A theoretical framework and model towards media-rich social presence design practices Susan Elwood & Karen McCaleb & Mary Fernandez & Jared Keengwe Published online: 19 September 2012 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 Abstract Educators are seeing rapid developments in online instruction with regard to not only available technologies, but also in design and teaching practices. Developing and maintaining social presence in an online environment is paramount to the success of a learning environment. This article touches upon some historical perspectives of social presence and proposes a theoretical framework and design guide towards media-rich social presence practices for future research. The design guide in this article adds to the historically text-based social presence applications by posing media-rich, higher-level thinking questions based upon a grounded theoretical framework. Keywords Social presence . Technology . Pedagogy . Online instruction . Learning environments 1 Introduction Technology’ s rapid ascent during the past decades has impacted many facets of our 21 st century world. Thirty years ago, the use of computers in the classroom was rare Educ Inf Technol (2014) 19:239–249 DOI 10.1007/s10639-012-9212-1 S. Elwood Department of Teacher Education, Texas A & M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA e-mail: [email protected]K. McCaleb Department of Special Services, Texas A & M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA e-mail: [email protected]J. Keengwe (*) University of North Dakota, Teaching and Learning Stop #7189, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA e-mail: [email protected]M. Fernandez Department of Counseling & Educational Psychology, Texas A & M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA e-mail: [email protected]
Transcript
A theoretical framework and model towards media-richsocial presence design practices
Susan Elwood & Karen McCaleb & Mary Fernandez & Jared Keengwe
Published online: 19 September 2012# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract Educators are seeing rapid developments in online instruction with regard tonot only available technologies, but also in design and teaching practices. Developingand maintaining social presence in an online environment is paramount to the success ofa learning environment. This article touches upon some historical perspectives of socialpresence and proposes a theoretical framework and design guide towards media-richsocial presence practices for future research. The design guide in this article adds to thehistorically text-based social presence applications by posing media-rich, higher-levelthinking questions based upon a grounded theoretical framework.
Technology’s rapid ascent during the past decades has impacted many facets of our21st century world. Thirty years ago, the use of computers in the classroom was rare
S. ElwoodDepartment of Teacher Education, Texas A &M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412,USAe-mail: [email protected]
K. McCalebDepartment of Special Services, Texas A & M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412,USAe-mail: [email protected]
J. Keengwe (*)University of North Dakota, Teaching and Learning Stop #7189, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USAe-mail: [email protected]
M. FernandezDepartment of Counseling & Educational Psychology, Texas A & M University-Corpus Christi,Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USAe-mail: [email protected]
and novel. Today, not only do most classrooms have at least one computer, studentsalso have access to their own personal computers including laptops, tablets and cellphones. This is especially true in higher education. With the increasing availability totechnology, its use and application have also evolved. It is no longer used only forstatic applications (i.e., using Microsoft word to generate a paper), but is a dynamicnetwork in which individuals can connect and collaborate in virtual environments.This aspect alone holds strong implications for the field of education. Additionally,over the years, as we have experienced the growth of online higher education coursesand programs, we have studied the variables associated with effective onlineinstruction. One of the factors that appear to impact online instruction effectivenessis social presence.
2 Theoretical framework
Although social presence has long been accepted as an important component of bothface-to-face and online course delivery systems, there is no one universally accepteddefinition of social presence by today’s researchers. Social presence theory, originallystudied by Short et al. (1976), was developed at a time prior to the boom of the Internetand online courses. This concept was derived from studying face-to-face classes, audioand interactive television in an effort to explore the media effect on communication.
The interpersonal relationship, according to Short et al. (1976), is based on thequality of interaction (social presence) with the other person. In recent years, how-ever, this theory has morphed to reflect current distance technologies. In broad terms,Aragon (2003, p. 57) suggests that social presence is viewed as one of the manyvariables that contribute to building a sense of community in distance learning.Simply stated, social presence is the sense of “being there.”
In exploring social presence and its role in online learning, it is important to notethat literature suggests that there are no learning models exclusive to online environ-ments. Kehrwald (2008) reports that, according the Mayes and de Freitas (2004),general learning theories, with ‘e-flavors’, apply. With this view, it is imperative tounderstand the theoretical foundation of social presence as it relates to both traditionaland computer mediated environments.
In face-to-face learning environments, social presence is seldom consideredin the planning of curriculum and course design. Behaviors such as eye contact,physical proximity and smiling often occur naturally in face-to-face interactions.These behaviors, referred to as Intimacy by Gunawardena and Zittle (1997), areconsidered variables of social presence. Gunawardena and Zittle refer to anotheraspect of social presence as Immediacy, the “measure of psychological distance that acommunicator puts between himself or herself and the object of his/her communica-tion” (p. 9). Hackman and Walker (1990) suggest that Immediacy include both verbaland nonverbal behaviors such addressing students by name, using humor, andgesturing. The way in which these factors are perceived by the learner can greatlyimpact the sense of course satisfaction that a learner experiences (Gunawardena andZittle 1997).
In exploring the concept of social presence in face-to-face classrooms, Edwards etal. (2011) report that students are more likely to feel comfortable in the classroom
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setting and perceive a greater sense of belonging when instructors’ interactionsare acknowledging, supportive, and encouraging. Additionally, learners typicallydemonstrate higher levels of affective learning when they perceive a sense ofclassroom community and connectedness (Johnson 2009) and Astin’s (1993)research suggests that students have higher levels of learning when engaged posi-tively by their instructor. To achieve this sense of social presence, many traditionalclassroom instructors rely on verbal and non-verbal cues. However, unlike traditionallearning experiences, social presence must be consciously considered when designingand facilitating an online course (Aragon 2003). Developing and sustaining thatsense of “being there” and class community takes forethought and planning.Drawing on this knowledge, online instructors and instructional designers arefaced with the challenge of providing an engaging learning experience in a computer-mediated environment.
2.1 Grounded theory
Research in social presence continues to gain momentum as the demand for onlinelearning increases. Online schooling, known as virtual schools, cyber schools,e-learning, and distance education, is available in most U.S. public schoolsystems (Glass and Welner 2011) and data with ratings of online opportunities inall 50 states are available through researchers of Keeping Pace (Watson et al. 2011).Social presence has been identified as the most important and critical factor indistance education to improve instructional effectiveness (Gunawardena and Zittle1997; Tu 2002; Richardson and Swan 2003; and Dow 2008a, b). Presence researchersassert online social presence if given enough time can develop the same intimacy andwith excellent learner-centered design and implementation can engage learners in thesame variety of educational opportunities as face-to-face environments (Dow 2008a, b).Zhang and Zigurs (2009) found social presence impacted the overall course designmore than the place presence.
The literature on social presence is exploding as researchers continue to refine andredefine the concept of social presence online. Researchers in conceptualizingsocial presence have identified degrees of online presence and specific factorsto be considered in designing and teaching an online course (Leong 2011).
Factors affecting social presence in online learning include: selection of contentand resources, student learning outcomes, learning activities and evaluation ofstudent learning to demonstrate sequence and progression and to move studentsto a place of independence and professional maturity (Dow 2008a, b). Thefactors of social context, online communication and interactivity, and online privacyimpact the level of social presence (Tu 2002). Zhang and Zigur’s (2009) found socialpresence more related to the overall course design than the place presence. Amongthe proposed theoretical models are Dow’s (2008a, b) grounded theory of socialpresence and Whiteside’s (2007) Social Presence Model.
2.1.1 Dow’s grounded theory model
Dow (2008a, b) developed a grounded theory model to explain factors affectingsocial presence in online learning. The model provides a concise listing and
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understanding of the following factors, grouped into four categories: effective dia-logue, ease of use of media tool, transparency in computer-mediated communication,and well-structured interactions.
Effective dialogue was a major factor affecting social presence and yielded themost responses. The authors noted that students could become overwhelmed if peershave to enter into dialogue with each other in order to earn points. If the instructorstructures the environment to allow students to learn characteristics, attitudes, andvalues of group members, then greater communication and involvement with thecourse occurs.
Well-structured interaction factors included online social skills training and basicrules for engagement, understanding the features of the web-communication toolsused in the course, overview of the course design, and high levels of instructorand student interaction. Emerging data suggested using structure in course: (1)forming small groups, (2) identifying schedules for assignments and activitieswith timelines, (3) setting student learning outcomes, (4) sequencing, structuring,and applying appropriate subject heading to discussions.
Ease of use of the media tool was indicated as a factor affecting social presence.The Internet communication tool was identified as useful in small group work, comple-mentary to face-to-face class time, and helpful when encountering a problem with thematerial. When students perceive the ease of use as positive, they keep track of feelings,beliefs, desires and intentions of everyone in the learning environment better.
Transparency in the computer-mediated communication (CMC) was a factor.Transparency of CMC was important specifically in an environment wherethere is no human contact. Some comments from participants indicated frus-tration of not seeing classmates or instructor face-to-face while others statedthat online instruction “takes away human prejudice” (Dow 2008a, b, p. 239).
2.1.2 Whiteside’s social presence model
Whiteside (2007) offers Social Presence Model as a framework to provide assistancewith pedagogy for blended/online learning Instructors were interested in establishingsocial presence in their courses. In the longitudinal study, participants (instructors andstudents) found that participating in building activities from the beginning wasessential to laying the foundation for social presence, building relationships, andfor overall learning.
Five distinct elements of social presence are studied:
& Affective Association,
& Community Cohesion,
& Interaction Intensity,& Knowledge and Experience,& and Instructor Investment
2.2 The social presence model
Affective Association identifies the emotional elements of the course (emotion, humor,paralanguage, sarcasm, and self-disclosure).
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Community Cohesion explores the extent the group comes together as communityand recognizes each member by name.
Interaction Intensity measures direct interaction through positive communication.Knowledge and Experience looks at the level of sharing resources and experiences.Instructor Investment represents to what extent the instructor is involved, invested,
and an active member of the learning community. Researchers’ findings suggest thatthe five identified elements in the Social Presence Model helped to increase the levelof respect in an online community.
Sound pedagogy and social presence will have the most direct impact on thequality of learning in online teaching. Among the presence researchers who areimplementing social presence in practice and their research agendas are: Marti-Cleveland Innes, Professor-Athabasca University, focuses on leadership, social fac-tors, learner-centered curriculum design and delivery and instructional design forgraduate research methods. Jennifer Richardson, Assistant Professor-Purdue Univer-sity, works on social aspects of online learning and the integration of technology toenhance learning in K-12 and higher education environments; Karen Swan,Professor-University of Illinois Springfield researches and publishes on learningeffectiveness, interactivity, social presence and the development of online communitiesof inquiry.
Kimball (2002) supports facilitating online learning communities by equippinginstructors with some new approaches to the practice of managing the teaching andlearning process. To be effective, instructors start with a new mind set about tech-nology and see themselves managing a new set of variables: “ including: metaphors,meaning, culture, roles, time, awareness, and collaboration. Learning and practicingskills to manage these dimensions is the key challenge for faculty development”Kimball (2002, p.1).
2.3 A guide for establishing media enriched social presence towards cognitiveabsorption
Online pedagogymust take into account social presence and cognitive absorption withinvarious media forms. Kehrwald (2008) reported on a theory generative study of socialpresence related to text-based online learning environments. In his study, he recom-mended that further work in the nature, role, and function of social presence in onlinelearning environments include a “study of the establishment and cultivation of socialpresence not only in other text-based online environments but also in environmentsbased on other media” (p. 98). Leong (2011) found that social presence had a non-significant effect on satisfaction, but did have statistical significance in influencingcognitive absorption, which, in turn, influenced satisfaction. He continued to note that
Research studies have explored the relationship between social presence andstudent outcomes and between cognitive absorption and student outcomesseparately. This study suggests that to better understand what constitutes aninteractive, compelling online learning environment, these two constructs needto be taken into consideration simultaneously. Future research on online learn-ing environments should study both social presence and cognitive absorptionconcurrently (p. 22).
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Therefore, Kehrwald and Leong both make valid points in the necessitationof a media-driven social presence framework that can better guide instructors anddesigners towards greater media-rich social presence that leads to greater cognitiveabsorption.
Studies to date related to social presence have predominantly examined text-basedonline environments (Kehrwald 2008; Leong 2011; Aragon 2003; Swan 2003).Articles written in more recent times addressing social presence have espoused someexcellent general ideas, but no actual frameworks to address the previously expressedresearch needs of media-rich social presence that leads to greater cognitive absorp-tion. This article provides such a framework that combines Whiteside’s (2007) fivedistinct elements of social presence and Dow’s (2008a, b) grounded theory model offactors affecting social presence. In aligning these criteria along with reflectivethought and practical applications of current media, one create a design guide toobtain higher-order-thinking, theoretically grounded directives and question prompts.These prompts drive the use of the media, which in turn provides a meaningfullearning environment for learners and researchers.
2.4 Step 1: Aligning Whiteside’s (2007) five elements and Dow’s (2008a, b)grounded theory
Use of the framework involves a two-step process in order to arrive at thedesign guide. First, Dow’s (2008a, b) factors for affective social presence in anonline course were aligned vertically in a table. Then Whiteside’s (2007) five distinctelements of social presence were aligned horizontally in the table. Carefulconsideration of each of the factors and elements in direct relationship to eachother produced opportunity to develop specific question and directive promptsinfused with various forms of media conducive to online learning environments.The table below is an example of the result from the first factor aligned withthe five distinct elements of social presence. The other factors can be processedin a similar fashion (Table 1).
This first step can be processed as in the above table design. The resultingquestions within the framework are malleable, depending upon the designer’s learn-ing environment tool selection. The second step to the process involves the applica-tions of appropriate, current, media-rich tools that provide greater affordances ofvoice and movies.
2.5 Step 2: Application of media-rich tools
Current media affords greater involvement of voice, images, and movies towardssocial presence in learning environment designs. Interactions are greatly improvedamong all learners and instructors in the environment through carefully plannedlearning objectives that optimize current tool features and affordances. This is thecrux of the second step of the process.
When examining readily available online collaborative applications, such as wikis,presentations, or blogs, one can explore menu items and toolbar icons for greaterunderstanding of the tool’s features and affordances. Applying a tool’s knownaffordances within the directed reflection of Whiteside’s (2007) five elements and
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Dow’s (2008a, b) grounded theory allows a designer opportunity to more deeplyreflect upon applied practices in developing social presence design, rather than thetext-based applications of the past (Kehrwald 2008; Leong 2011; Aragon 2003; Swan2003). This process produces a media-rich social presence design guide, as general-ized below.
3 The media-rich social presence design guide
What follows below are the question or directive prompts from step 1 per each ofDow’s (2008a, b) factors affecting social presence, followed by examples of media-rich possible learning environment implications as an example of how to work thedesign guide process.
3.1 Effective dialogue
3.1.1 Question prompts
& How do the course learning objectives align with your professional values?& How are your attitudes regarding [research topic X] similar or different to your
peers?
Table 1 An excerpt of the direct reflection of Whiteside’s (2007) five elements and Dow’s (2008a, b)grounded theory
& Learners add a brief essay within the “presenter comments” section of theirintroductory collaborative presentation (i.e.: Google Presentation) slide. Theslideshow URL is linked within the course menu as “Class Roster.”
& Learners could add text, audio, or video comments to such progressively developedcourse questions within VoiceThread as an ongoing pre- and post-reflection tocourse topics. The VoiceThread can be embedded into BlackBoard submissions.
& Peer and instructor screencast narrated reviews of peer submissions can providequick feedback with emotive expression. Screencasts can be uploaded to aYouTube channel; current and future learners in the environment can review“top samples” or similarly named tags.
& Awiki page would allow learners to share resources of a variety of mediums.Asocial bookmarking site would provide added review and progressive accu-mulation of resources.
& Blog or public journal entries (Bb9 tools) can allow students to express them-selves in writing. Recorded Google Hangout sessions can record such synchro-nous, web-conferenced small group discussions.
3.1.3 Well-structured interaction
Question Prompts:
& What is one humorous or light-hearted, two-sentence story you can share about[topic X]? Add on to someone else’s story line with a next sentence.
& Recall a classmate’s shared experiences regarding [topic X]. Express empathywith one of their experiences and then further with your own rebuttal or suppor-tive shared experiences, as grounded in [research topic X].
& I appreciate your attention to detail regarding…I appreciate your demonstrated team facilitation skill of [X] through your
written and audio messages of [list].& How can your shared experiences help form upcoming small groups? What key
[topic X] investigative questions could you propose for such a group?
& One example of a well-structured interaction would be to use Google Presentation(docs.google.com) or another collaborative document application with optionalvideo in which learners can add another slide at the end or reorder slides.
A threaded Podcast (Podbean.com) in which learners can listen to classmates’progressive story before adding their contribution also provides well-structuredinteractions.
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& A recording of each team member adding his or her investigative question couldalso be added through a PDF annotator that could be used for progressive, peercollaborative contributions and further questions.
& Screencasting (screencastomatic.com or Jing) allows quick recording of narratedscreen overviews.
& Google Hangouts (plus.google.com/hangouts) or other similar multi-pointweb-conferencing tools can greatly facilitate synchronous small group dis-cussions. Key questions could also be simultaneously and collaboratively created.
3.2 Ease of use of media tool
3.2.1 Question prompts
& [Note: Use of humor in this area could be through shared cartoons, short movieclips of learner anxiety with media.]
& Who else in class has a shared level of [instrument result]?& How can you provide more audiovisual contact of yourself with the class?& I appreciate your contribution to…
Your clarification through [medium] was greatly appreciated.& How can you contribute to the desired shared screencast topic list and
development?& See the “Frequently Asked Questions” for quick, clarifying questions.
& Collaborative, online survey tools (surveymonkey.com) provide ongoing, quickaccess to poll results.
& Point to point or multipoint web conferencing tools (Google Hangouts,Skype, Oovoo) provide one to one or small group presence synchronouscommunications with possibilities for URL sharing and file transfers. Ses-sions can be recorded for other asynchronous viewers.
& PDF annotation applications can provide audio commentary to PDF filemark-ups to minimize misperceptions through the communication of voiceinflection.
& Screencasts (Screencastomatic.com, Jing) uploaded to YouTube channelswith specified tags allow instructors and students the ability to embed codeinto blogs, wikis, discussion threads, web pages, etc.
3.3 Transparency in the computer mediated communication (CMC)
3.3.1 Question prompts
& What are your favored forms of online communication?& How can we recognize poignant peer contributions?& How could you provide an audio or visual demonstration directly related to [topic X]?& How can your resources and experiences best be shared through web conferencing?
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& What web tools can you suggest to facilitate online voice and video interaction?& I am available via collaborative web conferencing on [dates / times].& How could small group, collaborative web-conferencing discussions be effec-
& Enabling peer-rating options to posts can allow recognition of poignant peercontributions.
& Screencasts and PDF annotation applications can provide audio and videoexplanations.
& Movies provide visual demonstrations. Uploading a movie to VoiceThread.-com allows peer-to-peer commentary and annotation to any self-selectedfrozen screen for commentary.
& Skype, Oovoo, Google Hangouts and other web-conferencing software is idealfor small group needs, including screen and file sharing while conferencing.
4 Implications & further research
The use of this Media-Rich Social Presence Design Guide as is or through an adaptiveprocess will produce greater media-rich, grounded social presence application to onlineenvironments. These environments, in turn, will provide greater applications of socialpresence and further studies through theoretically based research practices.
Once media-rich social presence models emerge, perceived usefulness studies arerecommended to follow learner experiences with such models. The authors encouragefurther social presence instructional designs from this framework with empiricalstudies. Kehrwald (2008) & Leong’s (2011) recommendations to study cognitiveabsorption related to social presence in a variety of media will be supported with thisframework and design guide.
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