A SURVEY OF MEASURES OF SPIRITUALAND TRANSPERSONAL CONSTRUCTS:PART ONE-RESEARCH UPDATE

Douglas A. MacDonaldWindsor, Ontario. Ca/1ada

Harris L. FriedmanFort Myers. Florida

Jeffrey G. KuentzelDetroit. Michigan

Since the publication of MacDonald. LeClair. Holland. Alter. and Friedman (1995 l.an article which reported on available measures of constructs relevant to transper­sonal research. the authors of the present paper have continued to monitor the liter­ature in search of additional information in the area of psychometric testing: relatedto spirituality and transpersonal psychology. Although we have seen an increaseduse of these measures, as well as an emergence of several new instruments designedto tap spiritual and transpersonal concepts. in scientific journals in generaL we alsohave noted a continuing problem discussed in MacDonald et aL (1995). This con­cerns the lack of organized progress in empirical developments. That is. despite thefact that more research appears to be occurring, there are still few cumulative trendswhere investigators are incorporating (or even citing) and building upon previousresearch. This endemic problem has also been observed by others (e.g .. Weaver.Kline, Samford, Lucas. Larson, & Gorsuch.1998). Ostensibly. an intelligible andprogressive body of knowledge cannot grow if scientists do not, or cannot, perceivea coherent area of theory and research within which their ideas and data can be con­textualized and interpreted.

Taking the aforementioned into consideration, the purpose of this aI1icle is to providethe results of our ongoing literature searches with two specific aims in mind. namelyto (a) advocate the increased use of psychometric instmments in transpersonal andspiritual research to further scientific development in the field and (b) aid in bringingsome order to the growing body of empirical literature by providing information onstudies that have utilized a number of the more promising standardized instruments ofspiritual and transpersonal constructs. Due to their extensiveness. our findings are

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The Journal of' Tral1.lperso/lal P.IYc!lOlogl'. JCJCJCJ. Vol. 3 J, No . .:: 137

reported in two parts which are embodied in separate articles. The tirst part (i.e., thispaper) is a summary of information on empirical research that used any of the 20instruments described at length in the prior test survey completed by MacDonald etaI., (1995). We elected to use a "test-driven" instead of "topic-driven" format of pre­sentation because it provides information about available findings in a structure thathelps clarify the usefulness of the previously described tests and furthers their possi­ble utilization in future research. The second article provides detailed overviews often additional instruments we consider important and which were either not men­tioned or, if mentioned. not described in detail in the previous MacDonald et a1. paper.In addition, the second article provides citations for an additional number of new mea­sures that have appeared recently and which may prove to have utility in the tield.

LITERATURE SEARCHES: PARAMETERS

Ongoing literature searches were completed between 1995 and 1999 through both for­mal (e.g., computerized database searches) and informal (e.g., authors' knowledge ofemerging literature) means. The last computer searches, which involved PsyclNFO andMedline Online databases, were completed in September 1999. Search terms involvedthe name of each measure and consisted of the following: Spirituality AssessmentScale, Spiritual Orientation Inventory, Index of Core Spiritual Experience. MysticalExperiences Scale. Peak Experiences Scale. Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale, Self­Expansiveness Level Form, Transpersonal Orientation To Learning. Ego GraspingOrientation, East-West Questionnaire. Paranormal Beliefs Scale, Assessment Schedulefor Altered States of Consciousness, Integration Inventory, Boundary Questionnaire,Personal Philosophy Inventory. Holistic Living Inventory, Death Transcendence Scale.Temperament and Character Inventory. Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory.and the Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Other search terms. which were used in combina­tion, consisted of spirituality, spirituaL transpersonal. measurement, and assessment.

RESULTS OF LITERATURE SEARCHES

Research was found for 19 of the 20 tests described in MacDonald et a!., (1995)(i.e., all but the Integration Inventory) and is reported below. It should be noted thatalthough we made efforts to be comprehensive in the literature we surveyed, oursearches were not exhaustive (e.g .. we did not complete recent searches on otherdatabases). As such. it is likely that there are many other studies involving mostmeasures that we did not tind and which are not reported here l . Also. to minimizeredundancy, this article does not include any literature was cited in MacDonald eta1., (1995). The reader is encouraged to refer to the 1995 paper for information ontest development and validation and, in some cases. descriptions of relevant empir­ical research.

Spirituality Assessment Scale (SAS; Howden. 1992). The SAS was used in onestudy. MacDonald (1997, in press) completed a large scale factor analytic studywhich utilized numerous measures of spirituality and related constmcts. Factoranalysis of the four SAS subscales (i.e .. Unifying Interconnectedness, Purpose andMeaning in Life. Innerness. and Transcendence) along with 10 other instrumentsshowed that the SAS scores loaded primarily on one of the seven factors found. This

138 The Journal ot' Trampersonal Ps\'cholog\~ 1999. Vol. 31. No.2

factor, labeled Existential Well-Being, also housed a strong negative loading fromthe Ego Grasping Orientation (see below). The SAS Transcendence subscale wasseen to produce a secondary loading on a factor identified as embodying spiritualexperience, and the SAS Innerness and Unifying Interconnectedness subscales gen­erated secondary loadings on another factor recognized as reflecting non-theistic

spiritual beliefs.

Spiritual Orientation Inventon' (501: Elkins. Hedstrom. Hughes, Leaf; & Saunders1988). The search for information on the SOl yielded four studies. First. Zainuddin(1993) factor analyzed the nine SOl dimensions (i.e .. Transcendent Dimension,Meaning and Purpose in Life, Mission in Life, Sacredness in Life. Material Values,Altruism, Idealism. Awareness of the Tragic, and Fruits of Spirituality) and obtaineda two-factor solution. which was interpreted as reflecting the experiential and valuedimensions of spirituality. MacDonald (1997. in press) factor analyzed the SOldimensions with 10 other related instruments and found that it predominantly con­tributed to a non-theistic spiritual beliefs factor. However. the SOl TranscendentDimension and Fruits of Spirituality were found to contribute to another factor iden­tified as relating to the positive aspects of pursuing one's spirituality. The SOlTranscendence Dimension also generated an elevated loading on a spiritual experi­ence factor. In another study. Tloczynski. Knoll, and Fitch (J 997) used scores on theSOl and another instrument tapping religious ideoJogy to categorize participants intofive groups (i.e.. High Spirituality. High Religious Ideology. High Combined.Moderate Combined. and Low Combined) and then compared the groups on measuresof self-actualization and psychopathology. They found that the High Spirituality groupobtained significantly higher scores than the Low Combined group on several sub­scales of the self-actualization measure. Differences between the groups were alsofound on a measure of Type A personality traits. Lastly, Ellason (1992), compared SOlscores of persons with and without multiple personality disorder (MPD) and foundthat the MPD group showed higher levels of overall spiritual orientation. On a sub­scale level, the MPD group obtained higher scores than the non-MPD group on SOlSacredness of Life. Meaning and Purpose in Life, Mission in Life, and Awareness ofthe Tragic. Subsequent correlational analyses indicated that dissociation was not relat­ed to spiritual orientation. Also. a measure of ego resiliency was found to positivelyassociate with the SOl Transcendent Dimension and Fruits of Spirituality.

Index of Core Spiritual Experience (INSPIRIT: Kass. Friedman, Leserman. Zutter­meister. & Bensoll, 199/). Six studies were uncovered for the INSPIRIT. MacDonald(1997, in press) included the INSPIRIT along with ten other tests in his factor ana­lytic study and found the measure to contribute most appreciably to a factor identi­fied as religiousness, and less so to a second factor relating to the positive gainsobtained from spirituality. Though MacDonald obtained a cogent spiritual experi­ence factor. the INSPIRIT did not load on it. Upton (1998) correlated the INSPIRITto four measures of transpersonal constructs (i.e .. Ego Grasping Orientation, Self­Expansiveness Level Form. Boundary Questionnaire. and the Temperament andCharacter Inventory Self-Transcendence Dimension) and found significant cor­relations with all instruments. A highly elevated coefficient was obtained with theTemperament and Character Inventory scale. while coefficients of low to moderatestrength were found with the remaining tests. Shapiro. Schwartz. and Bonner (1998)

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found that INSPIRIT scores increased when it was used as an outcome measure in acontrolled study examining the effects of a short-term stress reduction meditationprogram. Alleman (1993) used the INSPIRIT along with some other related mea­sures and found scores to be elevated for lesbian participants. McBride. Arthur.Brooks, and Pilkington (1998) used the INSPIRIT to create three participant groups(i.e., High, Medium and Low levels of intrinsic spirituality) which were obtained

through a family practice residency clinic. They found an association betweenINSPIRIT scores and a measure of health and physical pain. Finally. VandeCreek.Ayres, and Bassham (1995) provide empirical information on the INSPIRIT with asample of medical and surgical outpatients and associated family members. includ­ing the description of subscales they obtained with the instrument.

Mvstical Experiences SCI/Ie (M-Scale: Hood.1975). Numerous studies were foundfor the M-Scale. Focusing first on more measurement-oriented articles, Reinert andStifler (1993) replicated the M-Scale item-level factor structure as found by Caird(1988), but found little evidence in support of the validity of the factors. Block­Olexick (1993) examined the psychometric properties of the M-Scale through acomparison of persons who demonstrated problems with alcohol versus individualswho were in the process of recovering from alcoholism. She found evidence in sup­port of M-Scale score reliability and factorial validity. and moderate support for theinstrument's convergent and discriminant validity. MacDonald (1997, in press) uti­lized the eight rational subscales of the M-Scale in a factor analysis along with 10other related measures and found that the subscales all loaded heavily on a factorrelating to spiritual experience. The M-Scale Religious Quality subscale was alsofound to produce a modest secondary loading on a factor identified as religiousness.

In six studies. the M-Scale \vas utilized as a variable to predict and/or examinegroup membership with samples differing in experiential and helief system back­grounds. In the first. Stit1er. Greer. Sneck. and Dovenmuehle ( 1993) found, via dis­criminant analysis. that the M-Scale alone could differentiate normals from psychi­atric inpatients with psychotic disorders and senior members of contemplativeand mystical groups but was unsuccessful at distinguishing between the latter twogroups. When the M-Scale was used in conjunction with the Ego Grasping Orienta­tion (see below) and a measure of narcissistic personality. however. Stit1er et a!..uncovered a two-dimensional discriminant function which allowed for a moderate­ly high degree of accuracy in prediction of membership for all three groups. In asecond study, Buechele (1989) used the two M-Scale factor scores along with mea­sures of personality variables. orientation to religion. and report of charismatic giftsto correctly classify Catholic charismatics and Catholic parishioners with a fairdegree of accuracy into three groups (i.e .. prayer group charismatics, charismaticparishioners. and noncharismatic parishioners). In a similar vein. Herron (1992)used the items of the M-Scale in combination with items drawn from other sourcesin the development of a questionnaire which produced significantly higher scoresfor spiritual (e.g .. Christian. Zen. Yoga) practitioners compared to persons withoutatfiliation or interest in spiritual practice. Majeski (1998) found the M-ScaleGeneral Mysticism Factor to significantly differ across meditators and non-medita­tors. Also, Mercer and Durham ( 1999) used a modified version of the M-Scale andfound that persons differing in sex role and religious affiliation obtained different

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scores for mystical experience (e.g .. feminine and androgynous subjects scoredhigher. as did Catholics compared to Protestants). Finally. Smith (1989) found asignificant difference in M-Scale scores between persons identified as experiencedversus novice dreamers.

Six additional investigations were found involving the M-Scale. Two of these usedthe M-Sc:lle to examine the relation of mystical experience to creativity (Bray. 1989:Cowling 1983). However. neither study produced meaningful results. Bray (1989)also did not find a relation between M-Scale scores and a measure of time experi­ence. Jones-Barlock ( 1991) did not find any age differences in M-Scale scores in asample of women. Shafer ( 1982) found the M-Scale to be correlated with reportedpsychic experiences and with imagery vividness during an ESP test. Swartz andSeginer (1981) observed that individuals scoring high on the M-scaJe exhibited lessdestability (i.e., a motor skill) upon body rotation. Finally. Francis and Thomas(1996) correlated the M-Scale to a measure of Eysenck's three dimensional modelof personality and obtained a significant coefficient with extraversion but not withneuroticism or psychoticism.

Peak Experiences Scale (PES; Mathes. Zel'On, Rote I; & ]oergel; i 982). The search

for literature on the PES generated two studies. MacDonald (1997. in press) includ­ed the PES as well as 10 other related tests in his factor analytic study and found theinstrument to load most appreciably on a factor identified as spiritual experience. Inthe other study. Mathes (1982) found the PES to correlate with measures of hypnoticsusceptibility and romantic love.

intrinsic Religious Motil'iltion Scale (iRMS; Hoge. i 972). The search for documentson the IRMS produced seven studies. [n one investigation. Hoge and Can'ol (1973)failed to find a relationship between intrinsic religious motivation and racial preju­dice. In another, the IRMS, along with measures of related constructs. was used tosuccessfully predict adults' perception of internal control (Kivett, Watson. & Busch.1977). Two studies examined the relation of the [RMS to depression but produceddisparate results, Koenig (1995) observed an inverse relation between IRMS scoresand depression when using a prison inmate sample while IRMS scores were foundto be unrelated to depression in a sample of nursing home residents (Commerford& Reznikoff. 1996). An additional study suggested that intrinsic religious motiva­tion as tapped by the IRMS might be a moderating variable between death anxietyand religiosity (Thorson. Powell, Abdel-Khalek. & Beshai. 1997). Similarly.Clements (1998) found that higher intrinsic religious motivation. as per the lRMS.was related to less fear of death. Finally, MacDonald (1997. in press) found theIRMS to contribute to a religiousness factor when it was factor analyzed with 10other measures of similar constructs.

Self-Expansiveness LeI'el Form (SELF; Friedman. i983). The search for documentson the SELF produced a number of studies and articles. First, MacDonald (1997. inpress) included the SELF subscales (i.e .. personal. middle. and transpersonal) in hisfactor analysis of II spiritual and transpersonal measures and found that they formedan independent factor that contained no elevated loadings from any other measures.MacDonald. Gagnier. & Friedman (1999) attempted to explore the psychometric

A SurvCI' of Measures of Spiritual and Tra/l.\persollal COllstntc!S: Part One 141

properties of the SELF and found the measure to demonstrate adequate reliability andfactorial validity. Correlations with measures of related constructs (e.g., AssessmentSchedule of Altered States of Consciousness; Ego Permissiveness Inventory; TCISelf-Transcendence) generated some evidence of convergent validity, but it wasnoted that the coefficients were of low magnitude and. in some cases. contrary to the­oretical expectation. MacDonald et a1. also found, via correlational and factor analy­ses. the SELF Transpersonal subscale to be unrelated to the five factor model of per­sonality. Upton (1998) completed some simi lar analyses and found (a) evidence offact~rial validity. (b) some support for convergent validity. and (c) significant thoughmarginally strong correlations between the SELF subscales and the Openness toExperience Dimension of the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised, a measure of thefive factor model of personality. Majeski ( 1998) used the SELF in combination withthe M-Scale and the Self-Transcendence Dimension of the Temperament andCharacter Inventory to examine differences between meditators and non-meditatorsand obtained signiticant MANOVA results. However. when the SELF was examinedin isolation, no significant diflerences were obtained. Bursten (1989) utilized theSELF as part of a larger questionnaire to explore the transpersonal factors related to

leadership and social transformation and found, via factor analysis. evidence sup­porting the factorial validity of the Personal and Transpersonal subscales. Finally.Friedman and MacDonald (1997) used the SELF to illustrate how psychometricinstruments could inform and aid transpersonally-oriented clinical assessment.

Ego Grasping Orienation (EGO: Knoblauch & Falconer; 1986). The search for theEGO yielded three studies. The first study demonstrated that this measure. in con­junction with a test of narcissism. could separate both hospital staff members andmembers of a contemplative group from a group with psychoses and religious delu­sions (Stifler et a1. 1993). Furthermore. when this instrument was used in conjunctionwith a measure of mystical experiences that could separate the hospital staff from theother two groups, increased accuracy in sorting these groups resulted. MacDonald( 1997, in press) utilized the EGO in a factor analysis of I 1 measures of transpersonalconstructs and found the instrument to load heavily and negatively on a factor labeledexistential well-being. A third study specitically examined the validity of this measure(Uehara, Compton & Johnson. 1997). The researchers concluded that the EGO wouldbe improved as a measure of Taoist mental health if used in conjunction with otherscales tapping East-West orientation, self-esteem, social interest, and depression.

Transpersonal Orientatio/l to Learning (TOTL; Shapiro & Fit::.gerald, 1989). TheTOTL was found to have been used in only one study. In his factor analysis of IImeasures of spiritual and transpersonal constructs, MacDonald (1997. in press)found two of the four TOTL subscales (i.e., Mystical/OccultlParanormal TechniquesApplied to Schools and Transcendent Consciousness) to produce marked loadings ona factor identi tied as reflecting paranormal beliefs. In addition. three TOTL subscales(i.e., the two mentioned above along with Fantasy Techniques Applied to Schools),were observed to form an independent and uncorrelated factor.

East- West Questionnaire (EWQ: Gilgen & ClIO, 1979). The search for the EWQ gen­erated six studies, Compton (1983) found that the EWQ could differentiate Eastern­oriented meditators from Western-oriented individuals who had never meditated or

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practiced a martial art. A second study examined issues related to the response for­mat of the measure and observed that sex-role preference may impact EWQ scores(Gilgen & Bamholt!. 1992). Diakonova & Gilgen (I YY8) obtained a positive relationbetween Western-oriented scores on scores of measures of authoritarianism. Hur(1992) found that Chinese and American students differed in the Easternness of theirbelief systems, with especially notable differences seen in EWQ subscales tappingspiritual beliefs and rationality. MacDonald (I YY7, in press) included the two EWQspirituality subscales (i.e., Man and the Spiritual- Eastern and Western, respectively)in his factor analysis of II spirituality and transpersonaJ measures and found them toload heavily on a factor labeled religiousness. Finally, Braithwaite and Scott ( IY(1)provide an overview of the EWQ as a measure of values.

Paranormal Belhis Scale (PBS; Tobacyk & Milf(lrd, 1983). The search for documentson the PBS yielded 13 studies. Several center upon the factorial structure of the testand. in particular. discuss whether the PBS items are best captured by tive oblique ver­sus seven orthogonal factors (Haraldsson, & Houtkooper, 1996; Lawrence 1995a,1995b, 1997a, 1997b; Tobacyk. 1995a. 1995b). Thalbourne (1995). who found thePBS to be unrelated to affiliation to a religious faith, also discusses concerns regard­ing the PBS factor structure. The remaining research using the PBS focused upon arange of variables. Tobacyk. Wells. and Miller (19Y8) compared a group of personsreporting out-of-body experiences to a non-reporting group and found the former toobtain significantly higher scores on PBS Psi Beliefs. Spiritualism, and ExtraordinaryLife Forms subscales. Groth-Marnat and Pegden (1998) examined the relation of thePBS to measures of sensation seeking and locus of control: they observed that agreater external locus of control was associated with greater PBS total scores and withthe PBS subscales of Spiritualism and Precognition. Further, a positive associationwas found between sensation seeking and the PBS Psi Beliefs and Superstition sub­scales. Saucer, Cahoon. and Edmonds (1992) investigated the relation between thePBS and measures of atheistic beliefs and hypnotic susceptibility and obtained non­significant fmdings. Persinger and Richards ( 1991 ) found that the PBS differentiallyrelates to anomolous temporal lobe signs as a function of sex. Lastly, MacDonald(1997, in press) included the seven PBS subscales in his factor analysis of J I tests andfound six of the seven subscales to appreciably load on a factor identitied as paranor­mal beliefs. The PBS Traditional Religious Beliefs subscaJe was seen to contribute toa reI igiousness factor.

Assessment Schedule for Altered States of Comciousness (ASASC; van Quckel­belshe, Altstof{cr-Gleich, & HertH'eck, 1991). Three studies were uncovered thatused the ASASC. MacDonald (1997, in press) utili zed 13 of the 14 ASASC subscales(i.e., all but the Personal Data subscale), in both cOITelational and factor analyses inan effort to validate a multidimensional measurement model of spirituality. TheASASC subscales tapping paranormal beliefs and behaviors (i.e .. Esoterics,Parapsychology, Own View) were observed to relate most notably to indices of para­normal beliefs while the Positive Mystic Experiences was found to associate moststrongly explicit spiritual experience measures. The ASASC Negative Mystic Ex­periences subscale was observed to inversely relate to measures of existential well­being. All of the ASASC subscales, save Parapsychology, Own View. were seen, viafactor analysis, to load heavily on a factor identified as a generalized non-ordinary

A Survey o(A1easures o(Spiritlla! and Trallspersmw! Constructs: Part One 143

experiences dimension. In a second study. MacDonald. Gagnier. and Friedman(1999) also used the ASASC for test validation purposes. except they focused theirefforts on the SELF. In general. the ASASC subscales did not correlate with theSELF subscales in a theoretically consistent manner. Finally. MacDonald andHolland (1999) obtained significant correlations between the ASASC subscales anda measure of complex partial epileptic like signs.

Boundarv Questionnaire (BQ: Hartmann, 1991). The search for documents on theBQ produced three studies. One study examined the measure with a sample of ado­lescents and found that internal consistency, sex differences. and both dream recalland the experience of nightmares were related to the measure in a fashion similar toprevious findings on adults (Cowen & Levin, 1995). A second study found a positivecorrelation between the BQ and a personality measure supporting that the boundaryconstruct can be viewed as an aspect of personality (Sand & Levin. 1996). Upton(1998) found the BQ total score and a number of its subscales to be significantly cor­related to the INSPIRIT, TCI Self-Transcendence dimension and NEO-PI-ROpenness to Experience.

Personal Philosophy Inventory (PPI: Persillger & AIakarec. 1987, 1993). Twelvestudies using the PPI were obtained in our searches. One article (Persinger &Makarec. 1991) reports on empirically observed sex differences in PPI scores whileseveral papers explore the impact and/or implications of sex differences in PPJ scoresin relation to several variables. These include MMPI Schizoid and Hypomania scales(Persinger 1991 a): paranormal beliefs (Persinger & Richards. 1991); elicitation ofchildhood memories and False Memory Syndrome (Persinger. 1994): tactile-visualcross-modal matching (Chellew & Persinger. 19941: visual search times (Makarec &Persinger. 1995): childhood imaginings. exotic beliefs. and logical inference making(Persinger & Makarec. 1991-1992): and church attendance and reported religiousexperience (Persinger. 1997). Persinger (1991 b) found significant PPI score differ­ences between a group of persons repOiting a religious experience during adolescencecompared to a group of individuals who did not report such experiences. Persinger(1993) obtained significant correlations between paranormal and religious beliefs andscores on the PPI Complex Partial Epileptic-Like Signs (CPELS) subscale. Richardsand Persinger. (1991) found a significant relation between the CPELS subscale and ameasure of dissociative experiences. Finally. MacDonald and Holland (1999)observed the CPELS to differentially relate to measures of religiousness. spirituality,and non-ordinary experience (CPELS associated the strongest and most consistentlywith non-ordinary experience and weakest with religion variables).

Holistic Lil'ing Im'elltor\, (HLI: Stoudenmire. BatllwlI. PadOl', & Temple. 1985).Document searches for the HLI generated only one study. Leitschuh (1993) used theHLI in a multivariate study looking at the relation of coping disposition and holis­tic living to perception of health and life satisfactionl they found that the HLISpiritual subscale positively related to life satisfaction.

Death TrallScendence Scale (DTS: Hood & Morris, 1983). The DTS was found inonly one study. MacDonald (1997, in press) used the DTS to validate a multidi­mensional model of spirituality. MacDonald observed that the DTS Mystical

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Experiences subscale relates most markedly to measures of spiritual experiencesand the DTS Religious subscale correlates strongly with measures of spiritual andreligious beliefs and practices.

Temperament and Character 1m'entory (Tel; Cloningel; 1996; Cloninger. Sl"mkic.& Przybeck. 1993). The search for documents on the TCI yielded over 45 articlesusing this measure. However. when we constrained our search to articles explicitlyreporting on the TCI Self-Transcendence dimension. we ended up with seven stud­ies. It should be noted that the literature we obtained utilized various forms of theTCI (e.g .. some use the full version of the instrument while others use a short 125form). Also, as a point of information. the TCI Self-Transcendence dimension has

been revised and expanded to include five subscales instead of just three (Cloninger,1996). The five subscales are Self-Forgetfulness and Fresh Experience versus Self­Conscious Experience; Transpersonal Identification versus Self-Isolation; Spiritual

Acceptance versus Rational Materialism; Enlightened versus Objective; and, Ideal­istic versus Practical. Interestingly. little research has appeared which has employedthe five-subscale version. Nonetheless, and turning to the research obtained, Majeski

(1998) found that groups of meditating and non-meditating women. respectively.produced significantly different scores on two of the TSI Self-Transcendence sub­scales (i.e., Self-Forgetfulness and Transpersonal Identification). Ruchkin. Eise­

mann, Haeggloef. and Cloninger (1998) compared a group of Russian male delin­quent adolescents to control subjects and found that the del inquents had a higher

level of self-transcendence. as well as higher levels on other scales of the instru­ment. In another study. Gendall. Joyce. Sullivan and Sulik (1998) showed that self­transcendence correlated with an eating questionnaire and an aspect of eating called

cognitive restraint in a sample of women. Tanaka. Sakamoto. Kijima and Kitamura(1998) found the TCI Self-Transcendence dimension and two other TCI dimensions(i.e., Harm Avoidance and Self-Directedness) to significantly predict scores on a

depression scale. Also. Hansene. Reggers. Pinto. Kjiri. Ajamier and Ansseau (1999).compared persons with major depression to healthy controls and found the formerto exhibit, among other noted differences. higher self-transcendence scores. Sayon.Hill, Svrakic, Przybeck. et al (1996) observed that TCI Se If-Transcendence washighly correlated with notable levels of Axis I psychopathology in a sample of psy­chiatric outpatients. Lastly. based upon the available research. Cloninger, Svrakic.Sayon and Przybeck (1999) argue that self-transcendence may be predictive of thelikelihood to develop mood disorders or psychosis or may even be a subclinicalform of these disorders.

Phenomenology of Consciousness 1nl"el1tor\' (PC1; Pekala, 1982). The literaturesearch for documents on the PCI produced 27 publications. Many of these articles

involve the use of the PCI in the study of hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility withthe findings clearly indicating that the instrument is fruitful in this type of research(Forbes & Pekala. 1993. 1996; Hand, Pekala. & Kumar. 1995; Kumar. Marcano. &Pekala, 1996; Kumar & Pekala. 1989; Kumar. Pekala. & Cummings. 1996; Kumar,Pekala, & Marcano. 1996; Pekala, 199 I, 1995a. 1995b; Pekala & Bieber, 1989­1990; Pekala & Forbes. 1988, 1997; Pekala & Kumar. 1987. 1989; Pekala. Kumar,& Marcano. 1995; Pekala & Nagler, 1989: Spinhoven. Vanderlinden. tel' Kuile. &Linsen, 1993; Szabo. 1993; Vanderlinden. Spinhoven. Vandereycken. & van Dyck.

A Sun'c\" uf "'teasures o(Spiritua/ and Transpersona/ Constructs: Part One 145

1995). On a different note. Pekala. Forbes. and Contrisciani (1988-89) used the PCIto examine the experiential effects of stress management techniques (e.g .. hypnosis,progressive relaxation. deep breathing) and found that the techniques were not phe­nomenologically equivalent. Lloyd and Gannon (1998-1999) noted significant dif­ferences in PCI scores for persons undergoing treatment experiences involvingrelaxation and catharsis, respectively. Pekala and Ersek (1992-1993) observed viascores on the PCI and a measure of attention that the subjective effects of firewalk­ing are characterized by increased levels of rationality and volitional controL andaccompanied by an absorbed attentional style. Morgan (1987) had 28 individualscomplete the PCI both before and after trance dancing and found significant differ­ences in pre- and post-PCI scores in terms of body image. time sense. perception,meaning, attention. and state of awareness. Maurer. Kumar. Woodside and Pekala(1997) used the PCI as a measure of hypnoidal states of consciousness and saw thatmonotonous drumming was associated with higher subjective trance levels. Maitzand Pekala ( 1990-1991) were able to use the PCI and a measure of attention todemonstrate phenomenological differences between near death experiences andother states of consciousness. Finally. Morrison and Hunt (1996) examined theeffects of demand characteristics and response set on PCI scores in comparison tointerview self-report measures and found that the PCI was unable to differentiatebetween actual meditators and persons role-playing as meditators.

Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS; Paloutz.ian & Ellison. 1982; Ellison, /983). Thesearch for documents on the SWBS yielded 18 azticles. D'Costa (1995) andSchoenrade (1995) reviewed the SWBS and concluded that the instrument hasacceptable psychometric properties. Scott. Agresti and Fitchett (1998) examined theSWBS using a psychiatric inpatient sample and found evidence of a three dimen­sional factor structure. Further. and contrary to earlier research. they found no indi­cations that ceiling effects compromised the SWBS with this sample. Another studyfocused on ethnic differences in this measure and found that the factor structure ofthe SWBS differed across groups of Caucasians and African-Americans. respective­ly (Miller, Flemming, & Brown-Anderson, 1998). Kelly (1993) attempted to revisethe SWBS to address some of its psychometric deficiencies as found with highlyreligious populations by either rewording existing items or substituting new ones.She noted that the revised scale generated a more normal score distribution andfewer respondents were found to obtain the maximum score. Also. she observed thatthe revised SWBS produced a three dimensional factor structure. MacDonald ( 1997.in press) used the SWBS subscales in his efforts to validate a five factor measure­ment model of spirituality and found the Religious Well-Being subscale to relateappreciably to measures of spiritual and religious beliefs and practices while theExistential Well-Being subscale was seen to associate most strongly with measuresof similar constructs. Turning to more applied research. Brisben (1993) found witha sample of adolescents that SWBS scores produced low positive correlations withmeasures of parent-adolescent communication. and moderate positive coefficientswith self-esteem. Borman and Dixon (1998) completed a study comparing substanceabuse participants in 12-step outpatient programs with those in other outpatient pro­grams. They found that both groups increased significantly in spirituality as mea­sured by the SWBS with no significant difference between the two groups. Hender­son (1992) found no signiticant difference between samples of adult children of

146 The Journal ofTranspersO/wi Psychology. 1999. Vol. 31. No.2

alcoholics (ACA) and normal adults on the total SWBS and both of its suhscales.However, after reclassifying participants into groups based upon scores on theChildren of Alcoholics Screening Test. he observed that ACA obtained lowerExistential Well-Being scores. Mickley. Soeken and Belcher (1992) found in a sam­ple of women with breast cancer that women with an intrinsic religious orientationobtained higher spiritual well-being scores. In addition. SWBS Existential Well­Being was seen to be most associated with hope in these women. Landis (1996)observed with a sample of persons with diabetes mellitus that SWBS scores wereinversely related to prohlems associated to living with chronic illness and withuncertainty. In a study using gynecologic oncology patients. Gioella, Berkman. andRobinson (1998) found that women with gynecological cancers (other than ovarian).higher SWBS scores were obtained by older p<.ltients. married patients. and Catholicpatients, respectively. Richards. Owen. and Stein (1993) used the SWBS a" an out­come measure for a religiously oriented therapy group for perfectionism and foundthat as the treatment progressed. SWBS Existential Well-Being scores increased.Pritt (1998) explored the spiritual correlates of reported sexual abuse in a sample ofMormon women compared to a group of non-sexually abused women and found theformer to obtain lower SWBS scores. Kamya ( 1994) observed in a sample of Africanimmigrants that SWBS scores h<.ld a significant positive correlation to hardiness.self-esteem, and coping resources. Rasmussen and Johnson (1994) found. via step­wise multiple regression analyses. that SWBS scores were significantly and nega­tively related to de<.lth anxiety. finally. two studies examined the presence of spiritu­al well-being in health care profession<.lls. Gray () 989) found that both nursing stu­dents and professional nursing <.llumni reported a high degree of spiritual well-beingas measured by the SWBS. Further. attendance at religious services was seen to berelated to SWBS Religious Well-Being scores. Ellis. Vinson. and Ewigman (1999)examined physicians' attitudes and practices regarding the spiritual concerns of theirpatients and found high SWBS scores among respondent physicians.

CONCLUSION

As stated in the introduction. the purpose of this paper is to (a) advocate the use ofstandardized psychometric instruments in transpersonal areas of research. and (b)aid in bringing clarity to the existing and emerging scientific literature. When weconsider the status of research on the aforementioned tests. although it is apparentthat numerous research topics have been investigated, certain topics. as well as mea­sures, appear to have garnered the most attention. In particular. topics such as non­ordinary states of consciousness (e.g .. meditative. hypnotic. dissociative. and thelike). coping, health and wellness. and the implications of spiritual and transper­sonal phenomena for therapeutic interventions, seem to represent the majority of lit­erature we uncovered. further. the M-Scale. PCI. and SWBS are the assessmenttools which are clearly most commonly employed in the reviewed research. It wouldappear that future spiritual and transpersonal research utilizing any of these threemeasures has a clear basis in existing scientitic knowledge, and would contribute toa cumulative and systematic body of empirical tindings. Likewise, use of the othermeasures reviewed that have some precedence in previous research is consideredpreferable as compared to investigators continuing to. in a piecemeal fashion. devisecustom measures for each study undertaken. Notwithstanding these observed trends.

A SurveY of Measures of Spiritual (/1/(/ TralLlpasol/al COl/stntets: Part O/le 147

it is our opinion that ongoing psychometric research is needed for all of the mea­sures included in this review and that further development of these tools constitutesthe basis for many worthwhile projects for future study. Finally. it should be empha­sized that researchers should exercise appropriate caution in their use and interpre­

tation of data arising from any of these instruments based on our limited knowledgeabout them at this time. Certainly, although many of these measures are promising.

we believe it prudent for researchers in this domain to exhibit rigorous sensitivity to

methodological concerns.

:-.IOTE

I Readers arc encouraged to contact the fir.... r autllllf at [he aJdrc.., ... PW\ idcd j f they arc a\varc nr any liter<.ltLlre 1m nl\ ingthe measures discu~'1ed in this paper \\ hich has not hCI..'n included eilher in the prl':-.crlt article or ill \lacDnnalJ et ilL,(19951.

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