ar

e da

iryin

g, b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

and

crop

ping

. T

he c

ool

clim

ate,

rem

oten

ess

and

free

ly d

rain

ed s

oils

mak

e th

e ar

ea s

uita

ble

for

seed

-pot

ato

prod

uctio

n.

The

pere

nnia

l nat

ure

of m

any

of th

e cr

eeks

and

dra

inag

e lin

es g

ives

the

area

s hig

h w

ater

cat

chm

ent v

alue

s. C

onfli

ctal

so a

rises

bet

wee

n is

hig

h sc

enic

app

eal

as a

rur

al l

ands

cape

and

the

con

vers

ion

of f

arm

land

to

softw

ood

plan

tatio

ns.

The

rolli

ng h

ills o

f the

Bee

ch F

ores

t lan

d sy

stem

com

pris

e an

agr

icul

tura

l lan

dsca

pe o

f hig

h sc

enic

val

ue.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

BE

EC

H F

OR

EST

Are

a: 1

41 k

m2

1 5%2

85%

310

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

1,5

50 –

1,9

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(80)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

210)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

10,

low

est J

uly

(6),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(15)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) M

ay -

Oct

ober

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n la

te D

ecem

ber –

ear

ly F

ebru

ary

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s fel

dspa

thic

sand

ston

e an

d m

udst

one

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eR

ollin

g hi

lls a

long

the

cres

t of t

he O

tway

Ran

geEl

evat

ion,

m34

0 –

560

Loca

l rel

ief,

m45

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

c w

ith so

me

trelli

s and

radi

al a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

25.

8La

nd fo

rmH

illLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Slop

eC

rest

and

slop

eLo

wer

slop

e, d

rain

age

line

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %12

(2-1

5)12

(1-2

0)5

(1-8

)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xC

onve

xC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Tall

open

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Tall

clos

ed fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. re

gnan

s, E.

obl

iqua

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

E. re

gnan

s, E.

obl

iqua

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

Not

hofa

gus c

unni

ngha

mii,

Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

, E.

regn

ans

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Dee

ply

wea

ther

ed in

-situ

rock

In-s

itu w

eath

ered

rock

Allu

vium

and

col

luvi

umD

escr

iptio

nB

row

n fr

iabl

e gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsD

ark

brow

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eLo

amC

lay

loam

Loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Hig

hM

oder

ate

Hig

hD

epth

, m2.

01.

6>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g; b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

; row

cro

ps (s

eed

pota

toes

); w

ater

supp

lyU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Softw

ood

fore

stry

; har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r saw

logs

and

pul

pwoo

d; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; p

assi

ve re

crea

tion;

wat

er su

pply

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sH

igh

rain

fall,

hig

h pe

rmea

bilit

y an

d le

achi

ng p

lus

loss

of o

rgan

ic m

atte

r an

d so

il st

ruct

ure

upon

dis

turb

ance

lead

to

nutri

ent

decl

ine

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

St

eepe

rsl

opes

may

be

subs

eque

ntly

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.

Hig

h ra

infa

ll an

d m

oder

ate

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

leac

hing

of

nutri

ents

and

los

ses

in o

rgan

ic m

atte

r an

dso

il st

ruct

ure.

Ste

eper

slo

pes

are

subs

eque

ntly

pro

ne to

shee

t er

osio

n.

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls

on

stee

per

slop

es

are

subj

ect t

o fr

eque

nt sa

tura

tion

and

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s.

Hig

h se

ason

al

wat

er

tabl

es

and

run-

off

from

surr

ound

ing

slop

es

lead

to

w

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

7.8

Bel

lbra

e La

nd S

yste

m

Bel

ow th

e la

terit

ized

pla

teau

x to

the

east

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge li

e a

serie

s of r

ollin

g hi

lls h

ave

form

ed b

y di

ssec

tion

alon

g th

e va

lleys

of

Sprin

g C

reek

and

Jan

Juc

Cre

ek.

Wea

ther

ing

of l

imes

tone

and

mar

l ex

pose

d al

ong

thes

eva

lleys

has

res

ulte

d in

cal

care

ous

soils

. F

ertil

ity i

s m

oder

ate,

and

thu

s co

ntra

sts

with

the

sur

roun

ding

impo

veris

hed

soils

of t

he la

terit

ic p

late

aux

and

acid

sand

s and

cla

ys.

The

red

soils

, or

thos

e de

eper

pro

files

tran

sitio

nal t

o th

e re

d so

ils, a

re th

e m

ost f

avou

red

for

agric

ultu

re a

nd a

reus

ed o

r cro

ppin

g as

wel

l as

dairy

-far

min

g. G

razi

ng o

f she

et a

nd b

eef c

attle

is a

lso

com

mon

. A

gric

ultu

ral u

se is

decr

easi

ng, h

owev

er, a

s th

e to

wns

hip

of T

orqu

ay e

xten

ds it

s ur

ban

limits

. Su

bdiv

isio

n in

t sm

all f

arm

lets

in o

ther

parts

of t

he v

alle

ys a

lso

tend

s to

decr

ease

agr

icul

tura

l pro

duct

ion.

Shee

t ero

sion

occ

urs o

n so

me

of th

e cr

oppe

d st

eepe

r slo

pes,

whi

le g

ully

ero

sion

and

slu

mpi

ng a

re p

robl

ems

of th

edi

sper

sibl

e du

plex

soils

.

Wid

e dr

aina

ge li

nes a

nd ro

unde

d hi

ll s

typi

fy th

is la

ndsc

ape,

as i

t ris

es to

the

late

ritic

pla

teau

in th

e di

stan

ce

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

BE

LL

BR

AE

Are

a: 2

5 km

21

25%

240

%3

20%

415

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

600

– 6

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(30)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

65)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

14,

low

est J

uly

(10)

, hig

hest

Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jul

ySe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

early

Oct

ober

– e

arly

Apr

ilG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yM

ioce

ne li

mes

tone

and

mar

lT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Rol

ling

hills

dis

sect

ed o

ut b

elow

the

late

ritic

pla

teau

xEl

evat

ion,

m5

– 70

Loca

l rel

ief,

m60

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

3.0

Land

form

Hill

Land

form

ele

men

tU

pper

slop

eM

iddl

e sl

ope

Stee

per s

lope

Low

er sl

ope,

dra

inag

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

5 (3

-9)

11 (5

-14)

15 (7

-20)

7 (1

-9)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arLi

near

Con

vex

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

vim

inal

is, E

. sid

erox

ylon

, E. o

bliq

uaE.

leuc

oxyl

on. E

. sid

erox

ylon

, E. v

imin

alis

E. v

imin

alis

, E. o

vata

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

E. v

imin

alis

, E. s

ider

oxyl

on, E

. leu

coxy

lon,

E. o

vata

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Trun

cate

d la

terit

ic re

mna

nts

Cal

care

ous

clay

an

d de

eply

w

eath

ered

limes

tone

Lim

esto

neC

ollu

vial

lim

esto

ne, c

lay,

late

ritic

mat

eria

l

Des

crip

tion

Bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Yel

low

-bro

wn

calc

areo

us

sodi

c du

plex

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eR

ed c

alca

reou

s gra

datio

nal s

oils

Yel

low

sodi

c du

plex

soils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y cl

ay lo

amLo

amy

sand

Perm

eabi

lity

Low

Mod

erat

eH

igh

Mod

erat

eD

epth

, m>2

>20.

7>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g; b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

; res

iden

tial;

crop

ping

Min

or u

ncle

ared

are

as:

Fore

st g

razi

ng; a

ctiv

e an

d pa

ssiv

e re

crea

tion;

har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r fue

l, po

sts a

nd p

oles

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sD

ispe

rsib

le

subs

oils

re

ceiv

ing

seep

age

wat

er a

re p

rone

to

gully

ero

sion

, slu

mpi

ngan

d ril

ling.

Hig

hly

disp

ersi

ble

subs

oils

are

pro

ne t

ogu

lly e

rosi

on a

nd sl

umpi

ng.

Stee

per s

lope

s are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.H

ighl

y di

sper

sibl

e su

bsoi

ls a

re p

rone

to

gully

ero

sion

and

tunn

el e

rosi

on.

7.9

Bir

regu

rra

Land

Sys

tem

Lyin

g be

twee

n th

e ba

salt

plai

ns to

the

north

and

dis

sect

ed la

terit

ized

land

scap

es to

the

sout

h, m

uch,

if n

ot a

ll, o

fth

is fl

at p

lain

app

aren

tly m

arks

the

east

ern

exte

nt o

f a la

rge

form

er la

ke in

wes

tern

Vic

toria

. Th

e la

ndsc

ape

slop

esve

ry g

ently

to th

e ea

st w

ith in

crea

sing

dis

sect

ion

as th

e he

ight

abo

ve th

e B

arw

on R

iver

floo

d pl

ain

incr

ease

s fr

om10

m to

abo

ut 4

0 m

.

The

lacu

strin

e de

posi

ts a

ppea

r to

be

mai

nly

calc

areo

us a

nd h

ave

form

ed s

oils

with

alk

alin

e re

actio

n tre

nds.

Dis

solu

tion

of c

alci

um c

arbo

nate

has

led

to th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

sink

hol

es in

som

e ar

eas,

alth

ough

leve

lling

of

padd

ocks

has

mad

e th

ese

less

app

aren

t.

The

nativ

e ve

geta

tion

has

been

alm

ost

com

plet

ely

rem

oved

for

agr

icul

tura

l us

e an

d its

orig

inal

stru

ctur

e an

dco

mpo

sitio

n ar

e di

ffic

ult t

o de

term

ine.

In

the

east

ther

e is

som

e ev

iden

ce o

f a fo

rmer

woo

dlan

d, b

ut fu

rther

wes

tth

e so

ils a

re le

ss w

ell d

rain

ed a

nd p

ossi

bly

the

com

mun

ities

wer

e m

ore

stun

ted.

The

wes

tern

par

ts o

f the

land

syst

em sh

ow v

ery

little

dis

sect

ion

and

form

a fl

at p

lain

bet

wee

n th

e Te

rtia

ry se

dim

ents

in th

e so

uth

and

the

basa

lt in

the

nort

h.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

BIR

RE

GU

RR

AA

rea:

81

km2

180

%2

10%

310

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

600

– 6

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(30)

, hig

hest

Feb

ruar

y (7

5)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

9)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e - A

ugus

tSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

Oct

ober

– la

te A

pril

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Plei

stoc

ene

clay

, silt

and

som

e sa

ndT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Flat

pla

in b

orde

ring

the

pres

ent f

lood

pla

in o

f the

Bar

won

Riv

erEl

evat

ion,

m11

0 –

130

Loca

l rel

ief,

m10

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

0.8

Land

form

Flat

pla

inLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Flat

pla

inSi

nkho

leY

oung

er te

rrac

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

1 (0

-3)

0 (0

-1)

2 (1

-3)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arC

onca

veLi

near

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eW

oodl

and

Sedg

elan

dW

oodl

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. v

imin

alis

, E. o

vata

Car

ex sp

p. S

cirp

us c

aloc

arpu

s, Sc

hoen

us a

pogo

n,Ju

ncus

spp.

Ran

uncu

lus s

pp.

E. o

vata

, E. c

amal

dule

nsis

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cal

care

ous c

lay

Sedg

elan

dW

oodl

and

Des

crip

tion

Yel

low

-bro

wn

calc

areo

us d

uple

x so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Gre

y ca

lcar

eous

sodi

c cl

ay so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eG

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amC

lay

Cla

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yV

ery

low

Ver

y lo

wV

ery

low

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SESh

eep

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng; d

airy

farm

ing;

cro

ppin

g.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZAR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

, for

ms

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

f low

per

mea

bilit

y an

d pr

one

to g

ully

and

tun

nel

eros

ion.

Se

ason

ally

hig

h w

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

soil

salti

ng.

Hig

h w

ater

ta

bles

an

d lo

w

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

wat

erlo

ggin

g, so

il co

mpa

ctio

n an

d so

il sa

lting

.H

igh

seas

onal

wat

er ta

ble,

low

per

mea

bilit

y an

d sa

line

grou

ndw

ater

lead

to w

ater

logg

ing,

soi

l com

pact

ions

and

soil

salti

ng.

7.10

Bun

ker H

ill L

and

Syst

em

Dee

ply

diss

ecte

d hi

lls n

orth

and

wes

t of

Gel

libra

nd p

osse

ss T

ertia

ry s

ands

and

cla

ys o

n th

e hi

gher

par

ts o

f th

ela

ndsc

ape

and

outc

rops

of C

reta

ceou

s sed

imen

ts o

n th

e st

eepe

r and

low

er p

arts

. Th

e so

ils b

ecom

e he

avie

r and

mor

efe

rtile

on

the

Cre

tace

ous

sedi

men

ts a

nd th

is is

ref

lect

ed in

the

occu

rren

ce o

f Eu

caly

ptus

obl

iqua

and

E. v

imin

alis

open

fore

sts w

ith d

ense

und

erst

orey

s.

Mos

t are

as a

re to

o st

eep

for a

gric

ultu

re, a

nd re

mai

n fo

rest

ed w

ith n

ativ

e ha

rdw

oods

or p

ines

. C

lear

ing

oper

atio

nsne

cess

ary

for

pine

con

vers

ion

and

hard

woo

d ha

rves

ting

may

res

ult i

n se

vere

sco

ur g

ully

ing

and

land

slip

s on

the

stee

p pa

rts o

f the

land

scap

e.

Acc

ess t

rack

s are

diff

icul

t to

site

and

pro

ne to

scou

ring.

In

gene

ral,

care

ful m

anag

emen

t is r

equi

red.

The

stee

p la

nd a

nd ir

regu

lar n

atur

e of

the

terr

ain

mak

es th

ese

area

s diff

icul

t to

man

age.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

BU

NK

ER

HIL

LA

rea:

41

km2

125

%2

20%

340

%4 9%

5 6%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

900

– 1

,050

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

5), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (13

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

2, lo

wes

t Jul

y (7

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n ea

rly N

ovem

ber –

late

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPa

laeo

cene

unc

onso

lidat

ed sa

nd, s

ilt a

nd c

lay

Low

er

Cre

tace

ous

sand

ston

e an

dm

udst

one

Pala

eoce

ne u

ncon

solid

ated

sand

, silt

and

cla

y

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eD

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

hills

abu

tting

the

Gel

libra

nd R

iver

to th

e w

est o

f Lov

e C

reek

Elev

atio

n, m

60 –

290

Loca

l rel

ief,

m95

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

c w

ith so

me

radi

al a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

23.

2La

nd fo

rmH

illLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Cre

sts,

uppe

r slo

peSl

ope

Stee

p lo

wer

slop

eG

entle

slop

eC

rest

, upp

er sl

ope

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %20

(5-3

5)30

(20-

35)

45 (3

0-65

)15

(4-2

0)13

(1-2

0)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

C

onve

xN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Woo

dlan

dO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stLo

w w

oodl

and

Woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

niti

da, E

. rad

iata

, E. b

axte

riE.

bax

teri

, E. o

bliq

uaE.

obl

iqua

, E.

ova

ta,

E. v

imin

alis

,E.

aro

map

hloi

a, o

n so

uthe

rn a

spec

tE.

cyp

ello

carp

a

E. n

itida

, E. o

vata

, E. b

axte

riE.

rad

iata

, E. b

axte

ri, E

. niti

da, E

.ob

liqua

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Sand

Sand

, silt

and

cla

yIn

-site

wea

ther

ed ro

ckSa

ndQ

uartz

gra

vel,

som

e cl

ay, s

and

and

silt

Des

crip

tion

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eY

ello

w

grad

atio

nal

soils

, w

eak

stru

ctur

eB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsG

rey

sand

so

ils

with

ha

rdpa

ns,

unifo

rm te

xtur

eSt

ony

yello

w g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Loam

y sa

ndSa

ndy

loam

Loam

Loam

y sa

ndLo

amy

sand

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y hi

ghH

igh

Mod

erat

eV

ery

low

Ver

y hi

ghD

epth

, m>2

>20.

90.

5>2

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for p

osts

and

pol

es, s

ome

saw

logs

on

bette

r soi

ls; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly; g

rave

l ext

ract

ion;

softw

ood

plan

tatio

nsC

lear

ed a

reas

: B

eef c

attle

and

shee

p gr

azin

g on

mai

nly

unim

prov

ed p

astu

res;

wat

er su

pply

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Low

in

here

nt

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

leac

hing

and

nutri

ent

decl

ine.

W

hen

dist

urbe

dan

d co

mpa

cted

, st

eepe

r sl

opes

are

pron

e to

ero

sion

(sco

urin

g).

Low

in

here

nt

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

nu

trien

tde

clin

e. W

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

sur

face

soils

are

pro

ne to

she

et e

rosi

on o

nst

eepe

r slo

pes.

Stee

per

slop

es a

re p

rone

to

shee

tan

d ril

l er

osio

n.

C

lay

subs

oils

subj

ect

to p

erio

dic

satu

ratio

n ar

epr

one

to la

ndsl

ips

Low

in

here

nt

ferti

lity

lead

s to

nutri

ent

decl

ine.

H

ardp

ans

rest

rict

verti

cal d

rain

age

lead

ing

to s

easo

nal

wat

erlo

ggin

g.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt f

ertil

ity a

nd h

igh

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

leac

hing

and

nutri

ent d

eclin

e.

7.11

C

ape

Otw

ay L

and

Syste

m

In th

e vi

cini

ty o

f Cap

e O

tway

and

ext

endi

ng d

isco

ntin

uous

ly to

the

wes

t is

an e

leva

ted

plai

n of

coa

stal

dun

es.

The

coas

tal m

argi

ns o

f the

pla

in a

re g

ener

ally

fron

ted

by 1

00 m

clif

fs o

f cal

care

nite

with

pos

sibl

y sm

all p

rimar

y du

nes a

tth

e ba

se o

f th

e cl

iffs.

Beh

ind

the

cliff

s, th

e pl

ain

has

an i

rreg

ular

dun

e to

pogr

aphy

tha

t m

ay e

xten

d se

vera

lki

lom

etre

s inl

and.

The

dem

arca

tion

to o

ther

land

syst

ems i

s ver

y sh

arp

and

easi

ly d

efin

ed.

Woo

dlan

ds o

f Eu

caly

ptus

vim

inal

is w

ith o

pen

gras

sy u

nder

stor

eys

used

to

cove

r m

ost

area

s, al

thou

gh s

hrub

sre

sist

ant t

o sa

lt- a

nd s

alt-l

aden

win

ds f

orm

erly

col

oniz

ed th

e co

asta

l loc

aliti

es.

Mos

t are

as h

ave

been

cle

ared

for

graz

ing,

but

the

esta

blis

hmen

t of

impr

oved

pas

ture

s pr

esen

t diff

icul

ties.

Ove

rgra

zing

has

res

ulte

d in

sev

ere

win

der

osio

n in

som

e ar

eas,

and

recl

amat

ion

is d

iffic

ult a

nd e

xpen

sive

.

Larg

e pa

rts o

f the

Cap

e O

tway

land

syst

em h

ave

been

cle

ared

and

pro

vide

roug

h gr

azin

g fo

r cat

tle o

n na

tive

gras

ses.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

CA

PE O

TW

AY

Are

a: 3

6 km

21 6%

2 4%3

20%

420

%5

10%

640

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

900

– 1

,100

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

5), h

ighe

st Ju

ly (1

05)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

14,

low

est J

uly

(10)

, hig

hest

Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jul

ySe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

late

Nov

embe

r - F

ebru

ary

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Rec

ent s

and

and

shel

l grit

on

a ca

lcar

enite

bas

emen

tT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Elev

ated

long

itudi

nal c

oast

al d

unes

at a

nd to

the

wes

t of C

ape

Otw

ayEl

evat

ion,

m0

– 15

5Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

15D

rain

age

patte

rnM

ainl

y ab

sent

; som

e de

ndrit

ic a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

20.

7La

nd fo

rmFo

redu

neC

liff

Long

itudi

nal d

une

Inte

rdun

e co

rrid

orIn

land

dun

eLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

--

Win

dwar

d sl

opes

Leew

ard

slop

es-

-Sl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

20 (1

5-40

)65

(50-

100)

25 (5

-50)

20 (5

-50)

3 (0

-9)

25 (3

-60)

Slop

e sh

ape

Con

vex

Line

arC

onve

xC

onve

xC

onca

veC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Tuss

ock

gras

slan

dO

pen

scru

bO

pen

scru

bW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esSp

inife

x hi

rsut

us, S

cirp

usno

dosu

s, C

aloc

epha

lus

brow

nii

Cas

uarin

a st

rict

a, C

asua

rina

long

ifolia

, Aly

xia

buxi

folia

Alyx

ia b

uxifo

lia, L

euco

pogo

npa

rvifl

orus

, Cas

sinia

long

ifolia

, Aca

cia

vert

icill

ata,

Lept

ospe

rmum

juni

peri

num

,H

elic

hrys

um p

aral

ium

Cas

uarin

a st

rict

a, E

.vi

min

alis

, Leu

copo

gon

parv

iflor

us

E. o

bliq

uaE.

vim

inal

isE.

vim

inal

is

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Coa

rse

sand

, she

ll gr

itC

alca

reni

te, a

eolia

n sa

ndSa

nd w

ith c

alca

reni

teba

sem

ent

Sand

with

cal

care

nite

base

men

tSa

nd w

ith c

alca

reni

teba

sem

ent

Sand

with

cal

care

nite

base

men

tD

escr

iptio

nY

ello

w c

alca

reou

s san

d so

ils,

unifo

rm te

xtur

eY

ello

w c

alca

reou

s san

d so

ils,

unifo

rm te

xtur

eB

row

n ca

lcar

eous

sand

soils

,un

iform

text

ure

Bro

wn

calc

areo

us sa

nd so

ils,

unifo

rm te

xtur

eR

ed-y

ello

w c

alca

reou

s san

dso

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

e R

ed-y

ello

w c

alca

reou

s san

dso

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

e Su

rfac

e te

xtur

eC

oars

e sa

ndC

oars

e sa

ndLo

amy

sand

Loam

y sa

ndLo

amy

sand

Loam

y sa

ndPe

rmea

bilit

yV

ery

high

Ver

y hi

ghV

ery

high

Ver

y hi

ghV

ery

high

Ver

y hi

ghD

epth

, m>2

0.3

>2>2

>21.

9L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: B

eef c

attle

gra

zing

on

unim

prov

ed p

astu

res;

min

ing

of c

alca

reni

te; r

esid

entia

l; ac

tive

recr

eatio

n.U

ncle

ared

are

as:

Fore

st g

razi

ng o

f bee

f cat

tle; a

ctiv

e an

d pa

ssiv

e re

crea

tion;

nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

land

scap

e co

nser

vatio

n.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Dun

e in

here

ntly

uns

tabl

e du

eto

cyc

lical

mar

ine

eros

ion.

Low

ferti

lity,

low

wat

er-

hold

ing

capa

city

and

vege

tatio

n se

nsiti

ve to

dist

urba

nce

lead

to w

ind

eros

ion

and

leac

hing

of

nutri

ents

.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed sa

nd so

ilsof

low

wat

er-h

oldi

ng c

apac

ityon

stee

p sl

opes

with

vege

tatio

n se

nsiti

ve to

dist

urba

nce

and

salt

prun

ing

are

pron

e to

shee

t ero

sion

by

win

d an

d w

ater

.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed sa

nd so

ilsw

ith lo

w w

ater

-hol

ding

capa

citie

s, su

bjec

ted

to st

rong

on-s

hore

win

ds a

re p

rone

tow

ind

eros

ion.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity,

hig

h al

kalin

ity a

ndra

pid

leac

hing

lea

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed sa

nd so

ilsw

ith lo

w w

ater

-hol

ding

capa

citie

s are

pro

ne to

win

der

osio

n. L

ow in

here

ntfe

rtilit

y, h

igh

alka

linity

and

rapi

d le

achi

ng to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed sa

nd so

ilsw

ith lo

w w

ater

-hol

ding

capa

citie

s are

pro

ne to

win

der

osio

n. L

ow in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yan

d hi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

7.12

C

arlis

le L

and

Syst

em

Hig

h-le

vel r

iver

terr

ace

syst

ems

have

dev

elop

ed a

long

the

Gel

libra

nd R

iver

val

ley

at C

arlis

le R

iver

, Gel

libra

ndan

d C

happ

le V

ale.

U

p to

fou

r di

ffer

ent l

evel

s ca

n be

fou

nd, a

nd m

ild d

isse

ctio

n on

the

uppe

r le

vels

in q

uite

com

plic

ated

land

scap

es.

The

allu

vial

mat

eria

l var

ies

from

coa

rse

sand

s an

d gr

avel

s to

silt

s an

d cl

ays

and

a va

riety

of

soils

is f

ound

at

diff

eren

t le

vels

. R

edis

tribu

tion

of s

and

over

som

e ar

eas

has

resu

lted

in p

olyg

enet

ic s

oils

with

har

dpan

deve

lopm

ent.

Thi

s fur

ther

com

plic

ates

the

soil

and

vege

tatio

n pa

ttern

.

Mos

t of

thes

e te

rrac

e sy

stem

s ha

ve b

een

clea

red,

dai

ryin

g be

ing

the

maj

or la

nd u

se.

Seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g is

com

mon

and

soil

com

pact

ion

may

resu

lt fr

om c

attle

gra

zing

thes

e ar

eas i

n w

et c

ondi

tions

.

Seve

ral l

evel

s can

be

foun

d in

this

land

syst

em, w

ith th

e hi

ghes

t lev

els b

eing

som

ewha

t dis

sect

ed.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

CA

RL

ISL

EA

rea:

19

km2

110

%2

10%

310

%4

10%

515

%6

25%

720

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

1,0

00 –

1,1

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(45)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

130)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– Se

ptem

ber

Seas

onal

gro

wth

limita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

mid

Nov

embe

r – la

te M

arch

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Rec

ent a

lluvi

al c

lay,

silt

and

sand

shal

low

ly o

verly

ing

unco

nsol

idat

ed P

alae

ocen

e sa

nd w

ith so

me

clay

and

silt.

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eEl

evat

ed a

nd, i

n pa

rts, u

plift

ed a

nd d

isse

cted

syst

em o

f anc

ient

cut

and

dep

ositi

onal

terr

aces

of t

he G

ellib

rand

Riv

er.

Elev

atio

n, m

30 –

180

Loca

l rel

ief,

m20

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

c pa

ttern

in d

isse

cted

are

as; i

nter

nal d

rain

age

else

whe

reD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

1.2

Land

form

Allu

vial

terr

ace

Scar

pV

alle

y flo

orSc

arp

Mild

ly d

isse

cted

allu

vial

terr

ace

Land

form

ele

men

tLo

w le

vel

--

-M

iddl

e le

vel

Hig

h le

vel

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %30

(0-8

)25

915

-40)

0 (0

-1)

15 (3

-35)

5 (0

-9)

3 (0

-5)

7 (1

-10)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arLi

near

Line

arC

onve

xLi

near

Line

arC

onve

xN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Tall

open

fore

stW

oodl

and

Low

ope

n w

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

taE.

obl

iqua

, E. v

imin

alis

E. v

imin

alis

, E. o

bliq

ua,

Acac

ia m

elan

oxyl

on, E

.ov

ata

E. ra

diat

a, E

. niti

da, E

.ba

xter

i, E.

vim

inal

isE.

niti

da, E

. rad

iata

, E.

baxt

eri

E. a

rom

aphl

oia,

E.

radi

ata,

E. o

vata

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E.

baxt

eri

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt , s

ome

sand

Sand

, silt

and

cla

yA

lluvi

al c

lay,

silt

and

sand

Sand

Sand

Allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt w

ithsa

nd u

nder

lay

Allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt

Des

crip

tion

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eY

ello

w g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls,

wea

k st

ruct

ure

Gre

y gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsG

rey

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils w

ithha

rdpa

ns, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eG

rey

sand

soils

,st

ruct

ured

cla

y un

derla

yM

ottle

d ye

llow

and

red

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y cl

ay lo

amLo

amy

sand

Silty

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Low

Hig

hLo

wV

ery

high

Ver

y lo

wLo

wM

oder

ate

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

0.6

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g; b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

; ope

n-ra

nge

pig

fatte

ning

; res

iden

tial;

wat

er su

pply

.U

ncle

ared

are

as:

Sand

and

gra

vel e

xtra

ctio

n; w

ater

supp

ly; m

inor

fore

st p

rodu

ceSO

ILD

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Low

per

mea

bilit

y an

dhi

gh ra

infa

ll le

ad to

seas

onal

ly h

igh

wat

erta

bles

with

resu

lting

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

per

mea

bilit

y le

ad to

leac

hing

of n

utrie

nts.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

eso

ils o

n th

e st

eepe

stsl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

ter

osio

n. S

atur

atio

n of

clay

subs

oils

on

stee

psl

opes

lead

s to

land

slip

s.

Floo

ding

and

seas

onal

wat

er ta

ble

deve

lopm

ent

lead

to w

ater

logg

ing,

soil

com

pact

ion

and

silta

tion.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yan

d hi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.St

eepe

r slo

pes w

ithco

mpa

cted

soils

of l

oww

ater

-hol

ding

cap

acity

are

pron

e to

shee

t ero

sion

.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yw

ith le

achi

ng o

fpe

rmea

ble

acid

ic su

rfac

esle

ads t

o nu

trien

t dec

line.

Har

dpan

s res

trict

drai

nage

, lea

ding

tose

ason

al w

ater

logg

ing.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

with

leac

hing

per

mea

ble

surf

ace

horiz

ons l

eads

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Low

prof

ile p

erm

eabi

lity

and

perc

hed

seas

onal

wat

erta

bles

lead

tow

ater

logg

ing.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

phos

phor

us fi

xatio

n le

adto

nut

rient

dec

line.

7.13

C

happ

le V

ale

Land

Sys

tem

Low

woo

dlan

ds o

f Eu

caly

ptus

niti

da w

ith u

nder

stor

eys

of L

epto

sper

mum

jun

iper

inum

, L.

myr

sino

ides

and

Xant

horr

hoea

aus

tral

is c

hara

cter

ise

thes

e hi

lls o

n th

e w

este

rn p

erip

hery

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge. T

he s

oils

are

mai

nly

deep

, inf

ertil

e an

d ex

cess

ivel

y dr

aine

d sa

nds,

whi

ch c

ontra

st s

harp

ly w

ith th

e ad

jace

nt g

rada

tiona

l pro

files

of

the

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s out

crop

s. T

hus,

alth

ough

rain

fall

is h

igh,

moi

stur

e st

ress

and

soil

infe

rtilit

y se

vere

ly re

stric

t pla

ntgr

owth

.

Som

e at

tem

pts

have

bee

n m

ade

to c

lear

trac

ts o

f th

is la

nd a

nd e

stab

lish

past

ures

for

cat

tle g

razi

ng.

Tria

l plo

ts o

fpi

ne s

peci

es h

ave

also

bee

n es

tabl

ishe

d.

Giv

en s

uffic

ient

fer

tiliz

er a

nd s

oil a

mel

iora

nts

such

as

lime,

pas

ture

s or

even

int

ensi

ve c

rops

cou

ld b

e su

cces

sful

ly g

row

n.

How

ever

, th

e ra

tes

of s

uch

chem

ical

s ne

eded

to

achi

eve

satis

fact

ory

prod

uctio

n ar

e hi

gh a

nd m

ost o

f th

e la

nd r

emai

ns in

its

natu

ral s

tate

. Th

e m

ain

activ

ity h

as b

een

the

open

ing

up o

f num

erou

s so

il an

d gr

avel

ext

ract

ion

pits

, mos

t of w

hich

hav

e fa

iled

to re

gene

rate

nat

ural

ly a

nd n

owre

mai

n as

scar

s on

the

land

scap

e.

The

com

pone

nts o

f thi

s lan

d sy

stem

are

wel

l dem

arca

ted

by th

e st

ruct

ure

and

spec

ies

com

posi

tion

of th

e na

tive

vege

tatio

n.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

CH

APP

LE

VA

LE

Are

a: 1

15 k

m2

115

%2

15%

355

%4

10%

5 5%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

1,0

00 –

1,3

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(45)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

130)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

12,

low

est J

uly

(7),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

- Sep

tem

ber

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n m

id N

ovem

ber –

late

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPa

leoc

ene

unco

nsol

idat

ed sa

nd a

nd g

rave

lT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Dis

sect

ed h

ills i

n th

e w

este

rn p

art o

f the

Otw

ay R

ange

Elev

atio

n, m

30 -

270

Loca

l rel

ief,

m60

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

c w

ith so

me

radi

al a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

24.

0La

nd fo

rmH

illV

alle

y flo

orLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Cre

st, s

lope

Bro

ad,

slig

htly

dep

ress

ed a

reas

of

impe

ded

drai

nage

Cre

st, s

lope

Stee

p lo

wer

slop

e-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %25

(10-

35)

15 (5

-20)

20 (5

-45)

40 (2

5-50

)8

(2-1

2)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xLi

near

Con

vex

Line

arC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Tall

shru

blan

dC

lose

d he

ath

Low

woo

dlan

dW

oodl

and

Clo

sed

scru

bD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

niti

da, A

caci

a su

aveo

lens

, E.

baxt

eri,

Lept

ospe

rmum

juni

peri

num

Cas

uarin

a lit

tora

lis, X

anth

orrh

oea

aust

ralis

, Lep

tosp

erm

umju

nipe

rinu

m, L

epto

sper

mum

myr

sino

ides

, Mel

aleu

ca sq

uarr

osa,

Aotu

s eri

coid

es, D

illw

ynia

glab

erri

na, E

pacr

is im

pres

sa,

Epac

ris l

anug

inos

a

E. n

itida

, E. r

adia

ta, E

. bax

teri

, E.

vim

inal

is c

lose

to v

alle

y flo

orE.

bax

teri

, E. r

adia

ta, E

. niti

daM

elal

euca

squa

rros

a,Le

ptos

perm

um ju

nipe

rinu

m,

Cas

uarin

a lit

tora

lis, G

leic

heni

aci

rcin

nata

, Bau

era

rubi

oide

s,Sp

reng

elia

inca

rnat

a

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Qua

rtz sa

nd a

nd g

rave

lQ

uartz

sand

Qua

rtz sa

ndQ

uartz

sand

Allu

vial

sand

, pla

nt re

mai

nsD

escr

iptio

nW

hite

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Gre

y sa

nd

soils

w

ith

hard

pans

,un

iform

text

ure

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eY

ello

w sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eB

lack

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Surf

ace

text

ure

Coa

rse

sand

Sand

y lo

amLo

amy

sand

Loam

y sa

ndSi

lty lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yV

ery

high

Ver

y lo

wV

ery

high

Ver

y hi

ghLo

wD

epth

, m>2

0.6

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Gra

vel a

nd sa

nd e

xtra

ctio

n; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly; a

ctiv

e an

d pa

ssiv

e re

crea

tion.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt f

ertil

ity a

nd h

igh

perm

eabi

lity

lead

s to

lea

chin

g of

nutri

ents

. St

eepe

r sl

opes

w

ithco

mpa

cted

soi

ls a

re p

rone

to

shee

t,ril

l and

scou

r gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Har

dpan

s re

stric

t dr

aina

ge l

eadi

ngto

sea

sona

l wat

erlo

ggin

g. V

ery

low

inhe

rent

fer

tility

with

lea

chin

g of

perm

eabl

e ac

idic

sur

face

hor

izon

sle

ads t

o nu

trien

t dec

line.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt f

ertil

ity a

nd h

igh

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

nu

trien

tde

clin

e.

St

eepe

r sl

opes

w

ithco

mpa

cted

soi

ls a

re p

rone

to

shee

t,ril

l and

scou

r gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Stee

per

slop

es

with

w

eakl

yst

ruct

ured

so

ils

of

low

w

ater

-ho

ldin

g ca

paci

ty a

re p

rone

to

shee

ter

osio

n.

Low

inhe

rent

fer

tility

and

high

per

mea

bilit

y le

ad t

o nu

trien

tde

clin

e.

Hig

h w

ater

ta

bles

le

ad

tow

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

Rap

id r

un-o

ff f

rom

adj

acen

t hi

llsle

ads t

o flo

odin

g an

d si

ltatio

n.

7.14

C

onne

warr

e La

nd S

yste

m

Man

y of

the

outle

ts o

f cre

eks

and

river

s to

the

east

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge p

osse

ss ti

dal s

wam

ps w

ith b

raid

ed c

hann

els

and

brac

kish

lago

ons.

Tho

mps

on C

reek

and

Pai

nkal

ac C

reek

hav

e su

ch r

iver

mou

ths,

alth

ough

the

mos

t ext

ensi

vesw

amp

lies j

ust o

utsi

de th

e pr

esen

t stu

dy a

rea,

surr

ound

ing

the

mou

th o

f the

Bar

won

Riv

er.

Onl

y m

inor

diff

eren

ces

in h

eigh

t abo

ve m

ean

tide

leve

l det

erm

ine

the

diff

eren

ces

betw

een

the

land

com

pone

nts.

The

mar

ine

terr

aces

esc

ape

inun

datio

n in

all

but e

xtre

mel

y ra

re c

ombi

natio

ns o

f flo

ods

and

high

tide

, whi

le m

ost o

ther

tract

s of l

and

are

flood

ed e

ither

regu

larly

or i

rreg

ular

ly.

Hal

ophy

tic sh

rubs

and

her

bs c

olon

ize

the

grey

and

stru

ctur

eles

s silt

y cl

ays f

ound

on

thes

e sw

amps

. Th

e st

ruct

ure

and

spec

ies

of e

ach

com

mun

ity a

re s

trong

ly in

fluen

ced

by th

e he

ight

abo

ve m

ean

tide

leve

l and

the

degr

ee o

f sal

inity

of

the

tidal

wat

er.

Som

e pa

rts o

f th

ese

area

s ha

ve b

een

drai

ned

or f

illed

to p

rovi

de f

or a

gric

ultu

re o

r re

crea

tiona

l fac

ilitie

s. H

owev

er,

mos

t par

ts re

mai

n in

thei

r nat

ural

stat

e.

Thes

e sw

amps

lie

just

inla

nd fr

om th

e co

asta

l dun

es a

nd p

rovi

de v

alua

ble

habi

tats

for w

ildlif

e.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

CO

NN

EW

AR

RE

Are

a: 8

km

21

30%

230

%3

10%

415

%5

15%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 6

25, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(30)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

60)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

14,

low

est J

uly

(10)

, hig

hest

Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jul

ySe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

Oct

ober

– e

arly

Apr

ilG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yR

ecen

t est

uarin

e sa

nd, s

il, c

lay

and

plan

t rem

ains

Ven

eer o

f aeo

lian

sand

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eFl

at e

stua

rine

low

land

s with

bra

ided

cha

nnel

sEl

evat

ion,

m0-

4Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

1D

rain

age

patte

rnD

eran

ged

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

2-

Land

form

Mar

ine

terr

ace

Swam

pLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

-U

pper

surf

ace

occa

sion

ally

inun

date

dLo

wer

surf

ace

regu

larly

inun

date

dFr

ee w

ater

surf

ace

Are

a ad

jace

nt to

sand

dun

e

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %1

(0-2

)0

(0-1

)0

01

(10-

2)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xLi

near

Line

ar-

Irre

gula

rN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

(Not

kno

wn)

Low

shru

blan

dC

lose

d gr

assl

and

-Se

dgel

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

-Ar

thro

cnem

um a

rbus

culu

m, G

ahni

afil

umFr

anke

nia

pauc

iflor

a, S

amol

usre

pens

, Art

hroc

nem

um a

rbus

culu

m-

Scir

pus n

odos

us

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Estu

arin

e cl

ay, s

ilt a

nd sa

ndEs

tuar

ine

clay

, silt

and

pla

ntre

mai

nsEs

tuar

ine

clay

, silt

and

pla

ntre

mai

nsEs

tuar

ine

clay

, silt

and

pla

ntre

mai

nsA

eolia

n sa

nd, s

hell

grit

over

estu

arin

e cl

ay, s

ilt a

nd p

lant

rem

ains

Des

crip

tion

Yel

low

sodi

c du

plex

soils

Salin

e so

ilsSa

line

soils

Salin

e so

ilsG

rey

sand

soi

ls,

wea

kly

stru

ctur

edcl

ay u

nder

lay

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amSi

lty c

lay

loam

Silty

cla

ySi

lty c

lay

Sand

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yM

oder

ate

Ver

y lo

wV

ery

low

Ver

y lo

wLo

wD

epth

, m>2

>2>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Som

e of

the

high

er a

reas

cle

ared

for g

razi

ng, c

ropp

ing

and

recr

eatio

nal f

acili

ties.

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: N

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; re

fuse

dis

posa

l.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Sodi

c su

bsoi

ls

with

hi

gh

salin

egr

ound

wat

er ta

bles

are

pro

ne to

soi

lsa

lting

, su

rfac

e co

mpa

ctio

n an

dsh

eet e

rosi

on.

Occ

asio

nal i

nflu

x of

est

uarin

e sa

line

wat

er o

n cl

ays

of l

ow m

echa

nica

lst

reng

th l

eads

to

soil

salti

ng a

ndco

mpa

ctio

n.

Reg

ular

inf

lux

of e

stua

rine

salin

ew

ater

on

clay

s of

low

mec

hani

cal

stre

ngth

lea

ds t

o so

il sa

lting

and

com

pact

ion.

Min

or h

azar

dsSo

dic

subs

oils

w

ith

low

perm

eabi

lity

and

high

sa

line

grou

ndw

ater

ta

bles

ar

e pr

one

tosu

rfac

e co

mpa

ctio

n an

d so

il sa

lting

.

7.15

D

eepd

ene

Land

Sys

tem

An

exte

nsiv

e la

terit

ic p

late

au t

o th

e no

rth o

f th

e O

tway

Ran

ge h

as b

een

diss

ecte

d by

the

Bar

won

Riv

er a

nd i

tstri

buta

ries.

The

re a

re s

ever

al p

late

au r

emna

nts

sepa

rate

d by

allu

vial

pla

ins

of th

e B

arw

on R

iver

land

sys

tem

. In

gene

ral,

flat

or g

ently

und

ulat

ing

plai

ns o

ccup

y th

e hi

ghes

t pa

rts o

f th

e la

ndsc

ape,

and

the

se a

re s

urro

unde

d by

gent

le sl

opes

lead

ing

to sl

ight

ly lo

wer

surf

aces

or b

y st

eep

scar

ps fa

lling

aw

ay to

the

allu

vial

pla

ins.

The

area

s to

the

wes

t of t

he B

arw

on R

iver

is m

ore

diss

ecte

d, w

ith g

ener

ally

stee

per s

lope

s.

The

soils

on

the

high

est l

evel

s hav

e be

en st

rong

ly la

terit

ized

, with

iron

ston

e th

roug

hout

the

prof

ile a

nd c

once

ntra

ted

in d

isco

ntin

uous

laye

rs a

t abo

ut 1

.2 m

dep

th.

Sim

ilar s

oils

with

out i

rons

tone

are

foun

d on

low

er le

vels

, whi

le th

ege

ntle

slop

es b

etw

een

thes

e le

vels

pos

sess

hea

vier

-text

ured

soils

with

coa

rse

bloc

ky st

ruct

ures

in th

e su

bsoi

ls.

Cle

arin

g ha

s be

en w

ides

prea

d an

d th

e la

nd is

use

d fo

r she

ep a

nd b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

as

wel

l as

som

e da

iryin

g. S

oil

salti

ng h

as o

ccur

red

in s

ome

area

s, an

d m

ajor

pro

blem

s ha

ve a

risen

due

to g

ully

and

tun

nel

eros

ion.

Th

e m

ore

diss

ecte

d ar

eas t

o th

e w

est o

f the

Bar

won

are

the

mos

t sus

cept

ible

, and

dam

age

has b

een

wid

espr

ead.

Dis

pers

ible

subs

oils

on

the

stee

per s

lope

s of t

his l

ands

cape

are

hig

hly

susc

eptib

le to

gul

ly e

rosi

on a

nd la

ndsl

ips.

Com

pone

nts a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

DE

EPD

EN

EA

rea:

179

km

21

40%

215

%3

20%

410

%5 7%

6 8%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

650

– 7

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(30)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

85)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(9)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– A

ugus

tSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

early

Oct

ober

– la

te A

pril

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Plio

cene

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Und

ulat

ing

plai

n in

land

of t

he O

tway

Ran

geEl

evat

ion,

m12

0 - 1

90Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

40D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

21.

0La

nd fo

rmR

ise

Hig

h le

vel t

erra

ceD

rain

age

line

Scar

pLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Bro

ad c

rest

Gen

tle u

pper

slop

eG

entle

bro

ad sl

ope

--

-Sl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

1 (0

-2)

5 (2

-1)

3 (0

-7)

1 (0

-2)

0 (0

-1)

35 (1

0-50

)Sl

ope

shap

eLi

near

Line

arC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

Line

ar, C

onve

xN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dC

lose

d sc

rub

Ope

n fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. v

imin

alis

, E. o

bliq

ua, E

.ra

diat

aE.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

taE.

obl

iqua

, E. v

imin

alis

, E.

ovat

a, E

. rad

iata

E. v

imin

alis

, E o

bliq

ua, E

.ov

ata

Lept

ospe

rmum

juni

peri

num

Mel

aleu

ca sq

uarr

osa

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. vim

inal

is

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Late

ritiz

ed se

dim

ents

Cla

yC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndA

lluvi

al c

lay,

silt

and

sand

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndD

escr

iptio

nM

ottle

d ye

llow

and

red

dupl

exso

ils w

ith ir

onst

one

Yel

low

-bro

wn

sodi

c du

plex

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eM

ottle

d ye

llow

and

red

dupl

exso

ilsY

ello

w-b

row

n ca

lcar

eous

sodi

c so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Gre

y gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsY

ello

w so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y cl

ay lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Mod

erat

eLo

wM

oder

ate

Low

Ver

y lo

wM

oder

ate

Dep

th, m

1.2

>2>2

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: Sh

eep

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng; c

ash

and

row

cro

ppin

g; d

airy

farm

ing.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es,

proc

esse

s, fo

rms

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity,

phos

phat

e fix

atio

n, a

ndpe

rmea

ble

surf

ace

soils

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

flo

w p

erm

eabi

lity

are

pron

e to

gully

and

tunn

el e

rosi

on.

Sodi

c su

bsoi

ls o

f low

perm

eabi

lity

rece

ivin

g sa

line

seep

age

are

pron

e to

soil

salti

ng.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity,

phos

phat

e fix

atio

n an

dpe

rmea

ble

surf

ace

soils

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

flo

w p

erm

eabi

lity

are

pron

e to

gully

and

tunn

el e

rosi

on a

ndso

il sa

lting

.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

ele

ads t

o w

ater

logg

ing,

soil

com

pact

ion

and

soil

salti

ng.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls a

repr

one

to g

ully

and

tunn

eler

osio

n.

Dis

pers

ible

soils

on

stee

psl

opes

subj

ect t

o pe

riodi

csa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s and

shee

t ero

sion

.

7.16

F

ergu

son

Hill

Lan

d Sy

stem

Mos

t ou

tcro

ps o

f Te

rtiar

y se

dim

ents

to

the

wes

t of

the

Otw

ay R

ange

are

eith

er d

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

or d

eepl

yw

eath

ered

soils

. H

owev

er, s

ome

ridge

s an

d sp

urs a

re o

nly

mild

ly d

isse

cted

and

thei

r soi

l pro

files

are

onl

y w

eakl

yde

velo

ped.

Th

ese

area

s ar

e fo

und

at F

ergu

son

Hill

, ju

st s

outh

of

Sim

pson

, al

ong

Pipe

line

Roa

d an

d in

an

addi

tiona

l sm

all a

rea

near

Cap

e O

tway

.

The

pare

nt m

ater

ial i

s Te

rtiar

y sa

nd, s

ilt a

nd c

lay,

with

som

e m

inor

are

as o

f la

terit

ic ir

onst

one.

Th

e so

ils v

ary

acco

rdin

g to

the

nat

ure

of t

he o

utcr

oppi

ng b

eds,

but

in g

ener

al t

heir

stru

ctur

e is

wea

k an

d of

ten

the

A a

nd B

horiz

ons a

re n

ot c

lear

ly d

iffer

entia

ted.

Pro

file

drai

nage

is g

ood

on a

ll bu

t tho

se a

reas

with

har

dpan

s, an

d th

ese

are

the

only

are

as p

rone

to w

ater

logg

ing

desp

ite th

e hi

gh a

nnua

l rai

nfal

l.

Euca

lypt

us o

bliq

ua a

nd E

. bax

teri

col

oniz

e m

ost a

reas

and

ofte

n re

ach

heig

hts

in e

xces

s of

30

m o

n th

e be

tter-

drai

ned

soils

. H

owev

er, t

hese

sta

nds

are

decr

easi

ng in

are

as a

s m

uch

of th

e la

nd is

bei

ng c

lear

ed fo

r agr

icul

ture

.Th

e so

ils a

re n

atur

ally

qui

te st

able

and

the

maj

or p

robl

ems a

re li

kely

to a

rise

from

nut

rient

dec

line.

Alo

ng P

ipel

ine

Road

the

diss

ectio

n is

onl

y m

ildly

dev

elop

ed o

n th

ese

com

para

tivel

y yo

uthf

ul s

oils

. In

the

fore

grou

nd E

.ni

tida

grow

n on

gre

y sa

nd s

oils

, w

hile

in

the

dista

nce

tall

open

woo

dlan

ds o

ccur

on

red

grad

atio

nal

soils

with

wea

kst

ruct

ures

.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

FER

GU

SON

HIL

LA

rea:

52

km2

115

%2

20%

325

%4 5%

5 8%6

15%

710

%8 2%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 1

,000

– 1

,100

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (13

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (7

.5),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(19)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

- Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

limita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

mid

Nov

embe

r – M

arch

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Pale

ocen

e m

arin

e sa

nd, c

lay

and

silt;

som

e Pl

eist

ocen

e la

terit

ic ir

onst

one

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eU

ndul

atin

g hi

lls a

nd ri

dges

Elev

atio

n, m

30-2

30Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

40D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

,km

/km

22.

4

Land

form

Hill

Dra

inag

e lin

eB

road

ridg

eSc

arp

Land

form

ele

men

tLo

wer

slop

eSl

ope

Cre

stM

idsl

ope

-C

rest

, upp

er sl

ope

Cre

st-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %4

(1-7

)14

(5-3

7)5

(2-9

)11

(3-1

5)4

(2-9

)4

(0-1

1)4

(0-7

)29

(25-

37)

Slop

e sh

ape

Stra

ight

Stra

ight

Con

vex

Stra

ight

Con

cave

Con

vex

Stra

ight

Con

cave

NA

TIV

EV

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stLo

w w

oodl

and

(var

iabl

e)O

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stTa

ll w

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

taE.

bax

teri

, E. n

itida

, E.

obliq

uaE.

niti

da, E

. bax

teri

E. b

axte

ri, E

. rad

iata

,E.

obl

iqua

, E.

cype

lloca

rpa

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. bax

teri

E. b

axte

ri, E

. obl

iqua

E. b

axte

ri, E

. obl

iqua

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. bax

teri

,E.

ova

ta, A

caci

am

elan

oxyl

onSO

ILPa

rent

mat

eria

lC

lay

and

silt

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndSa

ndSa

nd, s

ilt a

nd c

lay

Allu

vial

sand

, silt

and

clay

Cla

y an

d si

lt; so

me

late

ritic

rem

nant

sC

lay

and

silt;

som

ela

terit

ic re

mna

nts

Col

luvi

al la

terit

iciro

nsto

neD

escr

iptio

nG

rey-

brow

ngr

adat

iona

l soi

lsY

ello

w g

rada

tiona

lso

ils, w

eak

stru

ctur

eG

rey

sand

soils

with

hard

pans

, uni

form

text

ure

Red

sand

y lo

am so

ilsun

iform

text

ure

Gre

y gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsM

ottle

d ye

llow

and

red

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Red

gra

datio

nal s

oils

,w

eak

stru

ctur

eSt

ony

red

grad

atio

nal

soils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Loam

y sa

ndSa

ndy

loam

Sand

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Gra

velly

loam

y sa

ndPe

rmea

bilit

yM

oder

ate

Hig

hV

ery

low

Ver

y hi

ghLo

wM

oder

ate

Hig

hV

ery

high

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

>2>2

0.9

>2L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r saw

logs

, pos

ts a

nd p

oles

; wat

er su

pply

; nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

gra

vel e

xtra

ctio

n.C

lear

ed a

reas

: Sh

eep

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng; d

airy

farm

ing;

wat

er su

pply

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es,

proc

esse

s, fo

rms

Min

or h

azar

ds.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

edsu

rfac

es o

n st

eepe

rsl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

. Lo

win

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

dhi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

edsa

nds o

n ha

rdpa

ns a

repo

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

and

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g.Pe

rmea

ble

surf

ace

sand

s of h

igh

acid

ityan

d lo

w in

here

ntfe

rtilit

y ar

e pr

one

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

per

mea

bilit

yle

ad to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e le

ad to

soil

com

pact

ion.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity,

phos

phor

us fi

xatio

nan

d pe

rmea

ble

surf

aces

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

per

mea

bilit

yle

ad to

leac

hing

of

nutri

ents

.

Stee

p sl

opes

with

wea

kly

stru

ctur

edsu

rfac

e so

ils o

f low

wat

er h

oldi

ng c

apac

ityar

e pr

one

to sh

eet

eros

ion.

7.17

F

orre

st L

and

Syst

em

From

Upp

er G

ellib

rand

to P

eter

s H

ill, s

teep

spu

rs a

nd ri

dges

with

long

stra

ight

slo

pes

and

narr

ow v

alle

ys fo

rm th

eru

gged

nor

ther

n m

argi

n of

the

Otw

ay R

ange

. Th

e cl

imat

e is

sig

nific

antly

drie

r th

an in

oth

er p

arts

of

the

Ran

ge,

with

mos

t are

as r

ecei

ving

an

annu

al r

ainf

all o

f ab

out 9

00 m

m.

The

inla

nd e

xten

t of

the

land

sys

tem

mar

ks t

heno

rther

n bo

unda

ry o

f con

tinuo

us C

reta

ceou

s ou

tcro

p, a

lthou

gh s

pora

dic

outc

rops

occ

ur in

the

adja

cent

Pen

nyro

yal

land

syst

em.

The

sepa

ratio

n of

thes

e dr

ier s

purs

and

ridg

es fr

om th

e re

st o

f the

Ran

ge is

wel

l ref

lect

ed b

y ch

ange

s in

the

stru

ctur

ean

d co

mpo

sitio

n of

the

nativ

e ve

geta

tion.

In

par

ticul

ar, E

ucal

yptu

s ra

diat

a be

com

es a

pro

min

ent m

embe

r of

the

dom

inan

t st

ratu

m a

nd t

he u

nder

stor

ey c

hang

es f

rom

mes

ophy

tic s

peci

es t

o dr

ier

scle

roph

yllo

us s

peci

es s

uch

asAc

acia

muc

rona

ta, A

. ver

ticill

ata,

Cas

sinia

long

ifolia

and

Epa

cris

impr

essa

.

Mos

t of t

his

land

sys

tem

rem

ains

fore

sted

and

is s

elec

tivel

y lo

gged

for m

illab

le ti

mbe

r. S

ome

parts

of t

he e

aste

rnar

eas

have

bee

n cl

eare

d fo

r gra

zing

, but

man

agem

ent i

s di

ffic

ult d

ue to

rugg

ed te

rrai

n. S

oftw

ood

plan

tatio

ns h

ave

also

bee

n es

tabl

ishe

d.

Land

slip

s an

d sh

eet e

rosi

on h

ave

been

sev

ere

in s

ome

area

s, an

d ra

pid

run-

off

from

thes

ehi

lls c

reat

es p

robl

ems o

f gul

ly e

rosi

on in

the

Bar

won

Riv

er la

nd sy

stem

.

On

the

area

s tha

t hav

e be

en c

lear

ed w

eeds

such

as b

lack

berr

ies a

nd ra

gwor

t bec

ome

a pr

oble

m.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

FOR

RE

STA

rea:

135

km

21

10%

250

%3 4%

435

%5 1%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 9

00 –

1,1

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(45)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

130)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

12,

low

est J

uly

(7),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(17)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– Se

ptem

ber

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n m

id N

ovem

ber –

mid

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yLo

wer

Cre

tace

ous f

elds

path

ic sa

ndst

one

and

mud

ston

eT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Dee

ply

diss

ecte

d hi

lls o

f the

Otw

ay R

ange

Elev

atio

n, m

150

– 40

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

150

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

3.8

Land

form

Hill

Land

form

ele

men

tSt

eepe

st sl

ope

Nor

th a

nd w

est f

acin

g sl

opes

Cre

st, u

pper

slop

eSo

uth

and

east

faci

ng sl

opes

Low

er sl

ope,

dra

inag

e lin

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

60 (2

0-70

)45

(25-

65)

20 (5

-30)

45 (2

5-65

)20

(1-3

5)Sl

ope

shap

eLi

near

Line

arC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Tall

open

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. ra

diat

a, E

. cyp

ello

carp

aE.

obl

iqua

, E. r

adia

ta, E

.cy

pello

carp

aE.

obl

iqua

, E. r

adia

ta, E

.cy

pello

carp

aE.

cyp

ello

carp

a, E

. obl

iqua

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa,

E. o

bliq

ua, E

.ov

ata,

Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Col

luvi

umIn

-site

wea

ther

ed ro

ckIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Tall

open

fore

stD

escr

iptio

nSt

ony

brow

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsB

row

n du

plex

soils

Bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ilsB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l so

ils,

wea

kst

ruct

ure

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amLo

amLo

amLo

amSi

lty lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yV

ery

high

Mod

erat

eM

oder

ate

Hig

hLo

amD

epth

, m0.

50.

90.

90.

9>2

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

awlo

gs, p

osts

and

pol

es; s

oftw

ood

fore

stry

; nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

act

ive

and

pass

ive

recr

eatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly.

Cle

ared

are

as:

Bee

f cat

tle g

razi

ng o

n m

ainl

y un

impr

oved

pas

ture

s.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Ston

y sh

allo

w

soils

w

ith

wea

kst

ruct

ure

and

low

w

ater

ho

ldin

gca

paci

ty o

n st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet e

rosi

on a

nd la

ndsl

ips.

Dry

asp

ect,

stee

p sl

opes

and

wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed

surf

aces

le

ad

to

shee

ter

osio

n.

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

n st

eep

slop

es s

ubje

ct to

per

iodi

c sa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s.

Stee

per

slop

es a

re p

rone

to

shee

ter

osio

n.St

eep

slop

es

are

pron

e to

sh

eet

eros

ion.

C

lay

subs

oils

on

stee

psl

opes

sub

ject

to p

erio

dic

satu

ratio

nar

e pr

one

to la

ndsl

ips.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed

soils

re

ceiv

ing

run-

off

are

pron

e to

sco

ur g

ully

ing,

silta

tion

and

flood

ing.

7.18

F

resh

wat

er C

reek

Lan

d Sy

stem

Thes

e ge

ntly

slo

ping

pla

ins

with

hea

vy s

oils

are

sim

ilar

to m

any

area

s on

the

basa

ltic

plai

ns o

f W

este

rn V

icto

ria.

Unl

ike

mos

t pas

ts o

f the

pla

ins,

this

orig

inal

ly c

arrie

d a

woo

dlan

d of

Euc

alyp

tus

vim

inal

is a

nd E

. ova

ta, w

hich

now

exis

ts m

ainl

y as

road

side

rem

nant

s.

Thes

e sp

ecie

s te

nd to

be

repl

aced

by

E. le

ucox

ylon

in th

e ea

st a

nd E

. cam

aldu

lens

is in

the

north

, the

latte

r spe

cies

bein

g th

e m

ost c

omm

on tr

ee o

n th

e ba

salti

c pl

ains

in w

este

rn V

icto

ria.

The

pres

ence

of

E. v

imin

alis

and

E. o

vata

may

refle

ct th

e cl

imat

e, w

hich

is w

ette

r tha

n is

nor

mal

for b

asal

tic p

lain

s.

The

mai

n la

nd u

se is

she

ep a

nd b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

. Th

e lo

w in

cide

nce

of b

asal

tic o

utcr

ops

mea

ns th

at m

uch

of th

ear

ea is

ara

ble,

and

cer

eal c

ropp

ing

is c

omm

on.

Min

or so

il sa

lting

and

gul

ly e

rosi

on o

ccur

.

Fla

t or v

ery

gent

ly u

ndul

atin

g pl

ains

are

typi

cal o

f muc

h of

the

basa

lt ou

tcro

ps

in w

este

rn V

icto

ria.

Thi

s are

a ca

rrie

s sig

nific

antly

mor

e tr

ees t

han

is u

sual

on

thes

e ba

salt

plai

ns.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

FRE

SHW

AT

ER

CR

EE

KA

rea:

77

km2

1 7%2

10%

365

%4

15%

5 3%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

600

– 6

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(30)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

60)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

14,

low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(19)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– Ju

lySe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

Oct

ober

– m

id A

pril

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Plei

stoc

ene

basa

lt w

ith so

me

area

s of s

coria

and

tuff

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eG

ently

und

ulat

ing

plai

ns in

the

catc

hmen

t of T

hom

pson

Cre

ekEl

evat

ion,

m5

– 14

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

20D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

21.

9La

nd fo

rmG

entle

rise

Val

ley

floor

Land

form

ele

men

tC

one,

scar

pU

pper

slop

e, e

ast

Mid

dle

slop

eLo

wer

slop

e-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %8

(6-2

0)3

(1-7

)3

(0-6

)2

(0-3

)1

(0-1

)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xC

onve

xLi

near

Line

arC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Woo

dlan

dO

pen

fore

stW

oodl

and

Woo

dlan

dW

oodl

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. v

imin

alis

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

,E.

cam

aldu

lens

isE.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

ta, C

asua

rina

stric

taE.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

ta, E

.ca

mal

dule

nsis

, E. l

euco

xylo

n,C

asua

rina

stric

ta

E. o

vata

, E. v

imin

alis

, E.

cam

aldu

lens

is, E

. leu

coxy

lon,

Cas

uarin

a st

ricta

E. o

vata

, E. v

imin

alis

, E.

cam

aldu

lens

is

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Scor

ia, f

resh

ly w

eath

ered

bas

alt

In-s

itu d

eepl

y w

eath

ered

bas

alt

In-s

itu b

asal

tC

ollu

vial

bas

altic

was

hA

lluvi

um d

eriv

ed m

ainl

y fr

omba

salt

Des

crip

tion

Ston

y re

d-br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

d du

plex

soils

Gre

y-br

own

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

est

ruct

ure

Yel

low

sodi

c du

plex

soils

Gre

y gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Gra

velly

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Hig

hM

oder

ate

Low

Low

Low

Dep

th, m

0.3

1.8

1.4

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Com

plet

ely

clea

red

area

s: B

eef c

attle

gra

zing

; dai

ry fa

rmin

g; c

ropp

ing

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Ston

y sh

allo

w so

ils w

ith lo

w w

ater

hold

ing

capa

city

and

impe

rmea

ble

rock

laye

rs a

re p

rone

to sh

eet

eros

ion.

Min

or h

azar

dsD

ispe

rsib

le su

bsoi

ls a

re p

rone

togu

lly e

rosi

on.

Sodi

c su

bsoi

ls w

ith lo

wpe

rmea

bilit

ies a

nd ri

sing

wat

erta

bles

lead

to so

il sa

lting

.D

ispe

rsib

le su

bsoi

ls a

re p

rone

toso

me

gully

ero

sion

.

Ris

ing

salin

e w

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g, sa

lting

and

com

pact

ion.

Hig

h di

scha

rge

rate

sal

ong

wat

erco

urse

s lea

d to

som

est

ream

bank

ero

sion

.

7.19

G

ellib

rand

Riv

er L

and

Syst

em

Man

y of

the

larg

er r

iver

s in

the

wet

ter

parts

of

the

stud

y ar

ea h

ave

exte

nsiv

e flo

od p

lain

s. A

reas

larg

een

ough

to m

ap e

xist

on

the

Bar

ham

, Aire

and

Joh

anna

Riv

ers

as w

ell a

s th

e G

ellib

rand

Riv

er a

nd i

tstri

buta

ries.

The

land

scap

e is

gen

eral

ly f

lat,

but

irreg

ular

are

as o

ccur

in

the

form

of

infil

led

mea

nder

s an

d m

inor

terr

aces

. In

gen

eral

, mos

t ar

eas

are

poor

ly d

rain

ed,

with

stu

nted

veg

etat

ion.

H

owev

er, c

lose

r to

the

drai

nage

line

s, th

e im

prov

ed d

rain

age

ofte

n re

sults

in c

ondi

tions

mor

e fa

vour

able

for p

lant

gro

wth

.

Mos

t of t

hese

allu

vial

flat

s hav

e be

en c

lear

ed a

nd p

rovi

de v

alua

ble

sum

mer

gra

zing

for d

airy

farm

s al

ong

the

valle

ys.

Are

as p

rone

to

wat

erlo

ggin

g ha

ve b

een

drai

ned

and

impr

oved

pas

ture

s es

tabl

ishe

d.

How

ever

, th

ere

mot

enes

s of

the

val

leys

, se

t am

ong

very

inf

ertil

e su

rrou

ndin

g la

nd,

has

ham

pere

d ag

ricul

tura

lde

velo

pmen

t.

The

Air

e R

iver

has

an

exte

nsiv

e flo

odpl

ain

with

man

y sw

amps

and

lake

s whe

reit

emer

ges f

rom

the

Otw

ay R

ange

nea

r Hor

dern

Val

e.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

GE

LL

IBR

AN

D R

IVE

RA

rea:

52

km2

160

%2

30%

310

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

950

– 1

,100

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

5), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (13

5)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

8)Te

mpe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Sept

embe

r; Ju

ly o

nly

near

the

coas

tSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

early

Nov

embe

r – la

te M

arch

; Dec

embe

r – Ja

nuar

y ne

ar c

oast

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Rec

ent a

lluvi

um d

eriv

ed fr

om th

e O

tway

Ran

ge a

nd su

rrou

ndin

g fo

othi

lls.

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eA

lluvi

al fl

ood

plai

n of

the

Gel

libra

nd, A

ire a

nd B

arha

m R

iver

sEl

evat

ion,

m0

– 10

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

3D

rain

age

patte

rnM

ajor

mea

nder

ing

stre

am w

ith d

eran

ged

tribu

tarie

sD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

1.3

Land

form

Allu

vial

terr

ace

Stre

amba

nk, c

ut-o

ff m

eand

er, l

ower

terr

ace

Land

form

ele

men

tPo

orly

dra

ined

low

er re

ache

sW

ell-d

rain

ed u

pper

reac

hes

-Sl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

1 (0

-2)

0 (0

-1)

2 (0

-5)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arLi

near

Con

vex

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eLo

w w

oodl

and

Tall

open

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E. o

vata

E. v

imin

alis

, E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

ta, A

caci

a m

elan

oxyl

onE.

vim

inal

is, E

. obl

iqua

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndA

lluvi

al c

lay,

silt

and

sand

Allu

vial

sand

, silt

and

cla

yD

escr

iptio

nG

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

, wea

k st

ruct

ure

Bro

wn

sand

y lo

am so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y lo

wM

oder

ate

Ver

y hi

ghD

epth

, m>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g an

d be

ef c

attle

gra

zing

on

impr

oved

pas

ture

s; ro

w a

nd fo

dder

cro

ppin

g; w

ater

supp

lyU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Wat

er su

pply

; nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r saw

logs

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sH

igh

disc

harg

e ra

tes a

long

wat

erco

urse

s lea

d to

flood

ing

and

silta

tion.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e an

dlo

w p

erm

eabi

litie

s lea

d to

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

dso

il co

mpa

ctio

n.

Hig

h di

scha

rge

rate

s alo

ng w

ater

cour

ses l

ead

toflo

odin

g an

d si

ltatio

n. W

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

soils

are

pron

e to

surf

ace

com

pact

ion.

Hig

h di

scha

rge

rate

s alo

ng w

ater

cour

ses w

ith w

eakl

yst

ruct

ured

soils

lead

to st

ream

bank

ero

sion

and

silta

tion.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e in

som

e ar

eas l

eads

tow

ater

logg

ing.

7.20

G

hera

ng G

hera

ng L

and

Syst

em

Inla

nd fr

om P

oint

Add

is a

nd e

xten

ding

wes

t as

far a

s W

orm

bete

Cre

ek, f

lat-t

oppe

d hi

lls re

pres

ent t

he re

mna

nts

of a

nex

tens

ive

form

er la

terit

ic p

late

au.

Smal

l rem

nant

s are

als

o fo

und

furth

er n

orth

tow

ards

Mor

iac.

Ove

r m

ost o

f th

is la

ndsc

ape

late

ritic

pro

files

are

pre

sent

, ind

icat

ing

form

er c

limat

ic c

ondi

tions

diff

eren

t fro

m th

ose

expe

rienc

ed to

day.

W

here

the

Terti

ary

sedi

men

ts c

onta

in e

xces

sive

am

ount

s of

gra

vel,

late

ritic

pro

files

are

abs

ent,

but t

here

is st

ill e

vide

nce

of d

eep

wea

ther

ing

and

leac

hing

.

The

soils

are

gen

eral

ly in

ferti

le, c

arry

ing

a ve

geta

tion

of s

tunt

ed w

oodl

ands

of

Euca

lypt

us o

bliq

ua a

nd E

. rad

iata

.Th

e ci

nnam

on fu

ngus

, Phy

toph

thor

a ci

nnam

omi,

is v

ery

com

mon

on

thes

e pl

atea

u re

mna

nts

and

larg

e ar

eas

of d

ead

and

dyin

g na

tive

vege

tatio

n ca

n be

foun

d.

Man

y of

the

se r

emna

nts

rem

ain

uncl

eare

d an

d ar

e us

ed f

or f

lora

and

fau

na r

eser

ves

and

som

e m

inor

for

estry

oper

atio

ns.

Gra

vel

extra

ctio

n pi

ts h

ave

been

est

ablis

hed

on s

uita

ble

area

s of

Cro

wn

land

. T

hese

pits

will

not

reve

geta

te q

uick

ly w

ithou

t the

app

ropr

iate

man

agem

ent a

nd h

ave

beco

me

popu

lar w

ith tr

ail-b

ike-

rider

s.

The

flat l

ater

itic

plat

eaux

car

ry w

oodl

and

of E

. obl

iqua

and

E. r

adia

ta,

but t

he ti

mbe

r is g

ener

ally

uns

uita

ble

for m

illin

g.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

GH

ER

AN

G G

HE

RA

NG

Are

a: 5

2 km

21

20%

2 7%3

65%

4 8%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

600

– 8

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(35)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

80)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

14,

low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(17)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

uly

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n m

id O

ctob

er -

Apr

il Late

ritiz

ed T

ertia

ry c

lay,

gra

vel a

nd c

laye

y si

ltG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yR

ecen

t aeo

lian

silic

eous

sand

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eFl

at o

r gen

tly d

isse

cted

pla

teau

rem

nant

sEl

evat

ion,

m50

- 23

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

10D

rain

age

patte

rnR

ecta

ngul

arD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

1.6

Land

form

Gen

tly u

ndul

atin

g pl

atea

uLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Cre

st, s

lope

Slop

eB

road

flat

cre

st, s

lope

Swal

e, b

road

dep

ress

ion

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %2

(0-8

)2

(0-3

)2

(0-5

)1

(0-3

)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xIr

regu

lar

Line

arC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Woo

dlan

dW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E. o

vata

E. ra

diat

a, E

. niti

da, E

. obl

iqua

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. bax

teri

, E. r

adia

ta, E

.ar

omap

hloi

aE.

ova

ta, E

. vim

inal

is

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Qua

rtz g

rave

l, sa

nd, s

ome

clay

Silic

eous

sand

Late

ritiz

ed se

dim

ents

Allu

vial

sand

, cla

y, si

lt an

d pl

ant r

emai

nsD

escr

iptio

nSt

ony

yello

w g

rada

tiona

l soi

lsG

rey

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd r

ed d

uple

x so

ils w

ithiro

nsto

neY

ello

w-b

row

n du

plex

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

e

Surf

ace

text

ure

Gra

velly

loam

y sa

ndLo

amy

sand

Loam

y sa

ndFi

ne lo

amy

sand

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y hi

ghV

ery

high

Mod

erat

eV

ery

low

Dep

th, m

>2>2

1.2

>2L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r pos

ts, p

oles

and

fire

woo

d; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; p

assi

ve a

nd a

ctiv

e re

crea

tion;

gra

vel e

xtra

ctio

n.C

lear

ed a

reas

: B

eef c

attle

gra

zing

on

unim

prov

ed p

astu

res;

resi

dent

ial

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sLo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

d hi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to le

achi

ng o

f nut

rient

s.Lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

d hi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to

le

achi

ng

of

nutri

ents

.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed s

ands

with

low

wat

er h

oldi

ngca

paci

ties a

re p

rone

to w

ind

eros

ion.

Low

inh

eren

t fe

rtilit

y ph

osph

ate

fixat

ion

and

leac

hing

of

perm

eabl

e up

per

horiz

ons

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e an

d w

eak

surf

ace

stru

ctur

ed le

ad to

surf

ace

com

pact

ion.

7.21

H

orde

rn V

ale

Land

Sys

tem

In th

e vi

cini

ty o

f Cap

e O

tway

, Ter

tiary

cla

y, s

ilt, s

and,

lim

esto

ne a

nd m

arl a

ll ou

tcro

p. T

hree

sep

arat

e ar

eas

exis

t–

at J

ohan

na, H

orde

rn V

ale

and

inla

nd fr

om P

oint

Fra

nklin

and

Bla

nket

Bay

. A

ll ar

eas

are

gene

rally

sim

ilar,

but

poss

ess

dist

inct

diff

eren

ces

in s

peci

fic fe

atur

es.

The

limes

tone

and

mar

l out

crop

s ar

e co

nfin

ed to

mar

ine

terr

aces

at H

orde

rn V

ale.

The

Joh

anna

are

a is

dis

tingu

ishe

d by

its

dom

inan

ce o

f red

san

ds.

The

are

a ea

st o

f Cap

e O

tway

incl

udes

hill

tops

of k

aolin

itic

clay

and

silt

and

thes

e ca

rry

rare

low

woo

dlan

ds o

f Euc

alyp

tus k

itson

ia.

In g

ener

al, t

hese

land

scap

es a

re o

ld w

ith a

reas

of l

ater

itize

d so

ils o

n th

e hi

ghes

t par

ts.

Rec

ent d

isse

ctio

n ha

s ofte

nbe

en su

perim

pose

d on

the

mor

e un

dula

ting

area

s, re

sulti

ng in

stra

ight

slop

es w

ith y

outh

ful s

oil p

rofil

es.

Land

use

s ar

e ve

ry d

iver

se.

Are

as th

at h

ave

been

cle

ared

are

use

d fo

r da

iry f

arm

ing,

gra

zing

of

shee

p an

d be

efca

ttle

and

a sm

all a

mou

nt o

f pot

ato

grow

ing.

Tho

se a

reas

that

rem

ain

uncl

eare

d ar

e se

lect

ivel

y lo

gged

, and

als

oha

ve n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n va

lues

. Sh

eet e

rosi

on a

nd la

ndsl

ips h

ave

been

qui

te se

vere

on

som

e of

the

stee

per a

reas

,an

d so

me

gully

ero

sion

occ

urs o

n th

e sl

opes

com

ing

away

from

the

late

ritiz

ed a

reas

.

Yout

hful

dis

sect

ion

with

stee

p st

raig

ht sl

opes

and

you

ng so

ils is

enc

roac

hing

on

man

y of

the

mor

e ge

ntly

und

ulat

ing

high

er p

arts

of th

e la

ndsc

ape.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

HO

RD

ER

N V

AL

EA

rea:

38

km2

120

%2 8%

3 7%4 4%

525

%6

30%

7 6%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

900

– 1

,250

, low

est J

anua

ry (5

0), h

ighe

st Ju

ly (1

30)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(17)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

uly

Seas

onal

gro

wth

limita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

late

Nov

embe

r - F

ebru

ary

Pale

ocen

e un

cons

olid

ated

sand

, cla

y an

d si

ltG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yLi

mes

tone

, mar

lT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Und

ulat

ing

coas

tal p

lain

s sur

roun

ding

Cap

e O

tway

Elev

atio

n, m

0 - 2

00Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

60D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

22.

1La

nd fo

rmR

ise

Val

ley

floor

Ris

eLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Upp

er sl

ope,

cre

stSl

ope,

rive

r ter

race

Swal

eM

arin

e te

rrac

eSt

eepe

r slo

peU

pper

slop

e, c

rest

Ris

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

5 (1

-15)

7 (1

-15)

0 (0

-1)

25 (1

0-55

)30

(3-4

5)8

(2-2

0)3

(0-7

)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

Con

vex

Line

arLi

near

Irre

gula

rN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Clo

sed

scru

bW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Tall

open

fore

stLo

w w

oodl

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. bax

teri

, E.

cype

lloca

rpa,

E.

arom

aphl

oia,

E. v

imin

alis

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. bax

teri

, E.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

taLe

ptos

perm

um la

nige

rum

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. vim

inal

isE.

obl

iqua

, E.

cype

lloca

rpa,

E. b

axte

riE.

cyp

ello

carp

a, E

.ob

liqua

, E. v

imin

alis

, E.

glob

ulus

E. k

itson

iana

, Mel

aleu

casq

uarr

osa,

Mel

aleu

caer

icifo

liaSO

ILPa

rent

mat

eria

lLa

terit

ized

sedi

men

tsC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt an

dsa

ndFr

eshl

y w

eath

ered

limes

tone

and

mar

lQ

uartz

sand

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndK

aolin

itic

clay

, silt

and

sand

Des

crip

tion

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

dgr

adat

iona

l soi

ls w

ithiro

nsto

ne

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eG

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Bla

ck c

alca

reou

sgr

adat

iona

l soi

lsR

ed sa

ndy

loam

soils

,un

iform

text

ure

Bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Pale

bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

, wea

k st

ruct

ure

Surf

ace

text

ure

Gra

velly

sand

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y cl

ay lo

amLo

amy

sand

Fine

sand

y lo

amSi

lty lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yM

oder

ate

Low

Ver

y lo

wLo

wV

ery

high

Hig

hV

ery

low

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>20.

5>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Bee

f cat

tle g

razi

ng; d

airy

farm

ing;

shee

p gr

azin

g; ro

w c

rops

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

awlo

gs a

nd p

ulpw

ood;

sand

ext

ract

ion;

nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

pas

sive

recr

eatio

nSO

ILD

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

phos

phor

us fi

xatio

n le

adto

nut

rient

dec

line

Dis

pers

ible

subs

oils

are

pron

e to

gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

ean

d lo

w p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to w

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

n st

eep

slop

es su

bjec

t to

perio

dic

satu

ratio

n ar

e pr

one

tola

ndsl

ips

Stee

p sl

opes

with

wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed so

ils a

re p

rone

to so

me

shee

t ero

sion

.H

igh

rain

fall

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Hig

h ra

infa

ll, h

igh

perm

eabi

lity

and

leac

hing

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

ean

d su

rfac

e co

mpa

ctio

nup

on d

istu

rban

ce.

Low

per

mea

bilit

y an

dhi

gh a

nnua

l rai

nfal

l lea

dto

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n.

7.22

Ju

nctio

n Tr

ack

Land

Sys

tem

The

junc

tion

betw

een

Cre

tace

ous

and

Terti

ary

sedi

men

ts o

n th

e w

este

rn p

erip

hery

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge is

cle

arly

refle

cted

in

vege

tatio

n ch

ange

s. H

owev

er, t

he j

unct

ion

is d

isco

ntin

uous

and

the

re i

s a

belt

of l

and

whe

re t

hehi

gher

par

ts o

f th

e la

ndsc

ape

are

capp

ed b

y Te

rtiar

y sa

nds

with

onl

y oc

casi

onal

are

as o

f si

lts a

nd c

lays

der

ived

from

Cre

tace

ous

sedi

men

ts.

The

low

er s

lope

s ar

e of

ten

stee

per,

with

out

crop

s of

Cre

tace

ous

sand

ston

es a

ndm

udst

ones

. Th

us, t

he h

ighe

r ar

eas

carr

y lo

w w

oodl

ands

of

Euca

lypt

us n

itida

and

E. b

axte

ri, w

hile

the

low

ersl

opes

supp

ort o

pen

fore

sts o

r eve

n ta

ll op

en fo

rest

s of E

. obl

iqua

and

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa.

This

land

scap

e pa

ttern

is s

omew

hat s

imila

r to

the

Red

wat

er C

reek

land

sys

tem

. Th

e m

ajor

dis

tingu

ishi

ng fe

atur

eis

that

the

posi

tion

in th

e la

ndsc

ape

at w

hich

the

Cre

tace

ous

sedi

men

ts o

utcr

op is

ver

y va

riabl

e.

The

depo

sit o

fsa

nd a

bove

the

Cre

tace

ous

sedi

men

ts v

arie

s in

thic

knes

s, bu

t is

usua

lly d

eep

enou

gh fo

r the

nat

ive

vege

tatio

n t b

ede

pend

ent u

pon

the

sand

for i

ts n

utrie

nt su

pply

.

Mos

t par

ts o

f th

is la

nd s

yste

m r

emai

n un

clea

red

and

unus

ed.

Som

e sa

nd a

nd g

rave

l ext

ract

ion

pits

hav

e be

enes

tabl

ishe

d in

the

past

. Pi

nes h

ave

been

est

ablis

hed

on sm

all a

reas

adj

oini

ng p

rivat

ely

held

land

.

Mos

t slo

pes s

uppo

rt lo

w w

oodl

ands

of E

. niti

da, b

ut o

utcr

ops o

f C

reta

ceou

s sed

imen

ts c

an b

e re

cogn

ised

by

the

incr

ease

s soi

l fer

tility

an

d th

e ac

com

pany

ing

chan

ge to

ope

n fo

rest

s or t

all o

pen

fore

sts o

fE

. obl

iqua

and

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

JUN

CT

ION

TR

AC

KA

rea:

41

km2

130

%2 5%

320

%4

30%

515

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

1,1

00 –

1,4

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(55)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

150)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

12,

Low

est J

uly

(7),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(17)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) M

ay –

Sep

tem

ber

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n la

te N

ovem

ber –

mid

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPa

leoc

ene

unco

nsol

idat

ed sa

nd, g

rave

l, si

lt an

d cl

ayLo

wer

Cre

tace

ous s

ands

tone

and

mud

ston

eT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Dis

sect

ed h

ills w

ith b

road

gen

tle h

ill c

appi

ngs o

n w

este

rn p

erip

hery

of t

he O

tway

Ran

geEl

evat

ion,

m30

- 27

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

75D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

with

som

e ra

dial

are

asD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

3.5

Land

form

Hill

Land

form

ele

men

tC

rest

, slo

peD

rain

age

line

Low

er sl

ope

Cre

st, s

lope

Stee

p sl

ope

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %15

(2-3

5)3

(0-5

)9

(3-1

2)12

(2-2

5)30

(20-

55)

Slop

e sh

ape

Con

vex

Con

cave

Line

arC

onve

xLi

near

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eLo

w w

oodl

and

Clo

sed

scru

bLo

w o

pen

woo

dlan

dO

pen

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. n

itida

, E. b

axte

riLe

ptos

perm

um ju

nipe

rinu

m,

Mel

aleu

ca sq

uarr

osa

E. b

axte

ri, E

. niti

daE.

bax

teri

, E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E.

nitid

aE.

obl

iqua

, E. c

ypel

loca

rpa

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Qua

rtz sa

nd a

nd g

rave

lA

lluvi

al sa

nd, p

lant

rem

ains

Qua

rtz sa

nd a

nd g

rave

lC

lay,

silt,

sand

and

gra

vel

In-s

itu w

eath

ered

rock

Des

crip

tion

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eB

lack

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils w

ith h

ardp

ans,

unifo

rm te

xtur

eY

ello

w g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls, w

eak

stru

ctur

eB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Loam

y sa

ndSi

lty lo

amLo

amy

sand

Sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

clay

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y hi

ghH

igh

Ver

y lo

wH

igh

Mod

erat

eD

epth

, m>2

>21.

1>2

1.5

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: Sa

nd a

nd g

rave

l ext

ract

ion;

har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r pos

ts, p

oles

, fue

l and

som

e sa

wlo

gs o

n m

ore

ferti

le so

ils; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly p

rote

ctio

nSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

d hi

ghpe

rmea

bilit

y le

ad to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Ste

eper

slop

es w

ithco

mpa

cted

soils

are

pro

ne to

shee

t,ril

l and

scou

r gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Hig

h w

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g.H

ardp

ans r

estri

ct v

ertic

al d

rain

age

lead

ing

to se

ason

al w

ater

logg

ing.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y, w

ithso

me

leac

hing

of p

erm

eabl

e hi

ghac

idic

surf

aces

, lea

ds to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e. W

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

soils

on

stee

per s

lope

s are

pro

ne to

shee

ter

osio

n.

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

n st

eepe

r slo

pes

subj

ect t

o pe

riodi

c sa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s. S

oils

of

mod

erat

e pe

rmea

bilit

y on

stee

psl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.

7.23

K

awar

ren

Land

Sys

tem

Rol

ling

hills

with

occ

asio

nal s

teep

slo

pes

and

broa

d dr

aina

ge li

nes

are

foun

d in

the

vici

nity

of

Kaw

arre

n.

The

land

scap

e ha

s se

vera

l co

mpo

nent

s, in

clud

ing

som

e ar

eas

of r

ed s

tony

bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

dev

elop

ed o

nou

tcro

ps o

f ba

salt.

H

owev

er,

old

soils

on

deep

ly w

eath

ered

Ter

tiary

cla

y an

d sa

nd t

end

to d

omin

ate

the

land

scap

e.

Oth

er l

and

syst

ems

with

sim

ilar

soils

and

par

ent

mat

eria

l ar

e fo

und

to t

he e

ast

and

wes

t of

thi

s la

nd s

yste

m.

How

ever

, the

Kaw

arre

n la

nd s

yste

m is

a ro

lling

land

scap

e w

here

as th

e ot

hers

are

gen

tly u

ndul

atin

g to

flat

. Th

eB

aron

garo

ok la

nd s

yste

m to

the

east

has

a s

light

ly lo

wer

rain

fall

and

Euca

lypt

us b

axte

ri h

as n

ot b

een

obse

rved

inth

is a

rea.

Cle

arin

g ha

s be

en c

omm

on a

nd th

e m

ain

land

use

s ar

e da

iry fa

rmin

g an

d gr

azin

g of

bee

f cat

tle a

nd s

heep

. So

me

fore

sted

are

as, s

uch

as th

e ol

d B

eech

For

est r

ailw

ay e

scar

pmen

t, ar

e po

pula

r for

bus

hwal

king

. Pi

ne e

stab

lishm

ent

is c

omm

on o

n pr

ivat

e la

nd.

Shee

t ero

sion

and

land

slip

s hav

e oc

curr

ed o

n th

e st

eepe

r slo

pes.

Mos

t of t

he c

lear

ed a

reas

are

use

d fo

r dai

ry fa

rmin

g.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

KA

WA

RR

EN

Are

a: 4

1 km

21

15%

210

%3

60%

410

%5 5%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 8

50 –

1,1

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(40)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

120)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

12,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– Se

ptem

ber

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n N

ovem

ber -

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPa

leoc

ene

unco

nsol

idat

ed c

lay,

silt

and

sand

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eR

ollin

g hi

lls in

the

north

ern

uppe

r rea

ches

of t

he G

ellib

rand

Riv

er c

atch

men

tEl

evat

ion,

m75

- 21

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

60D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

with

som

e ra

dial

are

asD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

2.6

Land

form

Hill

Val

ley

floor

Land

form

ele

men

tSt

eep

slop

eC

rest

, upp

er sl

ope

Cre

st, s

lope

Slop

e-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %20

(10-

45)

12 (3

-15)

9 (1

-15)

13 (6

-15)

1 (0

-2)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arC

onve

xC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

fore

stW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Low

woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

obl

iqua

, E. r

adia

ta, E

. vim

inal

isE.

rad

iata

, E. o

bliq

ua, E

. niti

da, E

.ov

ata

E. o

bliq

ua,

. ra

diat

a, E

. vi

min

alis

;oc

casi

onal

ly E

. ova

taE.

ar

omap

hloi

a,

E.

obliq

ua,

E.ra

diat

a, o

ccas

iona

lly E

. ova

taE.

ov

ata,

E.

ra

diat

a,

Mel

aleu

casq

uarr

osa

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndC

ollu

vial

sa

nd

on

unco

nsol

idat

edcl

ayC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndA

lluvi

al c

lay,

sand

and

silt

Des

crip

tion

Yel

low

gr

adat

iona

l so

ils,

wea

kst

ruct

ure

Gre

y sa

nd

soils

, st

ruct

ured

cl

ayun

derla

yM

ottle

d ye

llow

and

red

gra

datio

nal

soils

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

,co

arse

stru

ctur

eG

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yH

igh

Low

Mod

erat

eLo

wV

ery

low

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r saw

logs

, pos

ts a

nd p

oles

; sof

twoo

d pl

anta

tions

; nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

pas

sive

recr

eatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly; f

ores

t gra

zing

.C

lear

ed a

reas

: B

eef c

attle

and

shee

p gr

azin

g; d

airy

farm

ing;

wat

er su

pply

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls

on

stee

p sl

opes

subj

ect

to p

erio

dic

satu

ratio

n ar

epr

one

to la

ndsl

ips.

Ste

ep s

lope

s ar

epr

one

to sh

eet a

nd ri

ll er

osio

n.

Low

sub

soil

perm

eabi

litie

s le

ads

tose

ason

al

wat

erlo

ggin

g.

Lo

win

here

nt

ferti

lity

and

perm

eabl

esu

rfac

e ho

rizon

s le

ad

to

nutri

ent

decl

ine.

Low

in

here

nt

ferti

lity

and

phos

phor

us f

ixat

ion

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Dis

pers

ible

cl

ay

subs

oils

of

lo

wpe

rmea

bilit

y ar

e pr

one

to

gully

eros

ion.

C

lay

subs

oils

on

stee

per

slop

es s

ubje

ct to

per

iodi

c sa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s.

Low

per

mea

bilit

ies

and

high

wat

erta

bles

le

ad

to

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g.

Hig

h di

scha

rge

rate

sal

ong

wat

erco

urse

s le

ad

to

som

eflo

odin

g an

d gu

lly e

rosi

on.

7.24

K

enne

dys C

reek

Lan

d Sy

stem

From

Prin

ceto

wn,

stre

tchi

ng n

orth

war

ds, a

n un

dula

ting

plai

n ca

n b

foun

d ex

tend

ing

up in

to th

e ca

tchm

ent o

fK

enne

dys

Cre

ek.

The

sout

hern

par

ts c

onsi

st o

f a s

erie

s of

nor

th-n

or’-w

est a

nd s

outh

-sou

’-ea

st-o

rient

ed ri

dges

,bu

t the

maj

or p

art o

f the

land

syst

em is

a p

lain

with

den

driti

c dr

aina

ge p

atte

rn.

The

high

er p

arts

of

the

land

scap

e ha

ve d

eepl

y w

eath

ered

soi

ls w

ith y

ello

w a

nd r

ed m

ottle

d.

Mos

t sl

opes

,ho

wev

er, c

arry

hea

vier

-text

ured

soi

ls w

ith d

ark-

colo

ured

and

coa

rsel

y st

ruct

ured

sub

soils

. Th

ey e

xten

d up

toth

e cr

ests

and

ridg

es in

man

y ar

eas;

less

wea

ther

ed p

rofil

es o

ccup

y th

e lo

wer

par

ts o

f the

land

scap

e.

This

pat

tern

rese

mbl

es th

at fo

und

in m

any

othe

r lan

d sy

stem

s on

Terti

ary

sedi

men

ts.

The

dist

ingu

ishi

ng fe

atur

eshe

re a

re th

e do

min

ance

of t

he c

oars

ely

stru

ctur

ed so

ils in

the

land

scap

e, a

nd th

e ab

senc

e of

late

ritic

cap

ping

s.

Dai

ry f

arm

ing

is t

he m

ain

land

use

, an

d on

ly s

mal

l ar

eas

still

rem

ain

unde

r na

tive

fore

st.

The

coa

rsel

yst

ruct

ured

sub

soils

are

dis

pers

ible

and

gul

ly a

nd t

unne

l er

osio

n ha

ve o

ccur

red.

O

n re

cent

ly c

lear

ed a

reas

,pa

rticu

lar c

are

is n

eede

d to

pre

vent

gul

lies b

eing

initi

ated

. La

ndsl

ips a

lso

occu

r on

thes

e so

ils.

Onl

y a

few

fore

sted

are

as re

mai

n, d

airy

farm

ing

bein

g th

e m

ain

land

use

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

KE

NN

ED

YS

CR

EE

KA

rea:

95

km2

120

%2

65%

3 6%4 9%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 9

5 –

1,05

0, lo

wes

t Jan

uary

(40)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

130)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8.5

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n N

ovem

ber –

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yM

ioce

ne u

ncon

solid

ated

mar

ine

clay

, silt

and

sand

Rec

ent a

lluvi

umT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Und

ulat

ing

plai

nEl

evat

ion,

m15

– 1

50Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

70D

rain

age

patte

rnPr

edom

inan

tly d

endr

itic

with

som

e tre

llis

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

24.

0La

nd fo

rmG

entle

rise

Allu

vial

terr

ace

Land

form

ele

men

tU

pper

slop

e, c

rest

Mid

dle

slop

eLo

wer

slop

e-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %9

(4-1

5)10

(4-2

0)10

(7-3

5)5

(1-9

)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xSt

raig

htC

onca

ve(V

aria

ble

– m

ostly

stra

ight

)N

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

obl

iqua

, E. v

imin

alis

, occ

asio

nally

E.

ovat

aE.

aro

map

hloi

a, E

. vim

inal

is, E

. obl

iqua

, E.

radi

ata,

E. o

vata

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, occ

asio

nally

E.

vim

inal

isE.

ova

ta, E

. obl

iqua

, E. v

imin

alis

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y an

d si

ltC

lay

and

silt

Cla

y an

d si

ltA

lluvi

al c

lay,

silt

and

sand

Des

crip

tion

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

d gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsY

ello

w-b

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls, c

oars

est

ruct

ure

Gre

y-br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd g

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Mod

erat

eLo

wM

oder

ate

Low

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g; b

eef c

attle

and

shee

p gr

azin

g; w

ater

supp

lyU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Wat

er su

pply

; har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

nSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZAR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

, for

ms

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity,

pho

spho

rus f

ixat

ion

and

stee

p sl

opes

lead

to sh

eet e

rosi

on a

ndnu

trien

t dec

line.

Hig

h di

sper

sibl

e cl

ay su

bsoi

ls a

re p

rone

togu

lly a

nd tu

nnel

ero

sion

. Pe

riodi

csa

tura

tion

lead

s to

land

slip

s. S

teep

er sl

opes

are

pron

e to

shee

t ero

sion

of n

utrie

nt-r

ich

surf

ace

horiz

ons.

Stee

per s

lope

s are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.D

ispe

rsib

le c

lay

subs

oils

on

mod

erat

e st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to g

ully

ero

sion

.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

f low

perm

eabi

lity

are

pron

e to

gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Hig

h w

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

il co

mpa

ctio

n.

7.25

Lo

rne

Land

Sys

tem

From

Cin

ema

Poin

t to

Moo

nlig

ht H

ead,

muc

h of

the

coas

tline

con

sist

s of

ste

ep s

lope

s, co

asta

l clif

fs a

nd ro

cky

shor

e pl

atfo

rms.

The

se c

oast

al m

argi

ns o

f the

Ran

ge h

ave

a m

ilder

mar

itim

e cl

imat

e th

an th

ose

area

s fu

rther

inla

nd, a

nd re

ceiv

e a

low

er ra

infa

ll. I

nlan

d fr

om th

e co

ast t

he to

pogr

aphy

con

sist

s of

ste

eply

dis

sect

ed s

purs

and

ridge

s with

clif

fs a

nd w

ater

falls

.

The

stee

pest

slo

pes

have

sha

llow

sto

ny s

oils

with

are

as o

f ro

ck o

utcr

op.

Mos

t sl

opes

, ho

wev

er,

have

mod

erat

ely

deep

dup

lex

soils

. O

n in

land

slo

pes

with

a s

outh

erly

asp

ect,

no s

trong

pro

file

diff

eren

tiatio

n ha

soc

curr

ed a

nd p

rofil

es a

re g

rada

tiona

l. T

all o

pen

fore

sts,

with

und

erst

orey

spe

cies

suc

h as

Bed

ford

ia s

alic

ina,

Ole

aria

spp.

and

Pom

ader

is sp

p., o

ccup

y th

ese

site

s. O

n th

e du

plex

soils

the

trees

are

low

er w

ith a

mor

e op

enun

ders

tore

y.

Larg

e tra

cts o

f thi

s la

nd s

yste

m h

ave

been

cle

ared

and

dai

ry fa

rmin

g is

a m

ajor

land

use

. Th

e st

eep

slop

es a

ndde

ep v

alle

ys c

reat

e se

vere

man

agem

ent p

robl

ems.

The

coa

stal

are

as b

etw

een

Cin

ema

Poin

t and

Apo

llo B

ayha

ve b

een

popu

lar

for

resi

dent

ial

deve

lopm

ent.

Lan

dslip

s ar

e ve

ry c

omm

on a

nd s

heet

ero

sion

has

bee

nw

ides

prea

d.

Sitin

g of

road

s, fe

nces

and

acc

ess t

rack

s in

this

rugg

ed te

rrai

n cr

eate

s man

y pr

oble

ms,

and

man

agem

ent i

s diff

icul

t

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

LO

RN

EA

rea:

220

km

21 7%

2 8%3

35%

4 5%5

35%

610

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

850

– 1

,200

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

5), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (12

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 13

, low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(17)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

uly

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n m

id N

ovem

ber –

mid

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yLo

wer

Cre

tace

ous f

elds

path

ic sa

ndst

one

and

mud

ston

eT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Dee

ply

diss

ecte

d hi

lls o

f the

Otw

ay R

ange

Elev

atio

n, m

0 –

400

Loca

l rel

ief,

m15

0D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

with

som

e ra

dial

are

asD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

4.0

Land

form

Coa

stal

clif

fH

illLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Stee

p lo

wer

slop

eU

pper

gen

tler s

lope

Nor

th- a

nd w

est-f

acin

g sl

opes

,up

per s

lope

Low

er sl

op, d

rain

age

line

Sout

h- a

nd e

ast-f

acin

g sl

opes

Stee

pest

slop

e

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %60

(30-

75)

30 (1

5-45

)45

(5-5

5)20

(1-3

5)45

(5-6

5)60

(20-

70)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

Line

arLi

near

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

scru

bW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Tall

open

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esC

asua

rina

stri

cta,

Cas

sini

aac

ulea

ta, E

. obl

iqua

, Aly

xia

buxi

folia

, Leu

copo

gon

parv

iflor

us

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. glo

bulu

s, E.

radi

ata

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. sid

erox

ylon

, E.

radi

ata,

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa,

E.

glob

ulus

E. o

vata

, E. g

lobu

lus,

E.cy

pello

carp

a, A

caci

am

elan

oxyl

on

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa,

E. g

lobu

lus,

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

taE.

radi

ata,

E. s

ider

oxyl

on, E

.cy

pello

carp

a oc

casi

onal

ly E

.vi

min

alis

, E. g

lobu

lus

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Col

luvi

umIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckA

lluvi

umIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckC

ollu

vium

Des

crip

tion

Ston

y br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ilsB

row

n du

plex

soils

Bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

, wea

kst

ruct

ure

Bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Ston

y br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

clay

loam

Fine

sand

y cl

ay lo

amSi

lty lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

clay

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yV

ery

high

Mod

erat

eM

oder

ate

Hig

hH

igh

Ver

y hi

ghD

epth

, m0.

30.

90.

9>2

0.9

0.5

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

awlo

gs, p

osts

and

pol

es; s

oftw

ood

plan

tatio

ns; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; a

ctiv

e an

d pa

ssiv

e re

crea

tion;

land

scap

e co

nser

vatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly.

Min

or c

lear

ed a

reas

: D

airy

farm

ing

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng o

n m

ainl

y un

impr

oved

pas

ture

s; re

side

ntia

l.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

sens

itive

to sa

lt pr

unin

g an

ddi

stur

banc

e. D

ispe

rsib

le so

ilson

stee

p sl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

. M

arin

e un

der-

cutti

ng a

nd sa

tura

tion

of so

ilsle

ad to

land

slip

s.

Nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

sens

itive

to d

istu

rban

ce a

nd to

salt

prun

ing.

Dis

pers

ible

soils

on

mod

erat

e sl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

. Pe

riodi

csa

tura

tion

of d

ispe

rsib

le c

lay

subs

oils

lead

s to

land

slip

s and

slum

ping

of r

oad

batte

rs.

Dry

asp

ect,

stee

p sl

opes

and

wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

esle

ad to

shee

t ero

sion

. C

lay

subs

oils

on

stee

p sl

opes

subj

ect t

o pe

riodi

c sa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed so

ilsre

ceiv

ing

run-

off a

re p

rone

tosc

our g

ully

ing,

silta

tion,

flood

ing,

and

com

pact

ion

ofsu

rfac

e st

ruct

ure.

Stee

p sl

opes

and

wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

es le

ad to

shee

t ero

sion

. C

lay

subs

oils

on st

eep

slop

es su

bjec

t to

perio

dic

satu

ratio

n ar

e pr

one

to la

ndsl

ips.

Ston

y sh

allo

w so

ils o

f wea

kst

ruct

ure,

and

low

wat

er-

hold

ing

capa

city

on

stee

psl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

ter

osio

n an

d la

ndsl

ides

.

7.26

M

oggs

Cre

ek L

and

Syst

em

The

terr

ain

inla

nd f

rom

Eas

tern

Vie

w a

nd A

ireys

Inl

et c

onsi

sts

of s

purs

and

rid

ges

with

ste

ep s

lope

s an

d de

epva

lleys

. Th

e ou

tcro

ppin

g Te

rtiar

y se

dim

ents

are

par

tly u

ncon

solid

ated

, but

man

y be

ds a

re c

ompo

sed

of q

uartz

itic

sand

ston

es a

nd si

ltsto

ne.

The

low

er p

arts

of t

he la

ndsc

ape

ofte

n po

sses

s out

crop

s of C

reta

ceou

s sed

imen

ts.

Ope

n fo

rest

s of

Euc

alyp

tus

obliq

ua, E

. sid

erox

ylon

and

E. r

adia

ta o

ccur

ove

r m

ost o

f th

e la

ndsc

ape

on d

uple

xso

ils.

The

drie

r no

rth-

and

wes

t-fac

ing

slop

es a

nd s

teep

slo

pes

carr

y w

oodl

ands

on

shal

low

sto

ny s

oils

. Th

eC

reta

ceou

s out

crop

s can

be

reco

gniz

ed b

y th

e in

crea

se in

und

erst

orey

cov

er a

nd th

e oc

curr

ence

of s

peci

es su

ch a

sAc

acia

muc

rona

ta a

nd C

assin

ia lo

ngifo

lia.

Som

e se

lect

ive

logg

ing

of th

ese

hills

is u

nder

take

n, b

ut th

e m

ain

use

is f

or r

ecre

atio

n su

ch a

s bu

shw

alki

ng a

ndpi

cnic

king

. Th

e st

eep

slop

es a

re p

opul

ar w

ith tr

ail-b

ike-

rider

s, an

d th

is o

ften

resu

lts in

sev

ere

dam

age

to th

eve

geta

tion

and

soils

.

The

valle

y of

Pai

nkal

ac C

reek

rem

ains

vir

tual

ly u

ncle

ared

, and

is

popu

lar w

ith b

ushw

alke

rs a

nd p

icni

cker

s fro

m n

earb

y co

asta

l res

orts

.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

MO

GG

S C

RE

EK

Are

a: 7

4 km

21

30%

220

%3 7%

425

%5 8%

610

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

800

– 1

,050

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (11

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

7)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) mid

June

– m

id A

ugus

tSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

mid

Nov

embe

r – m

id M

arch

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Pale

ocen

e un

cons

olid

ated

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

nd; s

ome

silic

a ce

men

ted

quar

tz sa

ndst

one

and

silts

tone

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s san

dsto

nean

d m

udst

one

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eD

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

hills

Elev

atio

n, m

0- 2

40Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

100

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

2.1

Land

form

Hill

Val

ley

floor

Hill

Land

form

ele

men

tC

rest

, nor

th a

nd w

est s

lope

sLo

wer

slop

e, fa

nA

lluvi

al te

rrac

eSo

uth

and

east

slop

esSt

eep

north

slop

eSt

eep

low

er sl

ope

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %18

(6-4

5)7

(1-1

4)1

(0-2

)18

(10-

40)

55 (4

0-65

)45

(30-

60)

Slop

e sh

ape

Con

vex

Con

cave

Line

arC

onve

xLi

near

Line

arN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Woo

dlan

dO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stLo

w w

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. ra

diat

a, E

. obl

iqua

, E.

baxt

eri,

E. si

dero

xylo

nE.

side

roxy

lon,

E.

cype

lloca

rpa,

E. o

bliq

ua, E

.ba

xter

i

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

ta, E

.si

dero

xylo

nE.

obl

iqua

, E. c

ypel

loca

rpa

E. n

itida

, E. o

bliq

ua,

Cas

uari

na li

ttora

lisE.

obl

iqua

, E. r

adia

ta, E

.si

dero

xylo

n

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndA

lluvi

al c

lay,

silt

and

sand

Allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Mai

nly

quar

tziti

c sa

ndst

one

and

silts

tone

Feld

spat

hic

sand

ston

e an

dm

udst

one

Des

crip

tion

Red

-yel

low

dup

lex

soils

Yel

low

gra

datio

nal s

oils

,w

eak

stru

ctur

eY

ello

w-b

row

n so

dic

dupl

exso

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Red

-yel

low

dup

lex

soils

Ston

y ye

llow

gra

datio

nal s

oils

Bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Gra

velly

sand

y lo

amLo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yM

oder

ate

Hig

hLo

wM

oder

ate

Ver

y hi

ghM

oder

ate

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

0.7

0.9

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: N

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; h

ardw

ood

fore

stry

; act

ive

and

pass

ive

recr

eatio

n.C

lear

ed a

reas

: R

esid

entia

l; ac

tive

recr

eatio

nSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

eso

ils o

n st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet e

rosi

on a

ndco

mpa

ctio

n. C

lay

subs

oils

on

stee

p sl

opes

are

pro

ne to

land

slip

s.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed so

ilsre

ceiv

ing

surf

ace

run-

off f

rom

adja

cent

are

as a

re p

rone

tosc

our g

ully

ing,

silta

tion

and

flood

ing.

Wea

k su

rfac

e st

ruct

ure

ispr

one

to c

ompa

ctio

n le

adin

gto

redu

ced

perm

eabi

lity

and

incr

ease

d ov

erla

nd fl

ow.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

eso

ils o

n st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet e

rosi

on a

ndco

mpa

ctio

n. C

lay

subs

oils

on

stee

p sl

opes

are

pro

ne to

land

slip

s.

Ston

y sh

allo

w so

ils w

ith w

eak

stru

ctur

e an

d lo

w w

ater

-ho

ldin

g ca

paci

ty o

n dr

y st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet

eros

ion

and

land

slid

es.

Stee

p sl

opes

and

wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

es le

ad to

shee

t ero

sion

. C

lay

subs

oils

on st

eep

slop

es su

bjec

t to

perio

dic

satu

ratio

n ar

e pr

one

to la

ndsl

ips.

7.27

M

oole

ric

Land

Sys

tem

The

ston

y ris

es b

etw

een

Mou

nt G

ellib

rand

and

the

Bar

on R

iver

wer

e am

ong

the

first

are

as g

raze

d in

this

par

t of

Vic

toria

. Th

e st

ony

rises

are

bot

h in

terc

onne

cted

and

solit

ary

and

they

slop

e so

uthw

ards

aw

ay fr

om M

ount

Gel

libra

nd.

The

maj

or a

reas

is fo

und

north

of t

he P

rince

s Hig

hway

, but

occ

asio

nal v

ents

or o

ld c

ones

als

o oc

cur

furth

er so

uth.

The

natu

re o

f the

nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

diff

icul

t to

dete

rmin

e. M

any

early

repo

rts d

escr

ibe

the

area

as a

tree

less

plai

n, b

ut th

ere

are

occa

sion

al sp

ecim

ens o

f Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

, A. i

mpl

exa

and

even

Euc

alyp

tus v

imin

alis

inro

adsi

de re

serv

es.

Thus

, the

re m

ay h

ave

orig

inal

ly b

een

a lo

w o

pen

woo

dlan

d pr

ior t

o se

ttlem

ent,

whi

ch h

asdi

sapp

eare

d fo

llow

ing

graz

ing

and

burn

ing.

Sto

ny ri

se la

ndsc

apes

in o

ther

par

ts o

f Vic

toria

pos

sess

woo

dlan

d or

low

woo

dlan

d co

mm

uniti

es.

Soil

nutri

ent l

evel

s are

hig

h on

thes

e ba

salt

outc

rops

, esp

ecia

lly in

the

less

wea

ther

ed so

ils.

The

abun

danc

e of

rock

floa

ters

and

out

crop

s mak

es c

ultiv

atio

n di

ffic

ult e

ven

on in

fille

d sw

amps

bet

wee

n th

e ris

es.

Thus

gra

zing

,of

ten

on u

nim

prov

ed p

astu

res,

is th

e m

ain

land

use

.

Dep

ress

ions

bet

wee

n th

e st

ony

rise

s are

infil

led

with

bas

altic

cla

y an

d or

gani

c cl

ay, b

oth

of w

hich

hav

e lo

w p

erm

eabi

lity,

lead

ing

to w

ater

logg

ing.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

MO

OL

ER

ICA

rea:

46

km2

1 5%2 9%

3 7%4

45%

525

%6 5%

7 4%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

550

– 6

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(25)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

60)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(19)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

- Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

limita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

late

Sep

tem

ber –

Apr

ilG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPl

eist

ocen

e ba

salt,

scor

ia a

nd tu

ffT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Ston

y ris

e, u

ndul

atin

g pl

ain

with

occ

asio

nal s

teep

hill

s (vo

lcan

ic c

ones

)El

evat

ion,

m 1

20 –

250

Loca

l rel

ief,

m5

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

0.2

Land

form

Ston

y ris

ePl

ain

Con

eLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Bro

ad c

rest

Stee

p sl

opes

, nar

row

cre

stA

pron

Gen

tle sl

ope

Dep

ress

ion

Ban

k-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %2

(0-3

)10

(3-1

5)5

(3-9

)1

(0-3

)0

(0-3

)1

(0-2

)10

(1-2

5)Sl

ope

shap

eLi

near

Con

vex

Con

cave

Line

arC

onca

veC

onve

xLi

near

NA

TIV

EV

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

ePo

ssib

ly lo

w w

oodl

and

Poss

ibly

sedg

elan

dPo

ssib

ly lo

w w

oodl

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

Acac

ia m

elan

oxyl

on, A

. im

plex

a, E

. vim

inal

isJu

ncus

spp.

, Ran

uncu

lus

spp.

, Car

ex sp

p., S

cirp

usca

loca

rpus

, Sch

oenu

sap

ogon

Acac

ia m

elan

oxyl

on, A

. im

plex

a, E

. vim

inal

is

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Bas

alt

Fres

hly

wea

ther

ing

rock

Col

luvi

um, m

ainl

y cl

ayB

asal

tA

lluvi

um, p

lant

rem

ains

Bas

alt

Scor

ia, t

uff,

basa

ltD

escr

iptio

nG

rey

calc

areo

us so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

est

ruct

ure

Ston

y re

d-br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Bla

ck c

alca

reou

s cla

yso

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eG

rey

calc

areo

us so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

est

ruct

ure

Gre

y ca

lcar

eous

sodi

ccl

ay so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eG

rey

calc

areo

us so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

est

ruct

ure

Ston

y re

d-br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Cla

y lo

amLo

amC

lay

Fine

sand

y lo

amC

lay

Fine

sand

y lo

amC

lay

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y lo

wH

igh

Ver

y lo

wV

ery

low

Ver

y lo

wV

ery

low

Hig

hD

epth

, m0.

20.

21.

21.

9>2

>20.

9L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: Sh

eep

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng; s

ome

min

or c

ropp

ing

betw

een

ston

y ris

es.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es,

proc

esse

s, fo

rms

Soils

of l

ow p

erm

eabi

lity

are

pron

e to

wat

erlo

ggin

g.St

ony

shal

low

soils

with

low

wat

er-h

oldi

ngca

paci

ty, o

ver r

ock

laye

rson

stee

p sl

opes

, are

pro

neto

shee

t ero

sion

.

Soils

of l

ow p

erm

eabi

lity

are

pron

e to

wat

erlo

ggin

g.

Sodi

c cl

ay su

bsoi

ls o

f low

perm

eabi

lity

with

seas

onal

ly h

igh

wat

erta

bles

are

pro

ne to

soil

salti

ng.

Soils

of l

ow p

erm

eabi

lity

and

with

sodi

c cl

aysu

bsoi

ls a

re p

rone

tow

ater

logg

ing,

soil

com

pact

ion

and

soil

salti

ng.

Min

or h

azar

ds.

Ston

y sh

allo

w so

ils w

ithlo

w w

ater

-hol

ding

capa

city

, ove

r roc

k la

yers

on st

eep

slop

es, a

re p

rone

to sh

eet e

rosi

on.

7.28

M

ount

Mac

kenz

ie L

and

Syst

em

Stee

ply

diss

ecte

d hi

lls a

but e

ither

sid

e of

the

mid

dle

and

low

er re

ache

s of

the

Gel

libra

nd R

iver

. D

isse

ctio

n in

toTe

rtiar

y cl

ay, s

ilt a

nd sa

nd h

as re

sulte

d in

stee

p sl

opes

and

nar

row

dra

inag

e lin

es.

The

finel

y te

xtur

ed T

ertia

ry s

edim

ents

out

crop

ping

in th

ese

area

s ha

s re

sulte

d in

hea

vier

-text

ured

soi

ls th

an th

ose

foun

d in

the

neig

hbou

ring

Cha

pple

Val

e la

nd s

yste

m.

Moi

stur

e st

ress

and

fer

tility

are

not

as

limiti

ng to

pla

ntgr

owth

, so

open

fore

sts

of E

ucal

yptu

s ob

liqua

and

E. b

axte

ri h

ave

deve

lope

d on

mos

t site

s. In

clud

ed in

the

land

syst

em a

re d

isse

cted

rive

r ter

race

s al

ong

the

valle

y of

the

Gel

libra

nd R

iver

and

thes

e po

sses

s w

ell-d

evel

oped

soi

lsw

ith c

oars

e-st

ruct

ured

sub

soils

. Th

e hi

gher

par

ts o

f th

e la

ndsc

ape

may

als

o po

sses

s su

ch s

oils

whe

re K

enne

dys

Cre

ek la

nd sy

stem

is a

djac

ent,

or sa

nd so

ils w

here

the

Cha

pple

Val

e la

nd sy

stem

is n

earb

y.

Mos

t are

as r

emai

n fo

rest

ed b

ut a

reas

abu

tting

the

flood

pla

ins

have

bee

n cl

eare

d to

pro

vide

win

ter

past

ures

for

dairy

cat

tle.

Pine

s ha

ve b

een

esta

blis

hed

on p

revi

ousl

y fo

rest

ed la

nd.

Shee

t ero

sion

and

land

slip

s ha

ve o

ccur

red

on m

any

of th

e st

eepe

r slo

pes

whe

re th

e na

tive

vege

tatio

n ha

s be

en re

mov

ed a

nd th

e ru

gged

nat

ure

of th

e te

rrai

nm

ake

mos

t lan

d us

es d

iffic

ult.

The

stee

p di

ssec

ted

hills

of t

he M

ount

Mac

kenz

ie la

nd sy

stem

or

igin

ally

supp

orte

d op

en fo

rest

com

mun

ities

, but

man

y ar

eas h

ave

been

ext

ensi

vely

cle

ared

for p

ine

conv

ersi

on a

nd g

razi

ng.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

MO

UN

T M

AC

KE

NZ

IEA

rea:

69

km2

140

%2 8%

3 9%4

25%

5 8%6 7%

7 3%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

950

– 1

,100

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

5), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (12

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

limita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

mid

Nov

embe

r – M

arch

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Pale

ocen

e un

cons

olid

ated

mar

ine

sand

, cla

y an

d si

ltT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Dee

ply

diss

ecte

d hi

lls in

the

mid

dle

and

low

er re

ache

s of t

he G

ellib

rand

Riv

er c

atch

men

tEl

evat

ion,

m15

–18

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

100

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

c w

ith so

me

radi

alD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

3.3

Land

form

Hill

Val

ley

floor

Terr

ace

Land

form

ele

men

tSl

ope,

cre

stC

rest

, spu

r, m

ainl

y in

sout

hC

rest

, slo

peSl

ope,

cre

stB

road

slig

ht d

epre

ssio

n-

-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %33

(4-6

3)14

(4-1

9)32

(22-

45)

37 (3

1-49

)14

(2-2

1)4

(0-7

)5

(1-9

)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xC

onve

xC

onve

xC

onve

xC

onca

veC

onca

veC

onve

xN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Low

woo

dlan

dO

pen

fore

stLo

w w

oodl

and

Woo

dlan

dO

pen

fore

stD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

bax

teri,

E. n

itida

, E.

obliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. bax

teri,

E.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

taE.

bax

teri,

E. n

itida

E. b

axte

ri, E

. obl

iqua

E. n

itida

, E. b

axte

riE.

obl

iqua

, E. b

axte

riE.

obl

iqua

, E. o

vata

, E.

baxt

eri

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Sand

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndSa

nd, c

ollu

vial

sand

Plan

t rem

ains

, allu

vial

sand

and

cla

yA

lluvi

al c

lay,

silt

and

sand

Des

crip

tion

Yel

low

gra

datio

nal s

ols,

wea

k st

ruct

ure

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eG

rey

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Red

gra

datio

nal s

oils

,w

eak

stru

ctur

eG

rey

sand

soils

, with

hard

pans

, uni

form

text

ure

Bla

ck sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rmte

xtur

eY

ello

w-b

row

n gr

adat

iona

lso

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Loam

y sa

ndSa

ndy

loam

Loam

y sa

ndLo

amy

sand

Fine

sand

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yH

igh

Low

Ver

y hi

ghH

igh

Ver

y lo

wH

igh

Low

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

0.6

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

awlo

gs, p

osts

and

pol

es; w

ater

supp

ly; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; q

uarr

ying

of i

rons

tone

; sof

twoo

d fo

rest

ryM

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g; b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

.SO

ILD

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed so

ilson

stee

p sl

opes

are

pro

neto

shee

t, ril

l, sc

our g

ully

eros

ion

and

land

slip

s.Lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

dhi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

lsof

low

per

mea

bilit

y ar

epr

one

to g

ully

ero

sion

.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yan

d hi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.St

eepe

r slo

pes w

ithco

mpa

cted

soils

are

pro

neto

shee

t, ril

l and

scou

rgu

lly e

rosi

on.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed so

ilson

stee

p sl

opes

are

pro

neto

shee

t and

rill

eros

ion

and

land

slip

s. L

owin

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

d hi

ghpe

rmea

bilit

y le

ad to

nutri

ent d

eclin

e.

Har

dpan

s res

trict

ver

tical

drai

nage

lead

ing

tose

ason

al w

ater

logg

ing.

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yw

ith le

achi

ng o

fpe

rmea

ble

high

ly a

cidi

csu

rfac

e so

ils le

ad to

nutri

ent d

eclin

e.

Hig

h w

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n. R

apid

run-

off f

rom

adj

acen

t hill

sle

ad to

floo

ding

and

silta

tion.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

lsof

low

per

mea

bilit

y ar

epr

one

to g

ully

ero

sion

.Lo

w p

erm

eabi

litie

s and

high

wat

er ta

bles

lead

tow

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

7.29

M

ount

Sab

ine

Land

Sys

tem

Dis

conn

ecte

d re

mna

nts

of a

n un

dula

ting

plai

n ar

e fo

und

on th

e hi

gh p

arts

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge fr

om n

ear t

hePa

rker

rive

r to

Gen

tle A

nnie

Hill

. Th

e w

ette

st a

nd m

ost e

xten

sive

par

t of t

his u

ndul

atin

g pl

ain

com

pris

es th

eB

eech

For

est l

and

syst

em.

All

othe

r are

as re

ceiv

e an

ann

ual r

ainf

all o

f 1,7

00 m

m o

r les

s an

d th

e ta

ll op

enfo

rest

s, al

thou

gh th

ey r

each

impr

essi

ve h

eigh

ts, d

o no

t app

roac

h th

e 10

0 m

sta

nds

repo

rted

for

the

Bee

chFo

rest

land

syst

em p

rior t

o cl

earin

g.

Mos

t slo

pes

and

cres

ts h

ave

mod

erat

e de

ep a

nd fe

rtile

soi

ls.

The

occu

rren

ce o

f ext

rem

ely

deep

and

fria

ble

soils

in

som

e ar

eas

seem

s to

be

rela

ted

to a

cha

nge

in t

he n

atur

e of

the

Cre

tace

ous

beds

. Th

e de

pth

tow

eath

erin

g pa

rent

mat

eria

l is o

ften

in e

xces

s of 2

m in

thes

e pr

ofile

s.

The

rem

ote

natu

re o

f mos

t of t

hese

pla

teau

rem

nant

s ha

s hi

nder

ed th

eir d

evel

opm

ent f

or a

gric

ultu

re.

Man

yof

the

are

as o

rigin

ally

cle

ared

by

early

set

tlers

hav

e re

verte

d to

den

se s

crub

whi

le o

ther

s ha

ve b

een

rege

nera

ted

to E

ucal

yptu

s re

gnan

s or

oth

er h

ardw

ood

spec

ies.

Lan

dslip

s an

d lo

ss o

f soi

l nut

rient

s in

suc

h a

wet

clim

ate

are

the

mai

n ha

zard

s to

land

use

.

Onl

y sm

all a

reas

of f

arm

land

sill

rem

ain,

the

rem

oten

ess f

rom

are

as o

f sub

stant

ial s

ettle

men

ts

bein

g on

e of

the

maj

or p

robl

ems.

MO

UN

T S

AB

INE

Are

a: 9

5 km

2C

ompo

nent

and

its p

ropo

rtion

of l

and

syst

em

125

%2

70%

3 5%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

1,2

00 –

1,7

00, l

owes

t Feb

ruar

y (6

5), h

ighe

st Ju

ne (1

70)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

10,

low

est J

uly

(6),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(15)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) M

ay –

Oct

ober

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n ea

rly D

ecem

ber -

Feb

ruar

yG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yLo

wer

Cre

tace

ous f

elds

path

ic sa

ndst

one

and

mud

ston

eT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Rol

ling

hills

alo

ng th

e to

p of

the

Otw

ay R

ange

Elev

atio

n, m

400

– 67

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

60D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

patte

rn w

ith so

me

radi

al a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

23.

6La

nd fo

rmH

illLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Upp

er sl

ope

Gen

eral

slop

eLo

wer

slop

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

15 (1

-25)

15 (1

-25)

9 (1

-12)

Slop

e sh

ape

Con

vex

Con

vex

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Tall

open

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, A

caci

a m

elan

oxyl

on, E

. reg

nans

, E.

cype

lloca

rpa

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. cyp

ello

carp

a, E

. reg

nans

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

, occ

asio

nal E

. ova

taE.

regn

ans,

E. c

ypel

loca

rpa,

E. o

bliq

ua, A

caci

am

elan

oxyl

onSO

ILPa

rent

mat

eria

lIn

-site

dee

ply

wea

ther

ed ro

ckIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckC

ollu

vium

Des

crip

tion

Bro

wn

fria

ble

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Dar

k br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Loam

Cla

y lo

amLo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yH

igh

Hig

hH

igh

Dep

th, m

1.8

1.3

>2L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r saw

logs

and

pul

pwoo

d; so

ftwoo

d pl

anta

tions

; nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

pas

sive

recr

eatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly.

Min

or c

lear

ed a

reas

: So

me

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng o

n un

impr

oved

pas

ture

s; m

ost r

ever

ting

to n

ativ

e fo

rest

or c

onve

rted

to p

ine

plan

tatio

ns.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sH

igh

rain

fall

and

high

per

mea

bilit

y le

ad to

leac

hing

of

nutri

ents

and

loss

es in

org

anic

mat

ter a

nd s

oil s

truct

ure.

Stee

per

slop

es m

ay b

e su

bseq

uent

ly p

rone

to

shee

ter

osio

n.

Hig

h ra

infa

ll an

d m

oder

ate

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

leac

hing

of

nutri

ents

and

los

ses

in o

rgan

ic m

atte

r an

dso

il st

ruct

ure.

Ste

eper

slo

pes

are

subs

eque

ntly

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

. C

lay

subs

oils

on

stee

per s

lope

s sub

ject

tofr

eque

nt sa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e le

ads t

o w

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

7.30

Pa

rapa

rap

Land

Sys

tem

Bet

wee

n th

e la

terit

ic p

late

aux

of th

e G

hera

ng G

hera

ng la

nd sy

stem

and

the

basa

ltic

plai

ns o

f the

Fre

shw

ater

Cre

ekla

nd s

yste

m,

a lo

ng n

arro

w p

lain

ext

ends

fro

m t

he B

arw

on R

iver

nea

r W

inch

else

a to

the

mid

dle

reac

hes

ofTh

omps

on C

reek

.

Dee

ply

wea

ther

ed d

uple

x so

ils a

re f

ound

on

mos

t of

thi

s la

nd s

yste

m,

with

occ

asio

nal

area

s of

aeo

lian

sand

.R

emna

nts

of w

oodl

ands

and

ope

n fo

rest

s ar

e fo

und

alon

g m

any

rese

rves

with

the

unu

sual

occ

urre

nce

ofEu

caly

ptus

pau

ciflo

ra o

n m

any

of th

e be

tter-

drai

ned

and

less

ferti

le si

tes.

Mos

t are

as h

ave

been

cle

ared

for a

gric

ultu

re a

nd, d

espi

te th

e fa

irly

low

rain

fall,

dai

ry fa

rmin

g is

com

mon

. O

ther

uses

incl

ude

shee

p an

d be

ef c

attle

gra

zing

and

cer

eal c

ropp

ing.

Soi

l sal

ting

is a

pro

blem

in m

any

area

s an

d so

me

min

or g

ully

ero

sion

has

als

o oc

curr

ed.

Cle

arin

g ha

s bee

n w

ides

prea

d, b

ut a

n ab

unda

nce

of v

eget

atio

n in

the

road

rese

rve

adds

an

appe

alin

g di

men

sion

to th

e la

ndsc

ape.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

PAR

APA

RA

PA

rea:

138

km

21

35%

230

%3 10

415

%5

10%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 6

00 –

650

, low

est J

anua

ry (3

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (65

)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 13

, low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(19)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– Ju

lySe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

Oct

ober

– m

id A

pril

Plio

-Ple

isto

cene

sedi

men

ts c

onsi

stin

g of

cla

yey

sand

, san

dy c

lay

and

late

ritic

det

ritus

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Rec

ent a

eolia

n sa

ndT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Gen

tly u

ndul

atin

g pl

ain

lyin

g be

twee

n ba

salt

to th

e no

rth a

nd la

terit

ic p

late

aux

to th

e so

uth

Elev

atio

n, m

40 –

130

Loca

l rel

ief,

m20

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

2.5

Land

form

Gen

tle ri

seV

alle

y flo

orLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Cre

st, u

pper

slop

eM

iddl

e sl

ope

Cre

st, s

lope

Low

er sl

ope

-Sl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

3 (0

-11)

4 (1

-7)

5 (2

-10)

4 (0

-7)

1 (0

-2)

Slop

e sh

ape

Con

vex

Line

arIr

regu

lar

Con

vex

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

fore

stW

oodl

and

Low

woo

dlan

dW

oodl

and

Woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

ta, E

. pau

ciflo

ra,

Acac

ia m

elan

oxyl

onE.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

ta, C

asua

rina

stri

cta,

C. l

ittor

alis

E. v

imin

alis

, E. o

bliq

uaE.

ova

ta, E

. vim

inal

is, C

asua

rina

stri

cta

E. c

amal

dule

nsis

, E. v

imin

alis

,Ac

acia

mel

anox

ylon

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Sand

y cl

aySa

ndy

clay

Silic

eous

sand

Sand

y cl

aySa

nd, s

ilt a

nd c

lay

Des

crip

tion

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

d du

plex

soils

Yel

low

-bro

wn

sodi

c du

plex

soi

ls,

coar

se st

ruct

ure

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eY

ello

w so

dic

dupl

ex so

ilsB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

loam

Loam

y sa

ndSa

ndy

loam

Fine

sand

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yM

oder

ate

Low

Ver

y hi

ghM

oder

ate

Hig

hD

epth

, m>2

>2>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Cle

ared

are

as:

Dai

ry a

nd b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

on

mai

nly

impr

oved

pas

ture

s; c

erea

l cro

ppin

g; so

me

sand

ext

ract

ion.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Low

inh

eren

t fe

rtilit

y, p

hosp

horu

sfix

atio

n an

d le

achi

ng o

f pe

rmea

ble

A h

oriz

ons l

eads

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.

Dis

pers

ible

sub

soils

are

pro

ne t

ogu

lly e

rosi

on a

nd s

lum

ping

of

road

batte

rs.

Low

in

here

nt

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to

nu

trien

tde

clin

e. W

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

sur

face

sw

ith lo

w w

ater

-hol

ding

cap

acity

are

pron

e to

win

d er

osio

n.

Sodi

c su

bsoi

ls w

ith h

igh

seas

onal

wat

er

tabl

es

are

pron

e to

so

ilsa

lting

.

Dis

pers

ible

su

bsoi

ls

are

pron

e to

gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Seas

onal

sa

line

wat

er

tabl

ede

velo

pmen

t le

ads

to s

oil

salti

ng.

Rap

id s

urfa

ce ru

n-of

f fro

m a

djac

ent

area

s le

ads

to s

cour

ing

and

gully

eros

ion.

W

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

sur

face

soils

in

poor

ly d

rain

ed a

reas

are

pron

e to

com

pact

ion.

7.31

Pe

nnyr

oyal

Lan

d Sy

stem

’

Alo

ng th

e no

rther

n pe

riphe

ry o

f the

Ran

ge, f

lat-t

oppe

d sp

urs

and

ridge

s fo

rm a

n irr

egul

ar b

and

of fo

othi

lls fr

omW

orm

bete

Cre

ek to

Bar

won

Dow

ns.

The

terr

ain

is v

aria

ble,

with

ste

ep s

lope

s le

adin

g aw

ay fr

om th

ese

gent

lehi

ll cr

ests

to w

ide

valle

y flo

ors.

The

ridg

e sl

opes

upw

ards

tow

ards

the

Ran

ge a

nd b

ecom

es n

arro

wer

as t

he lo

cal

relie

f inc

reas

es.

The

gent

le p

arts

of t

he la

ndsc

ape

are

form

ed o

n Te

rtiar

y cl

ay, s

ilt a

nd sa

nd.

Thes

e se

dim

ents

ove

rlie

Cre

tace

ous

sand

ston

es a

nd m

udst

ones

, w

hich

out

crop

on

stee

p sl

opes

on

the

valle

y si

des.

Soi

l an

d ve

geta

tion

refle

ctch

ange

s in

the

par

ent

mat

eria

l, w

ith t

he s

oils

on

the

uppe

r pa

rts o

f th

e la

ndsc

ape

bein

g so

mew

hat

deep

lyw

eath

ered

with

sand

y su

rfac

e ho

rizon

s in

cont

rast

to lo

am o

r cla

y lo

am so

ils o

n th

e C

reta

ceou

s out

crop

s.

Cle

arin

g ha

s be

en w

ides

prea

d an

d sh

eep

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng a

s w

ell a

s da

iry fa

rmin

g ar

e th

e m

ain

land

use

s.So

me

hard

woo

d is

logg

ed fr

om fo

rest

ed a

reas

, and

sof

twoo

d pl

anta

tions

hav

e be

en e

stab

lishe

d in

the

east

. Po

orm

anag

emen

t of t

hese

hill

s ca

n le

ad to

rapi

d su

rfac

e ru

n-of

f alo

ng th

e va

lleys

cre

atin

g pr

oble

ms

of g

ully

ero

sion

,si

ltatio

n an

d flo

odin

g fu

rther

dow

nstre

am.

Upp

er g

entle

slop

es a

re fo

rmed

on

Tert

iary

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

nd, w

hile

C

reta

ceou

s san

dsto

nes a

nd m

udsto

nes o

utcr

op o

n st

eep

slop

es a

long

the

valle

y si

des a

nd R

ecen

t allu

vium

is fo

und

in th

e va

lley

floor

.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

PEN

NY

RO

YA

LA

rea:

97

km2

135

%2

15%

3 354

12%

5 3%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

700

– 1

,050

, low

est J

anua

ry (3

5), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (80

)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 12

, low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: les

s tha

n 10

o C (a

v.) J

une

– Se

ptem

ber

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n N

ovem

ber -

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yTe

rtiar

y un

cons

olid

ated

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

nd.

Min

or re

mna

nts o

f lat

eriti

zatio

nLo

wer

Cre

tace

ous s

ands

tone

and

mud

ston

eR

ecen

t allu

vial

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

nd

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eSt

eep

rolli

ng h

ills o

n th

e no

rther

n pe

riphe

ry o

f the

Otw

ay R

ange

Elev

atio

n, m

135

- 30

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

65D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

21.

9La

nd fo

rmH

illV

alle

y flo

orLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Gen

tle c

rest

Upp

er sl

ope,

cre

stG

entle

upp

er sl

ope

Stee

p lo

wer

slop

e-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %3

(0-1

5)7

(0-2

5)15

(3-2

5)30

(5-4

5)

1 (0

-2)

Slop

e sh

ape

Con

vex

Con

vex

Line

arLi

near

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

ta, E

. rad

iata

, E.

arom

aphl

oia,

E. n

itida

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E. n

itida

, E.

vim

inal

isE.

obl

iqua

, E. v

imin

alis

, E. r

adia

ta,

E. o

vata

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E.

cype

lloca

rpa

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. cyp

ello

carp

a, E

.gl

obul

usSO

ILPa

rent

mat

eria

lC

lay,

silt

and

sand

, ofte

n de

eply

wea

ther

edSa

nd a

nd c

lay

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckA

lluvi

um

Des

crip

tion

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

d du

plex

soils

Yel

low

gra

datio

nal s

oils

, wea

kst

ruct

ure

Yel

low

-bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

est

ruct

ure

Bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ilsG

rey

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amLo

amy

sand

Fine

sand

y lo

amLo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Mod

erat

eH

igh

Low

Mod

erat

eLo

wD

epth

, m>2

>2>2

0.8

>2L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: sh

eep

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng; d

airy

farm

ing;

wat

er su

pply

.U

ncle

ared

are

as:

Har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r som

e sa

wlo

gs, p

osts

and

pol

es; s

oftw

ood

plan

tatio

ns; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly; g

rave

l ext

ract

ion;

pas

sive

recr

eatio

nSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

phos

phor

us fi

xatio

n le

ad to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

eso

ils o

n st

eepe

r slo

pes a

re p

rone

tosh

eet e

rosi

on.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e. W

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

soils

on

stee

pest

slop

es p

rone

to sh

eet

eros

ion.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

n st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to g

ully

ero

sion

.So

ils o

f low

per

mea

bilit

y on

stee

psl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.

Stee

p sl

opes

lead

to sh

eet e

rosi

on,

parti

cula

rly o

n dr

y as

pect

s. C

lay

subs

oils

on

stee

p sl

opes

subj

ect t

ope

riodi

c sa

tura

tion

are

pone

tola

ndsl

ips.

Hig

h se

ason

al w

ater

tabl

e an

d lo

wpe

rmea

bilit

y le

ad to

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g, so

il co

mpa

ctio

n an

dso

il sa

lting

. H

igh

disc

harg

e ra

tes,

disp

ersi

ble

clay

subs

oils

and

disp

ersi

ble

sand

y cl

ay p

aren

tm

ater

ial o

f low

mec

hani

cal s

treng

thle

ad to

gul

ly a

nd tu

nnel

ero

sion

.

7.32

Po

int R

oadk

nigh

t Lan

d Sy

stem

Alo

ng t

he c

oast

fro

m B

ream

lea

to E

aste

rn V

iew

, co

asta

l du

nes

occu

r di

scon

tinuo

usly

. I

n so

me

loca

litie

s a

prim

ary

and

a se

cond

ary

dune

form

a th

in b

arrie

r bet

wee

n th

e se

a an

d th

e Te

rtiar

y se

dim

ents

, but

in th

e lo

calit

y of

Poin

t Im

poss

ible

the

dune

syst

em is

mor

e co

mpl

ex a

nd e

xten

sive

.

The

fore

dune

and

sec

onda

ry d

une

mat

eria

l is

aeol

ian

sand

and

shel

l grit

. O

n ol

der d

unes

, mob

iliza

tion

of c

alci

umca

rbon

ate

has

resu

lted

in th

e fo

rmat

ion

of c

alca

reni

te, w

hich

may

out

crop

on

blow

outs

or

stee

p sl

opes

. A

way

from

the

se c

alca

reni

te p

avem

ents

, th

e so

ils a

re f

reel

y dr

aine

d ca

lcar

eous

san

ds.

The

exp

osed

cal

care

nite

pave

men

ts m

ay s

uppo

rt re

d ca

lcar

eous

gra

datio

nal

soils

, but

ext

ensi

ve s

heet

ero

sion

has

rem

oved

mos

t of

thi

sm

ater

ial.

Rec

reat

ion

and

acce

ss to

the

fore

shor

e ar

e th

e m

ain

land

use

s. S

ome

build

ings

hav

e be

en s

ited

in th

ese

dune

s at

Bre

amle

a an

d Fa

irhav

en.

Nat

ive

gras

ses

and

shru

bs th

at c

olon

ize

thes

e du

nes

are

very

sen

sitiv

e to

dis

turb

ance

and,

onc

e de

void

of v

eget

ativ

e co

ver,

win

d er

osio

n is

like

ly to

occ

ur.

Han

d pl

antin

g of

Am

mop

hila

are

nari

a ha

sbe

en n

eces

sary

to st

abili

ze m

any

area

s.

Sect

ions

of c

oast

line

in th

e dr

ier e

aste

rn p

arts

of t

he st

udy

area

ofte

n ha

ve e

xten

sive

cal

care

ous

dune

syst

ems.

On

man

y of

thes

e du

nes t

he n

ativ

e ve

geta

tion

has b

een

tram

pled

and

des

troy

ed

and

the

hand

pla

ntin

g of

Am

mop

hila

are

nari

a ha

s bee

n ne

cess

ary

to re

stab

ilize

the

dune

syst

em.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

POIN

T R

OA

DK

NIG

HT

Are

a: 8

km

21

20%

250

%3

25%

4 2%5 3%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 6

00 –

750

, low

est J

anua

ry (3

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (75

)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 14

, low

est J

uly

(10)

, hig

hest

Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jul

ySe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

mid

Oct

ober

- e

arly

Apr

ilG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yR

ecen

t aeo

lian

sand

and

shel

l grit

Cem

ente

d de

posi

ts (c

alca

reni

te a

nd tr

aver

tine)

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eLo

ngitu

dina

l coa

stal

dun

es to

the

east

of t

he O

tway

Ran

geEl

evat

ion,

m0

– 25

Loca

l rel

ief,

m15

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Abs

ent

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

2-

Land

form

Fore

dune

Shift

ing

dune

Old

er m

ore

stab

le d

unes

Inte

rdun

e co

rrid

orLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Win

dwar

d ex

pose

d sl

ope

Leew

ard

and

win

dwar

d sl

opes

Gen

tler s

lope

Stee

per s

lope

-Sl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

40 (1

0-65

)30

(5-6

5)9

(0-2

0)15

(5-1

0)3

(0-7

)Sl

ope

shap

eIr

regu

lar

Irre

gula

rC

onve

xLi

near

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eTu

ssoc

k gr

assl

and

Ope

n he

ath

Low

woo

dlan

dLo

w w

oodl

and

Poss

ibly

ope

n he

ath

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

Spin

ifex

hirs

utus

, Tet

rago

nia

tetr

agon

ioid

esH

elic

hrys

um p

aral

ium

, Leu

copo

gon

parv

iflor

usM

elal

euca

lanc

eola

ta,

Lept

ospe

rmum

laev

igat

um,

Leuc

opog

on p

arvi

floru

s

Mel

aleu

ca la

nceo

lata

, Leu

copo

gon

parv

iflor

us, A

caci

a lo

ngifo

liaH

elic

hrys

um p

aral

ium

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Coa

rse

sand

, she

ll gr

itC

oars

e sa

nd, s

hell

grit

Coa

rse

sand

, she

ll gr

itC

alca

reni

te, c

oars

e sa

ndC

alca

reni

te, t

rave

rtine

Des

crip

tion

Yel

low

cal

care

ous s

and

soils

,un

iform

text

ure

Yel

low

cal

care

ous s

and

soils

,un

iform

text

ure

Bro

wn

calc

areo

us sa

nd so

ils,

unifo

rm te

xtur

eSt

ony

blac

k ca

lcar

eous

sand

soils

,un

iform

text

ure

Red

cal

care

ous g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Coa

rse

sand

Coa

rse

sand

Loam

y sa

ndLo

amy

sand

Sand

y lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yV

ery

high

Ver

y hi

ghV

ery

high

Mod

erat

eV

ery

low

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2>2

0.3

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: Pa

ssiv

e an

d ac

tive

recr

eatio

n; fo

resh

ore

acce

ss; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; sa

nd e

xtra

ctio

n.M

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Rec

reat

iona

l fac

ilitie

s; re

fuse

tip;

fore

shor

e ac

cess

; res

iden

tial

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Mar

ine

eros

ion

and

accr

etio

n oc

cur

seas

onal

ly.

Nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

sens

itive

to tr

ampl

ing

and

dist

urba

nce.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

edsa

nds a

re p

rone

to w

ind

eros

ion.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

sens

itive

totra

mpl

ing

and

dist

urba

nce.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed sa

nds a

re p

rone

to w

ind

eros

ion.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

per

mea

bilit

y le

ad to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed sa

nds a

re p

rone

to w

ind

eros

ion.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity,

hig

h al

kalin

ity a

nd h

igh

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Wea

kly

sand

s with

rest

ricte

ddr

aina

ge o

n st

eep

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet e

rosi

on.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

alk

alin

ity le

ad to

nutri

ent d

eclin

e.

Low

per

mea

bilit

y an

d w

eak

stru

ctur

e le

ad to

shee

t ero

sion

,ex

posi

ng c

alca

reni

te p

avem

ent.

7.33

Po

rcup

ine

Cre

ek L

and

Syst

em

Terti

ary

quar

tziti

c sa

nds o

utcr

op in

man

y ar

eas n

orth

and

wes

t of t

he R

ange

. W

ides

prea

d su

rfac

e re

dist

ribut

ion

ofth

is s

and

has

resu

lted

in a

gen

tle l

ands

cape

with

san

ds o

verly

ing

mor

e cl

ayey

mat

eria

l at

fou

r lo

calit

ies.

The

larg

est a

rea

is e

ast o

f Kaw

arre

n in

the

catc

hmen

t of P

orcu

pine

Cre

ek, a

nd a

noth

er e

xten

sive

are

as is

foun

d in

the

uppe

r re

ache

s of

Tom

ahaw

k C

reek

. So

mew

hat s

teep

er s

lope

s w

ith a

pre

dom

inan

ce o

f de

ep r

elat

ivel

y un

iform

sand

s occ

ur to

the

east

of F

orre

st, w

hile

the

area

nea

r Prin

ceto

wn

has b

road

er c

rest

s and

nar

row

er d

rain

age

lines

.

Har

dpan

s ar

e a

feat

ure

of th

e so

ils a

nd th

e im

pede

d dr

aina

ge le

ads

to w

ater

logg

ing

on m

any

site

s. T

he n

ativ

eve

geta

tion

cons

ists

of w

oodl

ands

of

Euca

lypt

us n

itida

and

E. r

adia

ta, w

ith c

lose

d sc

rubs

of

shru

b sp

ecie

s in

the

drai

nage

line

s.

Cle

arin

g of

the

se a

reas

for

agr

icul

ture

has

bee

n at

tem

pted

in

man

y ar

eas,

but

impe

ded

drai

ned

on s

ites

with

hard

pans

and

exc

essi

ve d

rain

age

on s

ites

with

out

them

cre

ate

man

agem

ent

diff

icul

ties.

Dee

p rip

ping

of

the

hard

pans

may

im

prov

e si

te d

rain

age,

but

low

soi

l pH

and

low

fer

tility

als

o ha

ve t

o be

con

tend

ed w

ith f

orsu

cces

sful

pas

ture

est

ablis

hmen

t. M

ost

area

s re

mai

n as

wild

life

habi

tats

, w

ith t

he e

xcep

tion

of o

ne n

ear

Prin

ceto

wn

and

part

of th

e ar

ea n

ear T

omah

awk

Cre

ek, w

hich

bor

der t

he H

eyte

sbur

y Se

ttlem

ent S

chem

e.

Dra

inag

e of

thes

e la

ndsc

apes

is p

oor,

and

the

wat

erlo

gged

soils

car

ry w

oodl

ands

of

E. n

itida

and

E. r

adia

ta w

ith c

lose

d sc

rubs

in th

e dr

aina

ge li

nes.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

POR

CU

PIN

E C

RE

EK

Are

a: 7

1 km

21

30%

225

%3

15%

415

%5 5%

6 10C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

800

– 1

,000

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (12

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

8)Te

mpe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n la

te O

ctob

er –

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPa

leoc

ene

unco

nsol

idat

ed m

arin

e sa

ndPa

leoc

ene

unco

nsol

idat

ed m

arin

e cl

ay, s

and

and

silt

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eU

ndul

atin

g pl

ains

Elev

atio

n, m

60 –

230

Loca

l rel

ief,

m45

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Trel

lisD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

3.8

Land

form

Ris

eTe

rrac

eD

rain

age

line

Land

form

ele

men

tC

rest

, slo

peU

pper

slop

eM

id sl

ope

Low

er sl

ope

--

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %21

(9-3

8)9

(2-2

1)5

(2-1

1)16

(5-3

3)2

(0-5

)0

(0-1

)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xC

onve

xLi

near

Con

vex

Line

arLi

near

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eW

oodl

and

Low

woo

dlan

dO

pen

woo

dlan

dW

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Clo

sed

scru

bD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

radi

ata,

E. n

itida

E. ra

diat

a, E

. niti

daE.

radi

ata,

E. n

itida

E. ra

diat

a, E

. niti

da, E

. ova

taE.

ova

ta, E

. vim

inal

is, E

.ra

diat

a, E

. bax

teri

Mel

aleu

ca sq

uarr

osa,

Cas

uarin

a lit

tora

lis, A

otus

eric

oide

sSO

ILPa

rent

mat

eria

lSa

ndSa

ndC

ollu

vial

sand

on

clay

Col

luvi

al sa

nd o

n si

lt, sa

ndan

d cl

ayC

ollu

vial

sand

on

allu

vial

clay

, silt

and

sand

Plan

t rem

ains

allu

vial

sand

,si

lt an

d cl

ayD

escr

iptio

nG

rey

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, w

ithha

rdpa

ns, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eG

rey

sand

soils

, stru

ctur

edcl

ay u

nder

lay

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, w

eakl

yst

ruct

ured

cla

y un

derla

yG

rey

sand

soils

, stru

ctur

edcl

ay u

nder

lay

Bla

ck sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rmte

xtur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eLo

amy

sand

Loam

y sa

ndSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Silty

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y hi

ghV

ery

low

Ver

y lo

wLo

wV

ery

low

Hig

hD

epth

, m>2

0.8

>2>2

>2>2

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: N

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; w

ater

supp

ly; s

and

and

grav

el e

xtra

ctio

n; h

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for p

osts

, pol

es a

nd fu

elM

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Bee

f cat

tle g

razi

ng; w

ater

supp

lySO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

,pr

oces

ses,

form

s

Ver

y lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

dhi

gh p

erm

eabi

lity

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Ste

eper

slop

es w

ith c

ompa

cted

soils

are

pron

e to

shee

t, ril

l and

scou

r gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Har

dpan

s res

trict

dra

inag

e,le

adin

g to

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g. V

ery

low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

leac

hing

of h

ighl

y ac

idic

per

mea

ble

surf

aces

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Low

per

mea

bilit

y an

dse

ason

al p

erch

ed w

ater

tabl

esle

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed so

ils o

f low

perm

eabi

lity

on st

eepe

r slo

pes

are

pron

e to

shee

t ero

sion

.

Low

per

mea

bilit

y an

dse

ason

al p

erch

ed w

ater

tabl

esle

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n.

Hig

h w

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n. R

un-o

ff fr

omad

jace

nt h

ills l

ead

to fl

oodi

ngan

d si

ltatio

n.

7.34

R

edw

ater

Cre

ek L

and

Syst

em

In th

e so

uthe

rn p

arts

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge, g

entle

hill

cap

ping

s of

Ter

tiary

qua

rtziti

c sa

nds

occu

r as

rem

nant

s on

the

high

par

ts o

f th

e la

ndsc

ape.

M

ost

cree

ks a

nd r

iver

s ha

ve d

isse

cted

thr

ough

the

se s

ands

, ex

posi

ng C

reta

ceou

ssa

ndst

one

and

mud

ston

e on

stee

p sl

opes

lead

ing

dow

n to

the

drai

nage

line

s.

The

capp

ing

of s

and

over

lies

Cre

tace

ous

sedi

men

ts a

t a fa

irly

shal

low

and

uni

form

dep

th.

The

nativ

e ve

geta

tion

onth

e sa

nds

is n

ot d

issi

mila

r fr

om th

at o

n th

e su

rrou

ndin

g br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

, con

sist

ing

of t

all o

pen

fore

sts

ofEu

caly

ptus

obl

iqua

, E. c

ypel

loca

rpa

and

E. r

egna

ns o

n th

e be

tter s

ites.

The

se ta

ll tre

es a

ppar

ently

ext

ract

nut

rient

sfr

om u

nder

lyin

g w

eath

erin

g C

reta

ceou

s ro

cks.

Nut

rient

cyc

ling

by le

af fa

ll an

d de

cay

has

built

up

the

ferti

lity

of th

esa

nds,

far a

bove

that

nor

mal

ly e

ncou

nter

ed o

n su

ch p

aren

t mat

eria

l.

Onl

y m

inor

par

ts o

f th

is l

and

syst

em h

ave

been

cle

ared

and

it

appe

ars

that

a m

arke

d de

clin

e in

soi

l fe

rtilit

y ha

sre

sulte

d. H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

is th

e m

ain

land

use

, tog

ethe

r with

a sm

all i

ndus

try in

the

cutti

ng o

f tea

-tree

stak

es.

The

high

er p

arts

of t

he la

ndsc

ape

form

und

ulat

ing

hills

, with

E. r

egna

ns

succ

essf

ully

com

petin

g w

ith o

ther

tree

s on

sand

soils

.

RE

DW

AT

ER

CR

EE

KA

rea:

57

km2

1 5%2

40%

3 5%4

25%

525

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

1,1

50 –

1,6

0, lo

wes

t Jan

uary

(60)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

160)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

12,

low

est J

uly

(7),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(16)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– Se

ptem

ber

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n D

ecem

ber –

mid

Feb

ruar

yG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPa

leoc

ene

unco

nsol

idat

ed q

uartz

sand

and

gra

vel s

hallo

wly

und

erla

in b

y Lo

wer

Cre

tace

ous s

ands

tone

and

mud

ston

eLo

wer

Cre

tace

ous s

ands

tone

and

mud

ston

eT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Dee

ply

diss

ecte

d hi

lls w

ith b

road

gen

tly h

ill c

appi

ngs i

n th

e so

uthe

rn p

arts

of t

he O

tway

Ran

ge.

Elev

atio

n, m

15 –

370

Loca

l rel

ief,

m90

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

c w

ith so

me

radi

al a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

23.

7La

nd fo

rmR

ise

Scar

pLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Cre

stC

rest

, upp

er sl

ope

Swal

eC

rest

, upp

er sl

ope

Stee

p sl

ope

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %4

(1-7

)20

(3-3

5)3

(1-5

)8

(3-1

5)35

(10-

60)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arC

onve

xC

onca

veIr

regu

lar

Line

arN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Woo

dlan

dTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Clo

sed

fore

stO

pen

fore

stTa

ll op

en fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. n

itida

, E. b

axte

riE.

obl

iqua

, E. c

ypel

loca

rpa,

E.

regn

ans,

E. v

imin

alis

Lept

ospe

rmum

juni

peri

num

E. re

gnan

s, E.

obl

iqua

, E. b

axte

ri,

occa

sion

ally

E. v

imin

alis

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. reg

nans

, E.

cype

lloca

rpa,

E. v

imin

alis

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Dee

p de

posi

ts o

f qua

rtz sa

ndSh

allo

w d

epos

its o

f qua

rtz sa

ndA

lluvi

al s

and

and

grav

el,

orga

nic

mat

ter

Shal

low

dep

osits

of q

uartz

san

d an

dgr

avel

In-s

itu w

eath

ered

rock

Des

crip

tion

Gre

y sa

nd

soils

w

ith

hard

pans

,un

iform

text

ure

Bla

ck sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eB

lack

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Whi

te sa

nd so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Loam

y sa

ndSa

ndy6

loam

Silty

loam

(Gra

velly

) loa

my

sand

Sand

y cl

ay lo

amPe

rmea

bilit

yLo

wH

igh

Mod

erat

eV

ery

high

Mod

erat

eD

epth

, m1.

2>2

>2>2

1.4

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

awlo

gs a

nd p

ulpw

ood;

tea-

tree

stak

e ha

rves

ting;

nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

sand

and

gra

vel e

xtra

ctio

n.M

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Bee

f cat

tle g

razi

ng o

n un

impr

oved

pas

ture

s.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Har

dpan

s re

stric

t ve

rtica

l dr

aina

ge,

lead

ing

to

seas

onal

w

ater

logg

ing.

Ver

y lo

w

inhe

rent

fe

rtilit

y w

ithso

me

leac

hing

of

perm

eabl

e hi

ghly

acid

ic

surf

aces

le

ads

to

nutri

ent

decl

ine.

Soils

of

high

per

mea

bilit

y in

hig

h-ra

infa

ll ar

eas

are

pron

e to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Stee

per

slop

es

with

com

pact

ed s

oils

(tra

cks,

clea

r-fe

lled

area

s) a

re p

rone

to

shee

t an

d ril

ler

osio

n.

Hig

h w

ater

ta

bles

le

ad

tow

ater

logg

ing.

Run

-off

fr

omad

jace

nt h

ills

lead

to

flood

ing

and

silta

tion.

Soils

of

very

low

inh

eren

t fe

rtilit

y,lo

w n

utrie

nt –

hol

ding

cap

acity

and

high

pe

rmea

bilit

y in

hi

gh-r

ainf

all

area

s are

pro

ne to

nut

rient

dec

line.

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

n st

eepe

r sl

opes

are

subj

ect

to p

erio

dic

satu

ratio

n an

dar

e pr

one

to

land

slip

s.

Stee

per

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet e

rosi

on.

7.35

Riv

erno

ok L

and

Syst

em

Terti

ary

sedi

men

ts o

utcr

op a

long

the

coas

t at M

oonl

ight

Hea

d, R

otte

n Po

int a

nd A

pollo

Bay

. Th

e te

rrai

n is

ade

eply

dis

sect

ed p

lain

fron

ted

by st

eep

coas

tal c

liffs

. Th

e ra

infa

ll is

hig

h.

The

soils

var

y, r

angi

ng f

rom

old

pro

files

with

evi

denc

e of

lat

eriti

zatio

n to

you

ng s

oils

with

litt

le h

oriz

onde

velo

pmen

t. T

he n

ativ

e ve

geta

tion

appe

ars

to b

e m

ore

depe

nden

t on

expo

sure

to s

alt-

and

sand

-lade

n co

asta

lw

inds

tha

n on

the

soi

l ty

pe.

Cas

uarin

a lu

ehm

anni

i at

Rot

ten

Poin

t is

an

unus

ual

mem

ber

of t

he v

eget

ativ

eco

mm

unity

, but

mos

t spe

cies

are

wel

l ada

pted

to th

e ha

rsh

envi

ronm

ent.

Cle

arin

g is

con

fined

to

an a

rea

near

Apo

llo B

ay u

sed

for

graz

ing.

Th

e ar

ea h

as h

igh

land

scap

e an

d na

ture

cons

erva

tion

valu

es, b

ut d

isus

ed s

and

and

grav

el e

xtra

ctio

n pi

ts a

t M

oonl

ight

Hea

d an

d R

otte

n Po

int

detra

ctfr

om th

ese

attri

bute

s. O

nce

the

vege

tatio

n is

dis

turb

ed, r

e-es

tabl

ishm

ent i

s sl

ow a

nd d

iffic

ult a

nd s

heet

, rill

and

gully

ero

sion

are

like

ly to

occ

ur.

Thes

e ru

gged

coa

stal c

liffs

pro

vide

som

e of

the

mos

t spe

ctac

ular

coa

stal s

cene

ry in

the

stud

y ar

ea.

Com

pone

nt a

nd p

ropo

rtion

of i

ts la

nd sy

stem

RIV

ER

NO

OK

Are

a: 1

8 km

21

10%

220

%3

30%

430

%5

10%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 8

50 –

1,0

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(40)

, hig

hest

July

(110

)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

4, lo

wes

t Jul

y (1

0), h

ighe

st F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: N

o m

onth

less

than

10o C

(av.

)Se

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

Exc

eeds

pot

entia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n al

l mon

ths.

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s san

dsto

ne a

ndm

udst

one

Pale

ocen

e un

diff

eren

tiate

d sa

nd a

nd c

lay

Rec

ent c

alca

reou

s san

d

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eD

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

uplif

ted

plai

ns w

ith c

oast

al c

liffs

Elev

atio

n, m

0 –

150

Loca

l rel

ief,

m70

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

2.5

Land

form

Clif

fD

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

plai

nD

une

Land

form

ele

men

t-

Low

er sl

ope

Dis

sect

ed sl

ope

Upp

er sl

ope,

cre

st-

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %70

7

(4-1

2)14

(2-3

6)5

(1-1

4_14

(2-3

6)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onca

veLi

near

Con

vex

Con

vex

Con

vex

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

heat

h to

tall

shru

blan

dO

pen

scru

bO

pen

scru

bLo

w w

oodl

and

Ope

n sc

rub

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

Cas

uarin

a st

rict

a, C

assi

nia

long

ifolia

, Hel

ichr

ysum

par

aliu

m,

Cas

uari

na lu

ehm

anni

i,C

aloc

epha

lus b

rown

ii

E. b

axte

ri, E

. niti

da, L

epto

sper

mum

juni

peri

num

, E. o

vata

, E. o

bliq

uaE.

bax

teri

, E. n

itida

, Lep

tosp

erm

umju

nipe

rinu

m, C

asua

rina

lueh

man

nii,

Cas

sini

a lo

ngifo

lia, E

. ova

ta, E

.ob

liqua

E. b

axte

ri, E

. ova

ta, E

. niti

daH

elic

hrys

um p

aral

ium

,Le

ptos

perm

um ju

nipe

rinu

m,

Cas

sina

long

ifolia

, Aca

cia

vert

icill

ata

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Bea

ch sa

nd, s

ome

cliff

det

ritus

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndSa

ndC

lay,

silt

and

sand

Cal

care

ous s

and

Des

crip

tion

Ston

y br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

,co

arse

stru

ctur

eG

rey

sand

soils

with

har

dpan

s,un

iform

text

ure

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

d gr

adat

iona

lso

ils w

ith ir

onst

one.

Bro

wn

calc

areo

us sa

nd so

ils,

unifo

rm te

xtur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eLo

amy

sand

Sand

y lo

amLo

amy

sand

Sand

y lo

amLo

amy

sand

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y hi

ghLo

wLo

wM

oder

ate

Ver

y hi

ghD

epth

, m0.

1>2

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

land

scap

e co

nser

vatio

n; sa

nd a

nd g

rave

l ext

ract

ion;

fore

st g

razi

ng.

Min

or c

lear

ed a

reas

: R

esid

entia

l; da

iry fa

rmin

g; b

eef c

attle

gra

zing

, ofte

n on

uni

mpr

oved

pas

ture

s.SO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Nat

ive

vege

tatio

n is

sens

itive

to sa

ltpr

unin

g an

d di

stur

banc

e.D

ispe

rsib

le so

ils o

f low

wat

er-

hold

ing

capa

city

on

stee

p sl

opes

with

und

erly

ing

rock

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

. W

ave

unde

rcut

ting

and

satu

ratio

n of

soils

lead

tola

ndsl

ides

. W

eakl

y st

ruct

ured

sand

soils

are

pro

ne to

win

d er

osio

n.

Hig

hly

disp

ersi

ble

soils

are

pro

ne to

gully

and

tunn

el e

rosi

on.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

es o

verly

slow

lype

rmea

ble

subs

oils

are

pro

ne to

shee

t and

rill

eros

ion.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

esov

erly

ing

hard

pans

on

stee

per

slop

es a

re p

rone

to sh

eet a

nd ri

ller

osio

n. V

ery

low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

leac

hing

of p

erm

eabl

e su

rfac

esle

ad to

nut

rient

dec

line.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

es a

ndim

pedi

ng ir

onst

one

laye

rs le

ad to

shee

t ero

sion

on

stee

per s

lope

s.Lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y, p

hosp

horu

sfix

atio

n an

d le

achi

ng o

f per

mea

ble

surf

ace

horiz

ons l

ead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed so

il su

bjec

t to

stro

ng c

oast

al w

inds

are

pro

ne to

win

d er

osio

n. L

ow in

here

ntfe

rtilit

y, h

igh

alka

linity

and

rapi

dle

achi

ng le

ad to

nut

rient

dec

line.

7.36

Sim

pson

Lan

d Sy

stem

Smal

l re

mna

nts

of f

lat

late

ritic

pla

teau

x ne

ar S

imps

on a

nd e

xten

ding

tow

ards

Irr

ewill

ipe

are

evid

ence

of

form

erw

ides

prea

d la

terit

izat

ion.

M

ost l

ater

itic

hill

capp

ing

have

bee

n re

mov

ed b

y di

ssec

tion,

and

this

set

of

north

-nor

’-w

est-

and

sout

h-so

u’-e

ast-o

rient

ated

ridg

es is

the

only

sign

ifica

nt re

mna

nt to

the

wes

t of t

he R

ange

.

The

mos

t com

mon

soi

ls h

ave

grad

atio

nal p

rofil

es c

onta

inin

g la

terit

ic ir

onst

one.

H

owev

er, s

ome

prof

iles

poss

ess

sand

ven

eers

in th

e su

rfac

e ho

rizon

s, w

ith h

ardp

ans

over

lyin

g m

ottle

d cl

ays.

Dra

inag

e of

the

land

scap

e is

poo

r,pa

rticu

larly

whe

re h

ardp

ans o

ccur

, and

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g is

a p

robl

em.

The

ridge

s ha

ve b

een

exte

nsiv

ely

clea

red

as p

art o

f th

e H

eyte

sbur

y Se

ttlem

ent S

chem

e an

d da

iry f

arm

ing

is th

em

ain

land

use

. Th

ere

are

prob

lem

s ar

isin

g fr

om lo

w s

oil f

ertil

ity a

nd e

xpos

ure

to w

ind.

O

nly

one

smal

l are

a of

nativ

e ve

geta

tion

rem

ains

in th

e st

udy

area

.

Cle

arin

g of

thes

e fla

t lat

eriti

c pl

atea

u ha

s bee

n ve

ry th

orou

gh, a

nd li

ttle

evid

ence

rem

ains

of t

he

form

er h

ardw

ood

fore

sts t

hat c

over

ed th

em.

Com

pone

nts a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

SIM

PSO

NA

rea:

33

km2

165

%2

25%

310

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

800

– 9

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(35)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

110)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– A

ugus

tSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

late

Oct

ober

– e

arly

Apr

ilG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPl

ioce

ne la

terit

ized

sand

and

cla

yV

enee

r of Q

uate

rnar

y sa

ndT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Ver

y ge

ntly

und

ulat

ing

plat

eau

with

nor

th-w

est a

nd so

uth-

east

dis

sect

ion

Elev

atio

n, m

150

– 17

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

10D

rain

age

patte

rnPa

ralle

lD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

1.0

Land

form

Plat

eau

Land

form

ele

men

tM

iddl

e an

d up

per s

lope

s, cr

est

Mid

dle

slop

eLo

wer

slop

e, d

epre

ssio

nSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

4 (0

-14)

0 (0

-3)

5 (0

-9)

Slop

e sh

ape

Stra

ight

(som

e co

nvex

)St

raig

htC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Clo

sed

scru

bO

pen

fore

stD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

obl

iqua

, E. b

axte

riLe

ptos

perm

um ju

nipe

rinu

m M

elal

euca

squa

rros

a, E

.ni

tida,

Cas

uari

na li

ttora

lisE.

bax

teri

, E. o

vata

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Wea

ther

ing

late

ritic

rem

nant

sLa

terit

ic re

mna

nts c

over

ed b

y va

ryin

g de

pths

of s

and

Allu

vial

sand

and

cla

yD

escr

iptio

nM

ottle

d ye

llow

and

red

grad

atio

nal s

oils

with

iron

ston

eG

rey

sand

soils

, stru

ctur

ed c

lay

unde

rlay

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Mod

erat

eLo

wLo

wD

epth

, m1.

7>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: D

airy

farm

ing;

som

e be

ef c

attle

gra

zing

Min

or c

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

pro

duct

ion

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sLo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

y an

d ph

osph

orus

fixa

tion

lead

tonu

trien

t dec

line.

Lea

chin

g of

salts

lead

to in

crea

sed

salin

ity to

dra

inag

e w

ater

s.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

leac

hing

of p

erm

eabl

e su

rfac

eho

rizon

s lea

d to

nut

rient

dec

line.

Low

per

mea

bilit

ies

lead

to se

ason

al w

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

Low

per

mea

bilit

ies a

nd h

igh

seas

onal

wat

erta

bles

lead

to se

ason

al w

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

Leac

hing

of s

alts

from

land

scap

e le

ads t

o in

crea

sed

salin

ity o

f dra

inag

e w

ater

s.

7.37

Thom

pson

Cre

ek L

and

Syst

em

The

low

er r

each

es o

f th

e Th

omps

on C

reek

cat

chm

ent

spre

ad o

ut i

nto

a w

ide

allu

vial

pla

in.

The

pla

in a

ppea

rsal

mos

t fla

t, bu

t it s

lope

s to

war

ds th

e se

a. T

he h

ighe

st in

land

par

ts a

re s

ome

20 m

abo

ve th

e pr

esen

t val

ley

floor

of

Thom

pson

Cre

ek, a

nd so

me

mild

dis

sect

ion

into

the

plai

n oc

cur a

long

the

side

s of t

his v

alle

y.

Roa

d re

serv

es a

nd s

mal

l she

lter b

elts

for s

tock

con

tain

the

only

rem

nant

s of

the

nativ

e ve

geta

tion.

Low

woo

dlan

dsof

Euc

alyp

tus

leuc

oxyl

on a

nd C

asua

rina

str

icta

app

ear

to h

ave

been

com

mon

, with

Aca

cia

pycn

anth

a do

min

atin

gth

e un

ders

tore

y. E

. leu

coxy

lon

show

s ev

iden

ce o

f sev

ere

salt

prun

ing

seve

ral k

ilom

etre

s fr

om th

e co

ast.

Soi

ls a

redu

plex

and

sodi

c w

ith d

ispe

rsib

le su

bsoi

ls.

Thes

e pl

ains

are

use

d fo

r gr

azin

g an

d cr

oppi

ng.

Min

or p

robl

ems

are

enco

unte

red

from

gul

ly e

rosi

on a

long

the

mar

gins

of T

hom

son

Cre

ek, a

nd so

il sa

lting

occ

urs i

n th

e lo

wes

t are

as c

lose

to th

e C

onne

war

re la

nd sy

stem

.

Thes

e fla

t pla

ins a

re u

sed

mai

nly

for g

razi

ng a

nd c

ropp

ing

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

TH

OM

PSO

N C

RE

EK

Are

a: 2

9 km

21

70%

220

%3

10%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 6

00, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(30)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

60)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

14,

low

est J

uly

(9),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(19)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

uly

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n O

ctob

er –

mid

Apr

ilG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yD

eepl

y w

eath

ered

Plio

-Ple

isto

cene

fluv

iatil

e sa

nd a

nd c

lay

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eFl

at to

gen

tly u

ndul

atin

g pl

ain

near

the

sout

h of

Tho

mps

on C

reek

Elev

atio

n, m

0 –

50Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

5D

rain

age

patte

rnW

eak

dend

ritic

pat

tern

with

som

e de

rang

ed a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

21.

2La

nd fo

rmPl

ain

Allu

vial

terr

ace

Land

form

ele

men

tM

iddl

e an

d up

per s

lope

Low

er sl

ope

-Sl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

0 (0

-2)

4 (2

-10)

1 (0

-2)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arC

onve

xLi

near

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eLo

w w

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

leuc

oxyl

on, C

asua

rina

stri

cta,

E. o

vata

E. le

ucox

ylon

E. le

ucox

ylon

, E. v

imin

alis

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Sand

y cl

aySa

ndy

clay

Sand

, silt

and

cla

yD

escr

iptio

nY

ello

w-b

row

n so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Yel

low

sodi

c du

plex

soils

Bro

wn

sand

y lo

am so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Low

Mod

erat

eH

igh

Dep

th, m

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: D

airy

farm

ing

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng o

n m

ainl

y im

prov

ed p

astu

res;

som

e ce

real

cro

ppin

gSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZAR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

, for

ms

Dis

pers

ible

soi

ls a

re p

rone

to

gully

ero

sion

. S

odic

subs

oils

, low

per

mea

bilit

y an

d hi

gh w

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

soil

salti

ng.

Sodi

c su

bsoi

ls a

nd h

igh

wat

er ta

bles

lead

to so

il sa

lting

.Sh

allo

w

salin

e w

ater

ta

bles

le

ad

to

soil

salti

ng,

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

il co

mpa

ctio

n. H

igh

disc

harg

e ra

tes

alon

g w

ater

cour

ses l

ead

to st

ream

bank

ero

sion

.

7.38

To

mah

awk

Cre

ek L

and

Syst

em

Tom

ahaw

k C

reek

and

its

tribu

tarie

s ha

ve d

isse

cted

out

dee

p va

lleys

with

cha

ract

eris

tic n

orth

-not

’-w

est-

and

sout

h-so

u’-e

ast-o

rient

ed p

aral

lel r

ides

and

spu

rs.

Smal

l rem

nant

s of

late

ritic

pla

teau

x on

the

high

par

ts o

f the

land

scap

e ar

e bo

unde

d by

scar

ps o

n w

hich

iron

ston

e ou

tcro

ps.

Terti

ary

sand

is o

ften

expo

sed

in a

nar

row

ban

dbe

low

the

se s

carp

s, an

d sp

rings

are

ofte

n pr

esen

t at

thi

s le

vel.

Silt

and

cla

y ar

e th

e m

ore

com

mon

par

ent

mat

eria

ls o

n lo

ng st

raig

ht sl

opes

lead

ing

dow

n to

the

valle

y flo

or.

Smal

l dis

sect

ed te

rrac

es a

re fo

und

alon

g th

ew

ider

val

leys

.

The

terr

ain

to th

e so

uth

and

east

of T

omah

awk

Cre

ek s

how

s a

low

er lo

cal r

elie

f tha

n th

e ar

ea to

the

north

and

wes

t. A

reas

of

late

ritic

pla

teau

x ar

e of

ten

wid

er a

nd s

urro

undi

ng s

lope

s ar

e sh

orte

r an

d m

ore

gent

le.

Site

drai

nage

is a

ffec

ted

by th

e m

ore

subd

ued

relie

f. W

oodl

ands

and

low

land

s ap

pear

to h

ave

been

mor

e co

mm

onin

this

are

a, w

ith o

pen

fore

sts t

o th

e no

rth a

nd w

est.

Mos

t of t

his

land

sys

tem

has

bee

n cl

eare

d as

par

t of t

he H

eyte

sbur

y Se

ttlem

ent S

chem

e, a

nd d

airy

farm

ing

isth

e m

ain

land

use

. Su

bsoi

ls o

n m

any

slop

es a

re d

ispe

rsib

le a

nd g

ully

and

tun

nel

eros

ion

are

quite

act

ive.

Som

e la

ndsl

ips h

ave

occu

rred

, par

ticul

arly

bel

ow sp

rings

at t

he b

ase

of sc

arps

.

Cat

tle g

raze

the

undu

latin

g pl

atea

u co

untr

y.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

TO

MA

HA

WK

CR

EE

KA

rea:

101

km

21

15%

2 6%3

10%

450

%5 9%

610

%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

850

– 1

,050

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (12

5)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

9)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n N

ovem

ber –

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yPl

ioce

ne la

terit

ized

sand

and

cla

yM

ioce

ne u

ncon

solid

ated

sand

, silt

and

cla

yT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Dee

p va

lleys

dis

sect

ed o

ut fr

om la

terit

ic p

late

aux

Elev

atio

n, m

50 –

160

Loca

l rel

ief,

m70

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Trel

lis p

redo

min

antly

, som

e de

ndrit

ic a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

22.

9La

nd fo

rmPl

atea

u re

mna

nts

Scar

pV

alle

y flo

orLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

-U

pper

slop

eU

pper

slop

eM

id sl

ope

Low

er sl

ope

-Sl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

1 (0

-3)

28 (1

3-40

)12

(8-1

8)12

(8-2

0)5

(1-8

)0

(0-2

)Sl

ope

shap

eSt

raig

htC

onca

veSt

raig

htSt

raig

htSt

raig

htC

onca

veN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dO

pen

fore

stLo

w w

oodl

and

Woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

obl

iqua

, E. b

axte

riE.

obl

iqua

, occ

asio

nally

E.

vim

inal

isE.

radi

ata,

E. b

axte

ri, E

.vi

min

alis

E. o

vata

, E. o

bliq

ua, E

.ra

diat

a, E

. bax

teri

E. ra

diat

a, E

. ova

taE.

vim

inal

is, E

. ova

ta

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Late

ritic

rem

ains

Col

luvi

al la

terit

ic ir

onst

one

Silic

eous

sand

Sand

y cl

ay (i

n-si

tu)

Col

luvi

al/a

lluvi

al sa

nd o

ver

sand

y cl

aySa

nd a

nd c

lay

allu

vium

Des

crip

tion

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

dgr

adat

iona

l soi

ls w

ithiro

nsto

ne

Ston

y re

d gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsG

rey

sand

soils

, uni

form

text

ure

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eG

rey

sand

soils

, stru

ctur

edcl

ay u

nder

lay

Gre

y gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Sand

y lo

amG

rave

lly sa

ndy

loam

Coa

rse

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Mod

erat

eV

ery

high

Ver

y hi

ghLo

wV

ery

low

Ver

y lo

wD

epth

, m1.

61.

0>2

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: M

ainl

y da

iry fa

rmin

g; so

me

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng.

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

awlo

gs, s

ome

post

s and

pol

es, g

rave

l ext

ract

ion;

nat

ure

cons

erva

tion.

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es,

proc

esse

s, fo

rms

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

phos

phor

us fi

xatio

n le

ad to

nutri

ent d

eclin

e. L

each

ing

ofsa

lts le

ads t

o in

crea

sed

salin

ityof

dra

inag

e w

ater

s.

Stee

p sl

opes

with

wea

kly

stru

ctur

ed su

rfac

es o

f low

wat

er-h

oldi

ng c

apac

ity a

repr

one

to sh

eet e

rosi

on.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

high

perm

eabi

lity

lead

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Emer

genc

e of

sprin

gs fr

omth

ese

perm

eabl

e aq

uife

rs le

ads

to se

ason

al w

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

Per

mea

ble

soils

of l

ow in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yar

e pr

one

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.

Hig

hly

disp

ersi

ble

clay

subs

oils

of l

ow p

erm

eabi

lity

rece

ivin

g se

epag

e w

ater

are

pron

e to

gul

ly a

nd tu

nnel

eros

ion

and

to la

ndsl

ips a

ndsl

umpi

ng.

Dis

pers

ible

soils

of l

owpe

rmea

bilit

y re

ceiv

ing

seep

age

wat

er a

re p

rone

togu

lly a

nd tu

nnel

ero

sion

,w

ater

logg

ing

and

surf

ace

com

pact

ion.

Per

mea

ble

surf

aces

of l

ow in

here

ntfe

rtilit

y ar

e pr

one

to n

utrie

ntde

clin

e.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

flo

w p

erm

eabi

lity

rece

ivin

gra

pid

run-

off f

rom

surr

ound

ing

hills

are

pro

ne to

gully

ero

sion

. R

isin

g w

ater

tabl

es a

nd lo

w p

erm

eabi

litie

sle

ad to

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

gan

d so

il co

mpa

ctio

n.

7.39

W

aarr

e La

nd S

yste

m

Und

ulat

ing

plai

ns to

the

north

and

wes

t of P

rince

tow

n ar

e fo

rmed

on

Terti

ary

limes

tone

, mar

l and

cal

care

ous c

lay.

Onl

y a

smal

l tra

ct o

f th

is l

and

lies

with

in t

he s

tudy

are

a, b

ut t

he l

ands

cape

is

exte

nsiv

e in

the

nei

ghbo

urin

gca

tchm

ents

of S

cotts

Cre

ek a

nd C

oorie

mun

gle

Cre

ek.

Som

e fa

ultin

g ha

s le

d to

occ

asio

nal s

teep

sca

rps,

but m

ost

slop

es a

re g

entle

and

stra

ight

, sep

arat

ed b

y br

oad

drai

nage

line

s.

The

grad

atio

nal s

oils

on

thes

e ca

lcar

eous

sed

imen

ts a

re h

eavi

er-te

xtur

ed a

nd s

igni

fican

tly m

ore

ferti

le th

an s

oils

form

ed o

n Te

rtiar

y se

dim

ents

in a

djac

ent l

and

syst

ems.

Fre

e lim

e is

ofte

n pr

esen

t in

the

soil

prof

ile.

Rem

nant

s of

the

nativ

e ve

geta

tion

indi

cate

that

it w

as so

mew

hat s

tunt

ed, p

ossi

bly

as a

resu

lt of

the

prox

imity

of t

he c

oast

.

A la

rge

part

of th

is la

nd s

yste

m li

es w

ithin

the

Hey

tesb

ury

Settl

emen

t Sch

eme

and

clea

ring

has

been

wid

espr

ead.

Dai

ry fa

rmin

g is

the

mai

n la

nd u

se, a

lthou

gh s

ome

of th

e ea

rlier

est

ablis

hed

area

s cl

ose

to th

e co

ast a

re u

sed

for

shee

p an

d be

ef c

attle

gra

zing

. Su

bsoi

ls a

re d

ispe

rsib

le a

nd g

ully

ero

sion

has

occ

urre

d al

ong

som

e dr

aina

ge li

nes.

Land

slip

and

slu

mpi

ng o

f roa

d ba

tters

cau

se p

robl

ems

with

road

con

stru

ctio

n an

d ac

cess

on

the

mor

e un

dula

ting

area

s. D

rain

age

lines

rem

ain

wat

erlo

gged

for m

ost o

f the

yea

r and

are

pro

ne to

soil

com

pact

ion

by st

ock.

Long

stra

ight

slop

es w

ith b

road

dra

inag

e lin

es ty

pify

the

land

scap

e fo

rmed

on

thes

e ca

lcar

eous

sedi

men

ts,

but o

ccas

iona

l fau

lt sc

arps

are

foun

d cl

ose

to th

e co

ast.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

WA

AR

EA

rea:

28

km2

1 4%2

65%

320

%4 8%

5 3%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

900

– 1

,000

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (12

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

4, lo

wes

t Jul

y (9

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n N

ovem

ber –

Mar

chG

EO

LO

GY

Age

, lith

olog

yM

ioce

ne m

arin

e cl

ay, m

arl a

nd li

mes

tone

in th

e lo

wer

reac

hes o

f the

Gel

libra

nd R

iver

cat

chm

ent

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eU

ndul

atin

g pl

ain

with

som

e fa

ult s

carp

sEl

evat

ion,

m0

– 16

5Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

45D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

22.

9La

nd fo

rmR

ise

Dra

inag

e lin

eFa

ult s

carp

Land

form

ele

men

tU

pper

slop

e, c

rest

Mid

slop

e, c

rest

Low

er sl

ope

--

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %5

(2-9

)11

(4-2

1)4

(1-7

)0

(0-1

)33

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arC

onve

xC

onca

veLi

near

Line

arN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Woo

dlan

dW

oodl

and

Clo

sed

scru

bW

oodl

and

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

ta, E

.ar

omap

hloi

aE.

ova

ta, E

. rad

iata

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

taM

elal

euca

squa

rros

a,Le

ptos

perm

um la

nige

rum

E. v

imin

alis

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y an

d sa

ndIn

-site

mar

l, lim

esto

neC

lay

and

sand

Plan

t re

mna

nts,

allu

vial

san

d an

dcl

ayIn

-site

mar

l and

lim

esto

ne

Des

crip

tion

Bro

wn

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Bro

wn

calc

areo

us g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls,

coar

se st

ruct

ure

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd g

rey

grad

atio

nal

soils

Gre

y gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsB

lack

cal

care

ous g

rada

tiona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amLo

amSa

ndy

loam

Silty

loam

C

lay

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y lo

wLo

wM

oder

ate

Low

Mod

erat

eD

epth

, m>2

1.7

>2>2

>2L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: G

razi

ng b

eef c

attle

; dai

ry c

attle

; she

epM

inor

unc

lear

ed a

reas

: N

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; in

clud

es th

e ru

gged

coa

stlin

e of

the

Port

Cam

pbel

l Nat

iona

l Par

kSO

IL D

ET

ER

IOR

AT

ION

HA

ZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es,

form

s

Hig

hly

disp

ersi

ble

soils

of l

owpe

rmea

bilit

y ar

e pr

one

to g

ully

and

shee

t ero

sion

. Lo

w in

here

nt fe

rtilit

yan

d le

achi

ng o

f per

mea

ble

surf

aces

lead

to n

utrie

nt d

eclin

e.

Cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

n st

eepe

r slo

pes

subj

ect t

o pe

riodi

c sa

tura

tion

are

pron

e to

land

slip

s, sl

umpi

ng o

f roa

dba

tters

and

gul

ly e

rosi

on.

Dis

pers

ible

subs

oils

are

pro

ne to

gully

ero

sion

.D

ispe

rsib

le su

bsoi

ls o

f low

perm

eabi

lity

rece

ivin

g ru

n-of

f fro

msu

rrou

ndin

g hi

lls a

re p

rone

to g

ully

eros

ion,

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

ilco

mpa

ctio

n.

Cla

y so

ils o

n st

eep

slop

es su

bjec

t to

perio

dic

satu

ratio

n ar

e pr

one

tola

ndsl

ips a

nd sh

eet e

rosi

on.

7.40

W

inch

else

a La

nd S

yste

m

Bas

altic

pla

ins

north

of t

he B

arw

on R

iver

are

typi

cal o

f tho

se fo

und

in m

uch

of w

este

rn V

icto

ria.

Thes

e pl

ains

are

rela

tivel

y fe

atur

eles

s, al

thou

gh th

ere

are

occa

sion

al o

utcr

ops o

f bas

alt i

n th

e fo

rm o

f sto

ny ri

ses o

r sca

rps.

The

soils

are

dup

lex

with

hea

vy c

lay

subs

oils

. Pe

rmea

bilit

y is

ver

y lo

w a

nd w

ater

logg

ing

occu

rs d

urin

g th

e w

ette

rm

onth

s. G

ilgai

s are

a fe

atur

e of

the

land

scap

e.

Gra

zing

of s

heet

and

bee

f cat

tle is

the

mai

n la

nd u

se, a

nd th

ere

is s

ome

cere

al a

nd o

ilsee

d cr

oppi

ng.

The

clim

ate

isre

lativ

ely

dry,

but

sui

tabl

e fo

r ag

ricul

ture

, an

d im

prov

ed p

astu

res

have

nor

mal

ly b

een

esta

blis

hed.

So

il sa

lting

occu

rs in

man

y pa

rts o

f the

land

scap

e, p

artic

ular

ly c

lose

to th

e B

arw

on R

iver

.

Thes

e fla

t bas

alt p

lain

s con

tain

ver

y fe

w re

mna

nts o

f the

org

anic

nat

ive

vege

tatio

n.

Com

pone

nts a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

WIN

CH

EL

SEA

Are

a: 8

0 km

21

15%

275

%3

10%

CL

IMA

TE

Rai

nfal

l, m

mA

nnua

l: 5

50 –

600

, low

est J

anua

ry (2

5), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (60

)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

3, lo

wes

t Jul

y (8

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

9)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Aug

ust

Seas

onal

gro

wth

lim

itatio

nsPr

ecip

itatio

n: l

ess t

han

pote

ntia

l eva

potra

nspi

ratio

n la

te S

epte

mbe

r – A

pril

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Plei

stoc

ene

basa

ltT

OPO

GR

APH

YLa

ndsc

ape

Flat

to g

ently

und

ulat

ing

plai

n ab

uttin

g th

e no

rth si

de o

f the

Bar

won

Riv

erEl

evat

ion,

m11

0 –

150

Loca

l rel

ief,

m15

Dra

inag

e pa

ttern

Den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

0.2

Land

form

Plai

nLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Flat

sout

hern

low

er a

reas

Mos

t fla

t or u

ndul

atin

g sl

ope

Ris

eSl

ope

(and

rang

e), %

0 (0

-1)

1 (0

-3)

2 (0

-4)

Slop

e sh

ape

Line

arLi

near

Con

vex

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

woo

dlan

dPo

ssib

ly o

pen

woo

dlan

dPo

ssib

ly o

pen

woo

dlan

dD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

cam

aldu

lens

isE.

cam

aldu

lens

isE.

cam

aldu

lens

isSO

ILPa

rent

mat

eria

lIn

-situ

dee

ply

wea

ther

ed b

asal

t; so

me

allu

vium

In-s

ite d

eepl

y w

eath

ered

bas

alt

Bas

alt

Des

crip

tion

Gre

y ca

lcar

eous

sodi

c du

plex

soils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eG

rey

calc

areo

us so

dic

dupl

ex so

ils, c

oars

e st

ruct

ure

Bla

ck c

alca

reou

s cla

y so

ils, u

nifo

rm te

xtur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eSa

ndy

loam

Cla

y lo

amC

lay

Perm

eabi

lity

Ver

y lo

wV

ery

low

Ver

y lo

wD

epth

, m1.

81.

20.

7L

AN

D U

SEC

lear

ed a

reas

: Sh

eep

and

beef

cat

tle g

razi

ng; c

ropp

ing

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sSo

ils o

f low

per

mea

bilit

y ar

e pr

one

to w

ater

logg

ing

and

to sa

lting

whe

re h

igh

wat

er ta

bles

occ

ur.

Soils

of l

ow p

erm

eabi

lity

are

pron

e to

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

dto

salti

ng w

here

hig

h w

ater

tabl

es o

ccur

.M

inor

haz

ards

7.41

W

onga

Lan

d Sy

stem

Adj

acen

t to

the

late

ritic

pla

teau

aro

und

Sim

pson

and

at a

sim

ilar

elev

atio

n, a

gen

tly u

ndul

atin

g pl

ain

with

out

late

ritic

iro

nsto

ne e

xten

ds e

astw

ards

tow

ards

Bar

onga

rook

. Th

e pa

rent

mat

eria

l is

mai

nly

Terti

ary

sand

and

clay

, w

ith s

ome

min

or r

edis

tribu

tion

on s

and

vene

ers

in s

ome

parts

and

out

crop

s of

dee

ply

wea

ther

edC

reta

ceou

s san

dsto

ne a

long

the

side

s of s

ome

of th

e dr

aina

ge li

nes.

The

soils

exh

ibit

sim

ilar m

ottli

ng a

nd d

eep

wea

ther

ing

to th

ose

foun

d in

the

Sim

pson

land

syst

em, a

nd a

re p

rone

to n

utrie

nt d

efic

ienc

ies

and

phos

phat

e fix

atio

n.

Ope

n fo

rest

s of

Euc

alyp

tus

obliq

ua o

ccur

ove

r m

ost

of t

hela

ndsc

ape,

alth

ough

E. b

axte

ri te

nds t

o do

min

ate

on th

e po

lyge

netic

soils

with

har

dpan

s. A

caci

a m

ucro

nata

act

sas

a st

rong

indi

cato

r of t

he p

rese

nce

of C

reta

ceou

s out

crop

s.

Mos

t ar

eas

rem

ain

uncl

eare

d an

d ar

e se

lect

ivel

y lo

gged

for

har

dwoo

d tim

ber,

alth

ough

mos

t tim

ber

is o

fin

suff

icie

nt si

ze to

pro

vide

goo

d sa

wlo

gs.

The

clea

red

area

in th

e fo

regr

ound

con

trast

s with

the

nativ

e ha

rdwo

od fo

rest

s.

Com

pone

nt a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

WO

NG

AA

rea:

72

km2

145

%2 7%

325

%4

15%

5 8%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

850

– 9

50, l

owes

t Jan

uary

(40)

, hig

hest

Aug

ust (

120)

Tem

pera

ture

, 0o C

Ann

ual:

13,

low

est J

uly

(8),

high

est F

ebru

ary

(18)

Tem

pera

ture

: le

ss th

an 1

0o C (a

v.) J

une

– A

ugus

tSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

late

Oct

ober

– M

arch

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Pale

ocen

e m

arin

e un

cons

olid

ated

cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndLo

wer

Cre

tace

ous f

elds

path

icsa

ndst

one

and

silts

tone

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eU

ndul

atin

g pl

ain

in th

e no

rth p

art o

f the

Gel

libra

nd R

iver

cat

chm

ent

Elev

atio

n, m

120

– 34

0Lo

cal r

elie

f, m

30D

rain

age

patte

rnPa

ralle

l and

den

driti

cD

rain

age

dens

ity, k

m/k

m2

1.2

Land

form

Und

ulat

ing

plai

nLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Cre

st, u

pper

slop

eC

ollu

vial

fan,

dep

ress

ion

Slop

eLo

wer

slop

eLo

wer

slop

e, d

rain

age

line

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %7

(0-1

2)4

(0-7

)7

(1-1

6)10

(4-1

4)10

(4-1

4)Sl

ope

shap

eC

onve

xC

onca

veC

onve

xLi

near

Line

arN

AT

IVE

VE

GE

TA

TIO

NSt

ruct

ure

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n w

oodl

and

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Ope

n fo

rest

Dom

inan

t spe

cies

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E. b

axte

ri,

occa

sion

ally

E. o

vata

, E. v

imin

alis

,E.

aro

map

hloi

a

E. b

axte

ri, E

. ova

ta, E

. niti

daE.

bax

teri

, E. r

adia

ta, E

. ova

ta, E

.ob

liqua

, occ

asio

nally

E.

arom

aphl

oia

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. rad

iata

, E. o

vata

, E.

baxt

eri

E. o

bliq

ua, E

. ova

ta, E

. rad

iata

, E.

arom

aphl

oia

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

Cla

y, si

lt an

d sa

ndC

ollu

vial

sand

on

sand

, silt

and

cla

yC

ollu

vial

sand

on

sand

, silt

and

cla

yC

lay,

silt

and

sand

In-s

itu w

eath

ered

rock

Des

crip

tion

Mot

tled

yello

w a

nd re

d gr

adat

iona

lso

ilsG

rey

sand

soils

, wea

kly

stru

ctur

edcl

ay u

nder

lay

Gre

y sa

nd so

ils, s

truct

ured

cla

yun

derla

yY

ello

w-b

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls,

coar

se st

ruct

ure

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

,co

arse

stru

ctur

eSu

rfac

e te

xtur

eSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

loam

Sand

y lo

amFi

ne sa

ndy

clay

loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Mod

erat

eLo

wLo

wLo

wLo

wD

epth

, m>2

>2>2

>21.

5L

AN

D U

SEU

ncle

ared

are

as:

Har

dwoo

d fo

rest

ry fo

r saw

logs

, pos

ts a

nd p

oles

; wat

er su

pply

; nat

ure

cons

erva

tion;

gra

vel e

xtra

ctio

n.M

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Bee

f cat

tle g

razi

ng; d

airy

farm

ing

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

NH

AZ

AR

DC

ritic

al la

nd fe

atur

es, p

roce

sses

,fo

rms

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

phos

phor

us fi

xatio

n le

ad to

nut

rient

decl

ine.

Low

per

mea

bilit

y an

d pe

rche

dw

ater

tabl

es le

ad to

seas

onal

wat

erlo

ggin

g an

d so

il co

mpa

ctio

n.

Low

inhe

rent

ferti

lity

and

leac

hing

of p

erm

eabl

e su

rfac

es le

ad to

nutri

ent d

eclin

e. L

owpe

rmea

bilit

ies l

ead

to se

ason

alw

ater

logg

ing

and

soil

com

pact

ion.

Dis

pers

ible

cla

y su

bsoi

ls o

f low

perm

eabi

lity

are

pron

e to

gul

lyer

osio

n. S

teep

er sl

opes

are

pro

ne to

shee

t ero

sion

.

Dis

pers

ible

subs

oils

rece

ivin

g ru

n-of

f fro

m a

djac

ent a

reas

are

pro

ne to

gully

ero

sion

.

7.42

Ya

hoo

Cre

ek L

and

Syst

em

Nor

th o

f th

e G

ellib

rand

Riv

er, C

reta

ceou

s sa

ndst

ones

and

mud

ston

es o

utcr

op in

the

valle

ys o

f th

e Y

ahoo

Cre

ek,

Gum

Gul

ly C

reek

and

an

unna

med

cre

ek t

o th

e w

est

of B

lack

Brid

ge r

oad.

Th

ese

sedi

men

ts b

elon

g to

the

Moo

nlig

ht H

ead

Bed

s of

the

Otw

ay G

roup

. S

lope

s ar

e st

eep

and

valle

ys a

re n

arro

w,

in s

harp

con

trast

to

the

roun

ded

hills

of a

djac

ent T

ertia

ry se

dim

ents

.

The

soils

are

sim

ilar t

o th

ose

foun

d on

oth

er o

utcr

ops o

f Cre

tace

ous s

edim

ents

in th

e R

ange

, with

the

exce

ptio

n th

atsu

rfac

e ho

rizon

s con

tain

app

reci

ably

mor

e sa

nd a

nd th

e pa

rent

mat

eria

l is u

sual

ly h

ighl

y w

eath

ered

. O

pen

fore

sts o

fEu

caly

ptus

obl

iqua

, E. o

vata

and

E. a

rom

aphl

oia

are

sim

ilar t

o th

ose

foun

d on

the

drie

r slo

pes

of th

e Fo

rres

t lan

dsy

stem

.

Mos

t par

ts o

f th

e va

lleys

rem

ain

virtu

ally

unc

lear

ed a

nd q

uite

rem

ote.

H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

is th

e m

ain

land

use

,al

thou

gh t

he r

ugge

d te

rrai

n m

akes

acc

ess

diff

icul

t. S

ome

softw

ood

plan

tatio

ns h

ave

been

est

ablis

hed

in t

heca

tchm

ent

of Y

ahoo

Cre

ek.

Lan

dslip

s oc

cur

on t

hese

soi

ls u

nder

nat

ive

fore

st,

and

the

inci

denc

e in

crea

ses

dram

atic

ally

follo

win

g cl

earin

g. S

heet

ero

sion

and

gul

ly e

rosi

on a

re a

lso

pron

e to

occ

ur.

The

stee

p an

d ru

gged

hill

s sur

roun

ding

Yah

oo C

reek

are

diff

icul

t to

man

age.

Scr

ub re

grow

th ra

pidl

y ta

kes o

ver r

ecen

tly c

lear

ed sl

opes

.

Com

pone

nts a

nd it

s pro

porti

on o

f lan

d sy

stem

YA

HO

O C

RE

EK

Are

a: 3

2 km

21

35%

245

%3

15%

4 5%C

LIM

AT

ER

ainf

all,

mm

Ann

ual:

850

– 1

,000

, low

est J

anua

ry (4

0), h

ighe

st A

ugus

t (13

0)Te

mpe

ratu

re, 0

o CA

nnua

l: 1

2, lo

wes

t Jul

y (7

), hi

ghes

t Feb

ruar

y (1

8)T

empe

ratu

re:

less

than

10o C

(av.

) Jun

e –

Sept

embe

rSe

ason

al g

row

th li

mita

tions

Prec

ipita

tion:

les

s tha

n po

tent

ial e

vapo

trans

pira

tion

Nov

embe

r – M

arch

GE

OL

OG

YA

ge, l

ithol

ogy

Low

Cre

tace

ous h

ighl

y fe

ldsp

athi

c sa

ndst

one

and

mud

ston

e (M

oonl

ight

Hea

d B

eds)

TO

POG

RA

PHY

Land

scap

eD

eepl

y di

ssec

ted

hills

to th

e no

rth o

f Gel

libra

nd R

iver

Elev

atio

n, m

60 –

270

Loca

l rel

ief,

m11

0D

rain

age

patte

rnD

endr

itic

with

smal

l rad

ial a

reas

Dra

inag

e de

nsity

, km

/km

23.

0La

nd fo

rmH

illLa

nd fo

rm e

lem

ent

Stee

p sl

ope

Cre

st, u

pper

slop

eSl

ope

Swal

e, g

entle

low

er sl

ope

Slop

e (a

nd ra

nge)

, %50

(20-

70)

15 (2

-30)

35 (1

5-45

)13

(1-2

5)Sl

ope

shap

eLi

near

Line

arLi

near

Con

cave

NA

TIV

E V

EG

ET

AT

ION

Stru

ctur

eO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stO

pen

fore

stD

omin

ant s

peci

esE.

ova

ta, E

. obl

iqua

, E. r

adia

ta, E

.ar

omap

hloi

a, E

. vim

inal

isE.

obl

iqua

, E. o

vata

, E. a

rom

aphl

oia,

E.

radi

ata

E. v

imin

alis

, E. o

bliq

uaE.

vim

inal

is, E

. obl

iqua

, Aca

cia

mel

anox

ylon

SOIL

Pare

nt m

ater

ial

In-s

itu w

eath

ered

rock

, col

luvi

al ro

ckIn

-situ

dee

ply

wea

ther

ed ro

ckIn

-situ

wea

ther

ed ro

ckC

ollu

vium

Des

crip

tion

Ston

y br

own

grad

atio

nal s

oils

Yel

low

-bro

wn

grad

atio

nal s

oils

, coa

rse

stru

ctur

eB

row

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

lsD

ark

brow

n gr

adat

iona

l soi

ls

Surf

ace

text

ure

Fine

sand

y lo

amSa

ndy

clay

loam

Loam

Loam

Perm

eabi

lity

Hig

hLo

wM

oder

ate

Mod

erat

eD

epth

, m0.

71.

20.

9>2

LA

ND

USE

Unc

lear

ed a

reas

: H

ardw

ood

fore

stry

for s

awlo

gs, p

osts

and

pol

es; n

atur

e co

nser

vatio

n; w

ater

supp

lyM

inor

cle

ared

are

as:

Shee

p an

d be

ef c

attle

gra

zing

; wat

er su

pply

SOIL

DE

TE

RIO

RA

TIO

N H

AZA

RD

Crit

ical

land

feat

ures

, pro

cess

es, f

orm

sSt

ony

shal

low

soils

with

wea

k st

ruct

ure

and

low

wat

er-h

oldi

ng c

apac

ity o

n st

eep

slop

esar

e pr

one

to sh

eet e

rosi

on a

nd la

ndsl

ides

.

Soils

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In their natural condition, soil and vegetation are stable except on some exposed coastal situations. Upon disturbance,however, a major change in one causes changes in the others. If the vegetation is damaged, the soil erodes. If the soildeteriorates, then the vegetation degenerates. In both cases the quality and regulation of the waters will decline. Thesensitivity of the land varies between land systems.

Soils deterioration occurs in various forms. Sheet, rill, gully and wind erosion result in the loss of soil material, as doesmass movement, although to a more limited extent. Soil salting, loss of nutrients and decline in structure result in lowerplant growth and water usage. Deterioration of streams frequently results, and accelerated stream flow may lead toflooding, streambank erosion and excessive sedimentation of land and utilities. Access and trafficability become moredifficult and aesthetic appeal is lost.

Exposure of tree roots and elevation of grass tussocks on small pedestalsindicates that sheet erosion losses have been quite extensive on these steepnortherly facing slopes abutting Moggs Creek.

All forms of deterioration involve the community in losses, either directly or indirectly, and these losses are part of the lessobvious costs associated with a particular activity or form of production.

Types of Deterioration

Sheet erosionSheet erosion is the removal of surface layers of soil by water. The impact of raindrops disturbs soil particles, which maythen be suspended in turbulent surface run-off water and carried downslope. The susceptibility depends on the structure,permeability and dispersibility of the soil, the length and gradient of the slope, the intensity of the rain-storm and the degreeof protection that the soil receives from the cover of vegetation and litter. Often only small amounts of material areremoved at any one time. The exposure of tree roots, elevation of grass tussocks on small pedestals of topsoil andaccumulation of soil material on the uphill side of fences and other obstructions often provide evidence of sheet erosion.

The most sensitive areas are found on the drier slopes of the Otway Range in the Lorne, Forrest, Moggs Creek and YahooCreek land systems. Long steep slopes, weakly structured and often dispersible topsoils and low infiltration rates arecritical factors. The steep hills of the Mount Mackenzie and Bunker Hill land systems are less susceptible, as infiltrationrates are high. Other sensitive areas occur in most land systems, except for the lateritic plateaux, basalt plains and alluvialdeposits.

Gully erosionWhen water is concentrated into small rivulets or drainage lines, its eroding action can result in the development of shallowchannels, known as rills, or deep and extensive gullies. In the most severe cases, gullies can undermine bridges and roads

as well as create problems of access and management.

Wormbete Creek, a tributary of the Barwon River, causes particular problemsthrough actively eroding gullies. Headward extension of this gully has caused lossof productive land, damaged fences, decreased trafficability and access and reducedaesthetic appeal.

The mechanisms by which gullies have been initiated and continue to extend both laterally and headward take manydifferent forms. All forms stem from an imbalance in the hydrological regime, usually brought about by the replacement ofthe native vegetation with pasture species or crops.

The coarsely structured, dispersible soils of the Deepdene land system and the Heytesbury settlement area are prone tosapping, leading to extensive gully and tunnel erosion. Many of the drainage lines in the Paraparap and Anglesea landsystems are also susceptible. In the higher-rainfall areas, scouring is a more important mechanism than sapping and this isresponsible for much of the damage in the Pennyroyal and Barwon River land systems.

Mass movementThe migration of material downslope under the action of gravity can range from rockslides and avalanches through to earthglows and soil creep. The gradient of the natural or artificial slope is the critical factor in determining the susceptibility tomass movement. When saturated with water, the soil loses much of its cohesive strength and, combined with the addedweight of soil water, the force of gravity may take the soil beyond the threshold of stability. Under natural conditions thebinding effect of tree roots increases this threshold value. Vibrations such as earthquakes or even the passing of trafficaggravate the instability by bringing about slight compaction of the solids. This forces out pore water, which cannot escapeand so acts as a lubricant to the soil mass.

In the Lorne and Aire land systems, the soil material liberated may slide down the hillside, particularly if bedding or jointplains are parallel to the slope of the land (Joyce and Evans 1976). More commonly, however, slumps (as distinct fromlandslides) occur. The shearing plane takes a curved form, with the soil moving vertically downwards at the toe. The soilson slopes close to the coast are highly dispersible and are very prone to both landslides and landslips.

Apart from the Otway Range, the Heytesbury settlement area contains highly susceptible areas. Springs emerging frombelow the base of the lateritic capping in the Tomahawk Creek land system have probably increased in incidence and totalflow since clearing. Prolonged saturation often results in slumps at these points in the landscape.

The Deepdene, Pennyroyal and Anglesea land systems also possess sensitive areas. In weakly structured dispersible soils,these slumps may trigger off earth flows, where the original slumped mass moves downhill each successive season,pushing more soil in front of it in a slow turbulent flow. Notable earth flows are found in the Lorne and Anglesea landsystems.

Earth flows are a common feature of the steep hills: This one near Upper Gellibrandthreatens the road that crosses it.

SaltingWherever landscapes contain significant levels of soluble salts, these salts tend to accumulate in groundwater and run-off.Land use changes involving replacement of the native vegetation often lead to a rise in the regional water tables, upsettingthe natural hydrological regime. The soluble salts in the groundwater are concentrated near the surface as the waterevaporates. Salts frequently reach toxic levels, restricting plant growth.

In Victoria this process tends to be most marked in areas with rainfalls between 600 and 700 mm (Gibbons 1971). TheParaparap, Deepdene, Birregurra, Winchelsea and Anglesea land systems are among the most susceptible.

Rising salt concentrations in the topsoil both stunt and kills the pasturein lower parts of the landscape. Stock often camp on these areas,trampling the vegetation, and this may lead to sheet and gully erosion.

Lateritic landscapes have been associated with high salt content of associated soils and groundwaters (Dimmock et al.1974). Although no soil salting has been observed in the wetter climates of the Heytesbury settlement area, rises in thesalinity of streams have been recorded since the widespread clearing of the dissected lateritic plateaux.

Soil nutrient declineThe cycle of soil nutrients from root absorption through biomass, litter fall, leaching and root absorption again is sensitiveto change. Removal or replacement of deep-rooted native vegetation may result in marked increases in run-off (Blake1975) and a lower ability of the shallow-rooted introduced species to intercept nutrients being leached downwards. Litterfall may be reduced, leading to fewer organic colloids and adsorbed plant nutrients in the surface soil. Soil temperaturesmay rise, leading to more rapid oxidation of the existing organic matter.

Highly permeable soils of low initial fertility are the most susceptible. These include the sands of the Bald Hills, ChappleVale, Redwater Creek, Bunker Hill, Yeodene and Porcupine Creek land systems. To a lesser extent, the Beech Forest,Mount Sabine, Mount Mackenzie and Hordern Vale land systems are also susceptible.

Phosphorus fixation is another hazard relating to soil fertility. Although not directly a deterioration of the land in itself, itcan severely limit the growth of introduced crops and pastures, thus aggravating leaching of nutrients. Susceptible areasare the lateritic landscapes of the Simpson, Gherang Gherang and Wonga land systems, and to a lesser extent the Deepdene,Paraparap, Barongarook and Anglesea land systems.

Land use in the upper parts of the Barwon River catchment effectsland downstream. Unwise use can result in increased flooding,sedimentation and prolonged waterlogging.

Soil structure declineSoil structure may deteriorate due to loss of organic matter or disturbance. Organic colloids are the main binding force ofthe structural units of the surface soil. Removal or humification without replacement results in loss of surface structure.Disturbance, particularly when the soil is wet and cohesive forces are low, may mechanically shatter the structural units.Soils with initially weak surface structure are the most susceptible. Such soils tend to have a low infiltration capacity, lowavailable water capacity, dispersion problems and a tendency to set hard in summer.

The majority of soils in the study area are susceptible to structure decline. Particularly susceptible areas are found in thepoorly drained parts of the Tomahawk Creek, Kennedys Creek and Waarre land systems.

Wind erosionSandy soils are poorly structured and have a low water-holding capacity. In the Cape Otway and Point Roadknight landsystems, strong onshore winds and poor protection from the indigenous vegetation, especially when trampled by frequentpedestrian traffic or cattle, result in the dunes becoming unstable. Roads and utilities are affected by shifting dunes in theseareas.

Deterioration of streamsThe above forms of deterioration are essentially on-site effects. However, they also result in off-site effects, the mostimportant of which is the deterioration of streams.

The loss of soil material, soil structure, soil fertility and associated plant vigour leads to increased surface run-off, with lesswater percolating through the soil. The height and incidence of flooding increase, and the perennial nature of streamsdiminishes. Turbidity rises while erosion is taking place. Increased salinity of streams from cleared catchments containingsignificant quantities of soluble salts limits their use for domestic and irrigation purposes.

Soil Conservation and Land Use

GrazingThe management of land for grazing usually involves replacement of the native trees and shrubs with shallow-rootedgrasses and forbs. The accompanying change to the natural hydrological regime leads to the previously mentioned formsof deterioration.

Gully erosion has occurred in many areas and has been particularly prevalent in the steep drainage lines of the Deepdeneland system to the west of the Barwon River. Headward eroding gullies are also common in some of the eastern tributariesof the Barwon River, such as Wormbete Creek.

Soil salting has occurred in many of the drainage lines of the plains to the north and east of the Otway Range. Pastures onsaline areas become yellow, and less vigorous. Stock accumulate on these areas and trample the vegetation, which maylead to other forms of deterioration such as gully erosion.

Overgrazing of sloping land and trampling of the vegetation and soil have led to sheet erosion in many places, particularlythe foothills of the Range and parts of the Heytesbury settlement area. Much of the damage occurs during the summermonths, when the highest-intensity rainstorms coincide with a period of low growth potential, as shown in Figure 5. Ifgrazing has been heavy, the soil has little or no protective vegetative cover when these summer thunderstorms occur, andlosses can be severe.

Landslips are common the steep slopes of the Otway Range and are increasing in occurrence following clearing in theHeytesbury settlement area. Cleared hillsides of the Lorne, Forrest, Yahoo Creek, Pennyroyal and Aire land systems arecovered by terracettes, often referred to as ‘sheep tracks’. They are in fact the surface expression of numerous smallslumps and are usually found where unweathered rock is close to the surface. Where they adjoin previous slipped areas,they have a stabilizing influence, preventing larger rotational slumps from occurring (Joyce and Evans 1976).

Soil nutrient losses are prevalent on the freely drained soils of the high-rainfall areas, but regular topdressing has oftenmaintained or increased soil fertility of the more productive land. Topdressing is not economic on many of the sand andphosphate-fixing soils, and the low levels of nutrients initially present tend to be lost under grazing.

Deterioration of soil structure in the Beech Forest and Mount Sabine land systems after prolonged periods of pasturegrowth is presumably associated with lower levels of organic matter. Loss of surface structure by pugging is a problem inmost wet areas, particularly where cattle are grazed during winter.

Overgrazing and trampling by cattle have led to wind erosion of sand dunes near the mouth of the Aire River. The nativegrasses are susceptible to trampling and establishing of improved pastures is difficult. The dunes east of Torquay alsoshow evidence of past grazing damage.

With the exception of wind erosion, prevention of these forms of deterioration primarily rests with maintaining ahydrological balance similar to that of the original system under native vegetation. Deep-rooted perennial pasture species,such as Phalaris tuberosa, and trees can tap moisture and nutrients from well below the soil surface, thus reducing totalrun-off and recycling nutrients. Continues use of fertilizers is necessary to maintain vigorous plant growth and activelyusing soil water. Dense root and shoot growth also lend physical stability to the soil, limiting mass movement, sheet andgully erosion.

Treatment of existing problems may be expensive. Actively eroding gullies can be stabilized by diverting run-off orreplacing the head of the gully with a concrete structure or a grassed chute. The appropriate method depends on themechanisms involved.

Salt-affected areas can be revegetated by sowing salt-tolerant grasses such as Agropyron spp. and Puccinella spp. Soilamelioration with gypsum is often used to improve drainage.

Overgrazing should be avoided on areas prone to sheet erosion. Where slopes are too steep for drilling of seed andfertilizer, aerial seeding of improved pasture species may be practicable.

Landslips can sometimes be halted by fencing out the slumped area and planting trees. Run-off water from roads, dairiesand buildings should not be discharged onto susceptible slopes, particularly in the Heytesbury settlement area. In theWaarre land system, slopes of more than about 18% are susceptible, while the Tomahawk Creek and Kennedys Creek landsystems have a steeper critical angle.

Under grazing it is particularly difficult to control wind erosion on the coastal dunes. Although some light grazing can besupported, overgrazing damages the vegetation and the shifting dunes will not usually revegetate naturally. Expensivereclamation work, such as hand-planting Ammophila arenaria, will be required.

CroppingSheet erosion has occurred on much of the sloping land used for cropping in the Beech Forest, Hordern Vale and Bellbraeland systems. Intense spring and summer rains often occur after ploughing or sowing, and the surface run-off remove themore fertile topsoil.

Contour cultivation, retention of trash and strip cropping can reduce these losses. Problems are encountered, however, inhandling machinery along the contour on sloping land.

Overcropping causes serious damage to soil structure. Mechanical disturbance shatters the structural units, often weakenedfrom depletion of organic matter. Fields that have been cropped for several generations in the Beech Forest land systemshow marked decline in surface soil structure.

Rotations incorporating those with nitrogen-fixing legumes, will increase organic matter. Continued use of fertilizers isnecessary to maintain vigorous growth and to return organic matter to the soil.

ForestryBoth establishment and harvesting of hardwood and softwood forests cause serious changes to the natural hydrologicalbalance. Pine establishment on disused agricultural land and previously forested land has led to widespread deterioration.The steep north- and west-facing slopes of the Lorne, Forrest, Moggs Creek, Aire, Mount Mackenzie, Bunker Hill andYahoo Creek land systems are the most severely affected.

Steep slopes in and around drainage lines are more stable underhardwood than softwood forestry, because of longer growth periodand more selective logging practices.

Sheet erosion losses can be minimised by working in coupes along the contour, and by maintaining an adequate vegetativecover with litter layers over the soil surface.

The incidence of landslips increases following harvesting, when the binding effect of tree roots is removed and the soil issubject to saturation for longer periods. The study area share the current trend to reduce the total area of productive forestland and manage this smaller area for higher yields. As with agriculture, nutrients removed in forest produce need to bereplaced through the use of fertilizers. The fertilizer requirements of soils designated for long-term hardwood andsoftwood production require investigation.

Fuel-reduction burns are an established part of forestry practice and most of the native hardwood stands are burnt every fewyears by low-intensity fire, mainly in spring or autumn. When the litter and humus are burnt, the nutrients in the ashbecome more soluble. Although this increases the rate of removal by leaching. The long-term effect that fuel-reductionburning may have on soil fertility requires further investigation.

Residential useOne of the results of residential development is an increase in the area of surfaces, such as roads, paths and roofs,impermeable to rainfall. Diversion of this water into drainage lines has increased the incidence of landslips, gully erosionand siltation.

Development of the coastal belt from Torquay to Apollo Bay has resulted in many problems. Careful planning is needed toconfine development to gentler areas and dispose of run-off water in properly constructed drains.

RecreationThe sand dunes at Cape Otway, Point Impossible, Point Roadknight, Anglesea, Apollo Bay and other localities along thecoast have been trampled by pedestrian traffic. Drifting sand has encroached onto roads, building and other services.

Sand dunes afford inland areas the best protection from the erosive power of the sea. The native species that colonize thesedunes are very susceptible to trampling pressure and the introduced grass Ammophila arenaria is widely used to restabilizedrifting dunes. Fending the dunes off from pedestrian access and siting of access tracks away from wind hollow have alsobeen found necessary to ensure successful rehabilitation.

Coastal dunes are in a constant state of seasonal flux. This photo was taken inearly spring, after heavy winter seas had removed much of the sand from thebeach and formed a small cliff.

Over-use of pedestrian access tracks in the Anglesea and Rivernook land systems, where the soils are highly dispersible,has lead to deep rilling and gullying along coastal cliffs. These tracks need to be sited along gentle slopes without longstraight steep sections and with adequate provision for the disposal of surface run-off.

Off-road vehicle activity causes sheet and rill erosion on steep sloping land close to tourist centres along the coast. Thepassage of trail bikes, dune buggies and four-wheel-drive vehicles destroys the vegetative cover and disturbs the soilsurface. Areas need to be provided and managed for these activities on less sensitive sites, such as disused sand and gravelextraction pits.

Trail bikes can cause major problems in sensitive areas. Here,vegetation has been destroyed and rapid surface run-off hasremoved topsoil and cut rills into the subsoil.

Roads and tracksScouring of forest roads and tracks is particularly severe in the high-rainfall areas. Where drainage is inadequate, waterbecomes concentrated in wheel ruts. Care is needed in road design, with domes surfaces and adequate table drains andculverts to dispose of water on safe vegetated areas. Long straight steep sections are to be avoided, but cross ripping giveslong slopes some protection from scouring. Closure of some forest roads in winter will limit the creation of deep wheelruts.

The diversion of run-off water from roads and tracks may lead to landslips. Fill batters on mountain roads are particularlysusceptible. As far as possible, water in table drains should be diverted onto gentle slopes.

Rilling and slumping are problems on the over-steep slopes of road batters. Some of the larger road batters in the MountMackenzie land system are particularly susceptible to rilling. Rockslides and slumps along the Great Ocean Road are ahazard to motorists, and expensive clean-up operations are undertaken each wet period. Many of the road batters in theHeytesbury settlement area exhibit severe slumping.

Correct design of road batters minimizes these problems. In exposed rock or other compacted material, near-vertical-cutbatters can be successfully made, but generally a slop of 200% is recommended for stable soils while some soils will stillbe a source of sediment at slopes less than 50%. A catch drain constructed near the top of the batter will divert water. Inlarge batters, further catch drains should be installed at intervals down the slope. Subsoil drainage may need to be provided

in areas prone to slumping. Protection of the soil can be achieved by spraying with bitumen mulch or chemical stabilizers.Plant cover is established by ‘keying in’ topsoil and applying seed and fertilizer mixtures (Gavin, Knight and Richmond1979).

Extractive industriesDisused sand and gravel extraction pits provide a poor medium for plant germination. Compacted sand on sloping pits areprone to sheet and rill erosion, and abandoned sites in Chapple Vale, Bald Hills, Gherang Gherang, Porcupine Creek andFerguson Hill land systems remain as scars on the landscape. The impermeable silicified hardpans in the Rivernook landsystem have led to extensive deep rilling. Similar damage has occurred on silicified hardpans in the Junction Track landsystem.

Reclamation procedures for these extraction sites involve the initial retention of the topsoil overburden and its subsequentredistribution over the surface to a depth of at least 20 cm. Regeneration of native species can be encouraged by handplanting or spreading seed, but usually the topsoil contains sufficient seed. Steeply sloping land is not suitable forextraction pits, and surface run-off water needs to be diverted onto gentle spurs.

Large road batters and other bare surfaces can deteriorate rapidly.This road re-alignment near Mount Mackenzie is a source of copioussediment in the Gellibrand water supply catchment.

Water supply protectionAll domestic water supply catchment within the study area are used for other purposes as well as the supply of water. Themaintenance of water quality mainly depends on successful soil conservation practices in these other land uses.

Poorly sited and maintained roads and tracks, streambank and gully erosion and poorly managed forestry operations appearto be the main sources of sediment in streams. High colour can also result from excessive forest trash in drainage lines,from diversion of dairy effluent into water-courses and from stock gaining free access to streams.

Land use also influences water quantity. Higher yields of water are obtained from agricultural land, but compaction of thesoil surface and reduced interception storage result in increased surface runoff. Larger flows thus occur during andimmediately after storms, with less water being stored for slow release to streams. The perennial nature of streamsdeclines. Water supply systems without large storage dams are the most affected, as the lowest summer flow limits thetotal supply potential. Storage dams also allow some of the coarser sediment time to settle before reticulation to residentialcentres, and this results in a less sensitive system than river offtakes provide.

Silicified hardpans near Rotter Point are prone to deep and extensiverilling in old unreclaimed extraction pits.

RRREEEFFFEEERRREEENNNCCCEEESSS

Abele, C., Gloe, C. S., Hocking, J. B., Holdgate, G., Kenley, P. R., Lawrence, C. R., Ripper, D., and Threlfall, W. F.(1976).

Tertiary. In ‘Geology of Victoria”, ed. J. G. Douglas and J. A. Ferguson. Special Publication of the GeologicalSociety of Australia No. 5

Baker, G. (1950).Geology and physiography of the Moonlight Head District, Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria,60, 17-43.

Bird, E. C. F. (1976).‘Coats.’ 2nd ed. ‘An Introduction to Systematic Geomorphology,’ Vol. 4. (Australian National University Press:Canberra).

Blake, G. J. (1975).The interception process. In ‘Prediction in Catchment Hydrology’, ed. T. G. Chapman and F. X. Dunnin.National Symposium on Hydrology sponsored by the Australian Academy of Science 25-27. November 1975.

Bock, P. E. and Glenie, R. C. (1966).Late Cretaceous and Tertiary depositional cycles in south-western Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society ofVictoria, 77 (2), 153-63.

Bureau of Meteorology (1975).‘Climatic Average Australia.’ (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra).

Bureau of Reclamation (1974).‘Earth Manual.’ 2nd ed. (United State Department of the Interior: Washington).

Central Planning Authority (1957).‘Resources Survey Corangamite Region.’ (Government Printer: Melbourne)

Central Planning Authority (1971)‘Resources Survey Barwon Region.’ (Government Printer: Melbourne)

Christian, C. S., and Stewart, G. A. (1953).General report on survey of the Katherine – Darwin region, 1946. C.S.I.R.O. Australia, Land Research Series No.

1Colwell, J. D. (1963).

The estimation of phosphorus fertilizer requirements of wheat in southern New South Wales by soil analysis.Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, 3, 190-7.

Costin, A. B. (1954).‘A Study of the Ecosystems of the Monaro Region of New South Wales with special reference to Soil Erosion.’(Government Printer: Sydney).

Currey, D. T. (1964).The former extent of Lake Corangamite. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 77 (2), 377-86.

Dimmock, G. M., Bettenay, E., and Mulcahy, M. J. (1974).Salt content of lateritic profiles in the Darling Range, Western Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 12,63-9.

Douglas, J. G. (1969).The Mesozoic floras of Victoria. Geological Survey of Victoria Memoir No. 28.

Douglas, J. G., Abele, C., Beneder, S., Dettman, M. E., Kenley, P. R. and Lawrence, C. R. (1976).Mesozoic. In ‘Geology of Victoria,’ ed. J. G. Douglas and J. A. Ferguson. Special Publication of the GeologicalSociety of Australia No. 5.

Downes, R. G. (1949).A soil, land-use, and erosion survey of parts of the Counties of Moira and Delatite, Victoria. C. S. I. R. O. BulletinNo. 243.

Edwards, A. B. and Baker, G. (1943).Jurassic arkose in southern Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 55 (2), 195-225.

Fitzpatrick, E. A. (1963).Estimates of pan evaporation from mean maximum temperature and vapor pressure. Journal of AppliedMeteorology, 2, 780-92.

Foley, J. C. (1945).Frost in the Australian region. Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau Bulletin No. 32.

Garvin, R. J., Knight, M. R. and Richmond, T. J. (1979).‘Guidelines for Minimising Soil Erosion and Sedimentation from Construction Sites in Victoria.’ SoilConservation Authority, Victoria, T. C. 13. (Government Printer: Melbourne).

Gibbons, F. R. (1971).On cutting down trees. Victoria’s Resources, 13 (1), 22-4.

Gibbons, F. R. and Downes, R. G. (1964).‘A Study of the Land in South-western Victoria.’ Soil Conservation Authority, Victoria. T. C. 13. (GovernmentPrinter: Melbourne).

Gibbons, F. R. and Haans, J. C. F. M. (1976).

‘Dutch and Victorian Approaches to land Appraisal.’ Soil Survey Papers, No. 11 (Soil Survey Institute: Wageningen,Netherlands.)

Gill, E. D. (1964).Rocks contiguous with the basaltic cuirass of western Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 77 (2),331-55.

Gill, E. D. (1977).Evolution of the Otway coast, Australia, from the last interglacial to the present. Proceedings of the Royal Society ofVictoria, 89 (1), 7-18.

Haldane, A. D. (1956).Determination of free iron oxide in soils. Soil Science, 82, 483.

Hutton, J. T. (1956).A method of particle size analysis of soils. C.S.I.R.O. Australia, Division of Soils, Divisional Report No. 11/55.

Joyce, E.B. and Evans, R. S. (1976).Some areas of landslide activity in Victoria, Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 88 (2), 95-108.

Kirkpatrick, J. B. (1971).A probably hybrid swarm in Eucalyptus. Silvae Genet, 20, 157-9.

Land Conservation Council (1976).‘Report on the Corangamite Study Area.’ (Government Printer: Melbourne).

Leeper, G. W. (1950).Thornthwaite’s climatic factor. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, 16, 2-6.

Leeper, G. W., Nicholls, A., and Wadham, S. M. (1936).Soil and pasture studies in the Mount Gellibrand area, Western District of Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Societyof Victoria, 49 (1), 77-139.

Linforth, D. J. (1977).The climate of the Otway region. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 89 (1), 61-8.

Loveday, J., Ed. (1974).‘Methods for Analysis of Irrigated Soils.’ Commonwealth Bureau of Soils, Technical Communication No. 54.(Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau: Canberra).

Martin, J. H. and Leonard, W. H. (1967).‘Principles of Field Crop Production.’ (Macmillan and Co.: New York).

Metson, A. J. (1956).Methods of chemical analysis of soil survey samples. New Zealand D.S.I.R. Soil Bureau Bulletin No. 12.

Northcote, K. H. (1974).‘A Factual Key for the Recognition of Australian Soils.’ 4th ed. (C.S.I.R.O. Australia and Rellim TechnicalPublications: Adelaide).

Parsons, R. F., Kirkpatrick, J. B. and Carr, G. W. (1977).Native vegetation of the Otway region, Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 89 (1), 77-88.

Piper, C. S. (1942).‘Soil and Plant Analysis.’ (University of Adelaide: Adelaide).

Specht, R. L. (1970).Vegetation. In ‘The Australian Environment’, ed. G. W. Leeper 4th 4d. (C.S.I.R.O. Australia and MelbourneUniversity Press: Melbourne).

Stace, H. C. T., Hubble, G. D., Brewer, R., Northcote, K. H., Sleeman, J. R., Mulcahy, M. J., and Hallsworth E. G. (1968).‘A Handbook of Australian Soils.’ (Rellim Technical Publications: Glenside, SA).

Thornbury, W. D. (1969).‘Principles of Geomorphology.’ 2nd ed. (John Wiley and Sons Inc: Sydney).

Thornley, A. A. (1974).Otway settlement. The Investigator, 9 (3), 81-92.

Thornthwaite, C. W. (1948).An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geographical Review, 38, 55-94.

Trumble, M. C. (1939).Climatic factors in relation to the region of southern Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia,63 (1), 36-43.

Tucker, B. M. (1974).Laboratory procedures for the cation exchange measurements on soils. C.S.I.R.O. Australia, Division of Soils,Technical Paper No. 23.

United States Department of Agriculture (1951).‘Soil Survey Manual.’ U.S.D.A. Handbook No. 18 with supplement (1962) replacing pages 173-188. (Government

Printing Office: Washington).

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All results are expressed in terms of oven-dry soil passing a 2 mm round-hole sieve, except gravel, whish is reported as apercentage of the air-dry field sample.

Particle-size analysis – plummet balance method of Hutton (1956). With sand separation by hand decantation. The I.S.S.S.size factions were separated: i.e. coarse sand 2 – 0.2 mm; fine sand 0.2 – 0.02 mm, silt 0.02 – 0.002 mm and clay <0.002 mm.

Electrolytic conductivity (EC 25oC) – a 1:5 soil:water suspension was shaken for 1 hour and, after temperature equilibration,conductivity was measured with a dip cell and direct-reading meter. Results are reported as microsiemens per centimetre(μScm-1).

Soil reaction (pH) – by glass electrode and digital pH meter on the above suspension.

Chloride (Cl) – profiles 414 – 606 by electrometric silver nitrate titration of R. J. Best, as described by Piper (1942).

- by solid state selective-ion electrode and millivoltmeter on the same suspension, calibrated with potassium chloridestandards.

Organic carbon (Org. C) –wet-combustion technique of Walkley and Black, described by Piper (1942). No recovery factorwas applied, but the factor 1.3 C:N was used to calculate carbon:nitrogen ratios.

Total nitrogen (N) – Metson (1956). Semimicro Kjeldahl method, using a Markham still.

Free iron oxide (Fe2O3) – Haldane (1956). Finely ground soil was extracted with powdered zinc in ammonium chloride-oxalic acid buffer. Ferrous ion in the treated extract was titrated with potassium dichromate.

Hydrochloric acid extract for phosphorus and potassium (P, K) – 4 g of soil was refluxed for 4 hours with 20 ml constantboiling hydrochloric acid, with subsequent filtration and dilution of the filtrate to 200 ml. Phosphorus was determined bycolorimetric method using molybdenum blue and potassium by atomic absorption.

Available phosphorus (Pav. P.p.m.) – Colwell (1963). 1 g soil was shaken with 100 m 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate at pH 8.5for 16 hours. Phosphorus was determined in the clarified extract by a colorimetric method (molybdenum blue).

Exchangeable cations – profiles 414 – 606 by the method of Hutton and Bond (unpublished data). Synopsis: soil leachedwith molar ammonium chloride solution (pH – 7.0) to displace exchangeable cations. Potassium and sodium in leachatedetermined by flame emission techniques. Calcium and magnesium determined by EDTA titration. Adsorbed ammonium ionwas leached from the soil with sodium sulphate solution, and cation exchange capacity was determined from the excess ofammonium ion over chloride in the leachate.

- profiles 60 7 –748 by extraction method of Tucker (1974), also described in Loveday (1974). Synopsis: soluble ion removalby 10% ethanediol in ethanol. Cation displacement by ammonium chloride in ethanol-water (2:1) at pH 8.5. Cationdeterminations by atomic absorption. Cation exchange capacity by measurement of ammonium ion displaced from the treatedsoil by a potassium nitrate-calcium nitrate solution.

Unified Soil Group (USG) – Engineers’ classification, as Bureau of Reclamation (1974).

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The standards used for soil properties are those of the U.S.D.A. (1951), with supplement (1962), Northcote (1974) and, in thecase of sodicity, Northcote and Skene (1972).

Descriptive soil names are based on properties observable in the field, with the addition of sodicity as determined in thelaboratory. To minimise the number of terms required, certain features are not mentioned if they match the ‘normal’ Victorianprofile, which is reasonably stone-free, acidic, non-calcareous and apparently monogentic, and in which the B horizon hasmoderate 1 – 2 cm blocky structure and firm consistence.

Terms used

The following terms are given in the order in which they appear in the descriptive name for the soils.

Stony – Significant (usually greater than 15%) quantities of stone, boulders and gravel are present through the profile.

Colour – Munsell soil colours of the B horizon are given, abbreviated where practical. In sand soils, the predominant colour isgiven, usually being that below the A horizon. In strongly mottled soils, the first colour given is the dominant for matrixcolour.

Calcareous – Visible lime is present in the profile.

Sodic – The exchangeable sodium percentage is greater than 5% throughout most of the profile.

Friable – Peds are soft when both moist and dry.

Profile form

� Uniform – no significant change in texture.� Gradational – gradual increase in clay content with depth.� Duplex – sudden increase in clay content from A to B horizons.� For uniform-texture profiles, textures are specified in the three classes sand, loam and clay according to texture grade –

e.g. sand soils, uniform texture.

Soils(s) – This term is always used. In the case of uniform-textured soils, the term soil(s) precedes the profile form.

Structure – If the structure is unusual, this term is included. Typical B horizon structures are 1 – 2 cm moderate subangularblocky.

� Weak structure – where massive or nearly so (except for sand soils, where a weak structure is normal).� Coarse structure – where ped sizes average several centimetres across and usually possess large shiny clay faces. Small

secondary peds may be present.� Fine structure – where ped sizes are no more than a few millimetres in average dimension.

Ironstone – Where lateritization has resulted in the presence of ironstone either throughout or, more commonly, at the base, itis recorded. This does not include soils with ironstone nodules in the A2 and B1 horizons resulting from more recentpedogenesis.

Soil descriptions – Abbreviated field descriptions of the main soils in the area surveyed are presented below. The maps usedare those of the 1:100,000 National Topographic map series, except for that of Geelong, which is a Country Fire Authority mapbased on the Australian National Grid.

Profile 414 – Brown gradational soil (Princetown 7520: map ref. 087107).

A1 0-13 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA3 13-45 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) clay loam, moderate angular blocky structure, diffuse boundaryB2 45-90 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) heavy clay, moderate angular blocky structure (40 mm), diffuse

boundaryC 90 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/8) and grey (10YR6/1) mottled medium clay, massive.

Profile 415 – Brown calcareous sand soil, uniform texture (Otway 7620: map ref. 187963).

A1 0-15 cm black (10YR2/1) sandy loam, apedal-single grain, clear boundaryB2 15-75 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy sand, very weak subangular blocky structure (30 mm), gradual boundaryC 75 cm pale-brown (10YR6/3) coarse sand, apedal-single grain.

Profile 416 – Brown gradational soil (Otway 7620: map ref. 336277).

A11 0-1 cm black (10YR2/1) silty loam, crumb structure, abrupt boundary.A12 1-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA3 15-23 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) sandy clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryB21 23-45 cm brownish yellow (10YR6/8) light clays with some greyish brown (10YR5/2) mottles, moderate angular

blocky structure, gradual boundaryB22 45-90 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/8) medium to heavy clays with very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) ped faces,

strong subangular blocky structure, clear wavy boundaryC 90 cm weathering sandstone.

Profile 418 – Brown friable gradational soil (Princetown 7520: map ref. 077141).

A11 0-8 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) loam, crumb structure, clear boundaryA12 8-30 cm dark-brown (7.5YR3/2) clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, gradual boundaryB21 30-75 cm dark brown (7.5YR3/4) medium clay, moderate subangular blocky structure, friable peds, diffuse

boundaryB22 75-140 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) light clay, weak subangular blocky structure, friable peds, occasional

decomposing parent material, diffuse boundaryC 140 cm decomposing mudstones and/or siltstones.

Profile 424 – Brown duplex soil (Princetown 7520: map ref. 967088)

A11 0-8 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy loam, crumb structure, clear wavy boundaryA12 8-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure, occasional angular

sandstones, clear wavy boundaryA2 15-30 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) fine sandy clay loam, very weak subangular blocky structure, occasional

angular sandstones, clear boundaryB2 30-60 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) fine sandy clay, moderate angular blocky structure (1 cm), occasional

angular sandstones, gradual irregular boundaryB3 60-90 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) fine sandy clay, moderate angular blocky structure, discontinuous layers

of decomposing rock, gradual irregular boundaryC 90 cm weathering dipping beds of sandstones and mudstones with thin lenses of dark greyish brown (10YR4/2)

clay down joint plains.

Profile 426 – White sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 017154).

A11 0-1 cm black (10YR2/1) sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure, abundant quartz gravel, clear boundaryA12 1-30 cm very dark grey (10YR7/1) merging to white (10YR8/1) loamy coarse sand, apedal-single grain, abundant

quartz gravel and occasional stonesC 30 cm light grey (10YR7/1) merging to white (10YR8/1) loamy coarse sand, apedal – single grain, abundant

quartz gravel and occasional stones.

Profile 428 – Dark-brown gradational soils (Princetown 7520: map ref. 154130).

O2 1-0 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) silty loam, strong crumb structure, abrupt, smooth boundary.A1 0-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, strong crumb structure, occasional angular sandstones,

clear smooth boundaryA3 15-30 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure with some massive areas,

angular sandstones, gradual boundaryB2 30-90 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) medium clay with occasional pale-brown (10YR6/3) mottles, moderate

subangular blocky structure (3 cm) angular sandstones up to 200 mm in diameter common, diffuseboundary

C 90 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/8) sandy loam with greyish brown (7.5YR5/2) mottles increasing withdepth, weak subangular blocky structure becoming massive with depth, weathering angular sandstones.

Profile 489 – Red calcareous gradational soil (Geelong 7721: map ref. 391716).

A1 0-10 cm reddish brown (5YR4/4) sandy clay loam, weak crumb structure, clear boundaryB21 10-30 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) medium clay, strong subangular blocky structure (10 mm), diffuse boundaryB22 30-70 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) medium clay, strong subangular blocky (40 mm), hard when dry, diffuse

boundaryC 70 cm weathering limestone and marl

Profile 490 – Yellow-brown calcareous sodic duplex soil, coarse structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 378710)

A1 0-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) fine sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure, abrupt boundaryB21 15-35 cm brown (10YR4/3) heavy clay, strong subangular blocky structure (40 mm), hard when dry. Some

ironstone gravel, diffuse boundaryB22 35-70 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/4) heavy clay, strong subangular blocky structure (40 mm), hard when dry,

diffuse boundaryC 70 cm mottled light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) and yellowish red (5YR5/6) sandy clay, moderate subangular

blocky structure (50 mm), hard when dry.

Profile 492 – Mottled yellow and red duplex soil (Geelong7721: map ref. 345782)

A1 0-30 cm brown (10YR4/3) fine sandy loam, very weak subangular blocky structure, some ironstone gravel, abruptboundary

B2 30-110 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6) and yellowish red (5YR5/6) medium clay, strong subangular blockystructure (4 mm), clay skins, diffuse irregular boundary.

C 110 cm mottled dark red (2.5YR3/6(, grey (10YR5/1) and yellowish brown (10YR5/8) medium clay, hard whendry, moderate subangular blocky structure.

Profile 497 – Yellow gradational soil, weak structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 147603)

A1 0-10 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) fine sandy loam, apedal-single grain, clear boundaryA2 10-20 cm brown (10YR5/3) fine sandy loam, apedal-single grain, gradual boundaryA3 20-30 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/4) fine sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (10 mm), diffuse

boundaryB2 30-90 cm brownish yellow (10YR6/6) merging to light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) sandy clay to light clay, weak

subangular blocky structure, some ironstone fragments, diffuse boundaryC 90 cm yellow (10YR7/6) sandy clay, apedal-single grain.

Profile 499 – Yellow-brown duplex soil, coarse structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 282647)

A1 0-10 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, gradual boundaryA2 10-30 cm grey (10YR5/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryB21 30-50 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (40 mm), organic

stains on ped faces, diffuse boundaryB22 50-120 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) sandy clay loam, subangular blocky structure (40 mm), clay skins,

diffuse boundaryC 120 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) sandy clay, apedal-massive.

Profile 500 – Grey sand soil, kaolinitic clay underlay (Geelong 7721: map ref. 151633)

A1 0-10 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) sandy clay loam, very weak subangular blocky structure, abundantquartz gravel, clear boundary

A2 10-50 cm brownish yellow (10YR6/6) sandy clay loam, apedal, abundant quartz gravelII�C 50 cm very pale brown (10YR8/3) medium clay, weak platy structure, hard when dry

Profile 601 – Mottled yellow and red duplex soil with ironstone (Geelong 7721: map ref. 157687)

A1 0-20 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/3) fine sandy loam, apedal-single grain, occasional ironstone gravel, gravelboundary

A3 20-30 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) light clay with some red (2.5YR5/8) mottled, moderate subangular blockystructure (3 mm), ironstone gravel common, gradual boundary

B21 30-90 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6) and red (2.5YR5/8) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (2mm), clay skins, abundant ironstone gravel, diffuse boundary

B22 90 cm mottled dark yellowish brown (10YR4/6), light-grey (2.5YR7/1) and red (10YR4/6) heavy clay, strongangular blocky structure (2 mm), abundant ironstone gravel often in layers, or floaters of ironstone

Profile 606 – Yellow-brown sodic duplex soil, coarse structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 249636)

A1 0-35 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, clear boundaryA2 35-60 cm light brownish grey (10YR6/2) loamy fine sand, apedal, abrupt boundaryB2 60 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) fine sandy clay with grey (10YR5/1) mottles, moderate subangular

blocky structure (45 mm), hard when dry

� IIC – 2C

Profile 607 – Brown gradational soil, weak structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 161091)

O2 10-0 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA1 0-20 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA2 50-80 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) silty clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure

80 cm water table

Profile 608 – Grey sand soil with hardpans, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 045257)

A1 0-25 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) loamy fine sand, weak subangular blocky structure, gradual smooth boundaryA2 25-60 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) fine sand, weak subangular blocky structure, occasional quartz

gravel, clear wavy boundaryB1 60-69 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryB2 69-75 cm dark-brown (10YR3/2) sandy clay loam, apedal-single grain, abrupt wavy boundaryIICm 75 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) cemented sand, apedal-massive, extremely hard

Profile 609 – Black sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 462374)

O2 10-0 cm black (10YR2/1) silty loam, weak crumb structure (1 mm), abundant roots, clear wavy boundaryB2 42-90 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) heavy clay, some yellow (10YR7/6) mottles, strong angular blocky (4

mm), diffuse wavy boundaryC 90 cm mottled light grey (2.5YR7/3) and yellow (2.5YR7/6) light clay, weak angular blocky structure (2 mm)

Profile 735 – Brown duplex soil (Otway 7620: map ref. 527208)

A1 0-5 cm black (10YR2/1) clay loam, moderate crumb structure, clear smooth boundaryA2 5-30 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) clay loam, light brownish grey (10YR6/2) when dry, weak angular blocky

structure, clear smooth boundaryB21 30-60 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) medium clay with yellowish brown (10YR5/6) mottles, moderate angular

blocky structure (4 mm), diffuse boundaryB22 60-90 cm greyish brown (10YR5/2) medium clay with yellow (10YR7/8) mottles, strong angular blocky structure

(4 mm), clear wavy boundaryB3 90-128 cm greyish brown (2.5YR5/2) light clay with yellow (2.5YR7/8) mottles, moderate angular blocky structure,

abundant weathering sandstonesC 128 cm weathering with lenses of clay between joints

Profile 736 – Brown friable gradational soil (Otway 7620: map ref. 482308)

A1 0-25 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, diffuse smoothboundary

B21 25-30 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR3/4) medium clay, strong subangular blocky structure (11 mm), friable peds,gradual boundary

B22 30-110 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) light clay, moderate angular blocky structure (1 mm), friable peds, angular weatheringsandstone fragments common, clear irregular boundary

C 110 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) light clay, weak subangular blocky structure, weathering sandstonefragments common

Profile 737 – Grey sand soil, structured clay underlay (Otway 7620: map ref. 379338).

A1 0-10 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) light sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradualwavy boundary

A2 10-20 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) light sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm),gradual wavy boundary

B1 20-30 cm very dark brown (7.5YR2/2) sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure, abrupt boundary, brokenhorizon

B2m 30-40 cm mottled dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) and black (10YR2/1) clay loam, apedal-massive, ferruginousand organic cementation, extremely hard when dry, clear boundary

IIC1 40-72 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/8) and dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) medium clay, moderate angularblocky structure (40 mm), organic stains on ped faces, diffuse boundary

IIC2 72 cm mottled light grey (2.5YR6/0) and yellowish brown (10YR5/8) medium clay, moderate angular blockystructure

Profile 739 – Black sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 131133)

A11 0-20 cm black (7.5YR2/1) sandy loam, moderate crumb structure, very high in organic matter, diffuse boundary

A12 20-85 cm black (7.5YR2/1) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryB1 85-90 cm very dark brown (7.5YR2/1) fine sandy loam, apedal-massive, ferruginous stains, abrupt wavy boundaryB2m 90-120 cm very dark brown (7.5YR2/2) fine sandy loam, apedal-massive, very firm when moist, extremely hard

when dry, ferruginous cementations, abrupt boundary, broken horizonC 120 cm very pale brown (10YR7/3) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, occasional gavel layers and ironstone

beds

Profile 740 – Yellow sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 162312)

A11 0-60 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, occasional ironstone and quartz gravel, gradualirregular boundary

A12 60-110 cm strong brown (7.5YR5/6) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, gradual smooth boundaryB2 110-180 cm yellowish red (5YR5/8) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, occasional ironstone and quartz gravel, gradual

irregular boundaryC 180 cm strong brown (7.5YR5/6) sand with some red (2.5YR4/8) mottles, apedal.

Profile 741 – Yellow gradational soil, weak structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 000241)

A11 0-15 cm black (10YR2/1) sandy loam, apedal-single grain, clear smooth boundaryA12 15-37 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryA2 37-47 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) sand, light-grey (10YR7/1) when dry, apedal-single grain, abrupt

boundary, broken horizon.B21 47-90 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) clayey sand with some brownish yellow (10YR6/6) mottles, weak subangular blocky

structure (2 mm), ironstone gravel and angular fragments common, diffuse smooth boundaryB22 90-180 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) light sandy clay loam with some brownish yellow (10YR6/6) mottles, weak

subangular blocky structure, ironstone common, clear wavy boundaryC 180 cm yellowish red (5YR4/8) light sandy clay loam, apedal-massive.

Profile 742 – Grey sand soil, uniform texture (Otway 7620: map ref. 180319)

A1 0-30 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, gradual smooth boundaryA2 30-90 cm dark-grey (10YR4/1) sand, light-grey (10YR6/1) with depth, apedal-single grain, abrupt irregular

boundary with tongues continuing to more than 2 m depthB21 90-98 cm dark brown (7.5YR3/2) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, hard when dry, clear irregular boundary, existing

as cappings to undulating horizonB22 98-170 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/6) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, some ironstone gravel and stones,

gradual boundary, exists as columns separated by tongues of A2 horizon materialC1 170-210 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) sand, apedal-single grain, some ironstone, clear smooth boundaryC2m 210 cm mottled brownish yellow (10YR6/8) and black (10YR2/1), apedal-massive, extremely hard when wet and

dry, ferruginous cementation.

Profile 743 – Yellow-brown calcareous sodic duplex soil, coarse structure (Colac 7621: map ref. 416549)

A1 0-20 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) fine sandy loam, moderate crumb structure (2 mm), diffuse smooth boundaryA2 20-38 cm very dark brown (10YR2/3) sandy clay loam, greyish brown (10YR5/2) when dry, moderate subangular

blocky structure (8 mm), some ironstone gravel, abrupt wavy boundaryB21 38-60 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) heavy clay, strong angular blocky structure (2 mm), very hard when dry,

diffuse smooth boundaryB22 60-120 cm dark greyish brown (2.5YR4/2) heavy clay, strong angular blocky structure (35 mm) with angular blocky

(2 mm) secondary structure, hard when dry, soft accumulations of calcium carbonate, gradual smoothboundary.

Profile 744 – Mottled yellow and red duplex soil (Colac 7621: map ref. 434469)

A11 0-10 cm very dark brown (10YR2/3) fine sandy loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), clear smoothA12 10-20 cm very dark brown (10YR2/3) fine sandy loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradual

wavy boundaryA2 20-44 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/4) fine sandy loam, pale-brown (10YR6/3) when dry, apedal-massive, some

ironstone gravel, abrupt wavy boundaryB2 44-150 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR4/4) and red (2.5YR4/8) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (4

mm), clay skins, gradual wavy boundaryC 150 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6) red, (2.5YR4/8) and grey (2.5YR5/0) light clay, weak subangular

blocky structure.

Profile 746 – Mottled yellow and red gradational soil (Colac 7621: map ref. 319393)

A1 0-10 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (5 mm), clear smoothboundary

B1 10-48 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) light clay, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradual wavyboundary

B2 48-100 cm mottled dark greyish brown (10YR4/6) and yellowish red (5YR5/8) medium clay, strong angular blockystructure (1 mm), clay skins, gradual wavy boundary

B3 100-150 cm mottled strong brown (7.5YR5/6), red (2.5YR4/8) and grey (2.5YR5/0) medium clay, moderate angularblocky structure, gradual irregular boundary

C 150 cm mottled grey (2.5YR6/0), red (2.5YR4/8) and reddish yellow (7.5YR6/8) medium clay, moderate angularblocky structure (5 mm), occasional ironstone.

Profile 748 – Brown gradational soil (Corangamite 7521: map ref. 147368)

A1 0-6 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (11 mm), clear smoothboundary

A2 6-17 cm brown (10YR4/3) fine sandy clay loam, weak angular blocky structure (9 mm), gradual wavy boundaryB21 17-30 cm brown (10YR4/3) medium clay, strong subangular blocky structure (45 mm), diffuse wavy boundaryB22 30-90 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (2 mm), clay skins,

gradual smooth boundaryB3 90-104 cm mottled grey (5YR5/1) and brownish yellow (10YR6/8) sandy clay, weak subangular blocky structure,

some iron cemented gravel and stones, abrupt boundary, broken horizonC 104 cm weathering sandstone

Profile 749 – Red gradational soil, weak structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 055325)

A1 0-5 cm dark-brown (7.5YR3/2) silty loam, apedal-single grain, ironstone gravel commonA3 5-20 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (5 mm), abundant ironstone gravel,

gradual smooth boundaryB21 20-45 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) silty clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (5 mm), occasional

ironstone gravel, gradual irregular boundaryC 90 cm brown (7.5YR4/6) clay loam, weak angular blocky structure (4 mm), ironstone gravel common.

Profile 750 – Yellow-brown gradational soil, coarse structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 982271)

O2 2-0 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy clay loam, weak crumb structure (1 mm), abrupt wavy boundaryA1 0-14 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure (15 mm), clear wavy boundaryA3 14-26 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2), fine sandy loam, brown (10YR5/3) when dry, weak angular blocky

structure, hard when dry, gradual wavy boundaryB1 26-60 cm brown (10YR4/3) medium clay with yellow (10YR7/6) mottles, moderate subangular blocky structure (3

mm), hard when dry, gradual wavy boundaryB2 60-105 cm mottled grey (2.5YR6/0) and brownish yellow (10YR6/6) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure

(4 mm), clay skins, hard when dry, gradual irregular boundaryIIC1 105 cm mottled grey (10YR6/1) and yellow (10YR7/6) medium clay, some gleying, moderate columnar structure

(60 mm), strong angular blocky secondary structure (8 mm), clay skins.

Profile 782 – Mottled yellow and red gradational soil with ironstone (Princetown 7520: map ref. 987357)

A1 0-10 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) sandy clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (5 mm),occasional ironstone gravel, gradual smooth boundary

A2 10-41 cm strong brown (7.5YR3/6) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm), ironstone gravel common,diffuse smooth boundary

A3 41-60 cm strong brown (7.5YR5/6) silty clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, ironstone gravelcommon, diffuse smooth boundary

B2 60-120 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/4) and yellowish brown (10YR5/4) silty clay, strong subangular blockystructure (4 mm), clay skins, ironstone gravel common, diffuse irregular boundary

B3 120-150 cm mottled grey (2.5YR5/0), red (2.5YR4/8) and yellowish brown (10YR5/4) silty clay, strong subangularblocky structure (4 mm), clay skins, ironstone gravel common, diffuse irregular boundary

C 150 cm mottled grey (2.5YR5/0) and red (10YR4/6) silty clay, strong angular blocky structure (2 mm), clay skins,abundant ironstone gravel or complete bands of continuous ironstone alternating with kaolinitic clay.

Profile 783 – Brown duplex soil, coarse structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 825187)

A1 0-20 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm, clear smoothboundary

A2 20-35 cm greyish brown (10YR5/2) loamy fine sand, light-grey (10YR7/1) when dry, apedal-massive, occasionalironstone gravel, abrupt smooth boundary

B21 35-100 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (50 mm) with strongangular blocky secondary structure (4 mm), clay skins, diffuse wavy boundary

B22 100 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6), yellowish red (5YR5/8) and grey (10YR5/1) medium clay, weakangular blocky structure, clay skins, occasional ironstone gravel

Profile 784 – Brown calcareous gradational soil, coarse structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 887167)

A1 0-10 cm black (10YR2/1) light clay, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradual wavy boundaryB21 10-42 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) heavy clay, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), clay skins,

hard when dry, diffuse smooth boundaryB22 42-60 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR5/4) heavy clay, strong angular blocky structure (3 mm), clay skins, diffuse

wavy boundaryB2ca 60-90 cm very pale brown (10YR7/4) medium clay, dominated by soft accumulations of calcium carbonate,

moderate subangular blocky structure (6 mm), clear wavy boundaryC1 90-120 cm mottled light grey (10YR7/1) and brownish yellow (10YR6/6) medium clay, weak subangular blocky

structure (50 mm), calcium carbonate concretions common, gradual wavy boundaryC2 120-165 cm mottled light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) and light-grey (10YR7/1) heavy clay, weak angular blocky

structure (50 mm), some calcium carbonate concretions, clear smooth boundaryC3 165-180 cm mottled very pale brown (10YR7/3), brownish yellow (10YR6/8) and grey (10YR6/1) medium clay,

apedal-massive, soft nodules of lime and phosphate common, clear smooth boundaryC4 180 cm mottled pale brown (10YR6/3), yellow (10YR7/8) and grey (10YR6/1) medium clay, weak angular

blocky structure (80 mm), some calcium carbonate concretions.

Grey sand soil with hardpan, uniform texture –Profile 608

Grey sand soil, uniform texture – Profile 742

Black sand soil, uniform texture – Profile 739 Black sand soil, uniform texture – Profile 609

Yellow-brown gradational soil, coarse structure –Profile 750

Grey sand soil, structured clay underlay – Profile 747

Brown friable gradational soil – Profile 736 Brown calcareous gradational soil, coarse structure –Profile 784

Mottled yellow and red gradational soil withironstone – Profile 782

Mottled yellow and red gradational soil – Profile 746

Mottled yellow and red duplex soil – Profile 744 Brown duplex soil, coarse structure – Profile 783

AAPPPPEENNDDIIXX IIVV –– MMiinnoorr CCoommppoonneennttss ooff LLaanndd SSyysstteemmss

Anglesea

1. Outcrops of Tertiary limestone with red calcareous gradational soil occur at Aireys Inlet. They are severely affectedby the coastal environment as in component 1, but the soils are gradational and permeability is high. On the moresheltered sites these area are similar to the steeper slopes of the Bellbrae land system.

2. The estuarine swamps at Anglesea have small areas of saline soils supporting communities of Arthrocnemumarbusculum, which are similar to the swamps found in Connewarre land system.

3. Some of the recent gully infills and depositional fans in the lower parts of the landscape have yellow gradational soilswith weak structure. Open forests of Eucalyptus baxteri, E. sideroxylon and E. obliqua are encountered. The subsoilshave high values for sodium on the exchange complex.

Barwon River

Soils in the northern parts are strongly influenced by alluvium derived from basalt. They have higher calcium carbonate levelsreflected by higher pH values, and are more heavily textured in the subsoil. Permeabilities are lower.

Beech Forest

Remnants of Tertiary sediments are occasionally found on high parts of the landscape. Examples occur at Lavers Hill,Wyelangta and Weeaproinah. White sand soils of uniform texture are found at Lavers Hill, and similar light-textured soils atthe other sites.

Bunker Hill

Tertiary olivine basalt with brown gradational soils and open forests of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. ovata are encountered on thenorthern slopes of Bunker Hill. The soils are somewhat heavier-textured than those found on Cretaceous sediments, andpermeabilities are lower.

Deepdene

On some of the steeper slopes below lateritic plateau remnants, indurated ironstone layers outcrop at the surface. Stony redgradational soils are found at these sites.

Gellibrand River

1. The most poorly drained sites are those furthest from the major stream channels and have grey gradational soils withstrong gleying. The vegetation is a closed scrub of Melaleuca squarrosa, Leptospermum juniperinum and, in someareas, L. lanigerum

2. Free water surfaces may locally cover a significant part of the landscape. The lakes and swamps at the mouths of theAire, Gellibrand and Barham Rivers provide a range of saline and fresh-water habitats.

Hordern Vale

1. To the east of Cape Otway, coastal erosion has exposed beds of Lower Cretaceous sediments below the Tertiarysediments. Brown duplex soils occur on steep slopes, and the vegetation is an open forest of Eucalyptus globulus, E.obliqua and E. baxteri.

2. Surrounding the low woodlands of E. kitsoniana and in some other localities, grey sand soils with structured clayunderlays are frequently found. The drainage is often impeded and the vegetation is usually a closed scrub ofMelaleuca squarrosa and Leptospermum juniperinum.

Kawarren

1. Tertiary olivine basalt with stony red gradational soils and open forest of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. viminalis is foundat the Kawarren East State School, and on the sides of ‘basalt hill’ at Gellibrand. The crest of ‘basalt hill’ have heavy-textured brown gradational soils with E. ovata.

2. Some of the better-drained valley floors, such as Ten Mile Creek, have brown gradational soils with weak structuressupport tall open forests of E. obliqua and E. viminalis.

Lorne

1. Remnant hill cappings of Tertiary sediments exist at Lorne, Cape Patton, Skenes Creek, and south of Peters Hill alongIronbark Spur. The soils on these sediments are usually yellow gradational soils with weak structures, or grey sandsoils with hardpans. The vegetation is commonly a woodland of Eucalyptus obliqua, E. radiata and E. nitida.

2. At the mouths of the Erskins, Cumberland, Wye and Kennett Rivers, and Skenes Creek, aeolian deposits of calcareousdune sand are found. Soils are yellow calcareous sand soils of uniform texture, which formerly supported tussockgrasslands of Spinifex hirsutus, Scirpus nodosus and Calocephalus brownii. Many areas have become unstable due totrampling and destruction of native vegetation, and restabilization has been effected by hand-planting Ammophilaarenaria.

Mount Sabine

Remnant hill cappings of Tertiary sediments are found at Benwerrin and just south of Boonah. Yellow gradational soils withweak structures contain quartz gravel and support woodlands of Eucalyptus obliqua, E. nitida and E. radiata.

Pennyroyal

1. Near Bambra, broad gentle crests overlie laterite. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils with ironstone occur on theindurated ironstone layers, overlying mottled clays.

2. On the highest parts of the landscape to the east of Bambra, high proportions of quartz gravel occur in the parentmaterial, and stony yellow gradational soils have developed. Open forests of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. radiata andE. viminalis occupy these sites.

3. The northern margins of the land system often have grey sand soils of uniform texture developed on deep deposits ofquartz sand. These areas carry woodland of E. viminalis, usually with Pteridium esculentum in the understorey.

Rivernook

1. Inland from Moonlight Head, yellow gradational soils with weak structures are common on moderate to steep slopes.The native vegetation is dependent on exposure to coastal winds, but areas carry Eucalyptus baxteri.

2. Near Apollo Bay, grey sand soils with structured clay underlays are found on many parts of the landscape and usuallysupport low woodlands of E. obliqua with Leptospermum juniperinum and Melaleuca squarrosa in the understorey.

Tomahawk Creek

The northern side of Tomahawk Creek has alluvial terraces with coarsely structured yellow-brown gradational soils. Openforests of Eucalyptus ovata and E. radiata occur on these areas.

Wonga

Tertiary sediments with high proportions of quartz gravel are occasionally found. Woodland of Eucalyptus baxteri and E.radiata grows on stony yellow gradational soils.

AAPPPPEENNDDIIXX VV –– FFlloorriissttiicc LLiisstt

Reference: J. H. Willis. ‘A Handook to Plants of Victoria’ Vol. 1 (1970), Vol. II (1972)

Acacia implexa lightwood Hedycarya angustifolia austral mulberryAcacia longifolia sallow wattle Helichrysum paralium coast everlastingAcacia mucronata narrow-leaf wattle Isopogon ceratophyllus horny cone-bushAcacia myrtifolia myrtle wattle Juncus spp. rushesAcacia pycantha golden wattle Leptospermum juniperinum prickly tea-treeAcacia suaveolens sweet wattle Leptospermum laevigatum coast tea-treeAcacia verniciflua varnish wattle Leptospermum lanigerum woolly tea-treeAcacia verticillata prickly moses Leptospermum myrsinoides heath tea-treeAcrotriche serrulata honey-pots Leucopogon glacialis twisted beard-heathAgropyron spp. wheat grasses Leucopogon parviflorus coast beard-heathAgrostis spp. bent grasses Lolium perenne* perennial rye-grassAlyxia buxifolia sea-box Medicago sativa* lucerneAmmophila arenaria* marram grass Melaleuca ericifolia swamp paperbarkAotus ericoides common aotus Melaleuca lanceolata moonahArthrocnemum arbusculum shrubby glasswort Melaleuca squarrosa scented paperbarkBanksia marginata silver banksia Microsorium diversifolium kangaroo fernBauera rubioides wiry bauera Nothofagus cunninghamii myrtle beechBedfordia salicina blanket-leaf Olearia argophylla musk dairy-bushBelchnum nudum fishbone water-fern Phalaris tuberosa* Toowoomba canary-grassBossiaea cinerea showy bossiaea Phebalium squameum satinwoodBursaria spinosa sweet bursaria Picea sitchensis* spruceCalocephalus brownii cushion-bush Pinus radiata* Monterey pineCarduus tenuiflorus* slender thistle Pinus laricio* black pineCarex spp. sedges Platylobium obtusangulum common flat-peaCarpobrotus rossii karkalla Poa spp. tussock grassCassinia aculeata dogwood Prostanthera lasianthos Victorian Christmas-bushCasuarina littoralis black she-oak Pseudotsuga menziesii* Douglas firCasuarina stricta drooping she-oak Pteridium esculentum austral brackenCirsium vulgare* spear thistle Puccinella spp. saltmarsh-grassesCyathea marcescens skirted tree-fern Pultenaea muellieri Mueller’s bush-peaCynodon dactylon couch Ranunculus spp. buttercupsDactylis glomerata* cocksfoot Rubus spp.* blackberriesDanthonia spp. wallaby grasses Samolus repens creeping brookweedDicksonia antarctica soft tree-fern Scirpus calocarpus club-rushDillwynia glaberrima smooth parrot-pea Scirpus nodosus knobby club-rushEpacris impressa common heath Schoenus apogon common bug-rushEucalyptus aromaphloia scent-bark Senecio jacobaea ragwortEucalyptus baxteri brown stringybark Silybum marianum* variegated thistleEucalyptus camaldulensis river red gum Spinifex hirsutus hairy spinifexEucalyptus cypellocarpa mountain grey gum Sprengelia incarnata pink swamp-heathEucalyptus globulus southern blue gum Spyridium parvifolium Australian dusty millerEucalyptus goniocalyx long-leaf box Stipa spp. spear grassesEucalyptus leucoxylon yellow gum or white ironbark Tetragonia tetragonioides New Zealand spinachEucalyptus nitida shining peppermint Tetrarrhena juncea forest wire grassEucalyptus obliqua messmate stringybark Themeda australis kangaroo grassEucalyptus ovata swamp gum Trifolium fragiferum* strawberry cloverEucalyptus pauciflora white sallee Trifolium incarnatum* crimson cloverEucalyptus radiata narrow-leaf peppermint Trifolium pratense* red cloverEucalyptus regnans mountain ash Trifolium repens* white cloverEucalyptus sideroxylon red ironbark Trifolium subterraneum* subterranean cloverEucalyptus viminalis manna gum Xanthorrhoea australis austral grass-treeFestuca arundinacea cv.Demeter*

demeter fescue (tall fescue)* exotic species

Frankenia pauciflora southern sea-heathGahnia filum chaffy saw-edgeGleichenia circinnata pouched coral-fernHakea ulicina furze hakea

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