55
A thesis submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
SEPTEMBER 2016
iii
To my father Alhaji,
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
’All praise be to Allah the lord of the universe, the most gracious, the merciful”.
Alhamdulillah Allah has made it possible for me to put this master-piece. I am so
thankful to my supervisor, Assoct. Prof. Dr Wan Azlinda Bint Wan Mohamed who
tirelessly supported and guided me throughout the doctoral pursuit.
My special appreciation goes to my parents for the complete package of the
upbringing they gave me, which metamorphosed to my current status. I also like to
extend my thanks to my well-wishers for their support and encouragement since the
journey started.
I am so grateful to the Jigawa State government and entire members and
governing council for making it possible for me to proceed on study leave. Many
thanks to the tertiary education tax fund (tetfund) for their financial support it gave me
to see the actualisation of this golden dream.
My regards to the management of University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia for
the opportunity offered to me a place as Graduate research Assistant for the Duration of
five semesters under the head of my research in person of Ass. Prof. Dr Wan Azlinda
Bint Wan Mohammed.
I wish to gratefully acknowledge the meaningful contributions of several
individuals, friends and organisations that assisted in one way or the other. Thank you
all. Finally, with humility, love, and appreciation to those who made the ultimate
sacrifice from the start to the end, to make this journey a successful one. First in the
list is my dear wife Hajiya Zubaida Mohammed, my daughters Aisha, Fatima,
Asma’u, and Abdullah. Bisalam.
v
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study is to develop a better understanding of the role ofcorrectional programme on the reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration ofoffenders in Nigerian correctional institutions. The study has examined seven (7)objectives as follows: To examine perception of offenders on the effects ofcorrectional programmes on reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration, to examinethe relationships between correctional programmes and reintegration. To examine therelationships between demographic variables and correctional programmes, todetermine the mediating effects of vocational training on the relationships betweenreformation and reintegration. To determine the mediating effects of demographicvariables (age and education level) on the relationships between reformation andreintegration. Determine the Mediating effects of demographic variables (literacy andconviction level) on the relationships between rehabilitation and reintegration. Toexamine the differences among the institutions on correctional programs. The studyemployed a quantitative approach to suit the purpose of the study, 227 questionnaireswere distributed and 224 valid ones were analysed using SPSS software embeddedwith Hayes Macros. The institutions has a total population of five hundred and fortyone out of which two hundred and twenty four samples were selected as samplesusing cluster sampling techniques. The instruments used were five namely moralinstructions, counselling, medical care, vocational training and reintegration. Theperceived effects of correctional programs were all high with the exception oftreatment and training on reintegration. Correlation result shows that all thecorrectional programs have positive correlations while vocational training is a goodmediator between moral instructions, counselling, and medical care. Age andeducational level, literacy and conviction time were tested as mediators mediating therelationship between correctional program Both the process outcome and Sobel testreveals that education level mediates while age do not mediates on the parallelrelationship between reformation and reintegration. The implications of this researchinclude fusing the Nigerian correctional institutions in to the global best practice byway of strengthening the correctional programmes in accordance with the unitednation act.
vi
ABSTRAK
Tesis ini bertujuan untuk memberi kefahaman yg lebih jelas tentang fungsi programpembetulan dalam reformasi, pemulihan dan integrasi semula pesalah diinstitusi-institusi pemulihan Nigeria. Ia juga menyelidik hubungan antara programpembetulan dan integrasi semula serta hubungan antara pemboleh ubah demografikdan reformasi, pemulihan dan integrasi semula. Selain itu, kajian ini juga menyelidikperbezaan antara program pembetulan antara tujuh (7) institusi dan juga mengenalpasti kesan perantaraan latihan vokasional ke atas hubungan antara reformasi danintegrasi semula. Kajian ini juga mengenal pasti kesan perantaraan pemboleh ubahdemografik (umur dan tahap pendidikan) ke atas hubungan antara reformasi danintegrasi semula, dan juga kesan perantaraan pemboleh ubah demografik (literasi danmasa pembuktian) ke atas hubungan antara pemulihan dan integrasi semula. Rekabentuk yang digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah kuantitatif bersesuaian dengan tujuankajian. Sebanyak 227 borang kaji selidik telah diedarkan dan 224 daripadanya adalahsah dan telah dianalisa menggunakan perisian SPSS yang mempunyai Hayes macros.Keputusan korelasi menunjukkan pengajaran moral, kaunseling dan servis perubatanmempunyai korelasi positif dengan pemulihan, sama seperti keputusan korelasi antarareformasi dan integrasi semula, dan antara pemulihan serta integrasi semula.Keputusan yang didapati daripada proses perintah SPSS menunjukkan bahawa latihanvokasional adalah pengantara yang baik antara pengajaran moral, kaunseling danservis perubatan ke atas hubungan antara program pembetulan dan integrasi semula.Umur dan tahap pendidikan, literasi dan masa pembuktian telah diuji sebagaipengantara hubungan antara reformasi dan integrasi semula di institusi-institusipemulihan Nigeria. Kedua-dua proses dan Ujian Sobel mendedahkan bahawa tahappendidikan menjadi pengantara, sementara umur tidak menjadi pengantara ke atashubungan selari antara reformasi dan integrasi semula.
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES xix
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xx
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 7
1.3 Purpose of the study 8
1.4 Objectives of the study 8
1.5 Research Questions 9
1.6 Research Hypothesis 10
1.7 Significance of the study 10
viii
1.8 Delimitation of Study 11
1.9 Assumption of the Study 11
1.10 Conceptual Frame work for the Study 11
1.10.1 Components of correctional programmes 12
1.11 Operational Definitions 15
1.12 Organisation of Thesis 16
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 18
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Theoretical frame work of the study 19
2.3 Risk -Need-Responsivity (RNR) 20
2.4 The Risk principle 21
2.5 The Need principle 21
2.6 The Responsivity principle 22
2.7 Risk Assessment 23
2.8 First Generation: professional judgement 23
2.9 Second generation: Evidence –based 24
2.10 Third generation: Evidence based and dynamic 25
2.11 Fourth generation: Systematic and comprehensive 26
2.12 The Good Lives Model 27
2.12.1 Strengths of the Good Live Model 27
2.12.2 The General Assumptions of the Good Live Model 28
2.12.3 Etiological Assumptions of the GLM 29
2.12.4 Practical implication of the GLM 30
2.13 Model used in Nigerian Correctional Institutions 31
2.14 Category of Crimes in Nigeria 31
2.14.1 Reasons that Lead to the Crime 33
2.14.2 Addressing the Crime 35
2.15 Technical and Vocational Education and Training 36
2.15.1 The Impact of TVET on Offenders 37
2.16 Correctional Education 39
2.17 Correctional Programmes 43
2.17.1 Reformation 43
ix
2.17.2 Rehabilitation 49
2.17.3 Reintegration 51
2.18 Reducing Recidivism rates through Vocational Education
and Training 52
2.19 Similarities and Differences of Prison Education System in
Some Selected countries 55
2.20 The Problems of Correctional Institutions in Nigeria 59
2.21 Offending Behaviours in Nigerian Correctional Institutions 62
2.22 Summary of the Literature Review 66
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 67
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Research Design 69
3.3 Population of the Study 69
3.3.1 Sampling 70
3.4 Instrumentation 71
3.4.1 Development of Research Instrument 73
3.4.2 Developing a new Instrument 74
3.5 Pilot Test 76
3.6 Reliability of Instrument 77
3.7 Validity of Instrument 78
3.8 Quantitative Approach 80
3.8.1 Justification for the Adoption of Quantitative Data
Approach 81
3.9 Data Analysis 82
3.9.1 Data Analysis based on Descriptive Analysis 84
3.9.2 Data Analysis based on Correlation Analysis 84
3.9.3 Quantitative Data based on Regression Analysis 84
3.10 Summary of the Chapter 84
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 85
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Data analysis process 86
x
4.2.1 Reliability Test for Data 87
4.3 Test of normality 88
4.3.1 Shapiro Test of Normality 89
4.3.2 Assumption of Homoscedasticity 90
4.3.3 Exploratory factor analysis 90
4.4 Demographic data of respondents 90
4.4.1 Respondents profile by gender 91
4.4.2 Respondents profile by age 91
4.4.3 Respondents profile by nature of offence 92
4.4.4 Respondents profile by sentenced period 92
4.4.5 Respondents profile by competency level 93
4.4.6 Respondents profile by trade group 93
4.4.7 Respondents profile by education level 94
4.4.8 Respondents profile by literacy level 94
4.4.9 Respondents profile by re-offending 95
4.4.10 Respondents profile by conviction time 95
4.5 The Perceived effects of correctional programs on
reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders 96
4.5.1 Perceived effect of moral instruction 96
4.5.2 Perceived effect of counselling 99
4.5.3 Perceived effect of medical care 101
4.5.4 Perceived effect of vocational training 103
4.5.5 Perceived effect of treatment and training 105
4.6 Correlation analysis 107
4.6.1 Relationship between Moral Instruction and
Rehabilitation 107
4.6.2 Relationship between Counselling and Rehabilitation 108
4.6.3 Relationship between Medical Care and Rehabilitation108
4.6.4 Relationship between Moral Instruction and
Reintegration 109
4.6.5 Relationship between Counselling and Reintegration 109
4.6.6 Relationship between Medical care and Reintegration 110
xi
4.6.7 Relationship between Rehabilitation and
Reintegration 111
4.7 Regression analysis 111
4.7.1 Relationship between Demographic Variables and
Reformation 111
4.7.2 The Regression coefficient on Reformation 112
4.7.3 Regression Analysis on Rehabilitation 114
4.7.4 The Regression Coefficients on Rehabilitation 114
4.7.5 Regression Analysis on Reintegration 116
4.7.6 The Regression Coefficients on Reintegration 117
4.8 Partial Correlation 119
4.9 Hypothesis 131
4.10 Summary of the Results 136
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 140
5.1 Introduction 140
5.2 Discussion of findings based on the research objectives 141
5.3 The effects of Demographic Variables on Reintegrations 143
5.4 The effects of correctional programmes on the offender
reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration 143
5.4.1 Effects of Reformation on Offender 143
5.4.2 Effects of Reformation on offender due to counselling144
5.4.3 Effects of Reformation on offender due to medical
care 145
5.4.4 Effects of Rehabilitation on offender due to
vocational training 146
5.4.5 Effects of Reintegration on offender due to
treatment and training 147
5.4.6 Relationship between moral instructions and
rehabilitation 148
5.4.7 Relationship between counselling and rehabilitation 150
5.4.8 Relationship between medical services and
rehabilitation 150
xii
5.4.9 Relationship between moral instructions and
reintegration 150
5.4.10 Relationship between counselling and reintegration 151
5.4.11 Relationship between medical services and
reintegration 151
5.4.12 Relationship between rehabilitation and reintegration 152
5.5 Partial Correlation 152
5.5.1 Partial Correlation of Vocational Training on the
Relationship Between Moral Instruction and
Reintegration 153
5.5.2 Partial Correlation of Vocational Training on the
Relationship Between Counselling and Reintegration 153
5.5.3 Partial Correlation of Vocational Training on the
Relationship Between Medical care and Reintegration154
5.5.4 The Partial Correlation of Education level on the
Relationship between Moral Instructions and
Reintegration 155
5.5.5 The Partial Correlation of Education level on the
Relationship between Counselling and Reintegration 155
5.5.6 The Partial Correlation of Education level on the
Relationship between Medical Care nd Reintegration 156
5.5.7 The Partial Correlation of Age on the Relationship
between Counselling and Reintegration 157
5.5.8 The Partial Correlation of Age on the Relationship
between Counselling and Reintegration 158
5.5.9 The Partial Correlation of Age on the Relationship
between Medical Care and Reintegration 158
5.5.10 The Partial Correlation of Literacy Level on the
Relationship between Rehabilitation and
Reintegration 160
xiii
5.5.11 The Partial Correlation of Conviction Time on the
Relationship between Rehabilitation and
Reintegration 161
5.6 Differences among the Institutions on Correctional Programs 162
5.7 Summary of the research 162
5.8 Contribution of the research 163
5.9 Recommendations 168
5.10 Conclusions 169
References 170
Appendix 181
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table No Title Page
2.1 Summary of the Perspective of Risk Need Responsivity Theory 26
2.2 Summary of the Perspective of Good Live Model 30
2.3 Crime Rate by Location in Nigeria 33
2.4 Correctional Programs 35
2.5 Constructs Relating to Moral Instructions 46
2.6 Constructs Relating to Counselling 47
2.7 Constructs Relating to Medical Care 48
2.8 Constructs Relating to Vocational Training 50
2.9 Constructs Relating to Reintegration 52
2.10 Correctional Educational System in some Selected Countries 58
3.1 Population in Nigerian correctional institutions 70
3.2 Sample size 71
3.3 Pilot Test Reliability Statistics for all Variables 75
3.4 Reliability Statistics for Questionnaire Items 76
3.5 Data Analysis Overview 78
3.6 Data Analysis Overview 83
4.1 Rilability Statistics for all variables 88
4.2 Shapiro Wilk Test of the research constructs 89
4.3 Respondents profile by gender 91
4.4 Respondents profile by age 91
4.5 Demographic profile by nature of offence 92
4.6 Respondents profile by sentenced period 92
xv
4.7 Respondents profile by competency level 93
4.8 Respondents profile by trade group 93
4.9 Respondents profile by education level 94
4.10 Respondents profile by literacy level 94
4.11 Respondents profile by re-offending 94
4.12 Percentage, Mean and Standard deviation of reformation due to
Moral Instructions 97
4.13 Percentage, Mean and Standard deviation of Reformation due to
Counselling 99
4.14 Percentage, Mean and Standard deviation of Reformation due to
medical care 101
4.15 Percentage, Mean and Standard deviation of Rehabilitation due to
vocational training 103
4.16 Percentage, Mean and Standard deviation of Reintegration due to
treatment and training 105
4.17 Level of Correlations 107
4.18 Correlation between Moral instruction and Moral rehabilitation 107
4.19 Correlation between Counselling services and Rehabilitation 108
4.20 Correlation between Medical Care and rehabilitation 108
4.21 Correlation between Medical services and reintegration 109
4.22 Correlation between Counselling services and Reintegration 109
4.23 Correlation between Medical services and reintegration 110
4.24 Correlation between Rehabilitation and Reintegration 111
4.25 Model Summary on Reformation 111
4.26 Regression Coefficients on Reformation 113
4.27 Model Summary on Rehabilitation 114
4.28 The Regression coefficients on Rehabilitation 116
4.29 Model Summary on Reintegration 117
4.30 Regression Coefficients on Reintegration 117
4.31 Mean and Standard Deviation on Moral Instructions 130
4.32 Mean and Standard Deviation on Counselling 131
4.33 Mean and Standard Deviation on Medical Care 132
xvi
4.34 Mean and Standard Deviation on Vocational Training 133
4.35 Mean and Standard Deviation on Reintegration 134
4.36 Anova Table 134
4.37 Summary of Correlation Analysis 136
4.38 Effect of Vocational Training on Reformation and Reintegration 136
4.39 Effect of Education Level on Reformation and Reintegration 137
4.40 Effects of age on Reformation 137
4.41 Effects of literacy level and conviction time on Rehabilitation and
Reintegration 137
4.42 Regression Coefficients on Reformation 138
4.43 Regression Coefficients on Rehabilitation 138
4.44 Regression Coefficients on Reintegration 139
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No Title Page
1.1 Conceptual framework for the study 12
3.1 Process of research instruments Development 68
3.2 Cluster Sampling 71
3.3 Process of Research Instrument Development 73
4.1 The structure of chapter 4 86
4.2 Partial Correlation of Vocational Training on Moral Instruction
and Reintegration 119
4.3 Partial Correlation of Vocational Training on Counselling and
Reintegration 120
4.4 Partial Correlation of Vocational Training on Medical Care and
Reintegration 121
4.5 Partial Correlation of Education Level on Moral Instruction and
Reintegration 122
4.6 Partial Correlation of Education Level on Counselling and
Reintegration 123
4.7 Partial Correlation of Education Level on Medical Care and
Reintegration 124
4.8 Partial Correlation of Age on Moral Instruction and Reintegration 125
4.9 Partial Correlation of Age on Counselling and Reintegration 126
4.10 Partial Correlation of Age on Medical Care and Reintegration 127
4.11 Partial Correlation of Literacy Level on Rehabilitation and
Reintegration 128
xviii
4.12 Partial Correlation of Conviction Level on Rehabilitation and
Reintegration 129
5.1 Relationship between correctional programs and reintegration 164
5.2 Relationship between demographic variables and reformation 164
5.3 Relationship between demographic variables and rehabilitation 165
5.4 Partial Relationship between vocational training and reintegration 165
5.5 Partial relationship between education level on the relationship
between rehabilitation and reintegration 166
5.6 Partial relationship of age on the relationship between
rehabilitation and reintegration 166
5.7 Partial relationship of literacy level between rehabilitation and
reintegration 167
5.8 Partial relationship of conviction time on the relationship between
rehabilitation and reintegration 167
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Title Page
A Rehabilitation of Prisoner in Northern Nigeria Instrument 181
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
TTBASLT: Technology Task-Based Approach for Second Language Teaching
UBEC: Universal Basic Education Commission
1
1 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Background of the Study 1.1
Correctional Education refers to the education in prison or inmate education which
involves several educational activities inside a prison. The purpose is to prepare
offenders for a successful life after released from correctional institutions. A
correctional institution is a general term used to describe any institution designed for
the confinement or reformation as well as rehabilitation of offenders. They are meant
to mould the character or behaviour of inmates for a better life after incarceration.
According to European Commission, (2011), the rationale for establishing
correctional facilities in any part of the world Nigeria inclusive is to provide a
reformation and rehabilitation services to offenders by providing effective treatment
and training to reduces the risk of reoffending.
The main core businesses in correctional institutions are reformation,
rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders. Both reformation and rehabilitation are
carried out concurrently within the correctional institutions while reintegration is
after the offender has been successfully reformed and rehabilitated as well as to re-
unite with the larger society Reformation refers to the process of giving treatment to
offenders to change their bad attitudes to the generally accepted ones. It means
infusing in him moral values, counselling and medical services for their well-being to
refrain from criminal behaviours. According to UNESCO (2013) the reformation of
offender in prison institution should use moral instructions, counselling and medical
care which are in accordance with the provision of the law and deem appropriate to
the individual treatment needs of offenders.
Reformation of offenders in correctional institutions is carried out through
moral instructions, counselling and medical services. Moral instructions refers to the
2
teaching of moral values. Moral values refers to the principles that guide an
individual how to justify decisions, intentions and actions and is a reflection of an
individual character (Davis, 2012). Counselling refers to the services offered to the
inmates to identify reasons for his/her criminal behaviour in order to provide
interventions, minor actions and try to prevent recidivist activity. The counsellor also
provides individual counselling session for inmates who are having trouble in coping
with correctional institution (Tanimu, 2011). Medical services refers to the services
offered to inmates in correctional institutions which is done by medical physician
who works within the prison system to provides medical care to inmates, (Tanimu,
2011).
Rehabilitation implies the reformation of personality and behaviour of
convicted offenders through Vocational Training to ensure that individual offender
returned to the society as a complete self-supporting and accepted member of the
society (Hassan, 2013). Rehabilitation programme in correctional institutions is
delivered through the acquisition of Vocational training. Vocational training consist
of both skills training and general education to enable offenders not only to acquire
marketable skills but to read and write with a view of upgrading their literacy and
passing examinations as an important step towards offender rehabilitation in
correctional institutions.
Vocational training in correctional institutions is designed to reduce
offender‘s possibility of re-offending by learning vocational skills to enable them to
be employed and retain employment after completing the prison term. Vocational
training is available in various trades including building construction trades,
electrical & electronics, mechanical trades, plumbing and piping. The choice of
vocational training available in the institutions depends on inmate‘s interests,
availability of teaching staff and funding while the selection guidelines to choose
vocational training will differ by institutions. Prior to participating in a vocational
training in correctional institutions, the management may consider age, and nature of
offence. The correctional facilities may demand offenders to have a certificate
possibly a minimum of school leaving certificate or General Educational
Development (GED) to help them possesses the skills require for employment (Sara,
2011).
3
Reintegration refers to the process of preparing inmates in a reformed and
rehabilitated manner back to the society. This is achieved by engaging inmates in
useful programmes like educational programme that will help them to acquire skills
that can assist in giving them employment on completion of prison term (Hassan,
2013). The level of crime in Nigeria is high as of 2014 to date with a global ranking
of 56th
out of 93 countries reported. Most of the crimes committed includes drug
trafficking, and violent crime of which the country is highly bedevilled by
insurgency and oil bunkering in collaboration with other countries (UN 2014).
A crime is defined as any act that is contrary to legal codes or laws. There
are many different types of crimes, from crimes against persons to victimless crime
and violent crimes to white collar crimes. Crimes against persons also called personal
crimes include murder, aggravated assault, rape, robbery. Crimes against poverty
involves theft of property without harm such as burglary, larceny, auto theft, and
arson. Hates crimes are crime against persons or property that are committed while
invoking prejudicial race, gender or gender identity, religion, disability or sexual
orientation or ethnicity. Crime against morality are also called victimless crime
because there is no complainant, or victim such as prostitution, gambling, and illegal
drug use (Ashley, 2013)
White collar crimes are crimes committed by people of high social status who
commit their crimes in the content of their occupation. This includes embezzlement
(stealing money from one‘s employer). Organised crime is committed by structured
groups typically involving the distribution and sale of illegal goods and services such
as mafia or any group that exercises control over large illegal enterprises such as
drug trade, illegal gambling, prostitutions, weapons smuggling, or money laundering
(Nicki, 2013). You can refer to table 2.13 for the table showing types of crimes in
different part of Nigeria.
In Nigeria crimes are categorised violent crime, sex crime, addiction crime,
armed robbery, burglary and general offending. Violent offending refers to the
offence committed by a person who is convicted of an offence punishable by a term
of imprisonment exceeding one year during the course of which a person carried,
possessed or used a fire arm or another dangerous weapon to and the use of force
against another person. Sex crime refers to the generic term used for all person
4
Convicted of crime involving sex, including rape, molestation, sexual harassment
and phonography production (Danbazau, 2010)
Addiction crime refers to the dependency of person that can be mental or
physical or a combination of both physical and mental on alcohol, drug or other
substances. The term use for drug addiction and sometimes applied to other
compulsions like compulsive overeating, gambling problem etc. Burglary crime is
sometimes called breaking and entering or house breaking refers to an unlawful entry
building or other location for the purpose of committing an offence. Usually that
offence has most jurisdictions include others within the ambit of burglary (Tanimu,
2010)
The General Crimes refers to a variety of cases ranging from misdemeanor
traffic offenses to felony property crimes and white collar offenses. Traffic offenses
include speeding and licensing violations, driving while intoxicated, driving while
license revoked, leaving the scene of an accident, and careless and imprudent
driving. Property crimes include burglary, trespass, tampering, property damage,
stealing, passing bad checks, stealing rental property, failure to pay taxes,
misdemeanor drug cases, and county planning and zoning violations. White collar
offenses include identity theft, embezzlement, and forgeries (Hassan, 2013)
According to 2004 Justice for all annual report out of one hundred, north west
has 15.1% of crime of violence crime, north central has 13% of addiction crime,
north east has 17 of Addiction crime, South east has 16% armed robbery, south-south
has 16% has Addiction, and South west has General Crime (NPS, 2004)
TVET varies from country to country and are delivered at different levels in
different types of institutions: technical and vocational schools, polytechnics, enterprises
and apprenticeship training centres. Nigeria has adopted a new educational policy called
the 6 -3- 3- 4 system of education where the six years is for the primary schools, three
years of junior secondary schools, three years of senior secondary schools and four years
of tertiary institutions. TVET is quite important because of the role its plays in the
manpower development towards meeting the needs of qualified labour and needs related
to production of goods and services. TVET is to developed abilities, skills, attitudes,
understanding, appreciation, work habits, make progress in earning a living in useful
and productive basis.
5
The goals of TVET according to the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) are to;
provide trained manpower in applied science, technology and business particularly at
craft, advanced and technical levels, provide the technical knowledge and vocational
skills necessary for agricultural, commercial economic development, give training and
impact the necessary skills to individual who should be self -reliant economically.
Though the goals of technical and vocational education as stated above are quite
laudable but the implementation of the programme has fallen short of expectations, the
slow pace of unemployment, the increasing rate of unemployment and the inability of
the country to provide the good things of life to her citizens are evidences in this
direction However, TVET in Nigeria are currently operating in environment that is
characterized by: low quality training, mismatch between training and labour market
skills demand, poor perception of TVET, low enrolment at all levels, weak monitoring
and evaluation.
In Nigeria over the years emphasis has been on general education with
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) at the receiving end which
resulted to a large number of educated people unemployed. This phenomenon has
been recognised by the policy makers and hence there is greater thrust on technical
and vocational education and training. Another shortcoming is the perception of the
TVET as a career pass to the less academically endowed being fuelled by the low
academic requirements in to TVET programme rather than an effective strategy to
train skilled manpower for economic development (UNESCO, 2011).
According to Olaitan (1990), technical and vocational education is for the
following: Skill and knowledge required in the society Economic development For
work and economic activity: For job creation and Self- respect, social contact and
participation.· From the foregoing, TVET is a skill development programme which
is highly required for the country's guest to be one of the 20st economic nations of
the world by the year 2020. TVET plays an essential role in improving the wellbeing
of youths and communities. It increases productivity, empowers individual to
become self-reliant and stimulates entrepreneurship. Businesses are more willing to
invest in a community with strong human resources.
Skills development can therefore contribute to strengthening the social links
of a community by promoting employment creativity and sustainable means of
subsistence. TVET and job training programme has been an integral part of national
6
development strategies in many societies because of the impact on human resources
development, productivity, and economic growth. Despite its proven contribution
Nigeria does not seem to give TVET the attention it deserves; and that appears one of
the reasons for the rising unemployment and poverty in the society. Vocational
education is therefore the missing link in Nigeria‘s development policy.
Although TVET seams deficient in ‗citizenship or leadership training‘
(Friedman, 1982), they could provide youths the skills to become productive
entrepreneurs and engender creative and innovative ideas that would enlarge the
nation‘s economic pie and increase personal freedom. Here TVET becomes a handy
tool, as it can be both formal and informal. Such skill development of the youth
empowerment must take into account: Skills to diversify the youths for self-
actualization, rather than reliance on government alone, Equipping the youths to
value their handwork, Training in basic literacy, numeracy and life skills should be
an integral part of the whole system and the promotion of the growth and
profitability of the youths for self-employment to enhance the economy.
A prisoner without adequate treatment and rehabilitation though skills
training and capacity building usually returns to the society with has incarcerated
him as or her as victimised rather than corrected. In addition such an ex-convict is
likely to do more harm than good to a society invariably perceived as an oppressive
system. This condition explain to a very great extent why many Nigerian ex-
prisoners ends up as recidivists (Ugwouke, 1994).
The reformation and rehabilitation of prison inmates should begin from the
day they are admitted in to the institution to the day they are discharged (Igbo, 2011).
This is to ensure that they utilize the knowledge, attitudes and skills they acquired in
the course of reformation and rehabilitation to live a law abiding life in the society.
There are a number of programmes in place meant to divert the offenders from crime
to useful pursuits that make crime unattractive or condemnable such as moral or
religious instructions, correctional counselling, medical care services, vocational
education and training etc.
Descriptive analysis was used to examine offender‘s perception on the effects
of moral instructions, counselling, medical care, vocational training and reintegration
in Nigerian correctional institutions. Correlation analysis was used to determine the
relationship between reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration as well as to find
out the direction and the strength of the relationship between them.
7
Regression analysis was used to examine how demographic variables
contributes to the reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders. A one
way between groups analysis of variance was conducted to determine whether there
is statistically significant differences between the means of seven correctional
institutions under study. Partial correlation was used to measure the association
between two variables while controlling for the effect of one or more variables.
Partial correlation can be used in many cases that assess the relationship that is
whether or not the value of one variable is related to the variable when the effect is
controlled. If the two variables A and B are correlated with a third variable C, they
must be related to each other simply because they are related to the third variable. it
may be of interest to know that if there is any correlation between A and B that is not
due to their both being correlated with C.
Statement of the problem 1.2
Despite Nigerian government efforts towards effective reformation, rehabilitation
and reintegration of offenders up till now there is no serious evidence to show that
offenders are properly reformed, rehabilitated and reintegrated back to the larger
society to continue with a crime-free life rather criminals who become more
hardened and deadly are released as against the changed individuals expected by the
society. Ayodele (1993) asserted that the rate at which ex-convicts are returning to
jail is alarming. Prison institutions have in modern time becomes training ground
and school for a new category of criminals and patterns of crime unknown to the
society that is why the rate at which ex-convicts are returning to jail is alarming.
According to Salauddeen (2004) Reformation and rehabilitation of offenders
has not been effective in Nigerian Correctional institutions because the inmates who
had served a longer period of time has had its tendencies toward criminality
strengthened and is therefore more likely to recidivate than the inmate who has
served served a lesser period of time. They argue that prisons are like a schools of
crime where one learns more crime than from his peers (inmates) It is on this
background that the study seek to develop a wider understanding of the role of
correctional programme in the reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration of
offenders in Nigeria Correctional Institutions.
8
Purpose of the study 1.3
The purpose of the study is to develop a broader understanding of the role of
correctional programme in the reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration on
offender in Nigerian correctional institutions.
Objective of the Study 1.4
The objective of the study includes the following:
1. To examine perception of offenders on the effects of correctional programmes
on reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration
2. To examine the relationships between correctional programmes and
reintegration.
3. To examine the relationship between demographic variables and correctional
programmes.
4. To determine the effects of vocational training on the relationships between
reformation and reintegration.
5. To determine the effects of demographic variables (age and education level) on
the relationships between reformation and reintegration.
6. To determine the effects of demographic variables (literacy and conviction level)
on the relationships between rehabilitation and reintegration.
7. To examine the differences among the institutions in the perceived effectiveness
of correctional programme on offenders.
The objectives outlined above prescribed what to be achieved by the end of the
research and help in the formulation of research questions.
9
Research Questions 1.5
Based on the objectives of the study eleven research questions were formulated to
guide the research:-
1. What are the perceived effects of moral instructions on offender reformation?
2. What are the perceived effects of counselling on offender reformation?
3. What are the perceived effects of medical care on offender reformation?
4. What are the perceived effects of vocational training on offender
rehabilitation?
5. What are the perceived effects of treatment and training on offender
reintegration?
6. Is there any significant relationships between correctional programmes and
reintegration?
7. Is there any significant relationship between demographic variables and
reformation, rehabilitation and reintegration?
8. Does vocational training has effects on the relationship between reformation
and reintegration?
9. Do demographic variables (age and education level) has effects on the
relationship between reformation and reintegration?
10. Do demographic variables (literacy level and conviction time) has effects on
the relationship between rehabilitation and reintegration?
11. Is there any significant differences among the institutions on correctional
programmes?
The research questions outlined above will help the researcher to answer the
research problem.
10
Research hypothesis 1.6
There are five research hypotheses formulated to predict the differences in the
perceived effects of correctional programmes on offenders in the seven institutions in
Nigerian Correctional Institutions. The hypotheses are:
1. There is no differences in the effects of moral instruction on the reformation of
offenders in the seven (7) institutions in Nigerian correctional institutions.
2. There is no differences in the effects of counselling on the reformation of
offenders in the seven (7) institutions in Nigerian correctional institutions.
3. There is no differences in the effects of medical care on the reformation of
offenders in the seven (7) institutions in Nigerian correctional institutions.
4. There is no differences in the effects of vocational training on the rehabilitation
of offenders in the seven (7) institutions in Nigerian correctional institutions.
5. There is no differences in the effects of offender‘s reintegration in the seven (7)
institutions in Nigerian correctional institutions.
The hypotheses outlined above will predict whether there is differences among the
perceived effects of correctional programmes on offenders in the seven institutions in
Nigerian Correctional institutions,
Significance of the study 1.7
Majority of the offenders have educational deficits and mostly they are from low
income background provide significant changes in addressing issues that caused
offences as well as reducing the rate of reoffending. Despite the benefits of
vocational education and training towards successful reformation, rehabilitation and
integration of offenders, prison education programme in correctional facilities in
most African countries is still young and is considered to be at its early stages of
development (Sara, 2011). The outcomes of this research are expected to be very
useful to researchers, policy makers, academics, students of technical and vocational
education and training, correctional institutions and members of the general public.
Furthermore, the study will be beneficial to the correctional institutions in promoting
11
the quality of education and training toward achieving reformation, rehabilitation and
reintegration of offenders to a larger society.
Delimitation of Study 1.8
The study will be restricted to examine the perceived effects of vocational training
and other correctional programmes on the reformation, rehabilitation and
reintegration of offenders and as well to examine the relationship between
correctional programmes and demographic variables.
Assumption of the study 1.9
The assumptions were that offenders will be reliable enough to give satisfactory data
for the study.
Conceptual Frame work for the study 1.10
The conceptual frame work is based on offender rehabilitation model which is refer
to the Risk Need Responsivity (RNR) model of offender rehabilitation. According to
the Risk Need Responsivity model correctional agencies should assess an offender‘s
likely hood to reoffend, determine what risk factors contribute to an individual likely
hood to reoffend and provide services and treatment appropriate to those risk factors
and risk level. The independent variables are reformation and rehabilitation
programmes while reintegration represents the dependent variable while
demographic variables stand as mediating variables.
Reformation programmes has three components such as moral instructions,
counselling services and medical care. The rehabilitation programme has vocational
education and training. All these programmes are housed in the correctional
institutions while Reintegration programme is after an offender has been released
from custody. The demographic variables helps to mediate the relationship between
correctional programmes and reintegration. Refer to figure 1.0 for the conceptual
frame work of the study.
12
Figure 1.1: Conceptual framework for the study
Components of correctional programmes 1.10.1
There are three core businesses of correctional institutions: Reformation,
Rehabilitation, and Reintegration.
Reformation
Reformation has three components such as moral instructions, counselling, and
medical care. In reformation, the offender is subjected to treatment through moral
instructions which refers to the teaching of moral values to guide offender on how to
Justify decisions, intentions and actions in accordance with the offender change
principles. The indicators for moral instructions includes: Knowledge, moral values,
honesty, law abiding, repentance, countering bad influence, helping others,
faithfulness, and accepting mistake(UN, 2007).
Literacy level
Conviction time
Vocational
Training
Rehabilitation Reintegration Reformation
Age
Education level
13
Counselling services is another reformation component which is used to
assist offender to identify reasons for their criminal behaviour in order to provide
interventions through correctional, vocational and academic counselling to prevent
re-offending and have a good vocational choice. The indicators for counselling
includes change in behaviour, career choice, anger management, crime free life,
happiness, hopefulness for the future, building relationship, free from addiction,
reducing re-offending( Willis, Yates, & Ward, 2012)
Medical services is also another reformation components which is offered to
offenders by a medical practitioner to examine, diagnose and treat patients for their
well-being. The medical care indicators includes: Well-being, drug treatment, drug
screening test, abstaining drug and alcohol addiction, abstaining from unfaithful
gender, body and oral hygiene, self-medication, post drug treatment follow-up,
regular physical exercise, complete drug treatment (UN, 2015)
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation programme is delivered through vocational education and training. It
has both vocational training and general education to enable offenders not only to
acquire marketable skills but to be able to read and write with a view to upgrading
their literacy and passing an examination to have a certificate. The Vocational
education and training indicators includes: satisfaction, employability, avoiding
crime, social cohesion, certificated, economic stability, productivity, and career
development opportunity. Industriousness, and self-reliance (NPS 2004), (NPE,
2004).
Reintegration
Reintegration refers to the process of preparing inmates in a reformed and
rehabilitated manner back to the society. This is achieved by engaging inmates in
useful programmes like educational programme that will help them to acquire skills
that can assist in giving them employment on completion of prison term (Hassan,
2013). Reintegration is to prevent re-offending and is monitored by both the
community and correctional officials. The reintegration indicators includes: Self-
14
esteem, housing, employment, law abiding, crime free life, ,peaceful coexistence,
isolation from bad associates, building good relationship, establishing family,
adoption by the society (Willis, Yates & Ward, 2012)
Reintegration relates to activities whose emphasis is directly upon identified
social or environmental problems facing offenders on completion of their prison
term. These are problems that are likely to contribute obstacles to a non-offending
life style following release whereas the goals is similarly to that of reducing
recidivism, the focus of its readiness to reintegrate in this context towards the
specific problem (rather than the general skills of the offender) and the goal of
reintegration activities is the resolution of identified issue. The approved
reintegration objectives or indicators. Self-esteem, housing, employment, law
abiding, crime free life, ,peaceful coexistence, isolation from bad associates, building
good relationship, establishing family, adoption by the society (Willis, Yates, &
Ward, 2012
Reintegration programme is achieved by engaging inmates in useful
programmes like educational programmes that would enable inmates leave the prison
with more skills and be in a position to find meaningful and long –term employment
(Hassan, 2013). Acquiring vocational skills while in custody will therefore help them
when they are back in the society because, if they are not gainfully employed after
the expiration of their terms of imprisonment, the evil that will cause is better
imagined than experienced sin some of them have tendencies to commit crimes.
Lois (2013) reported that receiving vocational education and training while
incarceration reduces individuals risks of reoffending. She also found that those
receiving vocational education and training had improved odds of obtaining
employment after released when compare the cost of education programme with the
cost of incarceration. The findings revealed that: vocational education and training
improves offenders chances of not returning back to prison, Inmates who participates
in vocational education and training had 43% lower odds of recidivism than those
who did not participate, Improves chances of post release employment among ex-
convicts who participated in vocational education and training was 13% higher than
those did not participates, Is cost effective when it comes to reducing recidivism.
15
Operational Definitions 1.11
The terms define here are the operational definitions used in the study to facilitate
better understanding of the research work.
Reformation is the process of changing the behaviour and action of offender
through moral instructions, counselling and medical care services.
Rehabilitation is the reformation of offender through the acquisition of vocational
education and training in correctional institution.
Reintegration is the preparation of inmates through both reformation and
rehabilitation manner back to the society. This is achieved by engaging inmates to
leave prison with a position to find meaningful and long term employment.
Correctional programmes refers to the reformation and rehabilitation programme
in correctional institutions.
Reformation programme involves moral instructions, counselling, and medical
services while Rehabilitation programme refers to vocational training and literacy
programme.
Correctional institutions mean a place designated by law for the reformation,
rehabilitation of convicted offenders purposely to help them integrate back to the
society.
Vocational Training refers to education and training acquired in correctional
institutions to assist the offender to upgrade his literacy level to acquire certificate
and marketable skills to enable them be fully reintegrated back to the society.
Demographic variables is a variable that is collected by researchers to describe the
nature and distribution of the sample used with inferential statistics (Gay, 2007) The
demographic variables in this research includes the following: Institutions, gender,
age, nature of offence, sentence period, level of competency, trade group, level of
education, literacy level and conviction time.
Institutions means correctional or prison institutions designated by law for keeping
of persons held in custody under process of law.
Gender means the state of being male or female. Gender means to a live person‘s
biological status and is typically categorised as male or female.
Age refers to the age of a prisoner. Age is the length of time during which the
prisoner has been alive. Age is measured in years, month and days from the date a
16
person was born. Nature of offence: the state at which offence was commited.it could
be violent offence, sexual offence, burglary and so on.
Sentence period refers to the duration given to an offender for reformation and
rehabilitation purpose. Trade group: means group of trade options offered in for
vocational training programme.
Education level means the highest education level an offender attended prior to his
incarceration.
Literacy level refers to an offender‘s ability to read, write and use arithmetic.
Conviction Time: means sentence duration ordered by the judge to an offender to
remain in custody until he is reformed and rehabilitated.
Re-offending mean committing another offence after first conviction by a law court
and sentence to jail. It is sometimes called reconviction, revolving door arrest or
recidivism.
Nature of offence refers to the type of offence committed by an offender.
Organisation of Thesis 1.12
This research is organised in to five chapters and each chapter is allotted to a fraction
of the work. The following are the chapters as they appear in the research work. The
first chapter is titled introduction starts with the general contents area to a particular
field of study and gives the general over view of the topic of discussion. All the
issues surrounding the objectives of the research come under this chapter.
Chapter two is the literature Review. It evaluates the previous studies related
to the subject matter under review, with a view to spotting where gaps still exist. To
achieve the objective of this chapter, the literature is splitted in to the variables that
are considered as the main components of this study. Furthermore, this chapter
dwells in to the background of the research by critically examining the theories that
objectively support the claims made in this research. This was done to facilitate easy
synchronization of the finding with the main body of knowledge at the end of the
day.
The research design and methodology forms the third chapter of this study. It
presents the design and methodology employed in the study. The design of the
17
instruments, samples selection, data collection, research questions, data reliability,
data validity and the statistical test used were detailed under this heading.
In chapter four, the quantitative analyses came to the fore. At this juncture,
the selected quantitative tool was used to analyse the 10 objectives of the study.
After checking the missing data, descriptive statistics was conducted to ascertain
reliability of the constructs used.
Chapter five is the discussion, summary and conclusions. This is where the
results are discussed. In addition, summary of chapters were reiterated in synopsis,
what was designed to achieve from the beginning to the end of the research to
determine the extent to which the research is successful.
18
2 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction 2.1
The purpose of the review of literature is to establish a good theoretical frame work
for the research work. Literature review is an evaluative report on information that
has a link to the selected area of the study. The review summarize, describe, evaluate
and clarify the literature. Literature review gives a theoretical background for the
research and helps you to determine the nature of the research. In this study
literature related to rehabilitation models such as Risk Need and Responsivity Model
and Good Live Model, Correctional Education, Correctional Programmes, Technical
and Vocational Education and Training, (TVET) programmes in some selected
countries and reducing recidivism rate were all discussed. The literature review start
with the theoretical frame work and discussed in the study to justify that the study
was based and grounded based on scientific theory.
Theories such as the Utilitarian theory of rehabilitation, Risk Need
Responsivity Model and Good Live Model were discussed in the study to promote a
better understanding of theories and test results. Correctional programmes were
discussed in the study to analyse and interpret the values of each variables to make
sense of how things relate to each other in the study. Technical and Vocational
Education & Training (TVET) were discussed in the study because Vocational
Education and Training is part of the TVET which is designed to revolving door
arrest by learning vocational skills to help them find and retain employment after
release. Correctional Education and recidivism is used in the study to see relationship
between correctional programs. Similarities and differences were also discussed in
the literature to examine correctional education programmes across some countries to
identify its strength and weakness with a view to grade the one under study.
19
Theoretical frame work of the study 2.2
To construct the theoretical frame work of the study several studies were studied
namely: utilitarian theory of rehabilitation, Risk Need Responsivity and Good live
Models. In the utilitarian theory of punishment seeks to punish offenders to stop the
future occurrence (Reynor, 2011). In accordance with the utilitarian philosophy laws
should be used to maximize the happiness of the community. Despite the fact that
crime and punishment are incompatible with the happiness, they should be kept to a
minimum. Rehabilitation is the utilitarian substitute for punishment. The utilitarian
believe that rehabilitation of offenders is worthy because they want to change the
behaviour of offenders.
The objective of offender rehabilitation is to deter offending by providing
offenders with the ability to succeed within the confines of the law. According to
(Jennifer, 2013), rehabilitation has to do with the acquisition of vocational education
and training programs that give offenders the knowledge and skills needed to
succeed in the job market.
According to Reynor (2011), the utilitarian approach has the advantages of
being straight forward and based on the principle of minimising pain and maximising
pleasure and happiness. The rehabilitation theory was considered as a basis for the
frame work of the study. According to Dambazau (2007), rehabilitation approach
suggests that the convict should be treated as a person whose special needs and
problems must be known in order to enable correctional personnel‘s to deals
effectively with him. They also argued that severe punishment or in human treatment
to inmates in the institutions cannot facilitate offenders to be reformed, rehabilitated
and reintegrate themselves in to the society upon release.
It is in accordance with the law to administer punishment on those who
breach the law, so as to maintain social order, the importance of rehabilitation could
not be overemphasised as it is the only assured way of ensuring that offenders do not
reoffend especially when they have acquired skills that will help them to be
employed in productive activities upon release (Danbazau, 2007).
The rehabilitation theory seek to reduce recidivism due to the facts that as a
result of the training programmes for offenders, peaceful co-existence would be
guaranteed to offenders after they might have been released. Rehabilitation theory is
20
a ideological justification for punishment. It encourages humanitarian belief in the
notion that criminals can be secured, protected and not simply punished. It
recognises the reality of social inequality. It also rejects the idea that individuals,
regardless of their position in the social order, exercise equal freedom in deciding
whether to commit crime and should be punished equally according to their offence
committed irrespective of their social background (Tan, 2008).
Therefore, rehabilitation theory is considered suitable to the study as it
attempted to establish the justification or rational behind the treatment of convicts by
changing the attitude and behaviour of convicts so that they will have lawful means,
in satisfying their needs (Dinitz & Dine, 1989). This theory emphasises the need to
train the offenders so that they pursue lawful and independent life on completion of
their sentence period. It advocates that vocational education and training be designed
to transform offender‘s life styles through the various application of discipline,
education, work and other relevant programmes. Two popular offender change
models in correctional institutions that have been used will be discuss the Risk- Need
–Responsivity (RNR) and the Good Live Model (GLM).
Risk -Need-Responsivity (RNR) 2.3
The RNR model stands for the Risk–Need Responsivity principles of effective
correctional programme within which a variety of therapeutics intervention can be
used. The RNR model is one of the popular offender change model used in
correctional institutions used in assessing and rehabilitation of offenders. It is
responsive to offender‘s particular interest, abilities and aspirations. It is assumes that
all offenders have similar aspirations and needs and that one of the primary
responsibilities of parent, teachers, and the larger community is to help each of us to
acquire the tools required to make our own way in the world. Criminal behaviours
results when offenders lack the internal resources necessary to satisfy their values
using pro-social means. In other words criminal behaviour represents maladaptive
attempt to meet life values (Ward, 2009). One of the strengths of Risk Need
Responsivity model is that treatment service designed in accordance with these
21
Principles are more effective than those that are not and that the treatment effect is
linearly related to the number of principles to which the treatment model adheres.
The Risk principle 2.4
The risk approach states that the level of service provided to an offender should
match their risk of reconviction. As a result, supervision and intervention should be
reserved for higher risk offenders, whereas low risk offenders require no little
attention. In fact, research by Bonta (2002) has found too much treatment or the
wrong type of treatment may be detrimental to a low risk offender. The risk factors
can be static factors that cannot be changed (including age, gender, criminal history
and age of first arrest) and dynamic factors that can be changed through successful
treatment (including substance abuse, education deficiencies, antisocial personality
patterns and pro-criminal attitudes).
Despite that judges and criminal justice professionals administer treatment
services on low risk offenders to prevent future occurrence, this strategy has not been
effective in terms of reducing reoffending or system costs. Latessa (1999), identify
various meta-analysis and review research supporting the risk principle that tracked
over 13,000 offenders in 53 community –based correctional treatment facilities.
Latessa also reported that the majority of the programs were related to
reoffending for high risk offenders. One, programme, in particular, is most
illustrative of the risk principle. It shows a decrease in reoffending of 32% for high
risk offenders and an increase in recidivism of 29% for low risk off offenders.
The Need principle 2.5
The need approach states that the treatment should focus on a criminals dynamic
criminogenic needs (the factors that may likely lead to crime) and prioritise treatment
accordingly. Criminogenic risk factors are identified as they key causes of criminal
behaviour such as anti –social personality pattern, seeking and restless aggression
and irritability, supporting criminal attitudes, social supports for crime, substance
abuse, family relationship, school work, pro-social recreational activities
22
Age of first offence and history of criminal offence related to reoffending but
cannot be altered through the delivery of services. The focus on criminogenic risk
factors recognises that while individual offenders have a variety of needs , only some
are related to the risk to reoffend and can be changed over time. These factors are
related more to reoffend and some factors such as self-esteem, personal / emotional
stress, major mental disorders and physical health issues that might seem to be
related with reoffending have a very limited or no relationship to reoffending.
(Andrew and Bonta, 2006).
The Responsivity principle 2.6
The responsivity approach should use treatment intervention known to be effective
with offenders (e.g cognitive behavioural programming). Individual/specific
responsivity indicates staff should tailor interventions to the individual strengths,
style, culture and personality of the offender. Both general and individual
responsivity should be considered when working with individual offenders.
There responsivity approach to general and individual responsivity. General
responsivity involves the use of cognitive social learning methods to influence
behaviour. It considers, the strengths, learning style, personality, motivation and bio-
social (e.g gender, race) characteristics of the individual.
Bonta (2007) reported a study of 374 statistical tests on the effects of judicial
and correctional treatment on reoffending which indicates almost a six-fold reduction
on reoffending when behavioural approaches (including social learning and cognitive
behavioural types of programmes) were used. Behavioural approaches requires
individual offenders to practice the skills the acquired in treatment interventions and
rely on modelling/ demonstrating a skills and extinction of in appropriate behaviour.
Meta-analysis on the effectiveness of sanctions such as intensive supervision,
electronic monitoring, boot camps, and incarceration that do not include behavioural
intervention components show little or no reduction in recidivism and in some cases,
the sanctions indicates to actually increase reoffending (Miller, 2009).
Giving consideration to the RNR principle call for assessing Individual
offenders risk of recidivism, attaching intervention treatment to the criminal risk
level, and focusing his criminogenic needs or dynamic risk factors with the social
23
learning and cognitive-behavioural programs that may effects change in offender‘s
behaviour given specific offender characteristics. Research indicates that adherence
to one of the three principle approach related with a reducing recidivism rate, and
adherence to all three principles is related with the greatest reduction, i.e 26%
recidivism rate. A potential decrease of even 5 or 10 % in the rate of recidivism is
significant given current rates of reoffending.
For several years correctional institutions have been incorporating RNR
approach in to their treatment intervention (Latessa, 1999). Although , their effective
use of these approaches is limited, in part, by the terms of the sentencing decisions
and conditions of probation specified by the judge. If the judge‘s sentence is
inconsistent with RNR principles approach ( e.g the judge sentence a low risk
offender to boot camp or requires participation in a non-skilled based education
programme),the correctional institutions required to implement the sentence even
though it is not effective use of resources and may even increase the offender‘s likely
hood of recidivating.
Risk assessment 2.7
Assessment of violence risk is discussed in the literature because it plays a good role
in making a decision, case management relating to sentencing, release, case
management, and the selection of rehabilitation programme to achieve risk reduction
(Andrews, 2007). The assessment of risk is facilitated by the use of structured,
empirically derived, and theoretically driven instruments. The tools for assessing risk
includes first generation (professional judgement), second generation (evidence—
based tools) and third generation (evidence based and dynamic).
First Generation: professional judgement 2.8
Professional judgement has to do with the assessment of offender risk by
correctional official ( i.e. judicial officers and prison staff) and clinical professionals
(i.e. psychologists , psychiatrists, and social workers) guided by their own
professional training and experience, the make judgements as to who need to
24
enhanced security and supervision. The assessment of risk was an issue of
professional judgement (Andrews, 2016)
Second generation: Evidence –based 2.9
Evidence –based tools refers to the assessment of criminal risk to depend more upon
actuarial evidence-based science and less on professional judgement. Actuarial risk
assessment instruments consider individual items (e.g history of substance abuse,)
that have been demonstrated to increase the risk of reoffending and assign these
items quantitative scores. For example, the presence of risk factor may receive a
score of zero. The scores on the items can then be summed-the higher the score, the
higher the risk that the offender will reoffend.
According to Bonta (2006) Second generation, actuarial risk assessment
instruments have indicates satisfactory results, they can reliably differentiate lower
risk offenders from higher risk offenders. However, second generation actuarial
instruments have two characteristics that present major short comings, first the
second generation risk assessment instruments are theoretical. The items that create
these instruments are chosen simply because they are easily available and show an
association with reoffending. The item are not chosen because they are theatrically
relevant. Thus, the majority of the items are offender‘s history items-the type of
information that correctional education systems are quite efficient at collecting and
distributing.
The second characteristic of second generation instruments is that the non-
criminal history items that sample behaviour also tend to be of a historical nature (e.g
history of drug abuse (Andrew, 2007) . Offender‘s history and other factors that
sample past behaviours are treated as static immutable risk factors. This indicates a
major shortcoming for second generation risk assessment because the scales do not
account for offenders changing for the better. Rather , the possibilities are ; a) an
individual‘s risk level does not change (if one scored positive for a history of drug
abuse that risk factor will always remain no matter if he /she has learned to abstain
from drugs, or b) an individual‘s risk increases ( e.g new offences are committed and
criminal history scores increase).
170
REFERENCES
Adetula, G. (2010). The Prison Subsystem Culture: Its Attitudinal Effects on
Operatives, Convicts and the Free Society. Ife Psychological 18(1) 2232-
251
Agomoh, G. (2010). Institutional Treatment and Social Stigma A Comparative Study
of Amanawa Leprosarium and Sokoto Prisons. Sokoto: F.S.S. A Research
Publication, University of Sokoto.
AIC (2010). Measuring Recidivism amongst female offenders in Australia
correctional institutions.
AIC (2013a). Vocational education and training for adult prisoners and offenders in
Australia. Australia: research readings: NCVER27-36
Alice, M. (2012a). Accommodation for ex-prisoners. The Third factor housing
advice and provisions. Victoria Corrections centre, Australia.
Amnesty international (2008). Annual Report on Nigerian Prison Institution and the
forward. Abuja, Nigeria.
Andrew, D. (1995). Evaluating the effectiveness of correctional education. A meta-
analysis of programme that provide education to incarcerated adults.
Andrews, D. A. (2006). The Psychology of criminal conduct (4th
ed) Cincinnati, OH;
Andersen Publication
Andrews, D. A. & Dowen, C. (2006). Risk principle of case classification in
correctional treatment. A Meta analytic investigation. International journal of
offender therapy and comparative criminology, 50-88-100.
Andrews, D. A & Dowen, C. (2007). The Risk Need Responsively model of
assessment and human service in prevention and corrections. Rehabilitative
jurisprudence. Canadian journal of criminology and Criminal Justice.
Annual prison report. Federal ministry of internal affairs, Abuja-Nigeria.
Arnold, T. (2011). Dynamic changes in the level of service inventory –Revised (LSI-
R) and the effects of prediction accuracy. Unpublished Master‘s dissertation, St
Cloud University, Minnesota.
171
Audu, R. Kamin, Y.B & Balash (2013). ‗‘Technical Vocational Education as a
veritable tool for eradicating youth unemployment‘‘. Journal of Humanities
and social sciences. 8(2), 10-17
Awolowo O. (1985). Adventure in Power Book one. Ibadan University Press.
Macmillan Publishers. Ibadan –Nigeria.
Ayodele, T. (1993). Challenges of prisons institutions in Nigeria. An Annual report
on human right in Nigeria. 1 (1-3), 1-6
Ben, M. (2013). Medical and Health services in correctional facilities. A new
approach in health care. London.
Biesta, G. (2003). Pragmatism and Educational research. Lah man, MD Row man &
little field.
Blanchetta, K. (2006). The assessment and treatment of women offenders.An
integrative Perspective. Chichester, England: John Willey & Sons.
Bollen, C. (2012). Social Science Research Methodology. Oxford University Press.
HKK ltd.
Bonta , J. (2009). Integrating the risk need and responsivity model with Good Live
models. Philadelphia, P. A Jessica Kingsley publishers.
Bonta , J. & Wormith, M. (2007). The Risk Need assessment. Developing.
Developing in social work in offenders. Philadelphia, P A: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.
Bonta, J. (2006). Offender risk management: Guidelines for selection and use.
Criminal justice and Behaviour. Broadcasting and Electronic media.
Brown, T. (2006). The Good lives model of offender rehabilitation. Clinical
implications. Aggression and Violent behaviour 7,513-528.
Brown, T (2009). The Practical Implication of Good Live Model. Criminogenic
needs volume 2 (1), 43-56.
Brymen , A .(2004). Social Science Research Methods. Oxford University Press.
Carls, A. Y. (2015). Social interaction in Nigeria Inc. Unpublished Msc thesis. ABU
zaria.
172
Carter, S. M. (2007). Justifying knowledge, justifying method, taking action:
Epistemologies, methodologies, and methods in qualitative research.
Qualitative Health Research, 17 (10), 1316-1328.
Cheikezie, F. O. (2011). Shape, size and capabilities of the Nigerian prison service
the year 2000. A paper presented on the Nigerian prison service and
Putive prison staff college, Kaduna.
Chua, W. F. (1986). Radical developments in psychological thoughts. Psychology
review, 45-67.
Chuan , B. G, Ihm, S. Maniatis, P. Naik, M., & Patti, A. (2011).
Statistical proceedings. In Proceedings of the sixth conference on Statistical
And Computer systems (pp. 301-314). ACM.
Cohen, L. & Manion, C. (1994). Triangulation,, Cohen, L Manion, C, Research
Methods in Education, London: Rout ledge.
Commentary of existing literature, analysis and evaluation.
Hume –Rothery, W. (1996). .An Elementary Research Methods. Pergamon Press.
Creswell, J. W. Klassen A. C (2011). Best practice for mixed method research in
health sciences. Bethesda (Maryland): National Institutes of Health.
Cronbach, L. (1995). Course improvement through evaluation. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bassey.
Danbazau , A. B (2007). Criminology and Criminal Justice (2nd
ed). Kaduna Nigeria
Defence Academy Press.
Danbazau, A. .B. (2010). Criminology &criminal justice. Kaduna, NDA Academy
press
Davis, M. (2012). Meta-analysis on the prisoner rehabilitation by Rand researchers,
U.S.A.
Davis, M. (2012). Meta-anlysis on the prisoner rehabilitation by Rand researchers,
U.S.A.
Department of Justice, (2013). United State of America. Annual report on criminal
rehabilitation and recidivism.
Dina , G. (2012b). Accommodation for ex-prisoners. The third sector housing advice
and provisions. Victoria Correction centre, Australia.
Dinitz, C and Dine V C (1989). Restraining the Wicked: The Dangerous offender
project. Toronto: liberty of congress press.
173
Dorris, L .M. (2013). The effectiveness of correctional-based work and academic.
EDO journal of Counselling 2(10), Pg 28-37.
Easter by-Smith, M. (2008). Inter organisational knowledge transfer; Current themes
and future prospects. Journal of Management Studies, 45(4), 677-690.
Enoh, A (2000). Educational foundations. 2ND
edition University Printing Press, Jos
Nigeria
European Commission, (2012). European Business forum on Vocational Education
and Training‘‘
European Union (2012). Correctional Education in European Countries. A review of
research findings. Evaluating quantitative and qualitative research.
Finn, J. (2009). Job placement for offenders. A promising approach to reducing
recidivism and correctional cost. National Institute of Justice Journal 4,(7)
2-11.
Flynn, L. R. (1998). Theory and measurement of consumer innovativeness: A
transnational evaluation. European Journal of Marketing, 32(3/4), 340-353.
Fogel, M. (2009). Dangerous man. The sociology of parolee : Beverly Hills, C. A
Sage. Production.
Garson, G. D. (2012). Testing statistical assumptions. North Carolina: statistical
associate publishing.
Gay L, R. (1992). Educational research competed for analysis and application (4th
ed). Canada, Toronto: Maxwell, Macmillan
Goldman, R. N. (2006). The Effects of adding emotion focused intervention to the
clients – centred relationship condition in the treatment of depression.
Psychotherapy Research 16, 537-549. Government Printing press, Abuja.
Graaver, J. G. & Wallau, H (2005). Underwater gliders: Dynamics, control and
design (Doctoral dissertation, PhD thesis, Princeton University).
Grace, G. (2011). Relationship between correctional programmes and recidivism.
Final outcomes. London country office. Graduate school.
Guba , E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research.
Handbook of qualitative research, 2(163-194), 105.
Hassan, A. B. (2013). Instructional Skills Development manuals; pp, 18-24. Training
and development centre, Kano.
Hassan, A.B. (2013). Instructional Skills Development manuals; pp, 18-24. Training
and development centre, Kano.
174
Hayes, A. (2011). Mediation and Estimation of indirect effects in political
communication research. New York Rutledge.
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the
new millennium. Communication monographs, 76(4), 408-420.
Hirsch hem, T. (1989). Educational Research planning, conducting, and
Howels et al (2012). Inmate experiences and psychological well-being. Criminal
Justice and behaviour, 25(6), 222-245.
Howley, N O. (2011). Prison education and training in Europe- a review and
Hunton press U.K.
Hussey, J (1997). Business Research. A practical guide for undergraduate and
Imai, T (2010).The importance of indirect effects in media effects research. Testing
for mediation in structural equation modelling.
Inmates Training and Productivity (ITP, 2011). Nigerian Prison Service. Abuja-
variables effects. Psychological methods. 7(1), 83.
Jabatan Penjara Malaysia, (JPM, 2013). Aktiviti Pemulihan di jabatan penjara
Malaysia. Retrieved at http //www.prison.gov.my/portal /page/portal/hijau/sejarah
Jennifer, F. (2012). Education and Vocational Training in Prison. Rand Researchers
Johnson, R. E. (2010). Commitment and motivation at work. The relevance of
employee identity and regulatory at focus. Academy of psychological review.
Jonavic, G. (2011). The role of education and training in the treatment, rehabilitation
and reintegrating offenders.
Julie, R. (2011). Data Analysis Using Regression Analysis and
Multilevel/Hierarchical Models.
Justice for All (2015). Nigerian Criminal Justice Reform. Federal Minisrty of Justice,
Abuuja –Nigeria.
Kangiwa, G. A. (1986). The Political Economy of Crime in Sokoto Town. B.Sc
Project, Unpublished, Sokoto University of Sokoto.
Kerlinger, F. (1990). Analysis of covariance structure test of a Criteria referents
theories of attitudes. Multivariate Behavioural Research, 16(5), 219-345
Latessa, E. & Allen, H.E. (1999). Corrections in the community (2nd
ed). Cincinnati,
OH: Anderson publishing co.
Latessa, E., & Sullivan, C. C. (2016). Juvenile drug courts and recidivism: Results
from a multisite outcome study. Justice Quarterly, 33(2), 291-318.
175
Leanne, R. (2010). Australian crime institute. Offender treatment and training on
moral education and values.
Lipsey, M. (2011). Dropout Prevention and Intervention Programs: Effects on
School Completion and Dropout among School-Aged Children and
Youth. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2011: 8. Campbell Collaboration.
Lois, D. M. (2013). Education and Vocational Training in Prison. Rand Researchers.
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V.
(2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening
variable effects. Psychological methods, 7(1), 83.
Martin, N. (1999). Summary of Key findings from the Drug treatment outcomes.
Cost effectiveness analysis London. Home office.
Mathew, K. (2009). The Importance of staff practices in delivering effective
correctional treatment. A meta-analysis of core correctional practices.
International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology. 46,
214-304.
Mcgdibbo, J. (2010). Teaching Moral Values in Schools and Colleges
(4th
ed).Lausanne. Switzland.
Miller, T. L. (2009). Mediation in strategic management research: Conceptual
beginning current application and future recommendations.
Mohammed, H (2015). The effects of vocational training and other correctional
programmes in Nigerian Correctional Institutions.
Murphy, S (2011). Prison Education Training in Europe- A review and commentary
of existing literature, analysis and evaluation.
Mushanga, T. (2006). Crime and Devine: Introduction to criminology, Nairobi,
Kenya literature Bereau.
Myers, J. (1990). Regression Analyses of repeated measurements data in cognitive
research. Journal of experimental psychology learning. Memory and cognition
16, no 1 (1990).
Nana, L. (2011). Crime control in Nigeria, Paper presented on successful
reintegration. Reintegration programme. Government Printing Press.
Nally et al (2012). Rehabilitation of offenders. Intellectual perspective applied to
Australian correctional system.
176
National Drug Control Policy (2014). The 2013 annual report on Arrestee Drug
abuse monitoring programme. Washington D. C : Executive office of the
president.
Nnamdi, M. (2010). Hell on Earth: Our Prisons and Dreaded Chambers. African
Concord, 147:14.21 June 2010.
NPE, (2004a). Nigerian National policy on education, Federal Ministry of Education,
Government Printing press, Abuja.
NPE,(2004). National Policy of Education, Federal Ministry of Education,
Government printing press. Abuja.
NPS, (2004b). Nigerian Prison Service Manual. Nigerian Prison Service, Abuja.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill Santos. United
State of America.
Nwachukwu, C E (2010). Assessment of the operations of Prisons Vocational
Training programme in eastern states. Nexxi publishers, ltd.
Obioha, E. E, (2005). Prison Culture in Nigeria: A study of life within Agodi Prison
Community, Ibadan, MSc Dissertation Unpublished, and Ibadan:
Department of Sociology, University of Ibadan.
Obioha, E. E, (2005). Punishment in Society and perspectives in sociology. Lagos:
Malt house Press Limited, pp367-379.
Okoro, O. M. (2011). Programme evaluation in education and training Anambara
state, Nigeria.
Olaitan, S. O. (1996). Vocational and Technical education in Nigeria. Issues and
analysis. Onitsha; Noble graphics.
Olson, D. (2011). Sheridan correctional centre. Therapeutic community year 6,
Illonois criminal justice information authority.
Omoni, G. E. & Ijeh, S U (2009). Qualitative education for prisoners: A panacea to
effective rehabilitation and integration in to the society. Edo journal of
counselling, Vol.2, no 1 pp28-37.
Oranu, R. N. (2011). Curriculum Techniques in Technical and Vocational Education
in Nigeria.
Orlikowski, W. J., & Baroudi, J. J. (1991). Studying information technology in
organizations: Research approaches and assumptions. Information systems
research, 2(1), 1-28.
Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS Survival Manual: A step to step guide to data analysis using
177
Pallant, J. (2011). SPSS Survival Manual: A step to step guide to data analysis using
SPSS for windows (5th
edition, Open University press, 2011).
McGraw-Hill International. Patton, M .Q. (1990). Qualitative Research method 2ND
Ed. New bury pac. C CA. Mic publishers.
Polit, H. and Hunlger, (1999). Educational Mangement : Redifining theory, policy
and practice. London: paul chapman publishing. Post-graduate. Human
resources management review 1(1), 61-81.
Rand, R. (2013). Vocational education and training, Rand researcher‘s graduate
school. Rand publishers inC.
Reynor, P. (2011). Risk-Need and Responsively in British probation. The
contribution of LSI-R psychology, crime and law, 13, 121-138.
Robert, C. (2009). The research for Industry Best practice. United State of America,
U S A. Litter press.
Robinson, G. (2012). Late-Modern Rehabilitation. The Evolution of a panel Strategy.
Robinson, S. P. (2005). The foundation of research methods. A guide for post
graduate studies (2nd
ed).
Rooney, J. (2011). A quasi-experimental evaluation of an intensive rehabilitation
supervision programme.
Salaudeen, L. (2005). Uwais Recipe for prison congestion, Punch march, 2005
Salkind, N. J. (2003). Exploring Research. Pearson Prentice Hall, 316 pag/28cm
Edicion 4; 715 ISBN.
Sambo, A. (2011). Research Methods of Education. Third Edition University Press
Bauchi.
Sanders, A. F (2013). Elements of human performance: Reaction process and
attention in human skill, Psychology press.
Sara, H.A. (2011). Ways of enhancing behaviour modification through vocational
rehabilitation in correctional institutions. African Journal Social Sciences
Vol 2, (2011)
Sayer, A. (1991). Behind the locality debate: Deconstructing geography‘s dualisms.
Environment and planning. A, 23(2), 283-308.
Scott, J. (2014). Medical Review Report. How Common Addictions are classified.
Annual report of Victoria Corrections Centre.
178
Shuttle Worth, M. (2008). Quantitative Research Design. Retrieved from
http/.experiment –resources .com/quantitative research.
Siegel, L, J. (2005). Criminology. The core London: Thomson and wards worth, Inc.
Macklin press, UK.
Smith, J. A. (Ed.). (2002). Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research
methods. Sage.
Smith, J. A. (Ed.). (2007). Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research
methods. Sage.
Soyinka, W. (1972). The Man Died: Prison Notes London: Pengium Books. The
Ibadan Press.
SPSS for Windows. (3rd
edition, Open University press, 2007). McGraw-Hill
International
Stefanie, R. (2011). Drug Misuse statistics for six months ending September, London
Department of health.
Stephen, G. (2005). An Introduction to research methods in education. United State
of America. U S A.
Stephen, S. (2005). Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods. 5th
ed. Pergamon
press. Chess nut Hill enterprises. United State America
Swanson, L. (2012). Prisoners‘ perception of father-child relationships and social
support. American journal of criminal justice : AJCJ, 37(3), 338-335.
Tan, N. (2008). Rehabilitation versus Retribution. Retrieved November 22, 2008
from the classical school (2005). The classical school: Biological and
psychological factors. Retrieved November 3, 2009 from
http//www.criminality.fsu.edu/crimtheory/week 3 htm.
Tanimu, B. (2011). Nigerian convicts and rehabilitation ideals. Journal of
sustainable development.
Tanimu, B. (2010). Nigeria convicts and prison rehabilitation ideals. Journal of
sustainable Development in Africa. (Volume 12, NO 3, 2010).
Tolu, V. (2014). Correctional Programmes and reoffending. Drug misuse and
acquisitive crime among client recruited to the national treatment outcomes
research study. Criminal behaviour and mental Health 10 (10).pp22.
Tomasello, M (2009). The human cultural cognition. Harvard University press.
Uche, G. N. (1995). Vocational training for prison inmates. A Treatment Model.
Ugwouke, C.U. (1994). Recidivism in Nigerian Prison: A case study of the Enugu
179
Prison MSc thesis. Department of sociology/anthropology, University of
Nigeria,
Nsukka. Nigeria.
Ugwouke, C.U. (2000). The Dilemma of the Nigerian prison service. ‗‘service‘‘
implications for criminal justice system in Nigeria
U N, (2013). Basic principle for treatment of prison inmates. Resolution 45/111,
December University trust publisher. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis ABU, Zaria
UNESCO (2013). Technical and Vocational Educational and Training.http//www
Unesco.org/new/an education/ themes/ education-building. Retrieved on
10/7/2013 university press.
Vacca, B. (2004). The criminal justice system reform in Nigeria. Wisdom publishers.
Ibadan- Nigeria.
Villataz, P. (2012). The effect of custodial and non-custodial sentences on re-
offending; A systematic review of the state of knowledge. Lausanne,
Switzland.
Wanner, K (1996). Report by the coordinator of education and prison education
Service. Ohio; Charles, E merit Publishers Company.
Ward, B & Brown, T (2010). The Treatment of gender offenders, Risk management
and good lives. Professional psychology research and practice.
Ward, B (2004). Good lives, aetiology and the rehabilitation of gender offenders. A
bridging theory, journal of sexual aggression, special issue. Treatment and
treatability.
Ward, B (2009a). Good lives, aetiology and the rehabilitation of gender offenders.
Approach to rehabilitation of offenders in contemporary prisons.
Ward, B. (2010). Reconstructing the Risk Need Responsively Model. A Theoretical
elaboration and evaluation. Aggression and Violent, 1208-228.
Ward, T. (2009b). The treatment of criminal conduct (4th
ed), Cincinnati, O H:
Anderson publishing.
Wikipedia (2009). Rehabilitation: penology, Retrieved February 15, 2009 from
http://en.wikipaedia.org/wiki/rehabilitation.penology.
William, G. (2005). An addictive theory of scientific method. Psychological
methods, 10(5), 348-446.
William, W. (2005). An introduction to research methods in education 8th
ed. Chess
Nut Hill enterprises. United State America
180
Willis, Yates, & Ward (2012). The Good Lives Model and the risk need responsivity
model. Criminal justice and Behaviour .Special issues, treatment and
treatability
Willoughby, B. (2006), Alternative funding options for post-secondary correctional
education. Journal of correctional education, 54 (1), 7-18.
Yacoob, M. (2011). Forward-backward asymmetry in top quark-antiquark
production. Physical Review D, 84(11), 112005.
Yin, R. K.(1994). Case study research Design and Methods (2ND
ed). Thousand
Oaks; Sage Publications.
