Two parallel initiatives on the application of Integrated Coastal Management approach inXiamen (PR China) and the Batangas Bay Region (Philippines) for achieving sustainablecoastal development were assessed in relation to Integrated Coastal Management (ICM)applicability, effectivess, replicability and scaling up in two different political, socioeco-nomic, ecological and cultural settings. The paper analyzed the conditions under whichvarious policy and management interventions were made and how they contributed topolicy reforms, integration of sectoral policies and interagency functions to reduce policyconflicts and overlapping responsibilities. The importance of stakeholder participation andcreating an informed public are stressed in relation to strengthening political commit-ments and building enabling environment for management actions.
The results obtained over a span of 14 years suggest that the ICM approach isdoable and effective in facilitating policy reforms, improving interagency and multisectorcoordination. ICM is also as efficient through its management framework, planning andimplementing processes as well as its interagency, multi-stakeholders consultative plat-form for the implementation of various coastal programs. The paper draws conclusions oncoastal governance from the lessons learned and identifies essential elements that areinstrumental to effective implementation of the ICM program as well as room for improve-ment.
Finally, the paper describes current efforts in codifying the ICM framework. Fur-ther, it outlines an improved ICM program development and implementation processusing international standards for quality and environmental management and appropriatedocumentation through the use of a “State of the Coasts” reporting format. A completeICM system has now evolved, the application of which enables one to document therequired processes and actions so that the outputs and status can be effectively measuredand assessed against its set objectives.
Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) isdefined as “a natural resource and environ-mental management system which employsan integrative, holistic management ap-proach and an interactive planning processin addressing the complex management is-sues of the coastal areas” (Clark 1996; Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998; Chua 2008). ICMintegrates planning and management of thewatershed, river basin and coastal waters;addresses the consequence of interactionsbetween the ecosystems and human activi-ties on land and sea; administers policy andmanagement actions that would balance hu-man activities and protection of the func-tional integrity of the terrestrial and marineecosystems.
In a broad sense, the ultimate goal ofICM is sustainable coastal development.Achieving ICM is a long and complicatedprocess but is necessary considering that overhalf the world population will be located inurban coastal centers by 2015. Pressure fromhuman activities (such as human settlement,food supply, water use, sanitation, livelihoodand other socioeconomic activities) oncoastal ecosystems will increase as a resultof coastal population movement (Chua 2004,2006).
2. Initiatives at the Local Level
In 1993, both Xiamen and the Batangas BayRegion were selected as ICM demonstrationsites (Fig. 1) under a regional programme co-financed by the Global Environmental Fa-cility (GEF). The sites were to test and verifythe effectiveness of the ICM approach andpotential for ICM demonstration.
The two ICM initiatives being imple-mented by the local government of Xiamen(PR China) and that of Batangas Province(Philippines) are guided by the ICM ProjectDevelopment and Implementation Cycle(commonly known as the ICM cycle), whichconsists of a cyclical process (Fig. 2) involv-ing various stages of planning and implemen-tation of an ICM program: preparing, initi-ating, developing, adopting, implementing,refining and consolidating (Chua and Scura1992; Chua 2006, 2008). Both are areaswhere tiny fishing villages once abound.They share similar development and man-agement problems during the early stages ofthe ICM initiatives: (a) both became progres-sively urbanized and were (and still are) na-tional centers for industrial development;both local governments placed great effortsto attract international investment to boost adiversified economy, however, less effortwas paid on environmental concerns; (b) theper capita income of both areas compared totheir national average were rated as moderate,but the pressures for economic development
Fig. 1. Location of the two PEMSEA ICM demonstration sites.
Integrated coastal management in Xiamen and Batangas Bay 89
Fig.
2.
ICM
pro
ject
dev
elo
pm
ent
and
imp
lem
enta
tion
cycl
e (S
our
ce: C
hua
2008
).
90 T.-E. CHUA
were high; (c) both practiced sectoral plan-ning (e.g. fisheries, transport, mining, portand harbor), mostly on land use and very lit-tle or none on sea-use; (d) their line agen-cies (e.g. transport, fisheries, mining, envi-ronment, enforcement, planning) had (andstill have) overlapping functions related tocoastal management; (e) extensive multipleuses of coastal lowland and adjacent watersbegan to create negative environmental im-pacts and posed serious threats to habitatsand natural resources.
However there are differences betweenthe two areas, namely:1. They are operating in different political,
social and cultural systems. Xiamen op-erates in a socialist system—centrallycontrolled, but with certain degree of au-tonomy as one of the five autonomouseconomic centers of China. Batangas, onthe other hand, is democratic, with a highdegree of decentralization.
2. The governance structure in Xiamenconsists of a government machinery ledby the mayor and a party machinery ledby a Communist Party Secretary. Gov-ernment operation must be led by Partyprinciples and decisions. The mayor isgenerally a Deputy Secretary of theParty. In the case of Batangas Province,the elected governor is the administra-tive head of the local government andhas the legislative right to make deci-sions based on the Local GovernmentCode. Municipalities and cities areheaded by elected mayors.
3. Religious influence in Batangas Prov-ince is predominantly Roman Catholic,while there is no religious influence inXiamen.The ICM projects were launched in early
1994. Each project was able to complete thefirst ICM Development and ImplementationCycle in about six years. Essential informa-tion on the elements of coastal governance(policy, strategic action programs, legisla-tion, institutional arrangement, financing,
stakeholder consultation, information man-agement and capacity development) wereacquired and ICM program formulated. Dur-ing the first ICM cycle, GEF’s contributionto total project funds was about half to two-thirds of the total amount allocated for thetwo projects. The remaining amount camefrom the local governments and counterpartcontributions from the private sector, as inthe case of Batangas Bay.
From 2000 to 2007, a second programcycle was started to implement activitiesidentified in their action plans. In this stage,the local government covered almost 90 per-cent of the total costs while GEF’s contribu-tion was used mainly to support incrementalcost such as preparation of case studies andto support the development of ICM trainingcenters.. A third cycle will begin in 2008 andfocuses on geographical and functional scal-ing up of ICM practices.
3. Assessment of Key Activitiesand Achievements
The ICM initiatives at both study sites wereable to produce the needed outputs as deter-mined by each stage of the ICM programdevelopment process such as coastal strat-egy, issue- or site-specific action plans, com-munication plans, risk assessment reports,ICM policy, local ordinances, etc. The timelydelivery and quality of outputs, however, aredependent on available technical and man-agement capacity of the local governments.Both sites were able to secure the neededexpertise from national and local universi-ties and research institutions (PEMSEA2006a, b; Chua 2006).
While the initiatives in the two sites dif-fered in terms of level of inputs (such asbudget, time, expertise), delivery of outputs(e.g. governance framework, action plans,studies), effectiveness of enforcement ofaction plans and measurable impacts, theydid share the same vision for sustainabledevelopment and environmental concerns, as
Integrated coastal management in Xiamen and Batangas Bay 91
well as the approaches and strategies. Moreimportantly, they were able to follow thesame path (stages of ICM cycle) towardssustainable coastal development amid politi-cal, socioeconomic and ecological differ-ences and complexities. These initiativesessentially tell the same tale.
Assessment of the key activities and ac-complishments related to coastal governanceand the implementation of strategic actionplans of the two initiatives are given in Tables1 and 2 respectively.
3.1. Implementing activities tostrengthen coastal
governance
Under the context of governance, key activi-ties undertaken at the two sites (Table 1)focused on: (a) creating a shared vision tobuild and synergize interagency andstakeholder cooperation for policy and man-agement priority; (b) formulating localcoastal sustainable development policy thatcould streamline sectoral policies (such asfisheries, marine transport, port, tourism ) inline with the sustainable development prin-ciples; (c) establishing a coordinating mecha-nism for integrated planning and manage-ment; (d) creating enabling legislation tostrengthen law enforcement; (e) promotingstakeholder involvement and participationwithin and across sectors to reduceinteragency and sectoral conflicts; (f) reduc-ing multiple use conflicts especially throughscience-based sea-use zoning plans and per-mit systems; (g) sharing database and infor-mation within and across sectors to increasemanagement effectiveness and cost-effi-ciency; (h) creating an informed public toexert public pressure against policy or man-agement decisions harmful to the environ-ment; (i) integrating capacity developmentinto ICM development process through en-couraging horizontal and vertical learning soas to prepare a critical mass of local exper-tise; (j) financing and sustaining the ICM
program using local resources by integrat-ing ICM into the local economic develop-ment agenda and utilizing bilateral and mul-tilateral assistance for large environmentalimprovement facilities (Chua 2006).
Significant progress has been made atboth sites in the abovementioned activitiesrelated to governance. However, there areconsiderable policy and management defi-ciencies that need further improvement in-cluding those related to coastal reclamation,transboundary pollution control, response toclimate change, effective implementation ofinternational instruments, and local and na-tional policy integration and coordination, aswell as translating political commitmentsinto financial allocation for managementactions.
3.2. Implementing a long-termcoastal strategy and
action plans
Long-term strategic environmental manage-ment plans have been developed for bothsites as part of the ICM initiatives (ITTXDP1996; PG-ENRO 1996). The strategic plansnormally considered a timeframe of at least25 years and are guided by the shared vi-sion. The plans were developed after a thor-ough profiling of the coastal areas, identifi-cation of key issues, risk assessments andextensive consultation with stakeholders toreach consensus on the priority areas for ac-tions. The strategic action plans for Xiamenand Batangas Bay Region are being imple-mented by the two local governments al-though at different scales and speed (Table 2).The biggest challenge to both local govern-ments, however, is to implement issue or site-specific action plans which require substan-tive financial and human resources.
Key activities undertaken by the twosites during the last 14 years, include imple-menting a waste management plan to addresssolid, hazardous, industrial and domesticwastes. The waste management plans have
92 T.-E. CHUA
Tab
le 1
.A
sses
smen
t o
f th
e p
erfo
rman
ce o
f IC
M im
ple
men
tatio
n re
l ate
d to
the
key
ob
ject
ives
und
er t
he g
over
nanc
e co
mp
one
nt o
f th
e IC
M p
rogr
am.
Xia
men
, PR
Chi
naB
atan
gas
Bay
Reg
ion,
Phi
lipp
ines
Bac
kgro
und:
The
nee
d fo
rIC
M i
nitia
tives
Popu
latio
n gr
ow
th f
rom
1.2
5 m
(19
95)
to 2
.25
m (
2005
)la
rgel
y du
e to
mig
ratio
n fr
om
rur
al a
reas
; de
sign
ated
as
one
of
five
natio
nal
Spec
ial
Eco
nom
ic Z
one
s; G
DP
(199
5) 2
5b
illio
n R
MB
; 88
bill
ion
RM
B (
2004
); r
apid
eco
nom
ictr
ansf
orm
atio
n fr
om
pri
mar
y se
cto
r (f
ishe
ries
and
agri
cultu
re-b
ased
) to
sec
ond
ary
and
tert
iary
sec
tor
dev
elo
pm
ent
(man
ufac
turi
ng a
nd s
ervi
ces)
; m
ultip
le u
seco
nflic
ts i
nten
sifie
d,
envi
ronm
enta
l d
amag
e se
vere
; p
olic
yan
d m
anag
emen
t de
ficie
ncy
and
lack
of
man
ager
ial
cap
acity
hind
er s
usta
inab
le d
evel
op
men
t. In
itiat
e IC
M p
ract
ice
in19
94 t
ill p
rese
nt.
Popu
latio
n: 0
.825
m (
1995
), 0.
964
m (
2000
) w
ith a
nnua
lb
irth
rat
e o
f 2.
2–3%
; G
DP
(nat
iona
l): $
4200
(20
02);
one
of
key
natio
nal
eco
nom
ic d
evel
op
men
t ar
ea:
the
Cal
abar
zon.
Tran
sfo
rmat
ion
fro
m p
rim
ary
sect
or
(fis
heri
es,
agri
cultu
re)
to m
ainl
y se
cond
ary
sect
or
(man
ufac
turi
ng i
ndus
trie
s, p
ort
,sh
ipp
ing)
; m
ultip
le u
se c
onf
licts
int
ensi
fy,
po
llutio
n an
dec
osy
stem
dam
age
seve
re;
polic
y an
d m
anag
emen
td
efic
ienc
y, p
oo
r en
forc
emen
t an
d i
nad
equa
te l
oca
lte
chni
cal,
finan
cial
and
man
agem
ent
cap
acity
thr
eate
nsu
stai
nab
le d
evel
op
men
t. In
itiat
e IC
M p
ract
ice
in 1
994
till
pre
sent
.
Cre
atin
g a
shar
ed v
isio
n an
da
stak
eho
lder
s' p
latf
orm
Esta
blis
hed
sh
ared
vis
ion
: m
od
erni
zed
, in
dus
tria
lized
, p
ort
and
gar
den
city
; in
tera
genc
y co
nsul
tatio
n m
echa
nism
esta
blis
hed
; in
adeq
uate
co
nsul
tatio
n w
ith o
ther
stak
eho
lder
s
Esta
blis
hed
sh
ared
vis
ion
: en
viro
nmen
tally
so
und
po
rt a
ndm
ariti
me
eco
nom
y; i
nter
agen
cy,
mul
tisec
tora
l co
nsul
tativ
em
echa
nism
est
ablis
hed
; p
erio
dic
mee
tings
of
stak
eho
lder
s
Form
ulat
ing
an I
CM
po
licy
•Lo
cal
po
licy
with
cle
ar d
irec
tion;
•In
tegr
ated
sea
use
int
o l
and-
use
pla
nnin
g;•
Stro
ng p
olit
ical
will
and
fin
anci
al c
om
mit
men
t se
cure
d;
•In
adeq
uate
po
licy
dir
ectio
n o
n la
nd r
ecla
mat
ion
•Lo
cal
ord
inan
ce t
o i
mp
lem
ent
ICM
sec
ured
;•
Mo
der
ate
po
litic
al w
ill;
•Fi
nanc
ial
com
mit
men
t lim
ited
;•
Inad
equa
te p
olic
y o
n la
nd r
ecla
mat
ion,
sea
-use
zo
ning
sche
me,
fis
heri
es m
anag
emen
t
Esta
blis
hing
a c
oo
rdin
atin
gm
ech
anis
m•
Lega
lly i
nstit
uted
int
erag
ency
co
ord
inat
ing
mec
hani
smes
tab
lishe
d w
ith a
n in
terd
isci
plin
ary
exp
ert
gro
up;
•C
hair
ed b
y m
ayo
r w
ith c
onc
erne
d ag
enci
es a
s vi
ce c
hair
san
d m
emb
ersh
ip c
om
po
sitio
n w
ith r
epre
sent
atio
n fr
om
conc
erne
d ag
enci
es a
nd c
om
mitt
ees;
•In
itial
Bat
anga
s B
ay C
oas
tal
Res
our
ce M
anag
emen
tC
oun
cil
reo
rgan
ized
int
o a
Bat
anga
s B
ay I
CM
Bo
ard,
sup
po
rted
by
a te
chni
cal
wo
rkin
g gr
oup
;•
Each
mun
icip
ality
fo
rms
its o
wn
Mun
icip
al I
CM
Bo
ard
,ch
aire
d b
y its
ow
n m
ayo
rs;
Integrated coastal management in Xiamen and Batangas Bay 93
effe
ctiv
enes
s;•
PMO
: M
arin
e an
d Fi
sher
ies
Bur
eau.
•B
EPC
dir
ectly
lin
ked
with
the
Pro
vinc
ial
Dev
elo
pm
ent
Co
unci
l so
tha
t en
viro
nmen
tal
conc
erns
and
dec
isio
nsca
n re
ceiv
e p
rio
rity
co
nsid
erat
ion
by
the
PDC
. Th
e th
ree-
tiere
d o
rgan
izat
iona
l st
ruct
ure
enab
les
coo
rdin
atio
n o
fIC
M a
ctiv
ities
at
all
leve
ls o
f go
vern
men
t.
Enab
ling
legi
slat
ion
tost
reng
then
enf
orc
emen
t•
Seve
ral
envi
ronm
ent
and
mar
ine-
rela
ted
leg
isla
tion
and
ord
inan
ces
enac
ted
by
the
Xia
men
Mun
icip
al G
ove
rnm
ent
•In
tegr
ated
law
enf
orc
emen
t m
echa
nism
est
ablis
hed
, w
ithla
w e
nfo
rcer
s fr
om
maj
or
mar
ine-
rela
ted
law
enf
orc
ing
agen
cies
Thi
s is
eff
ectiv
e in
red
ucin
g co
nflic
ts b
etw
een
enfo
rcin
g ag
enci
es,
rem
ova
l o
f ca
ges
and
raft
s cl
ogg
ing
the
navi
gatio
nal
chan
nel
and
imp
lem
enta
tion
of
the
sea-
use
zoni
ng s
chem
e.
•M
odi
ficat
ion
or
refin
emen
t o
f ex
istin
g o
rdin
ance
s m
ade
atp
rovi
ncia
l an
d m
unic
ipal
ity l
evel
•La
w e
nfo
rcem
ent
req
uire
s st
rong
er p
olit
ical
will
and
capa
city
of
the
enfo
rcin
g ag
enci
es t
o e
ffect
ivel
y re
gula
teco
mm
erci
al t
raw
ling
in m
unic
ipal
wat
ers,
ille
gal
fishi
ng,
po
llutio
n fr
om
sm
all
and
med
ium
ind
ustr
ies,
and
so
lidw
aste
dis
po
sal.
Pro
mo
ting
stak
eho
lder
invo
lvem
ent
and
par
tici
pat
ion
•Sc
ient
ific
advi
ce t
hro
ugh
the
Inte
rdis
cip
linar
y Ex
per
tG
roup
but
no
t th
e ci
tizen
ry;
•N
GO
s do
exi
st b
ut m
ost
ly i
n th
e fo
rm o
f go
vern
men
t-co
ntro
lled
sp
ecia
lized
ass
oci
atio
ns;
and
•P
ublic
aw
aren
ess
rais
ed t
hro
ugh
med
ia a
nd e
duca
tion.
•P
ublic
hea
ring
s d
one
fo
r m
ajo
r in
fras
truc
ture
pro
ject
s;•
Stak
eho
lder
s re
pre
sent
ed i
n va
rio
us I
CM
bo
ard;
and
•St
akeh
old
er c
ons
ulta
tion
app
rop
riat
ely
org
aniz
ed.
Red
ucin
g m
ultip
le u
seco
nflic
ts t
hro
ugh
sea-
use
zoni
ng s
chem
e
•Se
a-us
e zo
ning
sch
eme
esta
blis
hed
with
ap
pro
pri
ate
legi
slat
ion
;•
Effe
ctiv
ely
reso
lved
co
nflic
ts b
etw
een
raft
and
cag
e cu
lture
and
ship
mo
vem
ents
in
the
navi
gatio
nal
chan
nel,
pro
vide
d gr
eate
r p
rote
ctio
n fo
r en
dang
ered
sp
ecie
s b
yes
tab
lishi
ng c
ons
erva
tion
zone
;•
Effe
ctiv
ely
sto
pp
ed s
and
min
ing
and
reha
bili
tatio
n o
f a
pub
lic s
wim
min
g b
each
, re
mo
val
of
heav
y in
dust
ryo
utsi
de t
he c
ity l
imit.
•Th
e zo
ning
sch
eme
ensu
res
a cl
ear
navi
gatio
nal
rout
e f
or
vess
els
ente
ring
and
dep
artin
g th
e B
atan
gas
po
rt a
nd o
ilre
finer
y te
rmin
als;
•Th
e m
arin
e p
rote
cted
are
a in
the
Mun
icip
ality
of
Mab
ini
redu
ces
com
petin
g us
e b
y la
w;
•Z
oni
ng s
chem
e ha
s no
leg
al p
erso
nalit
y.
•U
nder
gone
tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
in P
hase
II,
mem
ber
ship
redu
ced
fro
m 2
2 to
14
to i
ncre
ase
effic
ienc
y an
d•
New
Bat
anga
s En
viro
nmen
tal
Pro
tect
ion
Co
unci
les
tab
lishe
d, w
ith t
he p
rovi
ncia
l go
vern
or
serv
ing
as c
hair
;
94 T.-E. CHUA
Tab
le 1
.(c
ont
.)
Xia
men
, PR
Chi
naB
atan
gas
Bay
Reg
ion,
Phi
lipp
ines
Cre
atin
g an
inf
orm
ed p
ublic
•M
edia
pla
ys a
maj
or
role
in
keep
ing
the
pub
lic a
war
e an
din
form
ed t
hro
ugh
loca
l ne
wsp
aper
s, r
adio
s an
d t
elev
isio
n;•
ICM
wel
l ad
vert
ised
thr
oug
h re
sear
ch a
nd e
duca
tiona
lin
stit
uti
on
s;•
Bea
ch c
lean
up c
amp
aign
s.
•R
egul
ar r
adio
pro
gram
, p
rogr
ams
on
ICM
on
natio
nal
tele
visi
on,
fea
ture
s in
new
spap
ers;
•B
each
cle
anup
and
tre
e p
lant
ing
cam
pai
gns;
•Ef
fect
ive
com
mun
ity p
latf
orm
.
Dev
elo
pin
g ca
pac
ity t
hro
ugh
hori
zont
al l
earn
ing
The
dive
rsity
of
activ
ities
dev
elo
ped
and
im
ple
men
ted
unde
r an
IC
M p
rogr
am p
rovi
des
amp
le o
pp
ort
unity
fo
r th
ep
artic
ipat
ing
stak
eho
lder
s to
lea
rn f
rom
eac
h o
ther
. W
ide
rang
e o
f to
pic
s un
der
ICM
inc
lude
po
licy
refo
rms,
int
egra
ted
pla
nnin
g, r
isk
asse
ssm
ent,
coas
tal
zoni
ng,
legi
slat
ion
and
ord
inan
ces,
eco
nom
ic i
nstr
umen
ts,
natu
ral
reso
urce
val
uatio
n,so
cial
ana
lysi
s, f
inan
cing
sus
tain
abili
ty,
info
rmat
ion
man
agem
ent.
Such
inf
orm
al l
earn
ing
thro
ugh
the
ICM
pro
gram
has
pro
ven
effe
ctiv
e in
dev
elo
pin
g a
po
ol
of
loca
l te
chni
cal
and
man
agem
ent
exp
ertis
e.
Fina
ncin
g an
IC
M p
rogr
am•
Reg
ular
city
bud
get;
•Su
bst
antia
l co
llect
ion
of
per
mit
fees
thr
oug
h se
a-us
ezo
ning
sch
eme
imp
lem
enta
tion
has
stre
ngth
ened
the
finan
cial
po
sitio
n o
f th
e B
urea
u o
f M
arin
e an
d Fi
sher
ies
whi
ch i
s th
e IC
M c
oo
rdin
atin
g b
ody
;•
BO
T an
d B
OO
ini
tiate
d th
roug
h fo
r in
fras
truc
ture
dev
elo
pm
ent,
and
pub
lic-p
riva
te s
ecto
r p
artn
ersh
ip (
PP
P)
exp
lore
d.
•R
egul
ar b
udge
t fr
om
pro
vinc
ial
gove
rnm
ent;
with
cont
rib
utio
n fr
om
the
Bat
anga
s B
ay C
oas
tal
Res
our
ceFo
un
dat
ion
;•
Use
r fe
es c
olle
cted
fro
m d
iver
s an
d to
uris
ts t
o t
he M
abin
ico
ral
sanc
tuar
y he
lps
to s
usta
in l
oca
l IC
M p
rogr
am;
•B
OT
and
BO
O e
xplo
red,
PPP
tri
ed b
ut f
aile
d.
Sour
ces:
C
hua
20
06
; IT
TXD
P 1
99
6;
MP
P-E
AS
19
96
; P
EMSE
A 2
00
6a,
b, c
, 20
07
; P
G-E
NR
O 1
99
6.
Shar
ing
of
data
bas
e an
din
form
atio
n•
Inte
grat
ed I
nfo
rmat
ion
Man
agem
ent
Syst
em f
or
Co
asta
lan
d M
arin
e En
viro
nmen
t (I
IMS)
est
ablis
hed
;•
Inte
grat
ed e
nvir
onm
enta
l q
ualit
y m
oni
tori
ng p
rogr
ames
tab
lishe
d to
sha
re d
ata
with
par
ticip
atin
g ag
enci
es.
•IIM
S es
tab
lishe
d an
d da
ta e
nric
hed
thro
ugh
new
so
urce
s;•
Man
aged
by
the
envi
ronm
enta
l o
ffice
(EN
RO
) o
f th
ep
rovi
nce.
Integrated coastal management in Xiamen and Batangas Bay 95
Tab
le 2
.A
sses
smen
t o
f im
ple
men
tatio
n o
f th
e st
rate
gic
actio
n p
lans
of
the
two
ICM
initi
ativ
es.
Xia
men
, PR
Chi
naB
atan
gas
Bay
Reg
ion,
Phi
lipp
ines
Imp
lem
entin
g a
long
-term
coas
tal
stra
tegy
and
act
ion
pla
ns
Long
-term
Xia
men
Str
ateg
ic E
nvir
onm
enta
l M
anag
emen
tPl
ans
form
ulat
ed;
ado
pte
d b
y ci
ty g
ove
rnm
ent
and
bei
ngim
ple
men
ted;
rev
isio
n m
ade
for
Pha
se I
I.
Bat
anga
s B
ay E
nvir
onm
enta
l M
anag
emen
t Pl
ans
bei
ngim
ple
men
ted;
rev
isio
n m
ade
for
Pha
se I
I.
Imp
lem
entin
g w
aste
man
agem
ent
pla
nSu
cces
sful
in
redu
cing
po
lluta
nt l
oad
int
o t
he c
oas
tal
wat
erar
isin
g fr
om
agr
icul
ture
, in
dus
trie
s an
d d
om
estic
was
tes.
•B
y 20
03, s
even
sew
age
trea
tmen
t fa
cilit
ies
wer
e es
tabl
ishe
d.Th
e ci
ty w
as a
ble
to t
reat
72.
8% o
f th
e 14
0.76
mill
ion
tons
of s
ewag
e.•
Mo
st i
ndus
tria
l w
aste
wat
ers
are
bei
ng t
reat
ed,
with
mo
reth
an 9
3% o
f in
dust
rial
was
tew
ater
dis
char
ged
mee
ting
the
gove
rnm
ent
wat
er q
ualit
y co
ntro
l st
anda
rd.
•Es
tab
lishe
d sa
nita
ry l
andf
ills
whi
ch a
re a
ble
to
acco
mm
oda
te m
ore
tha
n 90
% o
f so
lid w
aste
s.
Des
pite
the
int
egra
ted
was
te m
anag
emen
t p
lan,
the
sco
reca
rd h
as y
et t
o b
e im
pro
ved.
•M
ost
so
lid w
aste
s ar
e di
spo
sed
in o
pen
dum
ps
desp
itena
tiona
l re
gula
tion
to c
lose
all
dum
psi
tes
two
yea
rs a
go;
•W
aste
rec
yclin
g is
wid
ely
pra
ctic
ed a
nd g
reat
ly p
rom
ote
d;•
No
sew
age
trea
tmen
t fa
cilit
ies;
•N
o e
ffec
tive
cont
rols
ove
r ag
ricu
ltura
l w
aste
dis
char
ge.
•In
dust
rial
was
tes
are
com
par
ativ
ely
bet
ter
man
aged
. M
ost
larg
e in
dus
trie
s ar
e eq
uip
ped
with
tre
atm
ent
faci
litie
s an
do
il te
rmin
als
with
oil
rece
ptio
n fa
cilit
ies;
sm
all-
and
med
ium
-siz
ed i
ndus
trie
s ha
ve d
iffic
ulty
co
mp
lyin
g.
Imp
lem
enti
ng o
il sp
illp
rep
ared
ness
and
res
po
nse
pla
n
•A
pp
rop
riat
e o
il sp
ill p
rep
ared
ness
and
res
po
nse
pla
n is
avai
lab
le a
nd i
mp
lem
ente
d b
y th
e M
ariti
me
Tran
spo
rtB
urea
u an
d th
e X
iam
en P
ort
Aut
hori
ty;
•N
o m
ajo
r sp
ills
rep
ort
ed.
•C
onc
erne
d o
il co
mp
anie
s ha
ve d
evel
op
ed a
tie
r-o
nere
spo
nse
pla
n eq
uip
ped
with
the
ap
pro
pri
ate
bo
om
s an
dsk
imm
ers;
•R
egul
ar e
xerc
ises
hel
d in
clo
se c
oo
per
atio
n w
ith t
he c
oas
tgu
ard
and
the
Bat
anga
s Po
rt A
utho
rity
;•
Rea
din
ess
in a
dd
ress
ing
acci
den
tal
spill
s;•
No
maj
or
spill
s re
po
rted
.
Imp
lem
entin
g a
red
tid
ere
spo
nse
pla
nFr
eque
ncy
of
red
tide
occ
urre
nce
has
bee
n gr
eatly
red
uced
.Th
is i
s at
trib
uted
by
exp
erts
to
the
dec
reas
e in
nut
rien
tdi
scha
rge
due
to s
ewag
e tr
eatm
ent.
Red
tid
e m
oni
tori
ng a
ndsu
rvei
llanc
e is
par
t o
f th
e se
awat
er q
ualit
y m
oni
tori
ngim
ple
men
ted
thr
oug
h in
tegr
ated
wat
er q
ualit
y m
oni
tori
ngp
lan
.
No
red
tid
e o
ccur
renc
e ha
s b
een
rep
ort
ed.
96 T.-E. CHUA
Tab
le 2
.(c
ont
.)
Xia
men
, PR
Chi
naB
atan
gas
Bay
Reg
ion,
Phi
lipp
ines
Imp
lem
entin
g co
nser
vatio
n,ec
osy
stem
pro
tect
ion
and
rest
ora
tion
pla
n
•R
ehab
ilita
tion
of
man
gro
ves
area
s ex
tend
ed;
cons
erva
tion
zone
fo
r la
ncel
ets
and
egre
ts;
•C
ont
rol
ove
r cr
uisi
ng s
pee
ds o
f ve
ssel
s in
to t
hena
viga
tiona
l ch
anne
l w
here
the
end
ange
red
whi
ted
olp
hins
are
fo
und
;•
Exte
nsiv
e la
ndsc
apin
g ha
s gr
eatly
inc
reas
ed v
eget
atio
nco
ver.
•Ef
fort
s m
ade
in r
ehab
ilita
ting
man
gro
ves;
sto
pp
ing
conv
ersi
on
of
man
gro
ves
into
fis
h p
ond
s, a
ndes
tab
lishm
ent
of
netw
ork
of
mar
ine
pro
tect
ed a
reas
;•
Veg
etat
ion
cove
r is
co
mpa
rativ
ely
high
er,
as t
he r
ate
of
urb
aniz
atio
n is
co
mp
arat
ivel
y sl
ow
er t
han
that
of
Xia
men
.
Pro
vidi
ng b
asic
wat
erse
rvic
esW
hile
Xia
men
is
loca
ted
in S
out
hern
Chi
na a
nd h
as a
cces
sto
riv
er w
ater
sup
ply
, th
e ra
te o
f p
op
ulat
ion
incr
ease
d fr
om
1.2
m in
199
4 to
2 m
in 2
007
mak
ing
fres
hwat
er s
uppl
y an
incr
easi
ng t
hrea
t to
city
dev
elo
pm
ent.
Des
pite
bei
ng l
oca
ted
in a
tro
pic
al r
ainf
ore
st r
egio
n an
dde
spite
bei
ng f
ort
unat
e to
hav
e p
lent
y o
f fr
eshw
ater
so
urce
s,in
crea
sing
co
ntam
inat
ion
of
rive
r b
asin
s an
do
vere
xplo
itatio
n o
f un
derg
roun
d w
ater
will
so
on
po
se a
limit
to p
rovi
nce'
s fu
ture
exp
ansi
on.
Lo
ng-te
rm p
lann
ing
on
wat
er s
uppl
y an
d us
e ha
s ye
t to
be
deve
lope
d.
Inte
grat
ing
fishe
ries
and
aqua
cultu
re m
anag
emen
tin
to I
CM
pro
gram
•D
esp
ite t
he l
ucra
tive
mar
ket
for
fish
and
fishe
ry p
rod
ucts
due
to
po
pul
atio
n in
crea
se a
nd i
mp
rove
d l
ivin
g st
and
ard
sin
the
city
, fis
hing
in
Xia
men
co
asta
l w
ater
s ha
s b
een
incr
easi
ngly
diff
icul
t du
e to
co
mp
etin
g us
e co
nflic
ts.
The
onc
e ex
tens
ive
eel f
ry g
athe
ring
prac
tice
had
to g
ive
way
to
the
deve
lop
men
t o
f p
ort
and
mar
itim
e tr
ansp
ort
. Th
ew
este
rn c
hann
el,
onc
e fil
led
with
fis
h ca
ges,
and
oys
ter
and
mus
sel
farm
s, i
s no
w c
lear
ed o
f th
ese.
Mo
re t
han
5,00
0 fis
hfar
min
g ho
useh
old
s w
ere
eith
er m
ove
d to
new
zoni
ng s
ites
or
com
pens
ated
by
the
city
go
vern
men
t to
aban
do
n th
e fa
rmin
g p
ract
ice.
Fish
ing
is n
o l
ong
er a
luc
rativ
e in
dust
ry a
nd i
s lim
ited
tosm
all-s
cale
sub
sist
ence
fis
hing
in
near
by
coas
tal
wat
ers.
As
Bat
anga
s is
get
ting
mo
re i
ndus
tria
lized
with
inc
reas
edva
riet
ies
of
indu
stri
al d
evel
op
men
t al
ong
its
bay
are
as,
fishe
rfo
lks
find
it ha
rd t
o c
om
pet
e w
ith o
ther
mar
itim
eac
tiviti
es.
Like
Xia
men
, B
atan
gas
Bay
Reg
ion
was
onc
e kn
ow
nfo
r its
sm
all
fishi
ng "
bar
anga
ys"
(vill
ages
). Th
ese
are
now
grad
ually
dis
app
eari
ng,
bei
ng t
rans
form
ed a
s a
resu
lt o
fur
ban
izat
ion-
an u
navo
idab
le t
rend
.
Integrated coastal management in Xiamen and Batangas Bay 97
•W
ith t
he a
quac
ultu
re z
oni
ng s
chem
e, a
lar
ge a
rea
of
wat
ersp
ace
has
bee
n al
loca
ted
for
the
deve
lop
men
t o
fm
aric
ultu
re.
A p
erm
it sy
stem
is
requ
ired
to
use
thi
s w
ater
spac
e, a
llow
ing
for
ord
erly
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
the
indu
stry
and
bet
ter
envi
ronm
enta
l q
ualit
y fo
r fa
rm o
per
atio
n.H
ighe
r de
man
d fo
r liv
e fo
od
fish
has
cons
ider
ably
incr
ease
d t
he i
nco
me
of
fishf
arm
ers.
•M
uch
effo
rt h
as b
een
mad
e in
op
en s
tock
ing
of
the
com
mer
cial
ly i
mp
ort
ant
finfis
h an
d s
hrim
p f
ry t
o a
ugm
ent
exis
ting
sto
cks.
The
Mar
ine
and
Fish
erie
s B
urea
u w
as a
ble
to
bre
ed s
om
e en
dang
ered
sp
ecie
s, s
uch
as h
ors
esho
e cr
ab,
for
rele
ase
in o
pen
wat
ers
to e
nhan
ce f
ish
sto
cks.
Man
agin
g na
tura
l d
isas
ters
City
go
vern
men
t w
as a
ble
to
red
uce
the
adve
rse
impa
cts
of
typ
hoo
ns t
o v
ery
low
fat
ality
thr
oug
h a
com
pre
hens
ive
risk
red
uctio
n d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
pla
n.
Nat
ural
dis
aste
r p
rep
ared
ness
and
res
po
nse
pla
n, i
nclu
din
gty
pho
ons
and
ear
thq
uake
Sust
aini
ng l
ivel
iho
od
s o
fco
asta
l p
oo
rTh
e p
ersi
sten
t G
DP
gro
wth
has
pro
vide
d am
ple
op
po
rtun
ityfo
r em
plo
ymen
t, gr
eatly
co
ntri
but
ing
to X
iam
en's
ab
ility
to
tran
sfo
rm m
any
po
vert
y-st
rick
en r
ural
are
as i
nto
mo
dern
tow
ns a
nd d
istr
icts
. A
ltho
ugh
po
vert
y re
duct
ion
in X
iam
en i
sth
e re
sult
of
gove
rnm
ent
eco
nom
ic p
olic
y an
d p
olit
ical
will
of
the
loca
l go
vern
men
t to
im
ple
men
t it,
the
ap
plic
atio
n o
fIC
M h
elps
to
red
uce
muc
h o
f th
e ad
vers
e im
pact
s o
fec
ono
mic
dev
elo
pm
ent.
The
Pro
vinc
ial
Go
vern
men
t an
d th
e B
atan
gas
Bay
Co
asta
lR
eso
urce
Fo
und
atio
n im
ple
men
ted
liv
elih
oo
d p
roje
cts
toin
crea
se l
ivel
iho
od
op
po
rtun
ities
in
coas
tal
com
mun
ities
esp
ecia
lly f
or
the
coas
tal
po
or.
Sour
ces:
Chu
a 2
00
6;
ITTX
DP
19
96
; M
PP
-EA
S 1
99
6;
PEM
SEA
20
06
a, b
, c, 2
00
7;
PG
-EN
RO
19
96
.
98 T.-E. CHUA
had with varying degrees of success (Table 2,PEMSEA 2006b, c). While Xiamen had beenrather successful in treating most of itswastes, it still faces considerable challengesin addressing non-point sources of pollutionespecially effluents arising from upstreamand agricultural wastes. Batangas Bay Re-gion, on the other hand, has yet to present agood scorecard for most of its solid wastes,agricultural and industrial wastes have yetto be effectively treated and monitored de-spite having a well-prepared comprehensiveintegrated waste management plan (MPP-EAS 1996).
Extra efforts have been placed in ensur-ing an efficient oil spill preparedness andresponse system as both port and shippingare instrumental to Batangas and Xiameneconomy. In terms of the impacts of harm-ful algal blooms (or red tide), the efforts ofXiamen in reducing nutrient loads into thecoastal water had been reported to be effec-tive in reducing the frequency of red tides(PEMSEA 2006a, c).
Significant progress in implementingconservation, ecosystem protection and res-toration plans have been made at both sites(Table 2). Neither site has placed sufficientattention on freshwater resource manage-ment, freshwater use and provision of waterservices. Freshwater services were initiallynot included in the ICM initiatives. The factthat freshwater use and supply issues werenot identified as priority areas of concern siteduring the environmental profiling stage re-flect: (a) the wrong impression that fresh-water is always plenty in areas withintropical rainforests or near river basins; and(b) ignorance of the fast depletion of pota-ble freshwater due to contamination andoverextraction.
Integrating fisheries and aquaculturemanagement into ICM programs is an im-portant strategy for addressing: (a) the in-creasing transformation of rural coastaltowns into urban centers; (b) increasing fishconsumption and change in consumption
patterns and use in urban areas; (c) rapiddeterioration of coastal waters near urbancenters which might rendering aquacultureproducts less healthy for human consump-tion; and (d) overexploitation of fish stockin coastal waters. In most countries in Asia,fish consumption will increase in urban ar-eas as rural people from the coasts move tosettle in urban towns and cities. The con-sumption and use patterns of urban peopleare also different from the rural areas due tohigher standard of living. However,aquaculture products (e.g. oysters and mus-sels) from nutrient-rich water in coastal baysand estuaries might be contaminated by bac-teria and or accumulated high concentrationof pesticides which render aquaculture prod-ucts unfit for human consumption. Thechanging conditions described above requirea paradigm shift in fishery management ap-proach as coastal fishery management aredirectly related to changes and trends incoastal development and most of the man-agement issues fall outside the fisheries sec-tor. Fisheries, in the context of urban devel-opment in Xiamen and the Batangas BayRegion, had been marginalized! Thus it wasan essential considertion to include impactson the livelihoods of fishers and coastalcommunities in the equation of economic de-velopment for these two coastal areas.
Although natural and human-made dis-asters have been identified during the pro-filing stage, they were not considered as amajor role of an ICM program and as suchthere were no concerted efforts on hazardsmanagement in the early phase despite thefrequency of typhoons and earthquakes in theregion. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami andthe IPCC report on climate change haveprompted the sites to take more proactiveefforts. However, each hazard is being ad-dressed individually, making it difficult forlocal governments to effectively cope withvarious hazards, both natural and man-made.An integrated natural and human-made dis-aster response and management plan is nowbeing developed.
Integrated coastal management in Xiamen and Batangas Bay 99
4. Conclusions Drawn from theTwo Initiatives
The two ICM initiatives helped answer sev-eral questions and provided important con-clusions that are instrumental to thesustainability of the ICM approach and thereplication and scaling up of ICM practices(Chua 2006).
1) ICM approach is effective and ICMpractices can be sustained locally.
The two ICM initiatives clearly tell a singlestory that the ICM approach has proven tobe feasible in different political, socioeco-nomic and ecological conditions. They tellus that the ICM framework can: (a) allowlocal implementation of the ICM programwithin a geographically defined, administra-tive boundary to institute policy and man-agement changes; (b) create a commonstakeholder platform; and (c) operate throughan interactive process that generates incre-mental management gains, the accumulationof which can lead to economic and environ-mental sustainability. The two initiativeshave proven to be sustainable as the opera-tion of ICM practices had been based largelyon self-financing by the local governments.The two initiatives have provided testimonythat ICM works both conceptually andpractically, although the pace and level ofachievements may vary according to the lo-cal political and socioeconomic conditions,as well as on local technical and manage-ment capacity.
Despite the lack of a legal personality,both ICM initiatives has survived severalchanges of local administration. Over a spanof 14 years, local administration changedthree times in Xiamen and four times in theBatangas Bay Region. The change of may-ors and governors who head the ICM initia-tives and who may come from different po-litical affiliations, as in the case of BatangasProvince, did not seem to deter the normaloperations of the ICM activities.
2) Successful ICM has strong influence onnational policy and strategies on coastalgovernance.
Implications of the two successful ICM ini-tiatives have a strong bearing on the policyof the central government. The experienceand success of the sea-use zoning system inXiamen strengthened central governmentresolve to implement a nation-wide sea-usezoning program in China (PEMSEA 2006a).By 1997 a national sea-space utilization lawwas passed mandating all provincial, munici-pality, city and district governments to de-velop sea-use zoning plans. The BatangasBay Region experience, however, has led tothe scaling up of the ICM project in theBatangas Province and the signing of Execu-tive Order 533 by the President of the Phil-ippines, making ICM a national strategy.E.O. 533 also mandates the development ofa national ICM program plan.
The two ICM initiatives serve as work-ing models for national implementation ofICM programs in the countries, thereby con-tributing to replication and scaling up. Learn-ing from the do’s and don’ts helps in savingtime, effort and resources.
3) The ICM Framework and process pro-vide the essential scope and consulta-tive platform for interactions withstakeholders.
The broadbased ICM framework enablescoastal managers to develop a governanceframework which promote policy reforms,build coordinating mechanism and enactlocal legislation or ordinances. The ICMframework also provides a stakeholder con-sultative platform that enable stakeholders toidentify and prioritize environmental andsustainable development issues, understandthe implication of government policy, andcontribute to the development of actionplans. Built into the long-term strategy is asystem of information gathering and man-agement so that stakeholders can utilize theavailable information for developing andexecuting their plans of action.
100 T.-E. CHUA
Of equal significance is the evidence ofan integrated planning and managementprocess that allows a systematic, interactiveand incremental approach through a stepwiseprocess of analyzing the status, identifyingpressures, determing causes, selecting op-tions and mobilizing interagency, inter-sectoral and interdisciplinary efforts formanagement interventions.
4) Despite the availability of a broad ICMframework and process, the lack ofstandardization and documentationweakens timely delivery of outputs andmeasurable impacts.
The current ICM approach and practiceshave no quality assurance in terms of meet-ing standard requirements pertaining to gov-ernance or environmental management. Suc-cessful application very much depends on theintuition and experience of coastal manag-ers. Although adaptive management allowsmanagement flexibility, the inadequacies inquality assurance in the current ICM frame-work and process would continue to weakenthe effectiveness of ICM practices and there-fore slow down the process of replication andscaling up.
With the exception of Xiamen, currentICM initiatives tend to focus more on thedevelopment of the governance frameworkthan on on-the-ground actions. This has re-sulted in lack of visible outcomes. Thedownside of these initiatives is that it is dif-ficult to hold the interest and enthusiasm ofstakeholders.
During the first phase of ICM in Xiamen,some on-the-ground actions have alreadytaken place such as the Yuandang Lagooncleanup, the removal of heavy industries inGulangyu (Gulang Island), the reconstruc-tion of the coastal ring road, the restorationof the public beach and the landscaping ofthe city.
The scope of activities of an ICM pro-gram should not only include the clear defi-nition of a governance framework, butshould also undertake implementation of
some strategic action programs within thefirst program cycle.
5. Codification of ICM
The outputs and outcomes of the two ICMinitiatives (Tables 1 and 2) suggest the needto strengthen current ICM concepts andpractices by: (a) consolidating the current el-ements of governance into a broad but com-prehensive coastal governance framework toensure these major elements are being in-cluded in all future ICM program develop-ment; (b) identifying key actions that arenormally required in most coastal manage-ment for addressing commonly met issues;(c) codifying ICM planning and implemen-tation using available international standardsto ensure quality management; (d) design-ing a documentation and reporting formatthat enables periodic monitoring of outputsand outcomes.
In a recent review of ICM concept andpractices, Chua (2008) proposed a govern-ance framework that includes six areas ofconcerns (see below). Governance frame-work and strategic action programs are twomajor components that must be carefully andthoroughly addressed in all ICM programs(Chua 2008). The essential elements of boththe framework and strategic action programsform the core of the ICM Code being devel-oped by the Partnership in EnvironmentalManagement for the Seas of East Asia(PEMSEA 2007). However, adaptive man-agement (an management approach thattakes into consideration of scientific uncer-tainties and incomplete information) stillremains a major fundamental principle ofsustainable development and continues toplay a key role in shaping ICM programimplementation (Imperial and Hennessey1993; Chua 2006).
5.1. Governance
The major elements of the governance frame-work for ICM closely match the basic re-quirements for quality management under
Integrated coastal management in Xiamen and Batangas Bay 101
ISO 9001 standards (ISO 2005; Chua 2006).These elements include: (a) policy, strategiesand action plans; (b) coordinating mecha-nisms; (c) legislation; (d) financial sustain-ability; (e) information management and dis-semination; and (f) capacity development. Adescription of these six elements are givenin PEMSEA (2007) and Chua (2008).
5.2. Strategic action programs
Almost all coastal areas have to address ahost of common issues that affectbiodiversity, water supply, food security andlivelihood of the coastal poor. These issuesare interrelated but should be addressedthrough a set of strategic management pro-grams through which common root causes,such as poverty, policy deficiency and ca-pacity disparity (in terms of financial andhuman resources), can be addressed underthe governance framework. Broad areas ofconcern such as risk management, habitatprotection, pollution, water use, etc., thatmust be addressed, though not necessarilysimultaneous. These five strategic action pro-grams arising from essential managementneeds of local governments are: (a) naturaland human-made hazards prevention, re-sponse and management; (b) natural habitatand cultural heritage protection, restorationand management; (c) water-use and supplymanagement; (d) food security and liveli-hood management; and (e) pollution reduc-tion and waste management. Details on eachprogram are given in PEMSEA (2007) andChua (2008). The implementation of eachstrategic action program can be measuredand evaluated against international standardsof environmental management using ISO14001.
5.3. ICM Code
The Code is designed to ensure that futureICM practices can follow a standard code ofpractice that can help achieve sustainable
development goals. Implementation of theCode also ensures a common standard andcriteria at which progress can be measuredand evaluated. Compliance to the Code ison a voluntary basis. Thus the Code has nolegal personality unless it becomes obliga-tory by law.
5.4. Documentation and reporting
The State of the Coasts reporting is a newPEMSEA initiative designed to measure ona regular basis the changing conditions ofthe coastal areas brought about by economicdevelopment and environmental manage-ment measures (PEMSEA 2007). The pur-pose is to improve the process of documen-tation of management interventions and eco-system responses. The SOC documents ex-isting conditions and new interventions, andtracks changes in trends.
With the implementation of the SOC,information pertaining to severity of the en-vironmental conditions or the lack or inad-equacies of policy or management measurescan be easily detected.
6. The Way Forward
The two ICM initiatives have contributed tothe evolution of the ICM concept and prac-tices and have provided valuable informa-tion and insights for moving from a trial-and-error approach of coastal management to asystematic and codified ICM system. Theimplementation of the ICM Code will stand-ardize ICM practices, impose mandatorydocumentation of the activities and process,and monitor progress and changes. The out-comes of such practices ensure not only ac-countability but also replicability and scal-ing up of ICM practices throughout the coast-line; certainly a positive step towards achiev-ing the goal of Agenda 21 (UNCED 1992).
102 T.-E. CHUA
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