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A Theory of Justice by Philip Pettit

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  • 8/12/2019 A Theory of Justice by Philip Pettit

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    P H I L I P P E T T I T

    A T H E O R Y O F J U S T I C E ? *

    ABSTRACT. Th is i s a c r i t i ca l ana lys is o f Jo hn Ra w ls s A Theory of Justice. Ra w ls o f f er s at h e o r e t i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f s o c ia l d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c ip l e s o f j u s t ic e . H e a r g u e s t h a t t h e ya r e t h e p r i n c ip l e s w h ic h r a t i o n a l m e n w o u ld c h o o s e , u n d e r d e f in e d c o n s t r a in t s , i n a no r i g in a l p o s i ti o n o f s o c ia l c o n t r a ct . T h e a u t h o r c r it ic i se s R a w l s s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t m e no f a n y b a c k g r o u n d , o f a n y s o c i a l i sa t i o n , w o u ld c h o o s e t h e s e p r i n c ip le s i n th e o r i g in a lp o s i t i o n . H e a r g u e s t h a t t h e c h o i c e w h ic h R a w l s im p u te s t o h i s c o n t r a c to r s r e f le c t s as p e ci fi c s o c i a l i s a t i o n - o n e d o m i n a n t i n W e s t e r n d e m o c r a c i es . T h e t h e o r y i s u s ef u lb e c a u s e i t s y s t e m a t is e s a p a r t i c u l a r s e n s e o f j u s t i c e ; i t i s in n o s e n s e h o w e v e r a u n iv e r s a lt h e o r y .

    M y i n t e n ti o n i s t o s h o w t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t u a l t h e o r y o f j u s t ic e d e f e n d e db y J o h n R a w l s d o e s n o t h a v e t h e s ta t u s o f a u n i v e rs a l t h e o r y ( J o h n R a w l s ,A Theory of Justice Ox ford 1972 - henc efo r th ' J ') . B y a un ive r sa l theo ry ,I mean a theo ry wh ich peop le in d i f f e ren t c i r cums tances , pa r t i cu la r lyp e o p l e in d i f fe r e nt c ul tu r e s, w o u l d h a v e e q u a l r e a s o n t o a c c e p t - g r a n t e dt h a t t h e y c o u l d a ll u n d e r s t a n d t h e a r g u m e n t f o r it . I i n t en d t o s h o w t h a tthe m os t R aw ls can c la im i s tha t h i s theo ry exp l i ca tes the s ense o f ju s t i ceo f peo p le in a pa r t i cu la r soc ie ty .

    The paper has two subs id ia ry goa l s . The f i r s t i s to sugges t tha t thes o c i e ty f o r w h i c h R a w l s p r o v i d e s a t h e o r y o f j u s t ic e i s W e s t e r n d e m o c r a c y ,p a r t ic u l a r ly i n i ts t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r y f o r m - W D , f o r s h o r t. R a w l s a p p e a lsto our i n tu i ti o n w h e n W D n ic e ly su m s u p w h a t we h a v e in c o m m o n . A l s ohe t akes as na tu ra l a t t i tudes wh ich , i f no t exc lus ive to W D , a re a t leas tcharac te r i s ti c o f i t. T he s e cond subs id ia ry goa l is to sugges t tha t a t thespec if ic l eve l o f Ra wls ' s a rgum en t on ly a pa r t i cu la r theo ry o f ju s t i ce ispos s ib le ; a un ive r sa l theo ry wou ld be someth ing qu i t e d i s t inc t .

    R a w l s i s c o n c e r n e d m a i n l y w i t h t h e p r in c i p le s o f s o c ia l j u s t i c e : t h e yprov ide a w ay o f a ss ign ing r igh t s an d d u t i e s in the bas ic in s t i tu t ions o fs o c i e t y a n d t h e y d e f i ne t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d i s t ri b u t i o n o f th e b e n e f it s a n dburd ens o f soc ia l co op era t ion ( J4 ). The bas ic in s t i tu t ions a re the po l i t -i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d t h e p r i n c i p a l e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s( J7) . Th e pa r t i cu la r p r inc ip les fo r wh ich Ra wls a rgues a re : fir st, E ac h

    Theo ry and D ecis ion 4 (1974) 311-324. A l l R ig h t s R e s e r v edCopyright 9 1974 by D. Reidel Publishing C ompany, Do rdrecht-H olland

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    3 2 P H I L I P P E T T I T

    p e r s o n i s t o h a v e a n e q u a l r i g h t t o t h e m o s t e x t e n si v e t o t a l s y s t e m o f e q u a lbas ic l ibe rt i e s com pat ib le w i th a s imi la r sys tem o f l ibe r ty fo r a l l 02 50 ) ;s e c o n d , S o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c i n e q ua l it ie s a r e t o b e a rr a n g e d s o t h a tt h e y a r e b o t h ( a) t o t h e g r e a t e s t b e n e f it o f t h e le a s t a d v a n t a g e d a n d(b ) a t t ach ed to o tf ices and pos i t ions o pen to a l l und er c ond i t ions o f f a i requa l i ty o f op po r tu n i ty ( J83 ; fo r a l a t e r r ead ing s ee J302). These p r inc i-p les a r e in te rp re ted u nde r the cons t r a in t s o f tw o p r io r i ty ru les : rough ly ,t h a t t h e f ir st p r i n ci p le m a y n e v e r b e c o m p r o m i s e d o u t o f c o n s i d e r a t i o nf o r t h e s e c o n d a n d t h a t , i n t h e c a s e o f t h e s e c o n d , f a ir e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r -t u n i t y m a y n e v e r b e r e s tr i ct e d o u t o f c o n s i d e r a t io n f o r t h e g r e a te s tb e n e f it o f t h e l e a st a d v a n t a g e d 0 3 0 2 - 0 3 ) .Ra wls a rgues fo r these p r inc ip les o f ju s t i ce by a ve r s ion o f the co n t r ac -t u a l t h e o r y . T h e y a r e th e p r in c i p le s th a t f r e e a n d r a t i o n a l p e r s o n s c o n -ce rned to fu r the r the i r own in te res t s wou ld accep t in an in i t i a l pos i t iono f e q u a l i t y as d e fi n in g th e f u n d a m e n t a l t e rm s o f t h e ir a s s o c i a t i o n ( J 1 1 ;s e e a l s o J l1 8 - 1 9 ) . R a w l s d o e s n o t r e s o r t t o a q u a s i- h is t o ri c a l m y t h o f as t a te o f na tu re to g ive subs tanc e to h i s idea o f the o r ig ina l pos i t ion . I t i sa pu re ly hypo the t i ca l s i tua t ion de f ined by ce r t a in cons t r a in t s and , t ak ingacc oun t o f the cons t r a in t s , w e a re mea n t to be ab le to s im ula te the re flec-t i o n s o f t h e i m a g i n a r y c o n t r a c t o r s 0 1 2 0 ) .

    The cons t r a in t s wh ich de f ine the o r ig ina l pos i t ion inc lude cons t r a in t son the pa r t i e s - they a re to be r a t iona l , r ep resen ta t ive o f pos s ib le soc ia lpos i t ions , mu tua l ly d i s in te res ted , r e l i ab le when i t comes to com ply ingw i t h t h e p r in c i p le s a n d s o o n ; t h e se , a n d c o n s t r a i n ts o n t h e t a s k i n h a n d -the p r inc ip les to be cho sen a re p r inc ip les o f soc ia l ju s t i ce , the soc ie ty inw h i c h t h e y a r e t o a p p l y i s o n e o f m o d e r a t e s c a rc i ty , t h e p r in c i p le s a r e t osa t i s fy such fo rm al cons t r a in t s a s genera li ty and pub l i c i ty , e tc . 014 6-47 ) .The cen t r a l cons t r a in t however , i s tha t o f the ve i l o f ignorance . Th i sr e q u i re s t h a t t h e p a r t ie s t o t h e c o n t r a c t b e i n i g n o r a n c e o f t h e ir p a r t i c u l a rt a l en t s a nd fo r tunes in th e soc ie ty fo r wh ich th ey a re cho os ing p r inc ip les ,a n d i n d e e d b e i n i g n o r a n c e o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o ri c a l c i rc u m s t a n c e s o ftha t soc ie ty - the i r kno wled ge ex tends on ly to genera l f ac t s o f po l i ti c s ,economics and psycho logy ( J137) .

    The o r ig ina l pos i t ion , by the p resen t a rgum en t , i s no t a dev ice wh ichenab les the theo r i s t to s t ep ou t s ide the l imi ts o f h i s p lace and t ime inh i s to ry . I t does no t g ive h im a vo ice to sp eak fo r m en o f cu l tu res fa rr em ove d f rom h i s own . Th i s i ts inven to r fa i ls to apprec ia te : to s ee ou r

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    A T H E O R Y O F J U S T I C E ? 3 3

    p l a c e i n s o c i e t y f r o m t h e p e i s p e c t i v e o f th i s p o s i t i o n i s t o s e e it sub specieaeternitatis: i t i s t o r e g a r d t h e h u m a n s i t u a t io n n o t o n l y f r o m a ll s oc i alb u t a ls o f r o m a l l t e m p o r a l p o i n t s o f v i e w ( J5 8 7 ).

    I I

    T h e r e a r e t w o l in e s w h i c h m y a r g u m e n t m i g h t t a k e . T h e f ir st I w i ll m e n t i o nb u t n o t d e v e lo p . I t is th e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e v e r y id e a o f t h e o r i g i n a lp o s i t i o n m a k e s s e n s e o n l y a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f a c e r t a i n s o c i a le x p e r ie n c e . I t p r e s u p p o s e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a s o c i e t y w h e r e t h e d i s tr i-b u t i o n o f so c i al a n d e c o n o m i c g o o d s i s r e g a r d e d a s s o m e t h i n g s u b je c t toh u m a n a g e n c y (1 ). M o r e d e e p l y p e r h a p s , i t p r e s u p p o s e s t h e e x p e ri e nc e o fs o c ia l m o b i l i t y a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h is b r i n g s w i t h i t ; o t h e rw i s e t h ev e il o f i g n o r a n c e c o n s t r a i n t w o u l d s e em q u i te o u t l a n d i sh .

    T h e p o i n t I a m m a k i n g i s re m i n i s c e n t o f C . B . M a c P h e r s o n ' s c l a imt h a t t h e s t a te o f n a t u r e o f w h i c h L o c k e ( o r H o b b e s ) s p o k e r e fl e ct e d as o c i et y i n w h i c h m a r k e t r e la t i o n s a r e d o m i n a n t so t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a lw i t h w h i c h h e s ta r ts h a s a l r e a d y b e e n c r e a te d i n th e i m a g e o f m a r k e t m a nPossessive Individualism, O xfo rd 1962 , p . 269 ). I am a rgu ing t h a t t hec o n t r a c t o r s w i t h w h i c h R a w l s s t a r t s a l s o s h o w s i g n s o f s o c i a l l y s p e c i f i c

    m o d e l l i n g : t h e y a r e l i m i t c a s e s o f so c i a l ly m o b i l e i n d i v i d u a l s c o n s i d e r i n ga p r o b l e m c h a r a c te r i st ic o f a s o c i et y t h a t a l lo w s s o m e e c o n o m i c in t e r-v e n t i o n b y t h e s t a t e . I f t h i s i s s o t h e n s o m e d o u b t is c a s t o n t h e u n i v e r s a ls t a tu s o f R a w l s i a n th e o r y .

    I d o n o m o r e t h a n m e n t i o n t h i s p o i n t b e c a u s e I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t i tc a n b e p r e s se d h o m e . T h e c o n t r a c t u a l t h e o r i s t c a n s a y t h a t t h o u g h t h eo r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n i s m o d e l l e d o n a s i t u a t i o n s p e c if ic t o a c e r t a i n s o c i e ty ,t h e r e i s n o l o g i c a l r e a s o n w h y i t s h o u l d n o t m a k e s e n s e in o t h e r s o c ie t ie s .I t is t r u e t h a t t h e r e is n o r e a s o n i n l o gi c w h y i t s h o u l d n o t d o s o - b u t t h e r eis e v e r y p sy c h o l o g i c a l r e a s o n w h y i t s h o u l d n o t . T h e i d e a o f th e o r i g in a lp o s i t i o n is t o o m u c h t h e f lo w e r o f o n e s o c i e t y - a s I s ee i t, W D - t o h a v em u c h c h a n c e o f b l o o m i n g in o t h e r s , a t l e a st i n s o m e o t h e rs . I n t h e f o u r t hs e c t i o n I s h a l l m e n t i o n a f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h i c h s u g g e s ts th i s v ie w .

    T h e l i ne o f a r g u m e n t w h i c h I p re f e r t o f o l lo w n o w c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h ed e t ai ls o f t h e c h o i c e a t tr i b u t e d t o t h e c o n t r a c t o r s . T h e c h o i ce is t h a t o ft h e t w o p r i n ci p le s o f j u s ti c e a n d i t i s p r e s e n t e d a s t h e u n i q u e s o l u t i o nt o t h e p r o b l e m s e t b y th e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n (J 11 9) . I w i s h t o a r g u e t h a t

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    314 PHIL IP P T T ITR a w l s m a k e s a c a s e f o r t h is c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o t h i n kwould ca r ry equa l we igh t in a l l soc ie t i e s .

    Ra wls ' s boo k f a ll s in to th ree pa r t s : on ' t heo ry ' , ' i n s t i tu t ions ' and ' ends ' .I n e a c h o f t h e se p a r t s h e p r o v i d e s a d e s c r i p t io n w h i c h is m e a n t t o j u s t i f ythe cho ice he a t t r ibu tes to the o r ig ina l con t r ac to r s . In the f i r s t pa r t hed e s c ri b e s t h e c h o i c e a s t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f th e m a x i m i n d e c is io n p r o c e -dure , in the s e cond as the ad op t ion o f p rinc ip les in r e fl ec tive equ i l ib r iumw i t h o u r c o n s i d e r e d j u d g m e n t s o f j u s ti c e a n d i n t h e t h i rd a s t h e r a t i o n a lc h o i c e in v i e w o f t h e c o n t r a c t o r s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f g o o d n e s s. T h e t h r e edesc r ip t ions r ecu r in the b oo k , b u t each i s de fende d in i ts r e spec t ive pa r t .

    III

    T h e m a x i m i n p r o c e d u r e i s d ef in e d b y a c o n s e r v a t i v e r u le f o r c h o i c e u n d e runcer ta in ty . T he m ax im in ru le t e ll s u s to r ank a l t e rna t ives by the i r wo rs tp o s s i b l e o u t c o m e s : w e a r e t o a d o p t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e t h e w o r s t o u t c o m e o fw h i c h is s u p e r i o r t o t h e w o r s t o u t c o m e s o f t h e o t h e r s ( J1 5 2 -5 3 ) . W h a tRa wls w ishes to a rgue i s (a ) tha t the cho ice o f h i s tw o p r inc ip les o fj u s t ic e b y t h e p a r t ie s i n t h e o r ig i n al p o s i t i o n i s a m a x i m i n p r o c e d u r e a n d(b ) tha t a s such i t i s the appropr ia te p rocedure in the o r ig ina l pos i t ion .H e p u t s s o m e f a it h i n th i s a rg u m e n t : i f t h e o r ig i n al p o s i t io n h a s b e e ndesc r ibed so tha t i t i s r a t iona l fo r the pa r t i e s to adop t the conse rva t ivea t t i tude expres sed by th i s ru le a conc lus ive a rgumen t can indeed be con-s t ructe d for thes e pr inc ip les ( J153).

    A b o u t ( a ) : R a w l s c a n s h o w t h a t c h o i c e o f hi s p ri n c ip l e s w o u l d b e am a x i m i n p r o c e d u r e o n l y b y c o m p a r i n g t h o s e p r in c i p le s w i t h a l t e rn a t iv e s .H e f inds the a l te rna t ives in a sho r t l is t o f t r ad i t iona l c once p t ions o fjus t i ce ( J122) . The conc ep t ions he cons ide r s a r e m a in ly va r i an t s o fu t i l i ta r i an i sm: in pa r t i cu la r he cons ide r s the p r inc ip le tha t ave rage u t i l i t y -which , u n l ike aggrega te u t il i ty , i s in sens i tive to s ize o f po pu la t io n - shou ldbe m ax imised . H ere i t i s a l r eady c lea r tha t th e r e f lec t ions w i th w h ich thec o n t r a c t o r s a r e c r e d it e d a r e n o t v e r y ra d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l ly : t h e y a r ere f lec t ions t r ad i t iona l in W D . Bu t pe rhaps the d i f f icu l ty o f the t a sk doese x c u s e t h e se r o u g h a n d r e a d y m e t h o d s (J1 23 ).

    R a w l s n o w h a s t o s h o w t h a t c h o i c e o f t h e t w o p r i n c ip l e s r ep r e s en t s t h em a x i m i n p r o c e d u r e , t h a t t h e w o r s t o u t c o m e o f th e s e tw o p r i n c ip l e s i sb e t t e r t h a n t h e w o r s t o u t c o m e o f a l te r n a ti v e p r o c e d u r e s . H i s c a se h a s

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    A THEORY OF JUSTICE 315s o m e p l a u s i b il it y . A h i g h a v e r a g e u t i l it y m i g h t m a r k a s o c ie t y w h i c ht o l e r a t e d s l a v e r y a n d t h e w o r s t o u t c o m e f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l i n s u c h as o c i e ty - b e i n g a s l av e - w o u l d s e e m t o b e w o r s e t h a n a n y t h i n g a ll o w e d ina s o c i e t y o r d e r e d b y t h e t w o p r i n c i p le s o f j u s t i c e ; t h e c r i t e r ia f o r t h i sas ses sm en t o f s l av e ry ce r t a i n ly r e f lec t a spec i fi c soc i a l exper i ence , bu t Ia m w i l li n g t o g r a n t t h a t t h e y m i g h t b e a c c e p t e d b y p e o p le o f a n y b a c k -g r o u n d . T h e s t r a ig h t p r in c i p le o f a v e ra g e u t i li t y h o w e v e r is n o t t h e o n l yu t i l i t a r i a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o R a w l s ' p r i n c ip l e s . J . E . J . A l t h a m h a s s u g g e s t e dt h i s f u r t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e t o m e : m a x i m i s e a v e r a g e u t il i ty , s u b j e c t t o f ir s th a v i n g s a t is f ie d n e e d s . I t is n o t a t a l l c l e a r t h a t t h e w o r s t o u t c o m e o f t h i sw o u l d b e w o r s e t h a n t h e w o r s t o u t c o m e o f t h e t w o p r in c i p le s o f j u st ic e .I a m n o t a n x i o u s h o w e v e r to g e t s t u c k o n t h is p o i n t. L e t u s g r a n t t h a tc h o i c e o f t h e t w o p r in c i p le s d o e s r e p r e s e n t t h e m a x i m i n p r o c e d u r e .

    T h e s e c o n d p o i n t w h i c h R a w l s h a s t o e s ta b l is h is t h a t i n t h e o r i g in a lp o s i t io n , t h e m a x i m i n p r o c e d u r e i s i n d e e d t h e r a t io n a l o n e . H e d r a w s o ne c o n o m i c d e c i si o n t h e o r y a n d a r g u e s t h a t i n a n y s i t u a t i o n t h e r e a r e th r e ef e a t u r e s w h i c h w e m u s t o b t a i n i f ' m a x i m i n i n g ' is t o b e t h e r a t i o n a l c o u r se .T h e y a r e , t h a t t h e s i t u a t io n b e o n e o f u n c e r t a i n t y w i t h i n w h i c h p r o b a b i li -t ie s c a n n o t b e a s s i g n e d to t h e p o s s ib l e o u t c o m e s o f a n y p l a n ; t h a t t h em i n i m u m o u t c o m e p r o m i s e d b y t h e m a x i m i n r u l e b e s a t i s f a c t o r y ; a n dt h a t s o m e o f t h e o u t c o m e s o f a l te r n a t iv e p la n s b e u n a c c e p t a b l e 0 1 5 4 ) .T h e A l t h a m a l te r n a ti v e d o es n o t i n v ol ve a n y u n a c c e p t a b le o u t c o m e s b u ta g a i n I p u t t h i s a s i d e . L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e s e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s a r er e a l i se d i n t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n .

    T h i s b r in g s u s t o th e c e n t r a l q u e s ti o n . G r a n t e d t h a t m a x i m i n n i n g d o e sm e a n c h o o s i n g t h e t w o p r i n c ip l e s o f j u s ti c e , g r a n t e d t o o t h a t t h e o r i g in a lp o s i t i o n s a t i s f i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h n o r m a l l y m a k e m a x i m i n n i n g t h er a t i o n a l c o u r s e , w o u l d c h o i c e o f th e t w o p r in c i pl e s n e c e s s a ri ly s e e m t h er a t i o n a l c h o i c e f o r t h e c o n t r a c t o r s t o m a k e ? H o w w o u l d i t s e e m t os o m e o n e o f a n a r i s to c r a t ic s o c ie t y f o r e x am p l e , s o m e o n e w h o f o u n dd u e l l in g r e g r e t ta b l e p e r h a p s b u t o n m a n y o c c a s i o n s t h e o n l y r e a s o n a b l ec o u r s e ? N o n e o f u s c a n s a y f o r s ur e. A n d t h a t i s p re c is e ly th e p o i n t . I t iso n l y i f w e p r e s u p p o s e i n t h e c o n t r a c t o r s a c e r t a i n a t t it u d e t o r i s k - o n ew h i c h c o n t r a s t s t h e p r u d e n t a n d t h e i m p r u d e n t , n o t t h e m e a n a n d t h em a n l y - t h a t t h e m a x i m i n ru l e w il l s e e m t h e r a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e mt o a d o p t . W e r e a d i ly m a k e t h a t p r e s u p p o s it io n b e c a us e i n W D w e a reg e n e r a l l y d i s p o s e d t o t a k e a c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t it u d e t o r is k .

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    316 P H I L I P P T T I TR a w l s c l a i m s , c o n t r a r y t o t h i s o b j e c t i o n , t h a t h i s a r g u m e n t d o e s n o t

    r e s t d i r e c tl y o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f a n a v e r s i o n t o r i s k a m o n g t h e c o n t r a c -t o rs . W h a t m u s t b e s h o w n is t h a t c h o o s i n g a s i f o n e h a d s u c h a n a v e r s io ni s ra t i o n a l g i v e n t h e u n i q u e f e a t u re s o f t h a t s i t u a ti o n i rr e sp e c ti v e o f a n ys p e c i a l a t t i t u d e s t o r i s k (J 17 2). T h i s b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n a s i t s u p p o s e st h a t t h e r e is s o m e i n d e p e n d e n t t e st o f t h e r a t io n a l . A t t h is s ta g e , t h e o n l yt e s t is w h e t h e r w e c a n s i m u l a t e th e r e f le c ti o n s o f t h e p a r t i e s i n a d o p t i n gt h e m a x i m i n p r o c e d u r e a n d f ee l t h e i r w e ig h t . T h i s w e c a n d o w i t h e as eb u t o n l y b e c a u s e o f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t t i t u d e t o r i s k . A l i tt le h i s to r i c a li m a g i n a t i o n e n a b l e s u s t o s e e t h a t o t h e r s m i g h t f i n d a v e r y d i ff e r e n t r u l eo f c h o i ce th e n a t u r a l o n e f o r t h e c o n t r a c t o r s t o f o ll o w .

    T h e r e is o n l y o n e s i t u a t i o n - o n e v e r s i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n - i nw h i c h i t i s h a r d t o i m a g i n e t h a t p e o p l e o f a n y s o c i e ty w o u l d f i n d t h ec o n s e r v a ti v e r u le o f c h o i c e u n n a t u r a l . T h i s w o u l d a r is e i f e a c h c o n t r a c t o rh a d t o a s s u m e , n o t t h a t h e m i g h t , b u t t h a t h e d e f i n it e ly w o u l d b e i n t h el e a s t a d v a n t a g e d p o s i t i o n i n t h e s o c i e t y t o c o m e . I n t h i s c a s e th e p r i n c i p l e' I c u t , y o u c h o o s e ' w o u l d a p p l y ( 2). I t w o u l d l e a v e t h e c h o i ce o f t h em a x i m i n a l te r n a t iv e c o n t i n g e n t , n o t o n a p a r t i c u l a r a t t i t u d e t o r is k , b u to n a n a t t i tu d e t o c o m i n g o u t w o r s t. T h i s w o u l d b e a n a d v a n t a g e i n s o f a ra s a v e r s io n t o c o m i n g o u t w o r s t s e em s t o b e a m o r e n a t u r a l a n d u n i v e r sa lh u m a n a t t i tu d e t h a n a v e r s i o n t o r is k - ta k i n g . I t w o u l d u n d e r m i n e t h e i d e ao f a c o n t r a c t h o w e v e r : a c o n t r a c t o r c o u l d n o t a s s u m e th a t h e w o u l d b e i nt h e l e a s t a d v a n t a g e d p o s i t i o n i f h e r e c o g n i se d t h a t e v e r y o t h e r c o n t r a c t o rm a d e t h e s a m e a s s u m p t io n .

    IV

    T h e s e c o n d d e s c r i p t io n w h i c h R a w l s g i ve s o f t h e c h o i c e w h i c h h e i m p u t e st o t h e c o n t r a c t o r s p r e s e n t s t h e p r i n c i p le s c h o s e n a s p r i n c i p le s i n r e f le c t iv ee q u i l i b r iu m w i t h o u r c o n s i d e r e d j u d g m e n t s o f ju s ti c e. T h e y a r e i n e q u il ib -r i u m b e c a u s e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h t h e y y i e ld a b o u t h o w t o o r g a n i set h e b a s i c i n s t i t u t io n s o f a s o c i e t y a r e i n l in e w i t h o u r i n t u i t i v e j u d g m e n t s ;t h e e q u i l i b r i u m i s d e s c r i b e d a s r e f l e c ti v e b e c a u s e i t g i v es u s a v i e w o f t h eg r o u n d s a n d m o d e o f d e r i v a ti o n o f t h o s e j u d g m e n t s ( J2 0).

    R a w l s d o e s n o t s a y t h a t t h e p r in c i pl e s m u s t i n e v e r y c a se g e n e r a t e c o n -c l u s io n s i n l in e w i t h o u r j u d g m e n t s . I n c e n t r a l c a s e s t h e y w i ll . I n m a r g i n a lc a se s w h e r e w e a r e n o t s u re o f o u r j u d g m e n t s t h e y m a y n o t : h e r e t h e c o n -c l u si o n s m a y s h i f t o u r i n tu i ti v e j u d g m e n t s s o m e w h a t , p r o v i d i n g u s w i t h

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    A T H E O R Y O F J U S T I C E 9 3 1 7

    i n d e p e n d e n t t h e o r e t i c a l g u i d a n c e ( J 1 9 -2 0 ). T h e t h e o r y o f j u s ti c e isS o c r at ic : w e m a y w a n t t o c h a n g e o u r p re s e n t c o n s id e r e d j u d g m e n t s o n c et h e i r r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c ip l e s a re b r o u g h t t o l i g h t (J 49 ). T h e i m p o r t a n tp o i n t h o w e v e r is t h a t i n t h e m a i n , t h e t h e o r y f its o u r c o n s i d e re d j u d g -m e n t s . T h i s f i t i s i n v o k e d b y R a w l s t o j u s t i f y t h e t w o p r i n c i p le s w h i c h h et a k e s t h e c o n t r a c t o r s t o c h o o s e . O n e c a n w o r k o u t t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s f o ri n s t it u t io n s a n d n o t e t h e i r im p l i c a t io n s f o r f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l p o l ic y . I nt h is w a y t h e y a re t e s te d b y a c o m p a r i s i o n w i t h o u r c o n s i d e r e d j u d g m e n t so f j u s t i c e 0 1 5 2 ) .

    I d o n o t i n t e n d t o g o i n t o t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h R a w l s d r a w s f r o mh i s p r i n c i p l e s : t h e y a r e c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h d e s c r i b e W D i n f a i r o u t l i n e .W h a t I w a n t t o p o i n t o u t is t h a t t h e t e s t o f r e fl e ct iv e e q u i l i b r i u m i si n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a ' u n i v e r s a l i s t ' v i ew o f t h e t h e o r y o f j u s ti c e . T h i s t e s te n s u r e s t h a t w h a t R a w l s ' t h e o r y d o e s is e x p li c a te t h e s e n se o f j u s t i c ed o m i n a n t a m o n g t h o s e w h o s e j u d g m e n t s a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , s y st em -a t is e th e p r i n c ip l e s t h a t t h e y fi n d n a t u r a l a n d a t t r a c t iv e . T h e r e i s n o m o r er e a s o n t o b e l ie v e t h a t o n e t h e o r y o f j u s ti c e w o u l d s a t is f y a ll c u l tu r e s t h a nt h e r e i s t o b e l ie v e t h a t a l l c u l t u r e s s h a r e t h e s a m e j u d g m e n t s o f j u s ti c e .R a w l s p r o v id e s a t h e o r y w h i c h a n sw e r s o n l y t o o u r j u d g m e n t s , a t h e o r yo f j u s ti c e f o r W D . (3 )

    Ra w l s does t ry t o g ive s c ien t i fi c s t a t u s t o t he t e s t o f r e f lec t i ve equ i l i b -r i u m , a n d t h is m a y s ee m t o d o s o m e t h i n g f o r t h e st a tu s o f h is t h e o r yo f j u s ti c e . H e p o i n t s o u t - r i g h t ly , I t h i n k - t h a t s u c h a t e s t a l so a p p e a r si n li n g u is t ic s , a t le a s t a s d e s c r i b e d b y N o a m C h o m s k y . I n t h i s c a s e t h ea i m i s t o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n i s e w e l l - f o r m e d s e n t e n c e s b yf o r m u l a t i n g c l e a rl y e x p r es s ed p r in c ip l es w h i c h m a k e t h e s a m e d i s c ri m i n a -t i o n s a s t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r (J 47 ). H e r e t o o t h e t h e o r y i s S o c r a t ic , t h ep r in c i pl e s m a y in f lu e n c e o u r i n t u it iv e j u d g m e n t s : w h i l e w e m a y n o te x p e c t a s u b s t a n t i a l re v i si o n o f o u r s e ns e o f c o r r e c t g r a m m a r i n v i ew o f al i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f w h i c h s e e m e s p e c i a l l y n a t u r a l t o u s ,s u c h a c h a n g e i s n o t i n c o n c e iv a b l e , a n d n o d o u b t o u r s e n s e o f g r a m m a t i -c a l ne s s m a y b e a f f e c te d t o s o m e d e g r e e a n y w a y b y t h is k n o w l e d g e (J4 9).

    T h e a n a l o g y w i t h l in g u is ti c s h o w e v e r is a g iv e - aw a y . T h e a n a l o g y R a w l sd r a w s i s w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r g r a m m a r , t h e g r a m m a r o f a p a r t i c u l a r la n g u a g e .I t s u g g e s t s t h a t w h a t h e o f f er s h i m s e l f i s a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y o f j u s t ic e ,t h e t h e o r y w h i c h e x p l ic a t e s a p a r t i c u l a r s e n s e o f j u s ti c e . H e m i g h t h a v ef o u n d a l e s s e m b a r r a s s i n g a n a l o g u e i n u n i v e r s a l g r a m m a r , t h e t h e o r y o f

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    3 8 PHIL IP PETTIT

    t h e c o n s t r a i n t s u n d e r w h i c h a l l p a r t i c u l a r g r a m m a r s m u s t w o r k . T h et r o u b l e i s t h a t h i s t h e o r y d o e s n o t h a v e t h e r e q u i r e d s im i l ar it ie s w i t h t h a tg r a m m a r . I t j u s t i s n o t a u n i v e r s a l t h e o r y o f j u s ti c e .

    A fu r the r in te res t ing po in t i s sugges ted by the l ingu i s t i c ana logy : i tl i n k s u p w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t m e n t i o n e d i n t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n b u t n o td e v e l o p e d . I n C h o m s k y s l in g u is ti c s, t h e d e s c ri p ti v e a d e q u a c y o f a g r a m -m ar i s i t s capa c i ty to gen era te a l l and on ly the g ram m at ica l s en tences o fa l ang uage - the f ac t tha t i t i s in re f lec t ive equ i l ib r ium w i th ou r s ense o fg r a m m a t ic a l n e ss . T h e d r a w b a c k w i t h d e s cr ip t iv e a d e q u a c y a s a c r it e ri o no f a g ra m m a r h o w e v e r is t h a t t h e r e m a y b e t w o g r a m m a r s w h i c h a r ec a p a b l e o f g e n e r a ti n g t h e g r a m m a t i c a l s e n t en c e s o f a la n g u a g e . C h o m s k yf inds a fu r the r c r i t e r ion , a p rocedure fo r eva lua t ing two desc r ip t ive lya d e q u a t e g r a m m a r s , i n u n iv e r s a l g r a m m a r : t h e o n e w h i c h f it s i n b e t t e rw i t h t h e u n i v e r sa l t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e i s t h e b e t t e r g r a m m a r . I t n o w h a se x p l a n a t o r y a d e q u a c y a s w e l l a s d e s c r i p t i v e Aspects o f the Theory o fSyntax, Cambr idge , Mass . 1965 , pp . 26 -27) . The ques t ion i s , does Rawlsh a v e a n y c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o c e d u r e f o r c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n tw o t h eo r ie s o fj u s t i c e ?

    He needs such a p rocedure , fo r i t i s a t l eas t conce ivab le tha t ano the rt h e o r y o f j u s t ic e s h o u l d a l s o m e e t t h e t e s t o f re f le c ti v e e q u i li b r iu m . W h ys h o u l d a t h e o r y n o t b e p o s s i b l e w h i c h s e t u p a d i v i ne l e g is l at o r a n d g a v eh i m s u c h a t t ri b u t e s t h a t h i s i m a g i n e d j u d g m e n t s o n ju s t i c e w o u l d b e i nr e f l e c t i v e e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h o u r o w n ? H o w w o u l d R a w l s d e c i d e t h e n b e -t w e e n s u c h a t h e o r y a n d t h a t w h i c h h e d e f e n d s h i m s e l f? C l e a r ly h e w o u l dd e c i d e f o r h i s o w n ; s o , I s u s p ec t , w o u l d a l l o f u s. B u t w h y ? T h e o n l y r e a s o nI c a n s e e, in t h e a b s e n c e o f a u n i v e r s a l t h e o r y o f j u s t ic e w h i c h w o u l d d ot h e w o r k o f C h o m s k y s u n i v e rs a l t h e o r y , is t h a t R a w l s t h e o r y i s a n a t iv ef l o w e r i n W D , t h e a l te r n a ti v e a n e x o t i c g r o w t h ; h e r e I r e t u r n t o t h e a r g u -m e n t o f t h e s e c o n d s e c ti o n. A m y t h o f r a t io n a l c o n t r a c t o r s i n a n o r ig i n alp o s i t i o n is a m o r e p l a u s i b l e m y t h t o o u r m i n d s t h a n t h e m y t h o f a d i vi n elegis lator .

    V

    T h e t h i rd d e s c r ip t i o n w h i c h R a w l s g iv e s o f t h e c h o i c e o f t h e t w o p r i n c ip l e so f ju s t i ce p resen t s i t a s the r a t iona l cho ice fo r the con t r ac to r s in v iew o ft h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f g o o d n e s s . D o e s t h is d e s c r i p ti o n d o a n y m o r e t h a n t h eo t h e r s t o g iv e u n i v e rs a l s t a t u s t o t h e R a w l s i a n t h e o r y o f j u s t ic e ? I a m

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    A THEORY OF JUSTICE 3 9

    going to argue that it does not because I do not think that RaMs estab-lishes the validity of this description.

    First, what does he mean by 'rational'? He takes his cue from theeconomic theory of decision-making. Thus, in the usual way, a rationalperson is thought to have a coherent set of preferences between the op-tions open to him. He ranks these options according to how well theyfurther his purposes; he follows the plan which will satisfy more of hisdesires rather than less, and which has the greater chance of being success-fully executed (J143). Here RaMs gives us the three main principles thathe thinks of as guiding rational choice: the principles of effective means,inclusiveness and greater likelihood (J411-12). The principles are usefulbecause they enable us to compare different plans; they may even beallowed a universal appeal and validity. What they do not do however ismark out one plan as the rational one in a situation of choice - at leastnot necessarily. Hence they cannot in themselves determine the choice ofthe original contractors.

    What more is necessary in a situation of choice if one plan is to standout as the rational plan ? First, Rawls says, that the requirement of delib-erative rationality is met. A plan is chosen with deliberative rationalitywhen all its consequences have been clearly foreseen and balanced againstthe consequence of alternative plans (J417). Even when this requirementis met, however, it is not possible to say what is the rational plan for anindividual in a situation of choice; that plan has only been specifiedformally. What it is also necessary to know is the desires which weighwith that individual. Thus if we are to be convinced that the rational planfor the original contractors to choose is represented by the two principlesof justice we must be told something about their desires, their conceptionof the good.

    The distinctive thing however about the choice which faces the contrac-tors is that they do not, and in simulating their reflections we do not,know anything of their particular desires; this, by the veil of ignorancecondition. The contractors are to choose principles of social organisation,not out of concern for such individually variable desires, but out of con-cern for desires to which they are bound, regardless of who they are.These are described as general desires (J263) or desires for primarygoods (J93): they are meant to be desires for conditions required for thepursuit of any particular goals.

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    320 P H I L I P P T T I TRawls main ta ins , tha t these cond i t ions , the p r imary goods , a r e ce r t a in

    r igh t s and l ibe r t i e s , oppor tun i t i e s and powers , income and wea l th and -s o m e t h i n g s u p p o s e d t o b e m a d e p o s s i b l e i n t h e p u r s u i t o f t h e s e - s elf-r espec t (J92 ). H e a l so ma in ta ins th a t these a re o rde red so tha t l ibe r ty i sp r i o r t o s o c io - e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e a n d e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y t o e c o n -omic we l f a re ( J302-03) ; o the r mot iva t iona l a s sumpt ions , e .g . tha t in -cen t ive r equ i r es inequa l i ty , I l eave unexam ined . I f h is c l a ims a re a l lowed ,then i t ce r t a in ly fo l lows tha t Ra w ls ' s th i rd desc r ip t ion i s a f a ir acco un to f th e c h o i c e w h i c h h e i m p u t e s t o t h e c o n t r a c t o r s ; t h is i s i n d e e d t h era t iona l cho ice fo r them to m ake in v iew o f the i r des ir es , the i r conc ep t iono f th e g o o d .D oe s R aw ls ju s t i fy h is c l a ims , does he es tab l i sh h is l is t o f the p r im aryg o o d s ? H e c e r t a i n l y s e t s o u t a s t r a t e g y f o r d o i n g s o . T h e y a r e m e a n t t ob e t h e g o o d s t o w h i c h t h e c o n t r a c t o r s a r e d i r e c te d i n v ie w o f c e rt a in

    g e n e r a l f a c t s a b o u t h u m a n b e i n g s 0 4 2 4 ) . T h e s e i n c lu d e f a c ts a b o u thu m an des i res and w an ts , capac i t i e s and ab i l it ie s , and soc ia l in te rdepen-d e n c e : t h e y a r e n o t d i s c u s se d - o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y a r e m a t t e r s o f

    c o m m o n s e n se k n o w l e d g e (J 42 5). T h e o n l y f a c t d i s cu s s e d i s d e s c r ib e das a de ep psych o log ica l f ac t ( J432) . I t s ays on ly tha t we p re fe r , o the rth ings equ a l , ac t iv it i es tha t dep end u po n a la rge r r epe r to i r e o f r ea l izedcapac i t i e s and tha t a r e m ore com plex ( J429-30) . Raw ls ca l ls i t t heAris to te l ian pr incip le .

    I t is w o r t h n o t i n g o n e r e a s o n w h y R a w l s m a y f e e l f re e to p a s s s o q u i e t lyover f ac t s tha t p lay a c ruc ia l ro le in h i s theo ry . I t i s tha t he shows a no tu n e x p e c t e d f a i t h i n p s y c h o l o g y , a n o p t i m i s m a b o u t t h e i n v a r i a b i l i t y o ft h e f a c t s w h i c h t h i s d i s c i p l i n e m a y b e p r e s u m e d t o c a t a l o g u e . T h u s h espeaks o f genera l p sycho log ica l p r inc ip les o f wh ich he a l lows h is con t r ac -to r s to be aware ( J24 , 456) , p r inc ip les wh ich inc lude l aws o f m ot iv a t io n0 2 6 ) . I n d o i n g s o h e b a c k s u p h is a s s u m p t i o n t h a t m e n o f a n y s o c i e tyw o u l d a t t r i b u t e t o t h e c o n t r a c t o r s i n t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n t h e s a m epsy cho logy tha t he g ives them. H is pos i t iv i sm on th i s i s sue begs theq u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e o r ig i n al p o s i t i o n m a k e s p o s s i b le a t h e o r y t oexp l i ca te a un ive r sa l s ense o f ju s t ice .

    B u t e v e n if w e g r a n t R a w l s h i s g e ne r a l fa c t s - a n d w h a t t h e y a r e i s n o ta t a l l c l ea r - we find tha t he f a i ls to c linch h is a rgum en t tha t they wo u ldlead the con t r ac to r s to r ecogn i se the p r imary goods tha t he l i s t s . A t thep o i n t w h e r e w e e x p e c t t o h a v e t h e a r g u m e n t c l i n c h e d h e f a l l s b a c k o n

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    A THEOR Y OF JUS TIC E 321

    s e lf -e v i d en c e . W e m u s t a s s u m e , t h e n , t h a t th e li st o f p r i m a r y g o o d s c a nb e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f g o o d n e ss a s r a t i o n a li t y in c o n -n e c t i o n w i t h t h e g e n e r a l f a c ts a b o u t h u m a n w a n t s a n d a b il it ie s , t h e i rc h a r a c t e r is t i c p h a s e s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s o f n u r t u r e , t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n p r in -c i p l e, a n d t h e n e c e s si t ie s o f s o c ia l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . . . . I s h a l l n o t a r g u et h e c a s e f o r t h e l is t o f p r i m a r y g o o d s h e r e , s i n c e t h e i r c la i m s s e e m e v i d e n te n o u g h 0 4 3 4 ) . R a w l s ' s f a i lu r e t o a r g u e t h is c a se m e a n s h is f a i lu r e t oe s t a b li s h t h e v a l i d i t y o f h is t h i r d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c h o i c e a t t r i b u t e d t ot h e c o n t r a c t o r s . I t m e a n s t h a t t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s n o m o r e t h a n t h eo t h e r s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e u n i v e r s a l s t a t u s o f h is t h e o r y o f j u s t ic e .

    VI

    B u t i n f a ir n e s s : R a M s d o e s o f f e r a n a r g u m e n t f o r th e n e c e s si ty o f o n ep r i m a r y g o o d - t h a t o f s e l f- r e sp e c t . H e d e f i n e s s e l f- r e sp e c t a s ( a) h a v i n g as e n se o f t h e v a l u e o f o n e ' s p l a n i n l if e a n d ( b ) h a v i n g c o n f i d e n c e i n o n e ' sa b i l it y to c a r r y i t o u t . H e a p p e a l s t o i n t u i t i o n i n d e f e n c e o f th e i d e a t h a tt h is is a p r i m a r y g o o d . W i t h o u t i t n o t h i n g m a y s ee m w o r t h d o in g , o ri f s o m e t h i n g s h a v e v a l u e f o r u s, w e l a c k t h e w i l l t o s t ri v e f o r t h e m0 4 4 0 ) . O n e c a n s e e t h e f o r c e o f t h is a p p e a l i n s o m e c a se s , t h a t o f a p r o f e s-s i o n a l m a n i n W D f o r in s t a n c e , b u t o n e a s k s w h e t h e r i t ap p l ie s i n all .R a M s t h i n k s t h a t i t d o e s a n d a r g u e s t h a t e a c h p e r s o n m u s t f in d s o m e t h i n gh e is g o o d a t - a n d , t o s a t is f y t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n p r i n c i p l e , i t h a d b e t t e r b eo f s o m e c o m p l e x i t y - a n d f o r w h i c h h e e a rn s t h e r e s p ec t o f s o m e g r o u po f p e o p l e , r e s p e c t w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s h i m i n s e lf -r e sp e c t. T h u s w h a t i sn e c e s s a r y i s t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e f o r e a c h p e r s o n a t le a s t o n e c o m m u n i t yo f s h a r e d i n t er e s ts t o w h i c h h e b e l o n g s a n d w h e r e h e f in d s h is e n d e a v o u r sc o n f i r m e d b y h is a s s o c i a t e s ( J 4 4 2 ; se e a l s o J 1 7 8 - 7 9 ) .

    T h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f s e lf - re s p e c t i s t i e d i n o n e o b v i o u s r e s p e c t t o a n o n -u n i v e r s a l p a t t e r n o f s o c i a l e x p e ri e n c e , a p a t t e r n c h a r a c t e r is t i c a ll y e x e m -p l i f ie d i n W D . I t i s i n d i v i d u a l i s t. I s u g g e s t t h a t f o r s o c i e t ie s i n w h i c h t h ec a t e g o r y o f th e i n d i v i d u a l r e c e i v e d le ss e m p h a s i s , f o r s o c ie t ie s w h e r es o ci al fa c ts w e r e n o t p r e s u m e d i n t h e n o r m t o b e t h e o u t c o m e o f fr e ei n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n s, t h is d e f i n i t i o n w o u l d n o t d o . T h e d e f i n i t i o n d o e s n o tm a k e i t a c o n d i t i o n o f s el f- r es p e c t t h a t o n e s h o u l d s ee o n e s e l f a s p a r t o f al a r g e r e n t i ty - t h e g r o u p - i n w h i c h o n e b e li ev e s. T h i s m i g h t w e l l a p p e a rt o b e a c o n d i t i o n o f s el f- re s p e ct t o s o m e b o d y s o c i a li s ed i n a m o r e t i g h t l y

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    322 P I L I P P T T I Ti n te g r a t e d s o ci et y t h a n W D . B u t R a w l s l ea v es n o r o o m f o r s u c h a p e r s o ni n h i s o r ig i n a l p o s i t i o n . H i s v e r y d e f i n i t i o n o f s o c i e t y - a c o o p e r a t i v ev e n t u r e f o r m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e ( J8 4 ) - m u s t a l ie n a t e a n y o n e o f a c o ll ec -t iv i st m e n t a l i t y f r o m t h e t h o u g h t e x p e r i m e n t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i ti o n . T og e t c o n t r a c t o r s i n t o t h e o r i g in a l p o s i ti o n i n t h e h o p e o f s i m u l a t i n g t h e irr e fl ec t io n s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t w e a r e to b r i n g t h e m t h r o u g h t h e p u r g a t o r y o fW D .

    R a w l s ' c o n c e p t o f s e lf - re s p e c t i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e h e tr i e s t o d e r i v ea n a r g u m e n t f r o m i t f o r t h e p r i o r i ty - a n d i n d e e d t h e b a si c a p p e a l - o fl ib e r ty . ' L i b e r t y ' in c l u d e s a v a r i e t y o f f r e e d o m s : t h e f r e e d o m t o v o t e a n ds t a n d f o r p u b l i c o f fic e , t h e f r e e d o m o f th o u g h t , s p e ec h a n d a s s e m b l y , t h ef r e e d o m o f p e r s o n a n d ( p e rs o n a l) p r o p e r t y , f r e e d o m f r o m a r b i t r a r y a r re s t( J6 1 ); t h e se , a n d a l so a p p a r e n t l y t h e i m p o r t a n t l i b e r ty o f f r ee c h o ic eo f o c c u p a t i o n ( :I 27 4 ). R a w l s d o e s n o t c o m m e n t o n th e h e t e r o g e n e o u sa p p e a r a n c e o f t h e l is t. I n g e n e r a l , l i b e r t y i s s o m e t h i n g g e n e r a t e d b yi n s t i tu t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s - a p a t t e r n o f s o c ia l f o r m s ( :I 63 ) - a n d i th a s t h e m e r i t o f p r o m o t i n g s e lf -r e sp e ct .

    R a w l s a r g u e s t h a t i n t h e s o c i e t y w h i c h t h e c o n t r a c t o r s f o re s e e e q u a ll i b e r t y i s a s u r e b a s i s f o r s el f- r es p e c t, o n e w h i c h n o b o d y w o u l d w a n t t oc o m p r o m i s e , e v e n in t h e h o p e o f m a t e r i a l a d v a n t a g e . I t is a b a si s o f se lf -r e s p e c t b e c a u s e o f w h a t i t a l lo w s : t h e f u l l a n d d i v e r s e i n t e r n a l l if e o f th em a n y fr e e c o m m u n i t i e s o f i n t e r e s t s ( J 5 54 ; s e e a l s o J 4 4 2) . A n d a l s o ,a p p a r e n t l y , b y a s h i f t i n t h e c o n c e p t o f s e lf - re s p e c t, it i s m e a n t t o p r o v i d es u c h a b a s i s in it s o w n r i g h t . T h e b a s is f o r s e lf - e st e e m i n a j u s t s o c i e t yis n o t t h e n o n e ' s i n c o m e s h a r e b u t t h e p u b l i c ly a f f ir m e d d i s t r i b u t io n o ff u n d a m e n t a l ri g h t s a n d l i b er ti e s. A n d t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n b e i n g e q u a l , e v e ry -o n e h a s a s i m i la r a n d s e c u r e s ta t u s w h e n t h e y m e e t t o c o n d u c t t h e c o m m o naf fa i r s o f t he w ider soc i e ty ( :I544) .

    A g a i n s t t h i s i t m u s t b e s a i d t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n l i b e r t y a n ds e lf -r e sp e c t c a n n o t b e p u t u p a s o n e t h a t m u s t c o m m a n d u n i v e r s a l a s s en t ,e v e n w h e n s e l f- r e sp e c t i s d e f i n e d i n a n i n d i v i d u a l i s ti c w a y . T h e r e c a n b em a n y c o m m u n i t i e s o f i n te r e st , e n o u g h t o g iv e e v e r y b o d y a c h a n c e o f s elf -e x p r e ss io n , i n a s o c i et y w h i c h w e w o u l d n o t r e g a r d a s f re e . A n d t h e r e m a ya l so be su f f i c i en t m a t t e r fo r s e l f - r espec t a t t he gen era l po l i t i ca l leve l . O nem i g h t a r g u e t h a t i n a s o c ie t y t e r ro r i s e d b y a d i c t a to r i a l p o w e r , o n e w o u l dn o t h a v e m u c h r o o m f o r s e lf -r es pe c t o f a n y k i n d . B u t t h e a r g u m e n t c a nh a r d l y g o t o s h o w t h e n e e d f o r f u l l p o l i t ic a l li b e r t y i n t h e R a w l s i a n s e n s e -

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    A THEO RY OF JUS TICE 9 323c e r t a i n ly n o t s o m e t h i n g li k e l i b e r ty o f o c c u p a t io n . L i b e r t y f r o m a r b i t r a r ya r r e s t m a y b e p u t i n t h e s a m e l i s t a s o t h e r ' l i b e r t i e s ' , b u t t h i s d o e s n o tm a k e i t o f a k i n d w i th t h e m .

    R a w l s h i m s e l f m e n t i o n s t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f a f e u d a l o r c a s te s o c ie t y i nw h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s f i n d a s o u r c e o f s e lf - re s p e c t i n t h e r o l e g i v e n t h e m i n t h eo r d e r o f t h i n g s . H e s a y s t h a t t h i s i s a n a c c e p t a b l e g u a r a n t e e o f s e lf - re s p e c to n l y b e c a u se o f th e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e o r d e r o f th i n g s is n o t s u b je c t toh u m a n c h oi ce , a n a s s u m p t i o n w h i c h is r u le d o u t b y t h e n a t u r e o f th ee n t e rp r i se o n h a n d (J5 47 ). O n t h e c o n t r a r y : t h e o n l y a s s u m p t i o n n e c e s s a ryi s t h a t t h e o r d e r o f t h i n g s in q u e s t i o n h a s t h e m o s t t o b e s a i d f o r i t i n v ie wo f t h e p r i m a r y g o o d s r e c o g n i se d b y t h e c o n t r a c t o r s . O n l y b y b e g g i n g t h eq u e s t i o n c a n e q u a l l ib e r t y be t a k e n t o b e o n e o f t h o s e g o o d s .

    V I I

    T h e c o n c l u s i o n I d r a w i s t h a t R a w l s d o e s n o t e s t a b l i s h t h a t u n i v e r s a ls t a tu s w h i c h h e a s s u m e s b e l o n g s t o h i s t h e o r y o f j u st ic e . T h e c o n t r a c t u a ld e v i c e gi ve s t h e p r i n c i p le s o f j u s t i c e a s o u t p u t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e i n p u t is as o c i a l ly s p e ci fi c m e n t a l i t y - t h e m e n t a l i t y , I s u g g e s t, o f p e o p l e i n W D . I tw i l l n o t d o t o s a y t h a t t h e d e v i c e g i v e s e v e n t h e g e n e r a l o u t l i n e o f a

    f i n a l l y a d e q u a t e t h e o r y (J 58 1). I t c a n o n l y g i v e t h e o u t l i n e o f a t h e o r ya d e q u a t e t o a p a r t i c u l a r s e n s e o f j u s ti c e .

    T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s s h o u l d n o w b e c l e ar . I t is n o t a n y d i a l e c ti c a l i n c a -p a c i t y in R a w l s b u t a r e a s o n i n p r i n ci pl e . I f a t h e o r y o f j u s ti c e is m e a n t t og e n e r a t e ju d g m e n t s o f j u s t i c e s a t i s f y i n g t h e t e s t o f r e f le c t iv e e q u i l i b r i u mt h e n i t i s g o i n g t o b e r e l a ti v e t o t h e s e t o f j u d g m e n t s , t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e n s eo f j u s ti c e , w i t h w h i c h i t t r ie s t o a c h i e v e e q u i l i b r i u m . A t h e o r y o f t h is k i n dc a n n o t a s s u m e u n i v e r s a l s t a t u s . B u t t h e r e i s n o s c a n d a l h e r e . I d o n o ts ee w h a t i s w r o n g w i t h s a y i n g t h a t t h e s e n se o f j u s ti c e b y w h i c h w e o r d e r -o r a t le a s t c ri ti c is e - o u r s o c i e t y re f le c ts t h e i m a g e o f m a n w e h a v e c r e a t e da n d n o t a n e t e r n a l h u m a n e s s e n c e . I d o n o t s e e w h y t h e o r y s h o u l d g i v ei ts e l f t h e t a s k o f r e s c u in g t h a t s e ns e o f j u s ti c e f r o m h i s to r y . T h e t h e o r y o fj u s t i c e i s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h w e e x p l i c a t e a n d e x a m i n e o u r s e n s e o fj u s ti c e , it is n o t a m e a n s o f p r o v i d i n g it w i t h m e t a p h y s i c a l fo u n d a t i o n s .

    T h e l in g u i st ic a n a l o g y s u g g es ts t h a t w e s h o u l d h a v e a u n i v e r s a l t h e o r yo f j u s t i c e a s w e l l a s a p a r t i c u l a r ; t h i s w o u l d d e s c r i b e th e c o n s t r a i n t s w h i c ha n y t h e o r y o f j u s ti c e m u s t m e e t . T h e b e s t c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e t it le o f u n i-

  • 8/12/2019 A Theory of Justice by Philip Pettit

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    3 2 4 P H I L I P P E T T I Tv e r sa l th e o r y is th e t r a d i t io n a l p h i l o s o p h y o f j u s ti c e - t h e m e t a t h e o r y o fm o r a l s a n d p o l it ic s . W h a t p r e s c r i p ti v i s ts a n d d e s c r ip t iv i s ts d o f o r i n s t a n c ec a n b e d e s c r ib e d i n t hi s w a y : t h e y f o r m u l a t e c o n d i t io n s - o f f o r m a n dc o n t e n t - w h i c h e v e r y s en s e o f j u s t ic e - a n d , m o r e g e n e r a l ly , e v e r y m o r a ls e ns e - m u s t m e e t , c o n d i t io n s w h i c h a n y p a r t i c u la r t h e o r y o f j u st ic em u s t r e s p e c t .

    I n r e c e n t w o r k o n ju s t i c e a n d m o r a l it y , i t is fa i r t o s a y th a t w e h a v e h a de n o u g h o f u n i v e r sa l t h e o r y . T h a t is w h y R a w l s s w o r k is s o in t e r es t in ga n d s o c h a l l e n g i n g ; i t o ff e rs a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y o f o u r s e n se o f j u s ti c e. I tis o n l y a p i t y t h a t R a w l s h i m s e l f s h o u l d h a v e c o n f u s e d i t w i t h t h e o t h e rs o r t o f t h e o r y a n d t r ie d t o c r e d i t i t w i t h u n i v e r s a l s t a tu s .Trinity H all Cam bridge

    N O T E S* My wa rm thanks g o to J im m y Al tham , Ha rry Bracken, S tefan Col lini, M ar t inHol li s, S teven Luk es , Q uent in Skinner a nd De nys Turner . W i thou t their com me nts thispap er w ould certainly hav e bee n a poo rer effort. I am also grateful to Pro fessor Rawlsfor a useful correspon dence abo ut his posi t ion.1 I owe th is po in t t o J imm y Al tham.2 I owe this point to Elizabeth Anscombe.3 I n W D there is wide disagreement on p art icular jud gm en ts of justice between poli ti -cal ly defined groups. I take i t , with Rawls, that there is equally wide agreement onm ore general judgm ents , w hen the judg me nts are considered ou t of a poli tica l context.


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