A survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systems of medicine in Sri Lanka T.N.M. Kankanamalage a , R.M. Dharmadasa b,n , D.C. Abeysinghe a , R.G.S. Wijesekara c Q1 a Department of Plantation Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka Q2 , Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka b Industrial Technology Institute, 363, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka c Department of Aquaculture & Fisheries, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries and Nutrition, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka article info Article history: Received 21 February 2014 Received in revised form 15 May 2014 Accepted 4 June 2014 Keywords Q4 : Survey Medicinal materials Sri Lanka Traditional medicine abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance: Sri Lanka has rich traditional systems of medicine, which cater to 60– 70% of the rural population's primary health care needs. However, development of existing systems has been hindered by the unavailability of up-to-date information on medicinal materials and other related issues. For streamlining purposes, we investigated the present-day scenario of country's medicinal plant industry by gathering up-to-date information on the types of raw materials required, their aggregate quantities, heavily used and rare materials, family wise distribution, challenges faced by stakeholders as well as other pertinent issues. Materials and methods: The present survey covered the selected government Ayurveda hospitals, traditional and Ayurveda practitioners, large and small-scale herbal drug and cosmetic manufactures, importers, collectors and Ayurveda commissioners throughout the country. A systematic questionnaire was distributed and face-to-face interviews were conducted. Collected data were tabulated and analyzed. Results: A diverse range of medicinal materials, including 290 species (64.73%) from dried plants, 59 (13.17%) from fresh plants, 69 (15.40%) from minerals, 18 (4.02%) from animal sources and 12 (2.68%) from other sources were recorded. A total of 302 plant species belonging to 95 families, dominated by Leguminosae family, was listed. Out of these, 46 species belonging to 35 families were used intensively. A large portion of herbal materials was of completely local origin (71.13%) while 26% were imported and the rest (2.87%) can be obtained by both routes. Leaves were the most highly used part of the plant (22.2%). High price, poor quality, insufficient or totally absence of continuous supply and adulteration were the main constraints faced by the stakeholders. The unavailability of systematic cultivation and processing protocols, incorrect identification, and lack of proper quality control methodologies were identified as major challenges of the industry. Conclusion: The present study revealed a currently bleak scenario of the medicinal material industry in Sri Lanka. The results clearly demonstrated the need to implement a national strategy to address the major challenges faced by different stakeholders. Information generated through this study could be effectively incorporated for the formulation of a sustainable development strategy for this Q3 industry. & 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction According to the World Health Organization, about 80% of the population in developing countries is still dependent on tradi- tional systems of medicine for their primary health care needs (WHO, 2008). Sri Lanka has rich traditional systems of medicine (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Deshiya Chikitsa), which play a significant role by fulfilling 60–70% of the rural population's primary health care needs (Perera, 2012). There are 20,353 registered Ayurvedic physicians and more than 8000 traditional practitioners, who are engaged in public health care, in which herbal products and materials are largely employed (Anon, 2011). Further, Sri Lanka is considered as one of the most biologically diverse countries in Asia, consisting of 29.66% forest cover in 2010 (World Bank, 2012). There are 3771 flowering plant species, out of which about 927 (24%) are endemic to the country (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). It has been reported that 1430 species representing 838 genera belonging to 181 families are considered medicinal. Out of the total number of medicinal plant species,174 (12%) are endemic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep Journal of Ethnopharmacology http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.06.016 0378-8741/& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ94 112379800; fax: þ94 112691799. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected](R.M. Dharmadasa). Please cite this article as: Kankanamalage, T.N.M., et al., A survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systems of medicine in Sri Lanka. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.06.016i Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
Transcript
A survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systemsof medicine in Sri Lanka
T.N.M. Kankanamalage a, R.M. Dharmadasa b,n, D.C. Abeysinghe a, R.G.S. Wijesekara cQ1
a Department of Plantation Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri LankaQ2 ,Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lankab Industrial Technology Institute, 363, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 07, Sri Lankac Department of Aquaculture & Fisheries, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries and Nutrition, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura,Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 21 February 2014Received in revised form15 May 2014Accepted 4 June 2014
KeywordsQ4 :SurveyMedicinal materialsSri LankaTraditional medicine
a b s t r a c t
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Sri Lanka has rich traditional systems of medicine, which cater to 60–70% of the rural population's primary health care needs. However, development of existing systems hasbeen hindered by the unavailability of up-to-date information on medicinal materials and other relatedissues. For streamlining purposes, we investigated the present-day scenario of country's medicinal plantindustry by gathering up-to-date information on the types of raw materials required, their aggregatequantities, heavily used and rare materials, family wise distribution, challenges faced by stakeholders aswell as other pertinent issues.Materials and methods: The present survey covered the selected government Ayurveda hospitals,traditional and Ayurveda practitioners, large and small-scale herbal drug and cosmetic manufactures,importers, collectors and Ayurveda commissioners throughout the country. A systematic questionnairewas distributed and face-to-face interviews were conducted. Collected data were tabulated and analyzed.Results: A diverse range of medicinal materials, including 290 species (64.73%) from dried plants, 59(13.17%) from fresh plants, 69 (15.40%) from minerals, 18 (4.02%) from animal sources and 12 (2.68%)from other sources were recorded. A total of 302 plant species belonging to 95 families, dominated byLeguminosae family, was listed. Out of these, 46 species belonging to 35 families were used intensively. Alarge portion of herbal materials was of completely local origin (71.13%) while 26% were imported andthe rest (2.87%) can be obtained by both routes. Leaves were the most highly used part of the plant(22.2%). High price, poor quality, insufficient or totally absence of continuous supply and adulterationwere the main constraints faced by the stakeholders. The unavailability of systematic cultivation andprocessing protocols, incorrect identification, and lack of proper quality control methodologies wereidentified as major challenges of the industry.Conclusion: The present study revealed a currently bleak scenario of the medicinal material industry inSri Lanka. The results clearly demonstrated the need to implement a national strategy to address themajor challenges faced by different stakeholders. Information generated through this study could beeffectively incorporated for the formulation of a sustainable development strategy for thisQ3 industry.
& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
According to the World Health Organization, about 80% of thepopulation in developing countries is still dependent on tradi-tional systems of medicine for their primary health care needs(WHO, 2008). Sri Lanka has rich traditional systems of medicine(Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Deshiya Chikitsa), which play a
significant role by fulfilling 60–70% of the rural population'sprimary health care needs (Perera, 2012). There are 20,353registered Ayurvedic physicians and more than 8000 traditionalpractitioners, who are engaged in public health care, in whichherbal products and materials are largely employed (Anon, 2011).
Further, Sri Lanka is considered as one of the most biologicallydiverse countries in Asia, consisting of 29.66% forest cover in 2010(World Bank, 2012). There are 3771 flowering plant species, out ofwhich about 927 (24%) are endemic to the country (Gunatilleke etal., 2008). It has been reported that 1430 species representing 838genera belonging to 181 families are considered medicinal. Out ofthe total number of medicinal plant species, 174 (12%) are endemic
Please cite this article as: Kankanamalage, T.N.M., et al., A survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systems of medicine inSri Lanka. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.06.016i
to Sri Lanka (Sugathadasa et al., 2008). Moreover, around 250species are commonly used in traditional medicine, out of which50 are heavily used (Pushpakumara et al., 2002).
Medicinal plant materials surveys play an important role in thedocumentation of medicinal materials used by different systems ofmedicine. According to the survey conducted by IUCN in 2001, thedemand for herbal materials in Sri Lanka in the year 2000 was3,864,760 kg, valued at an estimated SLRs of 386 million. Out ofthis, approximately 1.5 million kilograms were imported annually,at a cost of around SLRs of125 million due to lack of systematicproduction. Further, available literature on the current situation ofmedicinal material usage and related issues are scarce or too old.Therefore, the survey was carried out to provide a present-dayscenario for streamlining the medicinal materials industry of SriLanka. This work has gathered up-to-date information on thetypes of raw materials required, their aggregate quantities as wellas the problems faced by stakeholders. The collected informationwill have important implications for formulating a national strat-egy in order to ensure the sustainability of this important industry.
2. Materials and methods
This survey was conducted from September 2012 to April 2013and different stakeholders of the medicinal material industry in SriLanka were targeted. A total of 111 stakeholders were selectedbased on the registry maintained at Department of Ayurveda.However, due to the diverse nature of the stakeholders, they weregrouped into the 6 major categories listed below. Fig. 1 shows thedistribution of the study group in the different provinces whileTable 1 shows the number of respondents for each category.
1. Nine commissioners from the Provincial Departments of Indi-genous Medicine (Western, Southern, North Western, Sabara-gamuwa, Uva, Central, North Central, Eastern and Northernprovinces), who are in-charge of 69 Ayurveda hospitals and 208central dispensaries.
2. Two directors from both the central Ayurveda teaching andresearch hospitals.
3. Fifteen large scale drug and cosmetic manufactures, distribu-tors and exporters.
4. Thirty five small and medium scale drug and cosmetic manu-factures and distributors.
5. Forty traditional and Ayurveda practitioners.6. Ten importers and distributors.
A systematic questionnaire was prepared and pre-tested by 5–10 representative respondents prior to the formal survey. Themajor information gathered included: 1) types of raw materialsused; 2) their annual requirements; 3) the value expended forindividual materials; 4) accessibility of materials; 5) the mostrequired parts of the medicinal plants; 6) material source [whetherobtained locally (cultivated/wild collected) or imported]; 7) qualityof materials; 8) constraints and challenges faced, and 9) suggestionsfor the improvement of the industry. The final questionnaire wasthen distributed among the stakeholders. In addition, face-to-faceinterviews of 30 randomly selected representatives from the abovefocus groups were scheduled and conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire in order to obtain more detailed informa-tion particularly regarding questions 7 and 8. Collected data weretabulated, and analyzed using descriptive statistics. Regarding theinformation on the types of materials, these were scientificallyidentified with the assistance of a systematic botanist, mineralogistor chemist. In some cases, they were compared with availablesamples deposited at the institute. Vernacular (Sinhala) nameswith scientific names were validated using available text books,
(Bandaranayake et al., 1974; Jayaweera, 1981; Senaratne, 2001;Abeywardhana, 2013) and other classical texts in the NationalHerbarium in Sri Lanka.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Types of raw materials
The present study surveyed different medicinal materials,which have been widely used in Sri Lankan traditional, andAyurveda systems of medicine since ancient times. Results showedthat, plant materials (both dry and fresh) play an important role bycontributing around 78% of the total raw materials utilized bydifferent medical systems (Table 2). This is consistent with aprevious pharmacological survey conducted by Lev and Amar(2000), who reported a contribution of 85.1% from plant materialsfor the Israel drug market. Moreover, 71.13% of the medicinalplants/herbal material was obtained from local sources, 26% wasimported, while 2.87% was obtained by either direct importationor from local collection. Our results are in close agreement withthe IUCN (2001) data, which reported that 68% came from localsources while 32% was imported in year 2000. Although the use ofanimal materials was more prominent in earlier days, it is notcurrently flourishing. The reason may be due to changes inpatterns of thinking brought about by people's recent increasedsympathy towards animals.
3.2. Use of medicinal plants/plant materials
There are around 302 medicinal plant species that are beingutilized in traditional and Ayurveda systems of medicine in SriLanka. The plant species/materials were categorized into thespecific groups with the aim of elucidating their demand, mone-tary values and sources. Table 3 lists these pertinent data.
3.2.1. Heavily used materialsHeavily used materials were identified based on the total
respondents' (excluding Cat. no. 6) annual requirement. Datayielded 46 heavily used (more than 10,000 kg/year) medicinalplant species belonging to 35 families (Table 3). These are almostin accordance with Pushpakumara et al. (2002), who reported 50heavily used species. Of the 46 species, 45 belong to 35 families,which are considered as easily cultivable in Sri Lanka's prevailingsoil and climatic conditions (IUCN, 2004). Only one species,Glycyrrhiza glabra L. is not locally available. Commencement ofcommercial cultivation of these plants would ensure a continuoussupply of good quality and authentic raw materials to themedicinal plant industry. Furthermore, it will create work oppor-tunities for the unemployed youths and at the same time saveconsiderable amount of foreign exchange annually.
3.2.2. Most demanded plant materialsOut of the heavily used plant materials, 12 have a huge demand
that is in excess of 50,000 kg per year. These include Centella asiatica(L.) Urb. (366,795 kg), Zingiber officinale Roscoe (350,561 kg), Sesa-mum indicum L. (136,971 kg), Terminalia chebula Retz. (123,397 kg),Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (100,218 kg), Phyllanthus emblicaL. (81,488 kg), Vitex negundo L. (67,770 kg) Asparagus racemosusWilld. (74,040 kg), Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff(59,893 kg), Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (60,161 kg), Pavetta indica L.(56,021 kg) and Indigofera tinctoria L. (50,512 kg). Higher demandfor these materials may be due to their diverse usage in manymedicinal formulae. According to the Sri Lankan Pharmacopoeia,they are major ingredients of more than 50 formulas (Anon, 1979).
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3.2.3. Value and expensiveness of plant materialsFrom the survey (Cat. no. 1–6), Munronia pinnata (Wall.) W. Theob.
(US$ 49.13/kg), Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (US$ 39.00/kg) and
Myristica fragrans Houtt. (US$ 23.05/kg) were identified as the mostexpensive medicinal plant materials. The high price of Munroniapinnata may be due its rarity and heavy usage (Dharmadasa et al.,
Fig. 1. The distribution of the stakeholders who participated in the survey.
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2011). For Elettaria cardamomum andMyristica fragrans, aside from thehigh market demand due to their multiple uses both as a spice andmedicinal ingredient, their limited growth only to specific climaticzones and soil conditions further contributes to their high value.
3.2.4. Rare materialsMost of the respondents mentioned thatMunronia pinnata (Wall.)
W. Theob., Solanum trilobatum L., Santalum album L., Pterocarpussantalinus L. f., Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. Ex Wight & Arn.,Pogostemon heyneanus Benth., Indigofera tinctoria L., Ipomoea maur-itiana Jacq. and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz have limitedavailability in the market. This may reflect their insufficient supplyfrom the wild or from commercial cultivations relative to the existingdemand. Further, species like Santalum album and Pterocarpussantalinus are mainly dependent on the imports from India andother countries (IUCN, 2001). Having understood this critical situa-tion, the biodiversity secretariat of Ministry of Environment Sri Lanka,clearly recognizes and respects the sustainable utilization of forestproducts. Moreover, there are adequate provisions for collaborativemanagement of such areas in a sustainable manner and for benefitsharing. In addition, scattered community participatory projects on
in-situ and ex-situ conservation of medicinal plants, and awarenessprogrammes are continuing in Sri Lanka.
3.2.5. Major imported materials required in large amountsPlant materials frequently imported in large quantities include:
Acorus calamus L., Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff,Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Ex Schult, Phyllanthus emblica L.,Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc., Sennaalexandrina Mill., Curculigo orchioides Gaertn., Woodfordia fruticosa(L.) Kurz, Piper longum L., Plumbago indica L., Vetiveria zizanioides(L.) Nash, Solanum virginianum L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal,Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Kaempferia galanga L. belonging to 12families (Acoraceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Faba-ceae, Hypoxidaceae, Lythraceae, Piperaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Poa-ceae, Solanaceae and Zingiberaceae). It was further confirmed thatmajority of these plants are also well adapted to the prevailing soiland climatic conditions of Sri Lanka. They can easily be cultivatedin the wet (annual rainfall 42500 mm), intermediate (annualrainfall 1750–2500 mm) and dry (annual rainfall o1750 mm)zones of the country.
3.2.6. Medicinal plant familiesIn general, the dry and fresh plant materials, which comprise 302
plant species, belong to 95 families. Out of these, Fabaceae was thedominant family with 40 species (13.25%). It was followed byEuphorbiaceae with 14 species (4.64%), Solanaceae with 11 species(3.64%). Completing the list by: Apocynaceae, Poaceae and Rutaceaeeach with 10 species (3.31%), Asteraceae and Malvaceae each with8 species (2.65%), Lamiaceae and Zingiberaceae each with 7 species(2.32%) and Convolvulaceae, Apiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Rubiaceae andVerbenaceae each with 6 species (1.99%) (Fig. 2). These results confirmthe previous reports of Jayasundara and Gunawardena, 2008 on theutilization patterns of medicinal plants in the Western province ofSri Lanka.
3.2.7. Plant parts usedVarious parts of the plants are being used for different treat-
ments by Ayurveda and traditional practitioners. Informationcollected from appropriate respondents revealed that the mostlyused plant part are the leaves (22.2%) followed by roots (17.9%),seeds (12.8%), bark (12.5%), fruits (9.3%), whole plant (8.8%), stem(6.3%), flowers (6.2%), heartwood (1.9%) gums (1.1%), bulbs (0.6%)and latex (0.4%) (Fig. 3). The leaves' important role in photosynth-esis and metabolite production, their availability in large quanti-ties and easy accessibility could account for their wide use (Miraldiet al., 2001; Ghorbani, 2005).
3.2.8. Quality of raw materialsWHO guidelines on the quality control methods for herbal
materials emphasized that the adverse effects reported fromherbal medicine were mainly due to the use of poor qualitymaterials (WHO, 2011). Therefore, there is an urgent necessityfor quality control and standardization to ensure safe herbalpreparations. In the present survey, information regarding qualityof the raw materials was obtained from the entire focus group. Asshown in Fig. 4, more than 80% of the respondents gauge quality interms of the absence of fungal contaminations and impurities,dryness of the material, appropriate colour and proper maturity ofsample at harvest. Furthermore, 20% respondents prefer a specifictaste, smell and price, the absence of adulterants and a high shelflife. Most of these identified factors are also included in thephysical and biological parameters recommended by WHO (2011).
[Focus groups include, Provincial Ayurveda commissioners (Cat. no. 1), Directors ofhospitals (Cat. no. 2), large scale drug and cosmetic manufactures and distributors(Cat. no. 3), small and medium scale drug and cosmetic manufactures anddistributors (Cat. no. 4), traditional and Ayurveda practitioners (Cat. no. 5) andImporters and distributors (Cat. no. 6)].
a 1US$¼SLRs.126.
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Table 3Plant materials used in traditional and Ayurveda systems of medicine in Sri Lanka [details of the plant materials (dry and fresh) used by the respondents].
Family Scientific name Vernacular namea State Description Parts used Total quantity (kg/year)
1. Acanthaceae Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees Kiratha D Whole plant 7583.50Barleria prionitis L. Katu Karandu D Leaf/roots 2824.00Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine Neeramulliya D HC Leaf/seeds/Whole plant 15,423.00Justicia adhatoda L. Adhatoda D Leaf/roots 3871.20
2. Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Wada Kaha D HIC Rhizome 12,173.753. Aizoaceae Trianthema portulacastrum L. Sarana D Whole plant/leaves 6455.204. Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Karal-sebo D Whole plant 12.00
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Polpala D HC Whole plant 19,514.00Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. BR. ex DC. Mukunuwenna D/F Whole plant/leaves 4012.00
5. Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum L. Thola Bo D Whole plant/bulb 394.00Allium cepa L. Rathu Lunu D Bulbs 2277.00Allium sativum L. Sudu Lunu D/F Bulbs 6341.80
6. Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Kaju D Bark/leaves/gum/nut -Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Hik D Roots/Bark/Leaves 172.00Pistacia chinensis subsp. Integerrima(J. L. Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f.
Karkataka Sringi D Galls/leaves/bark 944.00
Semecarpus anacardium L. f. Sen Kottan (Ballathaka) D Fruit/seed/gum 140.00Semecarpus coriacea Thw. Badulla D Fruits/seeds 62.00
7. Annonaceae Desmos elegans (Thwaites) Saff. Kudu mirissa D Roots 160.00Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thwaites Dewadara D Heartwood/whole plant 5677.00
8. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Anethum graveolens L. Sathakuppa D Seeds 1905.00Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Gotukola D/F MHC Whole plant/leaves 366,795.00Coriandrum sativum L. Kottamalli D Seeds/leaves 6495.00Cuminum cyminum L. Suduru/Sududuru D Seeds 2656.00Pimpinella anisum L. Mahaduru D Seeds 288.00Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff Asamodagam D MHIC Fruit/seed 59,893.00
9. Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Ruk Attana D/F Bark 1199.70Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dry and. Wara D/F Leaves (fresh or dried)/roots
and root bark/flowers764.00
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Mini mal D Leaves/Flowers/Roots 600.00Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Sm. Mas Bedda D Whole plant/leaves 100.00Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Ex Schult Iramusu D HIC Roots/whole plant 20,384.00Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wight & Arn. Jeewanthi D Whole plant 13.50Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon Muruwa D Roots/stem/leaves 899.00Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Ekaveriya D R Roots 3929.00Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. Kaneru D Bark -Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R. Br. Kelidha D Bark/seed/flower/leaves 1642.00
10. Aponogetonaceae Aponogeton jacobsenii de Wit Kekatiya F Rhizomes 1040.0011. Araceae Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson Kidaran D/F Corm(fresh or dried) /roots/leaves 1020.00
Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott Athividayam D Rhizomes 2034.00Pothos scandens L. Pota wel D Leaves/stem -
12. Arecaceae (Palmae) Areca catechu L. Puwak D Nut/young shoots/leaves/bark//root 2399.75Borassus flabellifer L. Thal D Fruit/inflorescence 400.00Caryota urens L. Kithul D Tender bud leaves/nuts 75.00Cocos nucifera L. Pol F Fruit 5789.00
13. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia indica L. Sassada D Whole plant/root/leaves 702.0014. Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Hathawariya D/F MHC Leaves/tuberous root 74,039.63
Colchicum luteum Baker Suranjan/Suranjan Shirin D Seed /corm 524.00Sansevieria zeylanica (L.) Willd. Niyanda D Roots (rhizome) 698.00
15. Asteraceae Anacyclus pyrethrum DC. Akrapatta D Roots 958.50Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson Thumba D Whole herb 742.00Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Kekiridiya D/F Herb /roots/leaves/stem bark 7530.00Gynura pseudochina (L.) DC. Ala Beth /Cheena Ala D Tubers/leaves 515.50Laggera alata (D. Don) Sch. Bip. Leverella D Leaves 950.00Sphaeranthus indicus L. Mudamahana D Root/bark /leaves/flowers/seeds 885.00
Family Scientific name Vernacular namea State Description Parts used Total quantity (kg/year)
Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench Sanninayam/Wal Asmodagam D Seed 672.50Vernonia zeylanicum (L.) Less. Pupula D Whole plant/leaves 428.00
16. Berberidaceae Berberis aristata DC. Daru Haridra D Roots/stem/bark/fruits -17. Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Thotila D HC Seed/bark/root 11,419.50
Stereospermum chelonoides (L. f.) DC. Palol D HC Root (root bark)/leaves/flowers/fruits 10,286.0018. Bixaceae Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston Ela Embul D Gum/bark 71.0019. Brassicaceae Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Aba D HC Seed/bark 20,495.50
Raphanus sativus L. Rabu D Whole plant/root/seed 157.3020. Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Geta Annasi D Fruit/leaves/stem 590.0021. Burseraceae Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. Gugul D Whole plant/gum 2581.5022. Cannaceae Canna indica L. Buthsarana D Fruit/rhizome/leaves/flowers 10.0023. Capparaceae Capparis zeylanica L. Welangiriya D Leaves/root bark 308.00
Cleome viscosa L. Ranmanissa D Whole plant/leaves/seeds/roots 913.00Crataeva roxburghii R. Br. Lunuwarana D Bark 3089.50
24. Caprifoliaceae Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. Jata mansha D Root/rhizome 922.25Valeriana wallichii DC. Thuwarala/Nagara D Roots 641.85
25. Celastraceae Kokoona zeylanica Thw. Kokum D Inner bark/seed oil 214.00Salacia reticulata Wight. Kothala Himbutu D HC Root/stem/leaf 13,733.00
26. Cleomaceae Cleome gynandra L. Wela F HC Tender shoots/leaves 10,673.6027. Clusiaceae (Guttiferae) Calophyllum inophyllum L. Domba D Fruit 1126.50
Garcinia morella (Gaertn.) Desr. Gokatu D Seed/root/bark 6541.20Garcinia quaesita Pierre Goraka D Fruit rind 472.50Mesua ferrea L. Na D Seeds/leaves/flowers/bark/roots 3215.75Mesua stylosa (Thwaites) Kosterm. Suwanda D Flowers/leaves/seeds/roots 50.00
28. Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. Ex DC.) Wight & Arn. Kumbuk D Bark /seeds 3389.50Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Bulu D MHC Fruit/bark 100,218.20Terminalia catappa L. Kottan D Whole plant/leaves/bark/fruit 4234.05Terminalia chebula Retz. Aralu/Haleel-e-Qabli D MHC Fruit/bark/leaves/roots 123,397.20
29. Convolvulaceae Argyreia populifolia Choisy Giri-tilla D/F Milky juice/leaves/root 258.00Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Vishnu Kranthi D Whole plant 1288.00Ipomoea asarifolia (Desr.) Roem. & Schult. Ela Bin Thamuru D Leaves/whole plant 40.00Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. Kiribadu D/F HRC Whole plant/leaf/tuber root (dried or
fresh)/seed/stem10,922.00
Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Divi Pahuru D Whole plant 44.00Operculina turpethum (L.) Silva Manso Thirassawalu D Root 5378.00
30. Crassulaceae Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. Akkapana/Rata Gova D Leaves/roots -31. Cucurbitaceae Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Alupuhul F HC Fruit/leaves 15,000.00
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Kowakka D/F Leaves/roots 1120.00Cucumis melo L. Kekiri/Gon-kekiri D Seeds/fruit/root/leaves 857.50Momordica charantia L. Karawila D Roots/stems/leaves/fruits 333.00Trichosanthes anaimalaiensis Beddome Dummala D Whole plant 2278.00Trichosanthes cucumerina L. Dummella D Whole plant 8573.20
32. Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Kaladuru D/F Rhizomes 7311.7533. Dilleniaceae Dillenia retusa Thunb. Godapara D Fruit /bark/leaves 140.0034. Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus zeylanicus Thwaites Hora D Heartwood/iti/gum /bark 912.0035. Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus serratus L. Weralu D Leaves/fruit 80.0036. Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. Kuppameniya D/F Leaves/whole plant 1012.00
Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. Kekuna D Iti/bark/flowers/nuts 25.00Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Kebella D Bark/leaves/twigs/fruit -Baliospermum solanifolium (Burm.) Suresh Deththa D/F Leaves/seeds/roots 3932.50Bridelia moonii Thwaites Keta-kela D Bark 1000.00Croton aromaticus L. Wel-keppetiya D/F Bark/leaves 5037.20Croton laccifer L. Keppetiya D/F Gum/bark/leaves 2623.50Croton tiglium L. Japala/Jayapala D Seeds 250.00Euphorbia antiquorum L. Daluk D/F Latex/roots/branches 251.00Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Pitawakka D Root/whole plant 2909.00
Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. Ela Pitawakka D Whole plant 11.00Phyllanthus emblica L. Nelli D/F MHIC Whole plant/fruit/seed/leaves/root/bark/flowers 81,488.19Ricinus communis L. Eradu/Endaru D/F HC Seed/root/leaves(fresh) 18,313.45Tragia involucrata L. Wel Kahambiliya D Root/leaves 1461.20
37. Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Olinda D/F Leaf/root/seeds 720.00Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Henguru Patta D Bark/flowers 228.00Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd. Kaippu/Rath Kihiriya D Bark (heart wood)/leaves/whole plant 2830.00Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Irimeda D Bark/gum 235.00Adenanthera pavonina L. Madatiya D/F Leaf/bark/seeds 8738.20Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Mara D Root/bark/leaves/fruit 506.00Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth. Suriyamara /Hurimara D Bark 354.00Alhagi maurorum Medik. Kahambiliya D Root 100.00Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Aswenna D Root/leaves/whole plant 8332.00Bauhinia acuminata L. Kobonila D/F Bark/leaf/flower/root 1518.00Caesalpinia bonducella (L.) Kumburu wel D Whole plant/roots/seeds 2390.50Caesalpinia sappan L. Patangi D Root/stem-heartwood -Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Ranawara D HC Seed/bark/fruit/flower/root/leaf 10,568.50Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby At-Tora D Root/leaf/whole plant 91.00Cassia fistula L. Ehala D Leaf/bark/fruit 8138.00Cassia occidentalis L. Peni Thora D Root/leaves -Cassia tora L. Pethi Thora D Root/leaves 160.00Crotalaria laburnifolia L. Yakberiya D Leaves 1060.00Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. Bodi/Karol Arisi (Bakuchi) D Seeds /roots/leaves 428.17Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. Undupiyaliya D Whole plant 98.00Entada rheedii Spreng. Pus-wel D Seed/leaves 704.50Erythrina fusca Lour. Erabadu D/F Seed/bark/root 1502.00Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W. T. Aiton Hampilla D Leaf/flower/root 226.00Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Wel Mee D HI Root/stolen 10,382.50Indigofera tinctoria L. Nilaveriya D/F MHRC Whole plant/leaves 50,512.00Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. Kollu D I Whole plant/seed/leaf 7087.00Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Wanduru Mae D Seeds 1914.00Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Karanda/Magul Karanda D Seed/leaf/root/bark/flowers/stems 3381.00Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Gammalu D Whole plant/hardwood/root/seed/fruit 535.50Pterocarpus santalinus L. f. Rath Hadun D R Heartwood 3908.00Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Wild. Ashoka D Bark/leaves/flowers/seeds 4042.00Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Katuru-murunga D Leaf/bark -Senna alexandrina Mill. Senehe-kola D HIC Pods/stems/leaves 19,751.50Tamarindus indica L. Siyambala D Leaves/bark/fruit 1058.00Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Pila D Root/whole plant 177.00Trigonella foenum -graecum L. Ulu-hal/Ula Arisi D Seed/fruits/leaves 957.50Vachellia farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn. Seenidda D Bark/flowers -Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper Undu D Seed 2596.50Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek Mun D Seed -Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. Munwenna D Seeds 17.50
38. Fagaceae Quercus infectoria G. Olivier. Masakka D Fruit 194.5039. Hydrocharitaceae Blyxa aubertii Rich. Diya Hawariya D Rhizome 320.0040. Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Binthal D HIC Whole plant/rhizomes/roots 14,476.50
Molineria capitulata (Lour.) Herb. Wagapul D Rhizomes 45.0041. Iridaceae Crocus sativus L. Kunkumappu/Saffron D Flower and stigma 4.0042. Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lavandula stoechas L. Ustukhuddus D Flowering tips/flower 200.00
Mentha viridis (L.) L. Minchi D Leaves 2029.25Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Maduruthala/Thulsi D Whole plant//leaves/stem/flower/root/seeds 7382.50Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Kapparawalliya D/F Whole plant/leaf 4953.00Plectranthus zatarhendi E.A. Bruce. Iriveriya D/F Whole plant 6480.00Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. Kollan-kola D R Leaf 6154.75Vitex negundo L. Nika D/F MHC Leaves/bark//roots/flowers/seeds 67,770.02
43. Lauraceae Cinnamomum verum J. Presl Kurundu D/F Seed/leaves/bark/root 4719.25Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. Meda lakadi D Root/bark/leaves 203.00
44. Lecythidaceae Careya arborea Roxb. Kahata D Bark 636.0045. Liliaceae Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Meda/Mahameda D Rhizomes 66.00
Family Scientific name Vernacular namea State Description Parts used Total quantity (kg/year)
46. Loganiaceae Strychnos minor Dennst. Kaduru D Seed -Strychnos nux-vomica L. Goda Kanduru D Seed 740.00Strychnos potatorum L. f. Ingini D Seed /roots/fruits 1451.50
47. Lythraceae Punica granatum L. Delum D Roots/bark/seeds/flower/fruits and leaves 836.00Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Malitha D HCI Flowers 25,524.00
48. Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Sapu D Leaf/flower/bark/root 496.0049. Malvaceae Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Kapukinissa D R Seed 1258.75
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Beth Anoda F Leaves 200.00Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Embul D Bark/roots/leaves 628.00Gossypium arboreum L. Kapu/Cotton D Roots/leaves/seeds/flowers/fruits 453.00Grewia carpinifolia Juss. Wel keliya F Bark 100.00Hibiscus micranthus L. f. Bebila D HC Whole plant/seed/leaves/roots 37,641.00Melochia corchorifolia L. Galkura D Leaf/root/sap 994.00Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa Gan Suriya D Bark /leaves/flower /fruits/root 1338.00
50. Martyniaceae Martynia annua L. Nagadarana D Leaves/seeds/fruits/roots -51. Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Kohomba D/F MHC Seeds/leaves/root/bark/fruits 60,161.20
Melia azedarach L. Lunumedella D Bark/fruit/root bark/leaves 124.00Munronia pinnata (Wall.) W. Theob. Bin Kohomba D VR Whole plant/root 3812.50
52. Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L. Diyamitta D Root/bark/leaves 3416.75Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. Venivelgeta D/F HC Wood/stem/root/leaves 31,379.70Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Rasakinda D HC Root/stems/leaves 26,984.20Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson Titta-kinda D Whole plant 10.00
53. Molluginaceae Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser. Pathpadagam D Whole plant 5876.0054. Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Varaka D Bark/leaves/roots/fruit/latex 388.00
Ficus fergusonii (King) T.B. Worth. ex Corner Nuga D/F Bark /root/heartwood 3556.00Ficus racemosa L. Attikka D Whole plant/roots/bark/fruit/leaves/stem/seeds/latex 3920.50Ficus religiosa L. Bo D Bark/fruit/leaves/seeds 640.00Ficus trimenii King ex Trimen Aehetu F Bark 200.00
55. Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Murunga D/F Seed/bark/root/tubers/leaves 2240.4556. Musaceae Musa acuminate Colla Suwadel Kesel D Fruit 314.00
Musa Paradisiaca L. Alu Kesel D/F Fruit 3042.0057. Myricaceae Myrica nagi Thunb. Kati pala D Bark 1470.0058. Myristicaceae Horsfieldia iryaghedhi (Gaertn.) Warb. Ruk D/F Flower 1491.75
Myristica fragrans Houtt. Sadikka/Wasawasi D V Seed /seed kernel 7745.5059. Myrtaceae Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. Loth Subulu D Leaves 1178.75
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry Karabu D Flower buds 3323.75Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Madan D Seed/fruit/leaves/flower/bark 9420.50Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & L. M. Perry Pini Jambu D Bark/fruit 250.00
60. Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelum D Rhizome/seed/stamen 1907.7561. Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. Manel/Nil Manel D/F Rhizome/whole plant/flower/root/leaves/seed 2126.38
Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Olu D Rhizomes/flowers/seeds 10.0062. Oleaceae Jasminum grandiflorum L. Samanpichcha D Leaves/flowers 26.3663. Orchidaceae Flickingeria macraei (Lindley) Seidenf. Jata makuta D Root 416.00
Malaxis acuminata D. Don Jeevaka D Bulbs 3.50Orchis latifolia L. Salabmishri D Root 20.00
64. Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Ambul Ambiliya D Whole plant 12.0065. Pandanaceae Pandanus odoratissimus L. f. Wetakeiya D Roots 1253.0066. Papaveraceae Fumaria officinalis L. Sahathra D Whole plant 200.0067. Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Thala D MHC Seeds/leaves/roots 136,971.5068. Phyllanthaceae Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. Katupila D Whole plant 600.0069. Pinaceae Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb. Thalispaturu/Talispatra D Leaf/twig 846.0070. Piperaceae Piper betle L. Bulath D Leaves 311.00
Piper chuvya (Miq.) C. DC. Siviya/Mala Bulath D Root 3787.50Piper longum L. Thippili D HIC Root/fruit 20,634.69Piper nigrum L. Gammiris D/F Leaf/fruit/seeds 7399.00Piper sylvestre Lam. Wal Gammiris/Mala miris wel D Leaf 150.00
71. Plantaginaceae Plantago ovata Forssk. Isabgol D Seeds -72. Plumbaginaceae Plumbago indica L. Rath nitul D I Root 6294.2573. Poaceae (Gramineae) Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Kaha Una D Stems/roots/leaves -
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Sera D Leaves/roots and rhizomes 258.00Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees Una kapuru D Leaves 1671.50Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Kurakkan D Seeds 100.00Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. Ethana D Spike/bristle like appendages 45.00Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Iluk D Rhizomes (root) 71.00Panicum antidotale Retz. Krimisasthru D Leaves 55.00Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. Tana-hal D Seed -Saccharum officinarum L. Uk D/F Roots/stems 2500.00Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Sevendara D HCI Root 17,665.25
74. Polypodiaceae Acrostichum heterophyllum L. Maswenna D Leaves 394.50Drymoglossum piloselloides (L.) C. Presl. Panam Pethi D Leaves 50.00
Embelia ribes Burm. f. Walaga Saal D Fruits/leaves/root bark 3298.6577. Ranunculaceae Aconitum napellus L. Vachchanavi D Whole plant 550.00
Coptis teeta Wall. Pithakarosana/Golden Thread root D Roots 53.00Nigella sativa L. Kaluduru D Seeds 3225.00
78. Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Masan D Root/bark/leaf/fruit/seed 10.0079. Rosaceae Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. Padma Kaashta D Fruits/bark 123.00
Prunus cerasus L. Elawaluka D Fruit 472.7580. Rubiaceae Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. Kukuru-manna D Bark/leaves/fruits 580.50
Ixora coccinea L. Rath Mal D Leaves/stems/roots /flowers 357.00Nauclea orientalis (L.) L. Bak Mi D Seed/leaves/bark 672.00Paederia foetida L. Apasu-madu/Prasarani D Leaf/root/bark/fruit 3425.00Pavetta indica L. Pawatta D/F MHC Leaf/bark/roots/flowers 56,021.00Rubia cordifolia L. Welmadata/Yagana Wel D Root 4037.00
81. Rutaceae Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. An-kenda D/F Leaves/bark/stems/fruits/roots 7086.70Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Beli D HC Roots/flower/leaf/bark/fruit/seeds 41,633.00Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Dehi D/F Leaves/fruit rind/seed/bark/roots/fruit 6675.00Citrus aurantium L. Ambul Dodam D/F Leaf/roots/seeds /flower/fruit/rind 3000.00Citrus madurensis Lour. Nasnaran D Leaf/root/fruit 2368.50Citrus reticulata Blanco Naran D Seeds/roots/leaves/flowers 746.00Limonia acidissima Groff Divul D/F Leaf/fruit/root/gum/bark/whole plant 5773.00Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Karapincha D Root/bark/leaves 621.00Pamburus missionis (Wight) Swingle Pamburu D Leaves 12.00Ruta chalepensis L. Aruda F Leaves 500.00
82. Salvadoraceae Azima tetracantha Lam. Wel Dehi D Roots/whole plant/leaves -83. Santalaceae Santalum album L. Sudu hadun D HRC Heart wood 24,374.7584. Sapindaceae Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Penela-wel D HC Leaf/root/fruit 11,136.0085. Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F. Macbr. Mee D HC Seed/flower/root/leaf/bark/heartwood 25,616.75
Mimusops elengi L. Munamal D Seed/bark/leaves 6048.5086. Scrophulariaceae Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Lunuwila D HC Whole plant 10,798.00
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. Katukarosana D Leaf/bark/rhizomes 3806.7087. Solanaceae Datura metel L. Aththana/Kalu Aththana D/F Leaves/seed//flower 1573.00
Hyoscyamus niger L. Korasani /Henbane D Leaves/flowering tops and branches/seeds 147.00Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard Palu F Bark 200.00Mimusops elengi L. Munamal F Bark 1000.00Nicotiana tabacum L. Dumkola D Leaves 264.50Solanum americanum Miller Kalukamberiya D Leaves/fruits 104.00Solanum melongena L. Ela-batu D/F HC Roots/leaves/fruit 38,453.20Solanum trilobatum L. Wel Thibbatu D R Roots/leaves/berries/flowers 2993.00Solanum violaceum Ortega Tibbatu F Leaves 100.00Solanum virginianum L. Katuwelbatu D HIC Whole plant/fruit 33,795.20Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Amukkara D HIC Whole plant 38,320.50
88. Symplocaceae Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Lodra D Bark 898.0089. Thymelaeaceae Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. Agil D Bark/root/heartwood 5167.5090. Verbenaceae Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl Priyangu D Flower 110.00
The use of animal materials and minerals by various traditionaland Ayurveda practitioners were also evaluated. A total of 18 animal-derived samples and 69 minerals were identified (Tables 4 and 5).With regards to the former, only 16% were from domesticatedanimals while 83% were from the wild. Moreover, a vast majorityof respondents (70%) reported the use of bee honey for medicinalpreparations. However, relative to plants, there is currently a declin-ing trend for animal use. This might be due to toxicity concerns,complicated purification processes, less number of medicinal recipesand the relatively sympathetic attitude towards animal use inmedicine (Lev and Amar, 2000).
3.4. Problems faced by different focus groups
Numerous constraints and challenges have been prevalent inmost countries, where traditional and Ayurveda systems of med-icine are practiced (Canter et al., 2005; Singh, Q52006). Similarproblems are common in the herbal industry of Sri Lanka as well.These are categorized according to different focus groups asfollows:
3.4.1. Challenges faced by manufactures, practitioners, and Ayurvedacommissioners
This category includes large, small and medium scale manu-factures and distributors (Cat. nos. 3 and 4) and traditional andAyurveda practitioners (Cat. nos. 1, 2 and 5) who utilize rawmaterials for day-to-day production. Majority of these respon-dents identified the expensive raw materials, poor quality, insuffi-cient or absence of continuous supply as the major limitations(Fig. 5). These are somehow related to the specific concerns thatwere also mentioned such as: 1) lack of knowledge on the properidentification of plants or plant parts; 2) decline of existing wildstock due to extinction and limited lands; 3) legal barriers oncultivation of certain species (e.g. Cannabis sativa L.); 4) lack ofproper cultivations; 5) harvest restrictions for some wild speciesi.e. Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr., Syringa reticulata(Blume) H. Hara, Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Theob. Santalum albumL. and Pterocarpus santalinus L. f.; 6) seasonal availability; 7)unavailability of proper raw materials in required form (dry orfresh state) and 8) lack of appropriate research and developmentprograms. In this connection, Singh (2006) also reported theconcerns faced by Indian medicinal and aromatic plant industryand these include: 1) overexploitation of medicinal plant materialsfrom the wild (more than 80%) due to the lack of proper systematiccultivation; 2) lack of proper agro-technologies; 3) absence ofmarketing linkages for the selling of materials; 4) lack of knowl-edge and training on post harvest technologies and 5) lack ofproper quality control methodologies as also main constraints.Now, these findings are in agreement with previous surveysconducted by Douglas et al., 2005, which reported the post harvestoperation of herbs, spices, and essential oils in developing coun-tries. Fluctuation of prices of raw materials according to theharvesting season also affected their production cycles.
3.4.2. Challenges faced by importers/collectors of herbal materialsSome of the highlighted constraints were the lack of quality
materials, insufficient storage facilities, and lack of governmentcredit facilities. Moreover, once sufficient amount of good qualitymaterials become available in the market, importers agree to stopimportation in order to promote the local production.
123456789
101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566 Ta
ble
3(con
tinu
ed)
Family
Scientificnam
eVernac
ularnam
eaState
Description
Parts
used
Totalquan
tity
(kg/ye
ar)
Clerod
endrum
inerme(L.)Gae
rtn.
Burenda
DHea
rtwoo
d/bark
700.00
Gmelinaarbo
reaRo
xb.
Aethdem
ata
DRoo
ts/lea
ves/fruit
8051
.00
Prem
naob
tusifolia
R.B
r.Midi/Hee
nMidi
DRoo
ts/lea
ves
9795
.50
Pygm
aeop
remna
herbacea
(Rox
b.)Molden
keSirithek
kuD
Roo
t38
88.50
Tecton
agran
disL.
f.Te
kka
DLe
aves/see
ds/ba
rk/roo
t1100.00
91.V
iolace
aeViola
odorataL.
Bharg-e-Ban
afsh
aD
Leav
es/flow
ers/roots
50.00
92.V
itac
eae
Cissus
quad
rang
ularis
L.Hiressa
DW
holeplant
336.00
Leea
indica
(Burm
.f.)Merr.
Burulla
DLe
af/roo
t50
.00
Vitis
vinifera
L.Muddarap
palam
DHC
Fruit/lea
ves/seed
s13
,172
.00
93.X
anth
orrhoea
ceae
Aloevera
(L.)Burm
.f.
Kom
arika/Th
iththaAbin
DHC
Leav
es/w
holeplant(dried
extract)
25,711
.00
94.Z
ingiberac
eae
Alpinia
calcarata(H
aw.)Rosc.
Araththa
DHC
Rhizom
e16
,282
.00
Curcum
aarom
aticaSa
lisb.
Dad
a-ka
ha
DRhizom
e20
.00
Curcum
along
aL.
Kah
aD/F
Rhizom
e83
40.25
Curcum
azedo
aria
(Christm.)Ro
scoe
Haran
Kah
aD
Rhizom
e13
65.00
Elettariacardam
omum
(L.)Maton
Enasal/Karad
amungu
DV
Seed
2962
.90
Kae
mpferia
galang
aL.
Ingu
rupiyali
DI
Rhizom
e54
70.25
Zing
iber
officina
leRosco
eIngu
ruD/F
MHIC
Rhizom
e35
0,56
1.20
95.Z
ygophyllace
aeTribulus
terrestris
L.Neren
chi
DHC
Seed
s22
,703
.50
Total
2,69
0,82
3.34
Note:
D¼
dry
plantmaterials,F
¼freshplantmaterials,M
¼mostdem
anded
plantmaterials
(Req
uired
amou
nt4
50,000per
year),V¼
mostva
lued
plantmaterials,H
¼hea
vily
usedmaterials
(Req
uired
amou
nt4
10,000per
year),R¼
rare
materials,I
¼major
importingmaterials,C
¼locally
cultivab
lemed
icinal
plantsp
ecies.
aAllve
rnacularnam
esarein
Sinhalalangu
age.
T.N.M. Kankanamalage et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎10
Please cite this article as: Kankanamalage, T.N.M., et al., A survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systems of medicine inSri Lanka. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.06.016i
Fig. 2. Plant families with the highest number of cited species.
Fig. 3. Percentage of plant parts used. [stakeholders include, Provincial Ayurveda commissioners (Cat. no. 1), Directors of hospitals (Cat. no. 2), large scale drug and cosmeticmanufactures and distributors (Cat. no. 3), small and medium scale drug and cosmetic manufactures and distributors (Cat. no. 4), traditional and Ayurveda practitioners(Cat. no. 5) engage in the medicinal plant industry.]
Fig. 4. Ideas on quality of raw materials. Note: total percentage did not add up to 100 due to multiple responses. PD – perfectly dried, FI – free of impurities, SC – specificcolour, FF – free of fungal contamination, HPM – harvested at proper maturity, O – Other (presence of specific taste, herbal value and smell, free of adulterates, to be thedesired part of the plant, high self life, materials are not be out-dated and should be of higher standards, free of pest and disease attacks, plant materials should preparedusing appropriate processing techniques and using appropriate packaging, etc.).
T.N.M. Kankanamalage et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 11
4. Conclusions
The present survey made it possible to prepare an inventory ofmedicinal materials and their aggregate quantities used in Ayur-veda and traditional systems of medicine in Sri Lanka. Results
Table 4List of animal materials used by respondents.
Scientific name Vernacular namea Parts used
1. Apis cerana Bee, Mee messa Honey, wax2. Bos taurus/Bos indicus Ela gawaya Milk, meat, urine, cow dung, liver, gall-stone3. Centropus sinensis Aetikukula Meat, eggs, whole animal4. Cygnus spp. Swan Feather, meat5. Cypraea moneta Kawadi Outer cover6. Earth worm Gedawila Worm and its excretion7. Elephas maximus maximus Aliya/Etha Tusk (Ivory), bone of the lower jaw, urine, dung, milk8. Gallus domesticus Kukula Eggs, meat and dung, oil9. Moschus moschiferus Muwa Meat, horn, skin10. Naja naja Cobra Mouth secretion/poison11. Oysters spp Sippi/Muthu bella Pearl, outer cover12. Pavo cristatus Monera/Peacock Meat, oil, feathers, skin13. Solenopsis spp. Dimiya/Red ant Eggs14. Sylvilagus brasiliensis Hawa/Rabbit Meat, skin15. Testudo graeca Water tortoise Meat, outer cover16. Tragulus napu Mouse deer Meat, skin17. Turbinella rapa Hak bella Outer cover18. Varanus bengalensis Thalagoya/Iguana Skin, meat
[Respondents include, (Provincial Ayurveda commissioners (Cat. no. 1), Directors of hospitals (Cat. no. 2), large scale drug andcosmetic manufactures and distributors (Cat. no. 3), small and medium scale drug and cosmetic manufactures and distributors(Cat. no. 4), traditional and Ayurveda practitioners (Cat. no. 5) and importers and distributors (Cat. no. 6)].
a All vernacular names are in Sinhala language.
Table 5List of mineral materials used by respondents.
Scientific name/chemical name Vernacular namea
1. Aconite Vachchanavi2. Alum sulphate of aluminium/alum/hydratedpotassium alum
Sinakkaram
3. Ammonium chloride Balal lunu4. Antimony sulphide Anjana keta/Andun5. Arsenic bisulphide/Arsenic trisulphide Ran hiriyal6. Asbestos Gal nahara7. Asphaltum/Asphalt mineral pitch Silajathu8. Bisulphate of arsenigrealar Manoseela9. Black clay Kalu meti10. Black lead Seesaka11. Black salt Suwasa lunu/Kalu lunu12. Borax Pushkara13. Brilliant-Toumarin Waikrantha14. Bronze Lokada15. Calcium aluminium silicate Gomeda16. Calcium carbonate Rata hunu/Chalk17. Calcium hydroxide Alu-hunu18. Calcium oxide Hunu/Bunt lime19. Carbon Gal anguru20. Cat's eye Wairodi21. China clay Kirimati22. Cinnabar Sadilingam23. Copper Thamba24. Copper sulphate Palmanikkam25. Diamond Diyamanthi26. Emerald Marakatha27. Ferric oxide Yabora, Rust of iron28. Ferrous Lauba bhashma29. Gold Rathran30. Graphite Miniran31. Iron ore Manura32. Iron pyrites Swarna makshika bashma/
Vimala33. Lapis lazuli Rajavarta34. Lead Kalu eyam35. Lead oxide Mruddarashrunga36. Lime Hunnu37. Magnetite iron oxide Kantha-pashana38. Mercury Rasadiya39. Mica Talatu miniran40. Moon stone Chandrakantha41. Nepthalin Wandu kapuru
Table 5 (continued )
Scientific name/chemical name Vernacular namea
42. Onyx Gomedha43. Oxide of iron or silicate of alumina Siwanguru44. Pearl oyster Sippi katu45. Potassium carbonate Yawakara-lunu46. Potassium nitrate Wedi lunu47. Red lead Sindur48. Rock alum Gal mada49. Rock crystal Palingu50. Rock salt Sawinda lunu51. Sambara/laban, Romaka lawana Romaka lunu52. Sapphire Neela manikya53. Sepia officinalis Muhudu pena54. Silicon dioxide Weeduru weli55. Silver Ridhie56. Sodium bicarbonate Swarjikshara57. Sodium chlorate Muhudu lunu58. Sodium chloride Diya lunu/Common salt59. Sub-borate or common borax Udbhida lunu60. Succinum Ambara61. Sulphate of iron Kasis62. Sulpher Gendagam63. Sun stone Surya kantha pashana64. Tin Sudu eyam65. Topaz Pushparaga66. White marble Kirigarunda67. White oxide of arsenic Gauri pashanam68. Zinc carbonate Kharpara69. Zink and iron mixture Ridi kuththan
[Respondents include, (Provincial Ayurveda commissioners (Cat. no. 1), Directors ofhospitals (Cat. no. 2), large scale drug and cosmetic manufactures and distributors(Cat. no. 3), small and medium scale drug and cosmetic manufactures anddistributors (Cat. no. 4), traditional and Ayurveda practitioners (Cat. no. 5) andimporters and distributors (Cat. no. 6)].
a All vernacular names are in Sinhala language.
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Please cite this article as: Kankanamalage, T.N.M., et al., A survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systems of medicine inSri Lanka. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.06.016i
clearly demonstrated that vast majority of materials were fromplant origin (302 plant species belonging to 95 families) followedby mineral (69) and animal (18) materials. Moreover, we were ableto group the medicinal plant materials into different categoriesbased on their annual requirements, availability, and possibility ofcommercial cultivations. In addition, we have identified the con-straints and challenges faced by stakeholders of medicinal plantindustry. Findings of the current study demonstrate the need forimplementing a national strategy to address the major challengesfaced by different stakeholders of the medicinal material industry.Such strategy should include: 1) development of protocols forgood agricultural post harvest aspects; 2) quality control methods,which ensure the continuous supply of good quality, uniform materialand to take some of the pressure off from wild ecosystems; 3)development of necessary infrastructure facilities such as the estab-lishment of well equipped laboratories; 4) creation of credit facilitiesfor required stakeholders; 5) establishment of good storage facilitiesfor both importers, manufactures and collectors; 6) strengthening ofcapacity of different stakeholders of medicinal material industry byproviding up to date scientific knowledge in order to meet theincreasing demand of the herbal industry.
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to express their gratitude to all the respondentsfor their valuable cooperation in the survey. A special acknowl-edgement to all the staff members at Herbal Technology Section ofIndustrial Technology Institute, Colombo 07 for their valuablesupport. A deep appreciation is extended to Department ofPlantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka.
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Fig. 5. Problems faced by the stakeholders in the medicinal plant industry [stakeholders include, Provincial Ayurveda commissioners (Cat. no. 1), Directors of hospitals(Cat. no. 2), large scale drug and cosmetic manufactures and distributors (Cat. no. 3), small and medium scale drug and cosmetic manufactures and distributors (Cat. no. 4),traditional and Ayurveda practitioners (Cat. no. 5) importers and distributors (Cat. no. 6) engage in the medicinal plant industry]. Note: total percentage did not add up to 100due to multiple responses. HP – higher price, PQ – poor quality, ACS – absence of continuous supply, IS – insufficient supply, O – Other (misidentification, difficulties infinding of some medicinal plants, legal barriers on cultivation or harvesting of certain species, lack of proper cultivations, seasonal harvesting, difficulties in getting the plantmaterials in required status, lack of research and development programmes, etc.)
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Please cite this article as: Kankanamalage, T.N.M., et al., A survey on medicinal materials used in traditional systems of medicine inSri Lanka. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.06.016i
