A TO ZOF

EARTH SCIENTISTS

NOTABLE SCIENTISTS

A TO ZOF

EARTH SCIENTISTS

ALEXANDER E. GATES

A TO Z OF EARTH SCIENTISTS

Notable Scientists

Copyright © 2003 by Alexander E. Gates

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CONTENTS

List of Entries viiPreface ix

Acknowledgments xiIntroduction xiii

Entries A to Z 1

Entries by Field 307Entries by Country of Birth 310

Entries by Country of Major Scientific Activity 312Entries by Year of Birth 315

Chronology 317Bibliography 322

Index 325

vii

Albee, Arden L.Allègre, ClaudeAlley, Richard B.Alvarez, WalterAnderson, Don L.Ashley, Gail MowryAtwater, TanyaBally, Albert W.Bascom, FlorenceBerner, RobertBerry, William B. N.Bethke, Craig M.Billings, Marland L.Birch, A. FrancisBloss, F. DonaldBodnar, Robert J.Bouma, Arnold H.Bowen, Norman L.Bowring, Samuel A.Bragg, Sir (William) LawrenceBrantley, Susan L.Bredehoeft, John D.Broecker, Wallace S.Bromery, Randolph W. (Bill)Brown, MichaelBuddington, Arthur F.Bullard, Sir Edward C.Burchfiel, B. ClarkBurke, Kevin C. A.Carmichael, Ian S.Cashman, Katherine V.

Chan, Marjorie A.Cherry, John A.Clark, Thomas H.Cloos, ErnstCloud, Preston E., Jr.Conway Morris, SimonCox, Allan V.Craig, HarmonCrawford, Maria LuisaDana, James D.Dawson, Sir (John) WilliamDay, Arthur L.DePaolo, Donald J.Dewey, John F.Dickinson, William R.Dietz, Robert S.Dott, Robert H., Jr.Drake, Charles L.Dunbar, Carl O.Ernst, W. GaryEugster, Hans P.Ewing, W. MauriceFairbridge, Rhodes W.Folk, Robert L.Friedman, Gerald M.Fyfe, William S.Garrels, Robert M.Gilbert, G. KarlGilbert, M. CharlesGlover, Lynn, IIIGoldsmith, Julian R.

Gould, Stephen JayGrew, Priscilla C.Griggs, David T.Gutenberg, BenoHandin, John W.Harrison, T. MarkHatcher, Robert, D., Jr.Hayes, John M.Head, James W., IIIHelgeson, Harold O.Herz, NormanHess, Harry H.Hochella, Michael F., Jr.Hoffman, PaulHolland, Heinrich D.Holmes, ArthurHsu, Kenneth J.Hubbert, M. KingImbrie, JohnJahns, Richard H.Jordan, Teresa E.Karig, Daniel E.Kay, MarshallKeller, Edward A.Kent, Dennis V.Kerr, Paul F.Kerrich, RobertKlein, George D.Kuno, HisashiLanding, EdLehmann, Inge

LIST OF ENTRIES

viii A to Z of Earth Scientists

Liebermann, Robert C.Lindsley, Donald H.Logan, Sir William EdmondMahood, Gail A.Marshak, StephenMatthews, Drummond H.McBride, Earle F.McKenzie, Dan P.McNally, Karen C.McNutt, MarciaMcSween, Harry Y., Jr.Means, Winthrop D.Melosh, H. J.Menard, H. WilliamMiller, Kenneth G.Molnar, PeterMontañez, Isabel PatriciaMoores, Eldridge M.Morisawa, MarieMorse, John W.Muehlberger, William R.Mukasa, Samuel B.Nance, R. DamianNavrotsky, AlexandraOliver, Jack E.Olsen, Paul E.O’Nions, Sir R. KeithOstrom, John H.Palmer, Allison R.Patterson, ClairePettijohn, Francis J.Pitcher, Wallace S.Porter, Stephen C.

Press, FrankPrice, Raymond A.Ramberg, HansRamsay, John G.Rast, NicholasRaup, David M.Raymo, Maureen E.Revelle, RogerRichter, Charles F.Ringwood, Alfred E.Rizzoli, Paola MalanotteRodgers, JohnRoedder, Edwin W.Romanowicz, BarbaraRosendahl, Bruce R.Sagan, Carl E.Selverstone, JaneSengor, A. M. ÇelalShackleton, Sir Nicholas J.Shoemaker, Eugene M.Sibson, Richard H.Simpson, CarolSkinner, Brian J.Sloss, Laurence L.Smith, Joseph V.Spear, Frank S.Stanley, Steven M.Stock, Joann M.Stolper, Edward M.Stose, Anna I. JonasSuess, Hans E.Suppe, John E.Sykes, Lynn R.

Sylvester, Arthur G.Talwani, ManikTaylor, Hugh P., Jr.Teichert, CurtThompson, James B., Jr.Tilton, George R.Tullis, Julia A. (Jan)Turcotte, Donald L.Turekian, Karl K.Tuttle, O. FrankTwenhofel, William H.Vail, Peter R.Valley, John W.Van der Voo, RobertVeblen, David R.Walcott, Charles D.Walter, Lynn M.Watson, Bruce E.Weeks, Alice M. D.Wegener, AlfredWenk, Hans-RudolfWhittington, Harry B.Williams, HaroldWilson, J. TuzoWise, Donald U.Withjack, Martha O.Wones, David R.Wyllie, Peter J.Yoder, Hatten S., Jr.Zen, E-AnZoback, Mary LouZuber, Maria T.

ix

PREFACE

HOW THE EARTH SCIENTISTS WERE CHOSEN

A to Z of Earth Scientists was originally intendedto include only Earth scientists who have madecontributions to our understanding of the Earthsince World War II, with emphasis on those whoare currently active or were recently active. It wasintended that there should be a relatively evendistribution across the subdisciplines as well asgeographically, although it was realized from theoutset that there would be more American scien-tists included. However, many of the society andgovernment agency awards are named in honorof previously active Earth scientists so many ofthem are included as well.

Research for this book showed that there isvery little biographical information available forcurrently active Earth scientists. There is basicinformation on employment, awards, and date ofbirth available for most living individuals in thevolumes American Men and Women of Science.The American Geological Institute’s Bibliogra-phy of Geology also contains their publications.The information on their contributions to theEarth sciences, however, is very difficult to ob-tain and commonly must come from award cita-tions from societies, if available. In many cases,the only information available is that on websites and even that is usually scant. As a result,information had to be solicited directly from the

Earth scientists to be included in the book. Insome cases, it took several solicitations to obtainthe information and in others, because of a lackof response, the individual could not be includedin the book. As a result of the exhaustive amountof effort required in research, unavailability ofinformation, and a major change in the structureof the book during writing, the list of biogra-phies changed radically during the writing of thebook and is generally shorter than planned. Thechoices may almost seem arbitrary and capri-cious to some readers. The number of biogra-phies could easily be doubled to include thosewho deserve recognition for their contributionsto Earth science. Language problems made it es-pecially difficult to obtain information on scien-tists outside of the United States. In no wayshould the final list of Earth scientists includedin this book be construed to indicate that theseare the only people who made contributions tothe field or that their contributions are of greaterimportance than many other exceptional scien-tists in the profession. The hope is that this bookwill be popular enough to warrant a second edi-tion in which many more deserving Earth scien-tists might be included.

This book is intended for people in highschool, early college, and perhaps at a more ad-vanced level of study. There are many technicalterms that are briefly explained where possible.

x A to Z of Earth Scientists

In many cases, they are not explained at all. It isrecommended that if the reader has not attendedat least an introductory course in Earth science

(physical geology) that an Earth science (geo-logic) dictionary be kept handy.

xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book would not have been possible with-out the contributions of many people. I first

and foremost wish to thank the many Earth scien-tists who agreed to be included in the book andwho sent biographical data. Many of them re-viewed early drafts of their biographies and sug-gested changes that improved the accuracy of thebook. Many also sent photographs that are in-cluded with their biographies. A special thanks toArthur Sylvester who voluntarily opened up hisrogues’ gallery of photographs to me, many ofwhich appear in the book. James Skehan, S.J.,similarly provided me with several photographs ofEast Coast geologists which I otherwise would nothave obtained. Joseph McGregor of the U.S. Geo-logical Survey in Denver was helpful in providingexcellent photographs of geologists in a very shorttime.

In addition to obtaining information directlyfrom the participants, there were several othergreat sources. The American Geophysical Unionprovided biographical information directly to me,in addition to that which is available over its website. Much information was obtained from pub-lished material from the Geological Society ofAmerica, the Mineralogical Society of America,the Geological Society of London, the Paleonto-

logical Society, the Society for Exploration Geo-physicists, and the Geochemical Society. The li-brarians at the Dana Library at Rutgers Universityin Newark, New Jersey, were extremely helpfuland even more patient during the writing of thisbook. Veronica Calderhead and Ann Watkinswere especially helpful, although most of the staffwere very cooperative. The search engine googlewas used extensively in the locating of biographi-cal material.

The progress in the writing of this book wasmemorable to say the least. Frank K. Darmstadt,senior editor at Facts On File, Inc., was ex-tremely patient and understanding. The projectcould easily have collapsed if not for his willing-ness to adjust as unexpected situations arose. Myagent, Max Gartenberg, deserves recognition forhis patience, as well. If it were not for GayleMartinko’s urging to undertake the project, andagreeing to serve as coauthor at the outset, thebook would not have been completed. Finally, Iwish to thank my son, Colin Gates, who pitchedin and compiled all of the information for theappendices when I ran into time problems.Thanks also to Maxine, Jasper, and Tom forputting up with their dad always having his nosein the computer.

xiii

INTRODUCTION

In the 19th century, Earth science was king; itwas deemed the most attractive and of highest

potential of all sciences by the New York Heraldand Knickerbocker Magazine in the 1830s. One-fourth of all scientists in the United States be-tween 1800 and 1860 were Earth scientists, andthey charted the direction of American science.JAMES DANA from Yale University was their leaderand considered on a par with Charles Darwin interms of respect and prestige. He virtually con-trolled the American Association for the Advance-ment of Science, which was the premier scientificsociety of the time. Even at the end of the centurythe newly established U.S. Geological Survey washeaded by some of the most influential scientistsin the country, like John Wesley Powell, G. KARL

GILBERT, and CHARLES D. WALCOTT. The Geolog-ical Society of America, the premier society of theEarth sciences, was founded in 1888.

The 20th century saw the rise of the othersciences and decline of the Earth sciences in com-parison. They were influential at the beginning ofthe century when the quest for oil by an adven-turous group called wildcatters brought great fameand fortune. The Rockefeller fortune was built inthis industry with the establishment of the mam-moth Standard Oil Company. Even PresidentHerbert Hoover was an Earth scientist. In WorldWar I, the famous Earth scientist ARTHUR L. DAY

averted a major American crisis of a critical short-

age of optical glass for the war effort through aningenious and concerted effort. This work, how-ever, was only marginally related to Earth scienceresearch.

Earth scientists played prominent roles in theWorld War II effort, but generally not for theirspecialties. DAVID T. GRIGGS developed methodsto conduct aerial bombing missions using radarguidance. Before that, bombing was done bypurely visual methods. A. FRANCIS BIRCH was thelead scientist on the Hiroshima bomb (Little Boy)team and even helped load the bomb onto theEnola Gay. HARRY H. HESS and SIR EDWARD C.BULLARD developed methods to virtually elimi-nate the threat of both mines and submarines toships. Although these and many other Earth sci-entists were instrumental in the war effort andmany observations were made that would laterhelp with interpretations, few direct break-throughs in the science were realized as they werein other sciences like physics and medicine.

In the late 1950s through the 1960s, Earthsciences again drew public attention with the doc-umentation of the plate tectonic theory. The ideathat the solid Earth below our feet was actuallymoving boggled the imagination. Again, some ofthe most influential scientists in the world wereEarth scientists like Harry Hess, J. TUZO WILSON,and ROGER REVELLE, among others, and theywere involved in this revolution. This powerful

xiv A to Z of Earth Scientists

concept has been referred to as the “glue thatholds geology together” because it resulted in therapidly radiating subdisciplines of the Earth sci-ences being drawn together. Plate tectonics wasthe mechanism by which they could be interre-lated. It still drives much of the solid Earth re-search that is done some 40 years later.

The cold war that was in full swing at thetime of the plate tectonic revolution also in-volved Earth scientists. In order to monitor nu-clear tests, a worldwide seismic monitoringnetwork was established. Earth scientists likeFRANK PRESS, INGE LEHMANN, and LYNN R.SYKES became as much diplomats as they werescientists, serving on numerous top-level interna-tional advisory boards. They were even involvedin treaty negotiations. Other Earth scientists likeARDEN L. ALBEE, DON U. WISE, CARL E. SAGAN,and WILLIAM R. MUEHLBERGER got involved inthe space race. They served in high-level capaci-ties to ensure the success of NASA’s Apollo lunarmissions.

Overlapping this exciting period of revolu-tion in the Earth sciences came a societal crisisthat only Earth scientists could solve. In 1973, theArab oil embargo sent the country into a crisisthat would dominate the next decade. Recordnumbers of students were entering the Earth sci-ences in colleges, and once again the Earth sci-ences topped the lists of the best career choices inpopular magazines like Time and Newsweek. Earthscientists could write their own ticket to out-standing careers in the petroleum industry. Thisinterest and funding led to numerous new devel-opments and Earth scientists discovered enoughnew petroleum reserves to rescue the countryfrom the crisis. Earth scientists like ALBERT W.BALLY and GERALD M. FRIEDMAN figured promi-nently in these efforts.

In the early 1980s, however, energy suppliesbecame abundant and with only a few perturba-tions have remained so ever since. Exploration forpetroleum reserves declined dramatically and the

Earth sciences went into the doldrums. Althoughvital contributions were made in the areas of envi-ronmental science by scientists such as CRAIG M.BETHKE and SUSAN L. BRANTLEY and climatechange research by WALLACE S. BROECKER, JOHN

IMBRIE, and SIR NICHOLAS J. SHACKELTON, theimage of Earth science declined and has remainedbehind the scenes. Fields such as biotechnology,particle physics, and material sciences have takencenter stage. It is for this reason that this book waswritten at this time.

THE ENTRIES

Entries in A to Z of Earth Scientists are ar-ranged alphabetically by surname, with each entrygiven under the name by which the Earth scientistis most commonly known. The typical entry pro-vides the following information:

Entry Head: Name, birth/death dates, na-tionality, and field(s) of specialization.

Essay: ranging in length from 750 to 1,500words, with most averaging around 1,000 words.Each contains basic biographical information—date and place of birth, family information, edu-cational background, positions held, prizesawarded, etc.—but the greatest attention is givento the scientist’s work. Names in small capital let-ters within the essays provide easy reference toother scientists represented in the book.

In addition to the alphabetical list of scien-tists, readers searching for names of individualsfrom specific countries can consult the Countryof Birth appendix. The Country of Major Scien-tific Activity appendix lists scientists by the coun-tries in which they conducted their work andresearch. The Field appendix cites them by thearea of Earth science in which they were most no-table. The Index lists page references for scientistsand scientific terms used in the book. Finally, theChronology lists entrants by their birth anddeath dates.

Indeed, Earth science is largely responsible forsparking the scientific revolution of the 20th cen-tury. In addition, no matter how many marveloustechnological breakthroughs we have made, thisEarth is still the only place we have found thus farthat is able to sustain life. We must therefore keep

its importance in proper perspective in this fast-paced world. Earth scientists are still making im-portant contributions to society, far beyond what isimagined by the general public. If this book can insome small way help to bring recognition to theseEarth scientists, then it will be deemed a success.

Introduction xv

5 Albee, Arden L.(1928– )AmericanGeochemist, Metamorphic Petrologist

When Earth scientists write and publish a re-search paper, they hope it is successful. The defi-nition of success varies by the individual, but if atleast 200 people read the paper and 50 or morecite it in other research papers, then most wouldconsider the paper to be a success. In 1968, ArdenL. Albee and his student A. E. Bence publishedthe paper, “Empirical Correction Factors for theElectron Microanalysis of Silicates and Oxides,”whose methods are still employed by geologists anaverage of 300 times per day. In the late 1960s,new analytical procedures allowed scientists toquantitatively analyze the chemistry of individualminerals. The electron microprobe bombards in-dividual mineral grains with a focused stream ofhigh-energy electrons. The individual atoms inthe minerals give off X rays upon impact, whichare then received by detectors. The data that thedetectors supply is then converted into weightpercent of an oxide of the element and then intoan exact mineral formula. Chemical reactions canbe precisely determined with these data in con-trast to the purely qualitative chemical reactionsthat preceded this technique. Bence and Albee de-vised the correction factors needed to convert

counts on an X-ray detector into oxides and min-erals. Those corrections are programmed intolikely every single electron microprobe in theworld. Electron microprobes are used on a daily(and nightly) basis at most universities that oper-ate them. That number includes essentially all ofthe large universities in the world. Albee super-vised the electron microprobe facility at CaliforniaInstitute of Technology.

Arden Albee’s interest in the electron micro-probe is as a tool for his research on regional meta-morphism. While with the U.S. Geological Survey,Albee performed regional geologic mapping inVermont, Colorado, and Maine. After leaving theUSGS, he continued his work in northern Ver-mont, west Greenland and the Death Valley areaof California. The goal of his research is to under-stand the conditions under which these metamor-phic rocks formed. To accomplish this goal, heanalyzed the partitioning of elements among min-erals as well as with theoretical thermodynamics.

Albee has a second research career studyingextraterrestrial rocks. He was an investigator ofthe Apollo lunar samples for many years. As a re-sult, he became chief scientist for NASA’s JetPropulsion Laboratory from 1978 to 1984,which is operated by the California Institute ofTechnology. He was project scientist for the MarsObserver Mission that was launched in Septem-ber, 1992, but with which contact was lost in Au-

A

1

gust, 1993. He is still mission scientist forNASA’s Mars Global Surveyor Mission. Albee’srole in this work is not only to help plan the sci-entific objectives of the mission but also to designand implement instrumentation. His paper, “De-velopment of a Miniature Scanning Electron Mi-croscope for In-Flight Analysis of Comet Dust,”in 1983, is an example of such instrumentalwork. He directed the design of the equipmentthat analyzes the rocks in situ on Mars includingan onboard scanning electron microscope. He isalso involved in developing the remote sensingequipment that is used to map the surface ofMars from the spacecraft. Albee is a member ofthe U.S.–Russian Joint Working Group on SolarSystem Exploration that governs the scientific co-operation on joint missions including the Inter-national Space Station.

Arden L. Albee was born in Port Huron,Michigan, on May 28, 1928. He spent his child-hood in Michigan. He received his undergraduateand graduate education at Harvard University,where he earned his bachelor of arts, master of sci-ence, and doctor of philosophy degrees in geologyin 1950, 1951, and 1957, respectively. Albeeworked for the U.S. Geological Survey as a field ge-ologist-petrologist during his graduate studies anduntil he joined the faculty at California Institute ofTechnology, where he remains today. He served asthe dean of Graduate Studies from 1984 to 2000.Albee is married, has eight children and 13 grand-children, and lives in Altadena, California.

Albee has been very active professionally,producing numerous papers in internationaljournals, professional volumes, and governmentalreports. He is an author of some of the most im-portant papers in the field of metamorphicpetrology, analytical techniques, and space explo-ration. He has also been of great service to theprofession. He served on numerous advisorycommittees and project review boards for NASA.He also served as chair for a number of workinggroups on Martian missions. He is the recipientof the NASA Medal for Exceptional Scientific

Achievement for this service to space exploration.Albee has been an officer and/or editor for anumber of professional societies and organiza-tions, including the Geological Society of Amer-ica, Mineralogical Society of America, and theAmerican Geophysical Union. He has served asassociate editor for the Annual Reviews of Earthand Planetary Sciences since 1979.

5 Allègre, Claude(1937– )FrenchGeochemist

After establishing an outstanding career in theEarth sciences, Claude Allègre became one of thefew scientists to participate successfully in gov-ernmental policy. Claude Allègre is the architectof the subdiscipline of isotope geodynamics. Thisarea involves the study of the coupled evolutionof the mantle and continental crust of Earththrough a multi-isotopic tracer approach. Theseradiogenic isotopes include such systems as stron-tium, neodymium (and samarium), lead, xenon,argon, helium, osmium (and rhenium), and tho-rium. The studies provide evidence for very earlydegassing of volatile elements and compoundsfrom Earth with limited subsequent mixing be-tween the upper mantle and the lower mantle.They also show that the atmosphere was primar-ily formed early in the history of the Earth withonly volumetrically small additions since. Heliumand neon were trapped in the Earth’s interior andhave been escaping at a slow rate ever since. Hegeochemically modeled the early solar system, theearly evolution of planets and the formation ofmeteorites in his paper, “Cosmochemistry andthe Primitive Evolution of Planets,” among oth-ers. This cosmochemical research is the reasonthat Allègre was chosen by NASA to participatein the Apollo lunar program. In that role, he wasamong the first scientists to determine the age ofthe Moon.

2 Allègre, Claude

With regard to the visible part of the Earth,his paper “Growth of the Continents throughTime,” in which he uses isotopic evidence to ad-dress the topic, exemplifies Claude Allègre’s re-search. Once isotopes are removed from the openwhole-Earth system into a closed continental sys-tem, they evolve separately. Allègre’s best-knownresearch is on the Himalayan mountains, both interms of structural and geochemical evolution ofthe Asian crust. However, in considering the iso-topic systematics produced by erosion of the con-tinental crust, he also looked at Africa and SouthAmerica. The other main area of research that Al-lègre has undertaken is to apply his considerablephysics and mathematical background to scalinglaws of fractures, earthquakes, geochemical distri-butions and energy balance which mathematicallyrelates sizes to distributions.

Claude Allègre is probably best known by thepublic for his extensive governmental work. He iscurrently the minister for National Education,Research and Technology for France, where hehas created quite a controversy by attempting tooverhaul the public educational system. Certainly,it takes plenty of prior policy work to be ap-pointed to such an important position. Allègreserved as a member of the Socialist Party Execu-tive Bureau, a National Delegate for Research,and a special adviser to the first secretary of theSocialist Party. He was a member of the EuropeanParliament, a city councilman of Lodeve, and amember of the Languedoc Roussillion RegionalCouncil.

Claude Allègre was born on March 5, 1937,in Paris, France. He attended the University ofParis, where he studied physics under Yves Rocardas well as geology, earning a Ph.D. in physics in1962. He was an assistant lecturer in physics atthe University of Paris from 1962 to 1968 beforeaccepting a position as assistant physicist with theParis Institut de Physique du Globe. He has beenthe director of the geochemistry and cosmochem-istry program at CNRS (French National Scien-tific Research Center) since 1967. Allègre joined

the faculty at the University of Paris VII in 1970,a position he retains. In 1971, he was appointedas director of the Department of Earth Sciences, aposition he held until 1976. He was then namedthe director of the Paris Institut de Physique duGlobe from 1976 to 1986. In 1993, he wasnamed as a member of the Institut Universitairede France (Denis Diderot University). Allègre wasrecently granted a leave from his academic posi-tion to serve as minister for National Education,Research and Technology for France. Over theyears, Allègre has held several visiting scientist po-sitions on an international basis. He was a Whiteprofessor at Cornell University, New York, aCrosby Professor at Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, and a Fairchild Professor at the Cali-fornia Institute of Technology, in addition to posi-tions at the U.S. Geological Survey, Denver; theCarnegie Institution of Washington, D.C.; Uni-versity of California at Berkeley; and at OxfordUniversity, England. Claude Allègre is marriedwith four children.

Claude Allègre is an author of more than 100scientific articles in both English and French.Many of these papers are seminal studies on theevolution of the Earth, especially using isotopicevidence. They appear in respected internationaljournals. He has also written 11 books spanningthe range from widely adopted textbooks to sci-ence and policy topics, even to popular books. Inrecognition of his scientific contributions, Allègrehas received numerous honors and awards. He is amember of the U.S. National Academy of Sci-ences, the American Academy of Arts and Sci-ences, and the French Academy of Science, as wellas an officer of the Legion of Honor. He receivedthe Crafoord Prize from the Swedish RoyalAcademy of Science, the Goldschmidt Medalfrom the Geochemical Society (U.S.), the Wollas-ton Medal from the Geological Society of Lon-don, the Arthur L. Day Medal from theGeological Society of America, the Gold Medalfrom CNRS (French National Scientific ResearchCenter), the Arthur Holmes Medal from the Eu-

Allègre, Claude 3

ropean Union of Geoscience, and the BowieMedal of the American Geophysical Union.

5 Alley, Richard B.(1957– )AmericanGlaciologist, Climate Modeler (ClimateChange)

Because the polar ice caps are located in an areawhere temperatures are constantly below freez-ing, all precipitation that occurs on them mustbe frozen. Therefore, it is preserved for as long asthe ice sheets remain. Because there is precipita-tion every year, and the precipitation traps a littlebit of the atmospheric gas that it passes through,ice sheets contain a continuously preservedrecord of the Earth’s atmosphere for up to hun-dreds of thousands of years. Richard Alley ana-lyzes deep cores taken from the continental icesheets in Greenland and Antarctica, conductingphysical studies to complement isotopic, chemi-cal, and other measurements made by collabora-tors. The combined data provide detailedinformation on climatic conditions in the past.He showed that accumulation rates for ice sheetsare extremely variable depending upon whetherthe conditions were glacial or interglacial (be-tween ice ages). Surprisingly, almost half of theglacial-interglacial change was achieved in a fewyears. This discovery means that climate changesare not slow as was previously envisioned byEarth scientists but instead can be alarminglyrapid. Some of these abrupt climate changes arelinked to great surges of the ice sheets in thegreat ice ages. They left evidence in sedimentarydeposits around the North Atlantic. Alley’s find-ings about the mechanisms that caused thesesurges have led him to the idea that surges of theWest Antarctica ice sheet are possible in the fu-ture. This research is summarized in the 2002book The Two-Mile Time Machine: Ice Cores,Abrupt Climate Change and Our Future.

In studying the movement of glaciers, Alleyfound that subglacial sediments with meltwaterserve to lubricate the basal contact of the glacierwith the ground, allowing it to attain relativelyhigh velocity. This research transformed Alley intoone of the foremost authorities on continentalglacier mechanics and processes. He also becameone of the leading proponents of the view that theradical and abrupt climate changes that occurredduring transitions to and from ice ages might haveimplications for future climate changes. He dis-covered further supporting evidence for this standusing a newly devised ice-isotopic thermometer.By analyzing the stable isotopes in the ice hecould determine paleotemperatures. He calibratedthis thermometer using modern ice. The result of

4 Alley, Richard B.

Richard B. Alley, in full field gear, standing in front of aski-equipped LC-130 Hercules aircraft of the 109th U.S.Air National Guard in Sondrestrom, Greenland(Courtesy of Richard Alley)

his analysis of ice cores is that there were averagesurface temperature changes of some 20°C (36°F)between ice ages and interglacial periods. It wasnot expected that these variations would be sodrastic. By compiling all of these results of the icecore research with sedimentary and deformationaldata, Alley formed a new dynamic model for theadvance and retreat of continental glaciers. Theycan no longer be considered as slow-moving staticbodies with little to no variation but rather veryactive bodies with diverse processes and modes ofoperation.

Richard Alley was born on August 18, 1957,in Ohio. He attended Ohio State University inColumbus, and earned a bachelor of science de-gree in geology and mineralogy in 1980, summacum laude and with honors and a master of sci-ence degree in geology in 1983. He earned aPh.D. in geology with a minor in material sci-ences from the University of Wisconsin at Madi-son in 1987. He remained at University ofWisconsin for one year as an assistant scientist be-fore joining the faculty at Pennsylvania State Uni-versity at University Park, where he remains today.Alley was named the Evan Pugh professor of geo-sciences beginning in 2000. Alley is married andthe father of two children.

Richard Alley is leading an extremely pro-ductive career. He is an author of more than 120articles in international journals and professionalbooks and volumes. Many of these papers arebenchmark studies of ice mechanics and climatemodeling and many appear in the prestigiousjournals Nature and Science. They have beencited an astounding 3,500 times to date. He isalso an author or editor of four books. His re-search and teaching contributions have been wellrecognized by the profession in terms of honorsand awards. He is the recipient of the HortonAward from the American Geophysical Union,the D. L. Packard Fellowship, and the Presiden-tial Young Investigator Award. From Pennsylva-nia State University, he won the Wilson TeachingAward and the Faculty Scholar Medal. He was

also invited to give testimony to then-U.S. vicepresident Al Gore.

Alley has also performed significant service tothe profession. He serves or has served on panelsand committees for the American GeophysicalUnion, the National Science Foundation includ-ing the Augustine Panel, the International Glacio-logical Society, the Polar Research Board, and theNational Research Council, among others. Hiswork has also attracted the attention of the popu-lar media. The British Broadcasting Corporationand National Public Radio have featured him inspecial programs.

5 Alvarez, Walter(1940– )AmericanStratigrapher, Tectonics

Walter Alvarez has been the leader of one of thegreatest revolutions in geology, extraterrestrial im-pacts. He decided to address one of the big ques-tions in geology: what caused the great extinctionof the dinosaurs? He chose the most complete sec-tion of rock that includes the extinction event,which occurred at the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T)boundary about 65 million years ago. The areachosen is in the Umbria region of the northernAppenines, Italy. The unit is a reddish limestonecalled Scaglia Rossa, which has its most completesection at Gubbio. There Alvarez found a 1-cmthick layer of clay right at the boundary. Acrossthis boundary, fossils record a major extinctionevent of foraminifera (plankton) and other marinelife. Walter Alvarez consulted with his father,Nobel Prize–winning physicist Luis Alvarez, at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, where WalterAlvarez had just taken a position. These two col-laborated with two other nuclear chemists in anattempt to determine the amount of time that ittook to deposit the layer by measuring theamount of the element iridium, assuming a con-stant flux of this cosmic dust. Much to their sur-

Alvarez, Walter 5

prise, the layer contained an anomalously highconcentration of iridium, far greater than whatcould be deposited by cosmic influx. This workwas released in a landmark paper entitled “Ex-traterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-TertiaryExtinction: Experimental Results and TheoreticalInterpretation.” The team analyzed several othersections at Stevns Klint, Denmark, and in NewZealand, and found that this iridium anomaly wasworldwide. The team postulated that the collisionof an asteroid or comet of 10-km diameter withthe Earth could be the culprit. They proposedthat the impact produced a huge crater fromwhich an enormous mass of dust was emitted.The dust settled all over the Earth but not beforeblocking sunlight for a long period of time. Thedust cloud inhibited photosynthesis and thuscaused a collapse of the food chain from theground up.

The evidence amassed and the theoryquickly evolved after this initial discovery. Over75 localities have been identified with the K-Tiridium anomaly. Enrichment in platinum, os-mium, and gold in roughly chondritic propor-tions was also found in the layer. At otherlocalities, distinctive microspherules (glass melt)have been found as well as shocked quartz, a tex-ture that can only be produced by extreme pres-sure. Even a potential impact crater calledChixulub has been identified off of the coast ofthe Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. There was atremendous cooling of the atmosphere asrecorded in pollen samples and tremendous lossof species as a result of this event.

Walter Alvarez was born on October 3,1940, in Berkeley, California, where he spent hisyouth. He attended Carleton College, Minnesota,where he majored in geology. He graduated in1962 with a bachelor of arts degree. He attendedPrinceton University, New Jersey, for graduatestudies, where his adviser was HARRY H. HESS. Hegraduated with his doctoral degree in 1967 withthe thesis topic “Geology of the Simarua andCarpintero areas, Guajira Peninsula, Colombia.”

He worked in the petroleum industry for severalyears before joining the Lamont-Doherty Geolog-ical Observatory in 1971. He started as a residentscientist (1971–1973) and became a research asso-ciate (1973–1977). In 1977, he joined the facultyat University of California at Berkeley where hecurrently holds the rank of professor.

Walter Alvarez has received numerous awardsand honors. He was a Guggenheim Fellow in1983–1984 and a Fellow of the CaliforniaAcademy of Sciences in 1984. He received the G. K. Gilbert Award of the Geological Society ofAmerica in 1985. In 1986, he became an Hon-orary Foreign Fellow of the European Union ofGeosciences as well as a Miller Research Professorat University of California, Berkeley. In 1991, hewas elected to the National Academy of Sciencesas well as receiving the Rennie Taylor Award ofthe American Tentative Society for science jour-nalism. He was elected as a foreign member of theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences in 1992 andas a member of the American Academy of Artsand Sciences in 1993. In 1998, he received theJournalism Award of the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists.

Walter Alvarez has other interests besides purescientific research, namely journalism. His book T. Rex and the Crater of Doom (Princeton Univer-sity Press, 1997) is a prime example of his interestin translating the results of research to works thatcould be appreciated by the general population. Inaddition to this popular work, he is an author ofnumerous scientific articles in international jour-nals and professional volumes. Many of these areseminal works of the Earth sciences.

5 Anderson, Don L.(1933– )AmericanGeophysicist

The structure of the deeper parts of the Earthcannot be viewed from the surface and therefore

6 Anderson, Don L.

must be imaged using geophysical techniques.The best probes of this region are seismic waves.The seismic waves are generated at the earthquakefoci, pass through the Earth, and return to thesurface where they are recorded by seismographs.The greater the spacing between the earthquakeand seismograph, the deeper the waves will probethe Earth. By studying minute changes in traveltimes of these waves and the relative travel timesamong waves, composition and even temperatureof the deep subsurface can be determined. By per-forming a 3-D image analysis of these data, thestructure of the deep interior of the Earth may bedetermined similar to how a CAT scan is used onthe human body. CAT scanning of the Earth iscalled seismic tomography, and its main pioneer isDon L. Anderson.

Through seismic tomography, Don Andersonhas shown a richly complex structure in the upper

mantle and the lower crust with patterns of hotand not-so-hot areas. This work is summarized inhis paper “Slabs, Hot Spots, Cratons and MantleConvection Revealed from Residual Seismic To-mography.” As a result of this seismic tomogra-phy, Anderson has also proposed a theory thatcontrasts with previous notions that the internalengine of the Earth is like a pot on the stove withdeeply derived heat sources driving convectioncells that move the plates and cause earthquakesand volcanoes. Instead, he proposes that the sur-face features of the Earth may exert significantcontrol on mantle convection and related pro-cesses as described in the paper “The Inside ofEarth: Deep Earth Science from the Top Down.”Plate interactions and geometries may affect howthe mantle moves.

These new ideas led to a reconsideration ofhow the Earth evolved through time both physi-

Anderson, Don L. 7

Don Anderson demonstrating geophysical relations at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena (Courtesy ofDon Anderson)

cally and chemically. Indeed, his new models haveimplications for how any planet evolves throughtime as described in the paper “A Tale of TwoPlanets.” Anderson developed new models to ex-plain the location of volcanoes based upon crustalstress fields. He uses types and amount of volatiles(gases) in lava to propose that the generation ofvirtually all magma is very shallow rather than thedeep source hypothesis that still prevails withmany scientists. Even the classically deep “hotspots” like Hawaii may be from a shallow source.Indeed, Anderson has nearly single-handedly re-defined the function and importance of the as-thenosphere, lithosphere, and his “perisphere.”His top-down (rather than the classic bottom-up)approach to the Earth, both physically and chemi-cally, is revolutionary and establishes Anderson asa true pioneer in the Earth sciences.

Even without all of the fame of his work inseismic tomography, Don Anderson has a distin-guished career studying seismology of the Earth.Many of his studies establish new benchmarks inthe processes by which seismic waves travelthrough the Earth and what information can begleaned from their study.

Don L. Anderson was born on March 5,1933, in Frederick, Maryland, but he was raisedin Baltimore. He always enjoyed science and rockcollecting, so when he went to college at Rensse-laer Polytechnic Institute, New York, he majoredin geology and geophysics and graduated with abachelor of science degree in 1955. From 1955 to1956, he worked as a geophysicist for ChevronOil Co. From 1956 to 1958, he worked as a geo-physicist in the U.S. Air Force Cambridge Re-search Center. In 1962, he earned a Ph.D. at theCalifornia Institute of Technology in geophysicsand mathematics. From 1962 to 1963, he was aresearch fellow at the California Institute of Tech-nology before becoming an assistant professor in1963. He was promoted to associate professor in1964 and finally to full professor in 1968. From1967 to 1989, he directed the Seismological Lab-oratory at the California Institute of Technology

before becoming the Eleanor and John R.McMillan Professor of geophysics in 1989, theposition he holds today. During this time, he wasa Cox Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, aGreen Visiting Scholar at the University of Cali-fornia at San Diego, an H. Burr Steinbach Visit-ing Scholar at Woods Hole OceanographicInstitution in Massachusetts, and a Tuve Distin-guished Visitor at the Carnegie Institution,Washington, D.C.

Don Anderson has had an extremely produc-tive career publishing more than 200 articles ininternational journals and professional volumes.The list of honors and awards that he has receivedin recognition of his research contributions isstaggering. Foremost among these awards is theNational Medal of Science which President BillClinton bestowed on him in 1999. He received anhonorary doctorate from Rensselaer PolytechnicInstitute. In addition, he received the James B.Macelwane Award in 1966 and the Bowie Medalin 1991 both from American Geophysical Union,the Apollo Achievement Award in 1969 and theDistinguished Scientific Achievement Award in1977 both from NASA, the Arthur L. Day Medalfrom the Geological Society of America in 1987,the Newcomb-Cleveland Prize from the AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science in1976, the Emil Wiechert Medal from the GermanGeophysical Society in 1976, the Gold Medalfrom the Royal Astronomical Society in 1988,and the Crafoord Prize from the Royal SwedishAcademy of Science in 1998. He is a Fellow at theNational Academy of Sciences and the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences.

Anderson has served on many importantcommittees at the National Academy of Sciences,National Research Council, NASA, National Sci-ence Foundation, American Geophysical Union(Fellow and president (1988–1990)), GeologicalSociety of America, American Association for theAdvancement of Science, Carnegie Institution ofWashington, D.C., and several others. He hasserved in an editorship capacity for some of the

8 Anderson, Don L.

top international journals including Journal ofGeophysical Research, Tectonophysics, Geological So-ciety of America Bulletin, and Journal of Geody-namics, to name a few. He was an evaluator ofsome of the top geophysical programs worldwide,including Princeton University, Harvard Univer-sity, University of Chicago, Stanford University,University of California at Berkeley, and Univer-sity of Paris, among others. Indeed, Don Ander-son participated in many of the committees,review panels, and projects that truly shaped thecurrent state of the Earth sciences.

5 Ashley, Gail Mowry(1941– )AmericanSedimentologist

Geology is an interdisciplinary science that can beclosely engaged in research with other scientificfields like biology, chemistry, physics, meteorology,and oceanography. Gail Ashley has not only collab-orated on projects in these fields but also in archae-ology and paleoanthropology. Her specialty ismodern depositional systems, which impact andinteract with modern human dwellings and com-munities. In fact, in some cases, it is these watersediment systems that attract the human commu-nities. This is the idea of a geological-archaeologi-cal project with which she is associated. Ashley isstudying a 7-to-8m-thick section of sediments inthe Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Africa, to determinethe type of environment that existed there approxi-mately 2 million years ago when early hominidspopulated the area. She is studying the ecologicallink between freshwater springs and these early hu-mans with the idea that springs are more reliablesources of water than rivers and lakes as describedin the paper “Archaeological Sediments in Springsand Wetlands.” The work will also touch upon thepaleoclimate of the region at that time. She and ateam of archaeologists and anthropologists aremaking great new discoveries in the old stomping

grounds of Louis and Mary Leakey, as well as theaustralopithicine named Zinjanthropus.

The Olduvai research may be Gail Ashley’shighest-profile project, but it is one of many ofequal importance. She is an expert on glacial geo-morphology and glacial marine sedimentation.Her work has taken her to Antarctica, the BrooksRange in Alaska, and Ireland, as well as thenortheastern United States. This research has thegeneral theme of determining the effect of glacia-tion on the Earth but most of her research pro-jects deal with the effect of sediment and waterflow on glacial stability. Her travels to Antarcticamark a personal triumph, as well as a triumph forwomen scientists. Ashley was denied a researchopportunity in 1970 because there were no facili-ties for women. Twenty years later, times hadchanged. Possibly as an offshoot of her glacialwork, she also conducts research on marshes,

Ashley, Gail Mowry 9

Some of Gail Ashley’s research requires her to beairlifted in by helicopter, especially that in Alaska(Courtesy of Gail Ashley)

rivers, and wetlands mainly in New Jersey andBritish Columbia, Canada. It is the glaciationthat causes poor drainage and wetlands in mostof the northeastern United States and otherareas. Because wetlands are so environmentallysensitive, this research has also received much attention.

Gail Mowry was born on January 29, 1941,in Leominster, Massachusetts. She became inter-ested in geology at age 14 when her next-doorneighbor, a geology professor from Smith Col-lege, Marshall Schalk, introduced her to the field.She attended the University of Massachusetts atAmherst and earned a bachelor of science degreein geology in 1963. While raising a family, she re-turned to the University of Massachusetts andearned a master of science degree in 1972. Shecompleted her doctoral degree at the Universityof British Columbia, Canada, in 1977 with a dis-sertation on modern sediment transport in a tidalriver. She joined the faculty at Rutgers University,New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1977 and is cur-rently a full professor and director of the Quater-nary Studies graduate program. Gail Ashley wasmarried to Stuart Ashley for 22 years. They havetwo children. She is now married to Jeremy Delaney, a geochemist at Rutgers University.

Gail Ashley has produced six edited volumes,50 professional journal and volume articles, and21 technical reports and field guides. She servedas editor for the Journal of Sedimentary Researchfrom 1996 to 2000 (the first woman to hold theposition) and associate editor for Geological Soci-ety of America Bulletin from 1989 to 1995 and forthe Journal of Sedimentary Research from 1987 to1990 and 1992 to 1995.

Ashley has also performed outstanding serviceto the professional societies in geology. She was thepresident of the Society of Economic andPetroleum Mineralogists (SEPM) from 1991 to1992 and only the second-ever female president ofthe 15,600-member Geological Society of Americafrom 1998–1999. She was the vice president of theInternational Association of Sedimentologists from

1998 to 2002 and the chairman of the NortheastSection of the Geological Society of America from1991–1992. She has also been active in the Associ-ation of Women Geoscientists and other groups tointegrate more women into the fields of scienceand math. Gail Ashley has taken this effort to apersonal level where she is well known as an excel-lent mentor to her students.

5 Atwater, Tanya(1942– )AmericanTectonics, Marine Geophysicist

After the initial documentation of seafloorspreading by some of the giants of geology, therewere still many details about the ocean floor tounravel. One of the main researchers in the sec-ond wave of plate tectonics is Tanya Atwater. In-credibly, of her first five professional articles,three were deemed so important that they werereprinted in textbooks and professional volumes.Two of these papers include “Changes in the Di-rection of Sea Floor Spreading” and “Implica-tions of Plate Tectonics for the Cenozoic TectonicEvolution of Western North America.” She col-laborated with several noted scientists includingH. WILLIAM MENARD and Fred Vine. Part of herresearch included the defining of new processeson the ocean floor including the mechanics andtopographic expression of oceanic fracture zones(transform faults), and shifting directions ofseafloor spreading. She also defined new pro-cesses of mid-ocean ridges and the formation ofnew ocean crust. This research established Atwa-ter as one of the leaders in tectonics of oceanbasins and a pioneer for women in this field. Toundertake the research, she was a member of sev-eral research cruises that previously had been re-stricted to male participants only. She studied thedeep ocean floor at 2.5 to 3.5 km in the famousALVIN submersible on a dozen occasions. Shewas on drilling expeditions worldwide and par-

10 Atwater, Tanya

Atwater, Tanya 11

ticipated in collecting some of the data that pro-vide the definitive evidence for the accepted the-ories now appearing in introductory textbooksworldwide.

Atwater became not only an expert on pro-cesses but also on specific geologic features. She isone of the foremost experts on the tectonics ofthe northeast Pacific Ocean as well as the mid-At-lantic Ridge near and in Iceland. Much of herprocess-oriented work was gleaned from thestudy of these areas. But she not only worked un-dersea. She was the first to determine the originand evolution of the San Andreas Fault of Cali-fornia, which she did early in her career. Later inher career, she is again investigating the tectonicsof southern California. This time much of herwork has been geared toward geoscience educa-tion and communication. She has devoted greatefforts to educating science teachers on the richgeology of California. It has been like a secondcareer for Atwater, who now conducts workshopsfor science teachers and consults on the produc-tion of written media as well as with museums,television, and on video productions about geo-sciences. She has also continued her role as one ofthe principal spokespersons for the integration ofwomen into geology and the physical sciences ingeneral.

Tanya Atwater was born on August 27,1942, in Los Angeles, California. She attendedthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology from1960 to 1963 but transferred to the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley and earned a bachelor ofscience degree in geology in 1965, Phi BetaKappa. She did her graduate studies at Scripps In-stitution of Oceanography, University of Califor-nia at San Diego, and earned a Ph.D. in 1972.She joined the faculty at Scripps Institution in1972 but accepted a position in the joint programof Massachusetts Institute of Technology andWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Mas-sachusetts, in 1974. Atwater moved back to theUniversity of California at Santa Barbara in 1980and remains there today. She was a USA–USSR

exchange scientist in 1973. Atwater was marriedto fellow Massachusetts Institute of Technologygeologist PETER MOLNAR and together they haveone son.

Tanya Atwater has had a productive career.She is an author on 50 articles in internationaljournals, professional volumes, and major re-ports, as well as video presentations. Many ofthese are benchmark studies on marine geo-physics and tectonics that were reprinted indefinitive volumes on the topics. Seven of thesepapers appeared in the high-profile journals Na-ture and Science. Atwater has been recognized forher contributions to the profession through nu-merous honors and awards. She is a member ofthe National Academy of Sciences. She was de-clared Scientist of the Year for the 1980 WorldBook Encyclopedia. The same year she won theNewcomb Cleveland Prize from the American

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Tanya Atwater on a field trip to the Kelso Dunes,Central Mojave Desert in 1994 (Courtesy of ArthurSylvester)

Association for the Advancement of Science. In1984, she won the Encouragement Award fromthe Association of Women Geoscientists and shewas a Sloan Fellow in 1975–1977. She was alsonamed to endowed distinguished lectureships atCarleton College, Minnesota, and San AntonioState College, Texas.

Atwater also performed service to the profes-sion. She served on several national and interna-tional committees and panels including beingchair of the Ocean Margin Drilling AdvisoryCommittee and a member of the InternationalDrilling Project. She also served on numerouscommittees for the American Geophysical Union.

12 Atwater, Tanya

5 Bally, Albert W.(1925– )DutchPetroleum Geologist, Structural Geologist

Albert Bally has had great success both in thepetroleum industry and in translating those suc-cesses into scholarly works in academia. Althoughthere are many other geologists who have madesimilar industry-academic connections, none havebeen as effective as Bally. Perhaps the best exampleof this duality was his 1975 paper entitled “AGeodynamic Scenario for Hydrocarbon Occur-rences.” It is a worldwide look at types of sedi-mentary basins, and explains the dynamics of thehydrocarbon-bearing basins using the theory ofplate tectonics. Two updated versions of this paperwere published in 1980. Also during this time,Bally was an author on the Stratigraphic Atlas ofNorth and Central America, which includes a seriesof maps that detail the origin of sedimentary ma-terials and the paleogeography of North and Cen-tral America.

One of his best-known areas of research wasreleased in a now classic 1966 paper whichshowed that deformation in the Canadian RockyMountain fold and thrust belt only involved thesedimentary strata of the cover sequence over arelatively undeformed crystalline basement. This

deformation is termed “thin-skinned” and it isanalogous to a rug (sedimentary cover) sliding ona wood floor (crystalline basement). It quantita-tively describes the great amount of thrusting thattook place and its effect on lithospheric processes.Many of the important concepts he discovered inthis paper were influential in future papers, suchas his extraordinary work in the Melville Islands,Canada, fold and thrust belt and his developmentof the concept of the orogenic float. This processinvolves the sideways thrust faulting of rock sheetsparallel to synchronous strike-slip faults.

During his career Albert Bally did extensivework on the geology of the Gulf of Mexico. Heproposed that the Gulf province was the type ex-ample of a passive margin that experienced com-plex stratigraphic and structural deformationprimarily due to gravitational instabilities. Eventhough common and extensive listric (shallowingdip with depth) normal faulting and its effects onsedimentation were known for a long time, themovement of salt into deformational features wasnot recognized until the late 1970s. Salt domesare the locations of the largest petroleum depositsin the Gulf Coast. He extended this work onhalokinesis (salt tectonics) to other areas as well.Bally showed how the importance of al-lochthonous salt located in a fold and thrust beltcan explain certain complex structural relation-ships in the Betic Cordillera of Spain.

13

B

Much of Bally’s work involves the integrationof seismic reflection profiling (like a sonogram ofthe Earth) with structural and stratigraphic obser-vations and principles. With his access to the ex-cellent industry seismic reflection data, he wasable to document these sedimentary-deforma-tional processes well ahead of the rest of the profession. Through an impressive feat of negotia-tion, Bally was able to publish some of this veryexpensive proprietary data in a series of atlasesthat are unparalleled in the field. Through thiswork, he established himself as one of the world’sforemost experts on seismic stratigraphy and seis-mic interpretation. As a result of this expertise heled the way to a major national seismic profilingresearch project on the continental shelves calledthe EDGE project.

Albert Bally was born in The Hague,Netherlands, on April 21, 1925. He became in-terested in geology as a boy exploring the volca-

noes and foothills around Rome, Italy. He at-tended high school in Switzerland and upongraduation continued his education at the Uni-versity of Zurich, where he earned a bachelor ofscience and a Ph.D. (1925), both in geology.Upon graduation, Bally accepted a post-doctoralfellowship at the Lamont-Doherty GeologicalObservatory of Columbia University, New York,where he remained for one year. In 1954, Ballywas offered a position with Shell Oil Companywhere he remained until he retired in 1981. Hebegan with Shell Canada in Alberta where he ex-plored for prospects in the Rocky Mountainoverthrust belt. He moved to Houston, Texas, in1966 as a manager of Geological Research at theShell Bellaire Research and Development Labora-tory. In 1968, he became the chief geologist forthe U.S. Division of Shell Oil and was appointedexploration consultant in 1976, and senior ex-ploration consultant in 1980. Upon retirementfrom Shell, he accepted the position of HarryCarothers Weiss Professor of geology at RiceUniversity in Houston, Texas, where he remainstoday. He was initially appointed departmentchair at Rice as well.

Albert Bally has led a dual career with impres-sive productivity in each regard. He produced nu-merous reports on his exploration and research atShell Oil, as well as numerous scholarly publica-tions, both at Shell and in his academic role.Many of these papers and reports are true classicsin the structural, stratigraphic, and plate tectonicprocesses primarily as they relate to hydrocarbonaccumulation. In recognition of his contributionsto geology, Albert Bally has received numeroushonors and awards. He was the recipient of theCareer Contribution Award for the Structural Ge-ology and Tectonics Division of the GeologicalSociety of America for 1998, the Sidney PowersMedal from the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists, the William Smith Medalfrom the Geological Society of London, and theGustav Steinmann Medal from the GeologischeVereinigung of Germany.

14 Bally, Albert W.

Bert Bally on a field trip in California in 1984 (Courtesyof Arthur Sylvester)

Bally also contributed to geology in terms ofservice to the profession. He served as CentennialPresident of the Geological Society of America in1988 in addition to councilor and numerousother roles. In his role as president, he initiatedthe famous Decade of North American Geology(DNAG) project. He was also very active with theAmerican Association of Petroleum Geologistsand served roles for the National Academy of Sci-ences as well.

5 Bascom, Florence(1862–1945)AmericanField Geologist, Petrologist

Florence Bascom is considered the “Grand Dameof American Geology.” She was truly a pioneerwho enabled women to make a name for them-selves in the traditionally male-dominated field ofgeology. Even though she was the second womanin the country to earn a Ph.D. in geology (follow-ing Mary Holmes, who earned a Ph.D. in geologyfrom the University of Michigan in 1888), Bas-com was a first for women in geology in almostevery aspect of her geological career. The U.S.Geological Survey hired her as their first womangeologist; she was the first woman to present apaper before the Geological Society of Washing-ton; she was the first woman admitted to the Ge-ological Society of America in 1924; and the firstwoman officer of Geological Society of America(vice president, 1930). She was an associate editorof the American Geologist from 1896 to 1905. Inthe first edition of American Men of Science pub-lished in 1906, she was regarded as a four-star ge-ologist. This meant that her peers and colleaguesregarded her as one of the top 100 geologists inthe United States.

Florence Bascom became an expert in miner-alogy, petrology, and crystallography. Her disser-tation was her earliest and one of her mostimportant contributions to geology. Using petro-

graphic (optical microscope for rocks) methods,she showed that rocks that were previously con-sidered sedimentary were actually metamor-phosed lava flows. She continued research in thisarea and established herself as one of the foremostexperts on crystalline rocks in the central Ap-palachian Piedmont. This research included map-ping vast areas in Pennsylvania and Maryland butalso topical studies on metamorphic processes.Her tight coordination of petrographic work withthe fieldwork was considered cutting-edgemethodology at the time. Her contributions toPiedmont geology are still valued and used by ge-ologists working in that area today. Later in hercareer, she expanded this interest to include thedevelopment of mountain belts in general, espe-cially with regard to crystalline rocks.

Florence Bascom was born in Williamstown,Massachusetts, on July 14, 1862, the youngest ofsix children. Her father, John Bascom, was a pro-

Bascom, Florence 15

Portrait of Florence Bascom (Courtesy of the U.S.Geological Survey)

fessor of oratory and rhetoric at Williams College,Massachusetts. He was a strong supporter ofwomen’s rights and spoke publicly regarding theimportance of a college education for women. In1874, he became president of the University ofWisconsin at Madison and in 1875 the universitybegan admitting women. Florence Bascom en-rolled in the fall of 1877. Even with limited accessto the library and the gym and not being allowedto enter classrooms already filled with men, sheearned a bachelor of arts and letters degree in1882 and a bachelor of science degree in 1884.She then became interested in geology and wenton to earn a master of science degree in 1887 alsofrom the University of Wisconsin. She continuedher graduate studies at Johns Hopkins Universityin Baltimore, Maryland, but was required to sitbehind a screen during classes so she did not dis-tract the male students. She graduated with aPh.D. in geology in 1893.

Florence Bascom began her college teachingcareer as soon as she completed her undergradu-ate degree. She taught at the newly foundedHampton School of Negroes and American Indi-ans (currently Hampton University) in Ohio,1884–1885, Rockford College, Ohio, from 1887to 1889, and Ohio State University from 1893 to1895. After completing her Ph.D., she began herfamous teaching career at Bryn Mawr College,Pennsylvania, in 1895 where she single-handedlydeveloped the Department of Geology. In 1896,she was also hired as an assistant geologist by theU.S. Geological Survey to map the geology ofPennsylvania, Maryland, and New Jersey duringthe summer months. In 1909, she was promotedto geologist. Florence Bascom retired to professoremeritus from Bryn Mawr in 1928, but remainedactive until her death on June 18, 1945, as theresult of a stroke.

Florence Bascom was an author on researchpublications that total nearly 40, including USGSbulletins and portfolios, as well as journal articles.Most of these papers are on the crystalline rocksof the central Appalachian Piedmont. She also

published the extensive research she conducted onPiedmont geomorphology (provenance of surficialdeposits). Her accomplishments must also includethe training of some of the most prominentwomen geologists of the time. Louise Kingsley,Katherine Fowler Billings, petrologists ANNA I.JONAS STOSE and Eleanora Bliss Knopf, crystallo-grapher Mary Porter, paleontologist Julia Gardner,all of whom went on to have careers with theUSGS, were among Bascom’s protégées. Also in-cluded among her students were petroleum geolo-gist Maria Stadonichenko, Barnard’s glacialgeomorphologist Ida Ogilvie, Isabel FothergilleSmith of Scripps College, Bryn Mawr’s DorothyWyckoff, and Anna Heitonen. Florence Bascomfirmly established the first gateway at Bryn MawrCollege for women to enter the field of geology. Itwould be many decades before any other schooleven approached her success.

5 Berner, Robert(1935– )AmericanGeochemist, Sedimentologist

Robert Berner has an interesting approach to sci-entific research. His work is a prime example ofhow small-scale, curiosity-driven science can pro-duce big-scale scientific results. He works withmodest funding, relatively simple equipment, andsmall groups of highly motivated scientists. Col-laboration with biologist Alfred Redfield in hisearly career began this approach for him as well asconvincing him of the advantages of a holistic ap-proach to science. Berner attacks his research prob-lems using all available resources and methodsregardless of the subdiscipline or even the field, beit geology, biology, chemistry, physics, meteorol-ogy, or oceanography, or what techniques it mayentail. He can be considered the “father of Earthsystem science,” the newest and among the mostpopular directions in Earth science. Earth systemscience involves the collapse of walls between disci-

16 Berner, Robert

plines of the Earth and related sciences, as well asthose in ecology and related biosciences. The inter-actions of processes take precedence over their in-dividuality. There are now many books on thesubject and even research projects must have theirinteractions demonstrated in order to receive fed-eral funding in many programs.

Robert Berner has been among the leading in-novators of scientific thought in the field of sedi-mentary geochemistry. His research interests are ingeochemical cycles of carbon, phosphorus, andsulfur within these sediments largely using stableisotopes (nonradioactive) as tracers. Related areasthat he researches include biogeochemistry, dia-genesis, mathematical modeling of Earth’s surfacegeochemistry, chemical oceanography, and chemi-cal weathering. His research on the early stages ofdiagenesis of sediments revealed the complexity ofinterrelationships among physical, chemical, andbiological processes occurring near the sediment-water interface. This research inspired his mathe-matical models for diagenesis, which were the firstof their kind. His work on the physical chemistryof carbonate minerals in seawater set the mark forchemical oceanography as well as current work onclimate modeling. His research on the surfacechemistry of silicate minerals undergoing weather-ing set the standard for much of the research thatwas to follow. He has modeled the global carboncycle and the role it plays in controlling atmo-spheric oxygen and carbon dioxide, and global cli-mate over Phanerozoic time (the past 535 millionyears). He is particularly interested in how the evo-lution of land plants may have influenced globalweathering rates and the carbon cycle. This workprovides the basis for the climate change analysisthat is currently being conducted at a remarkablepace. Robert Berner is a true pioneer in this, themost vigorous field in Earth science today.

Robert Berner was born on November 25,1935, in Erie, Pennsylvania, where he spent hischildhood. He attended the University of Michi-gan, Ann Arbor, and earned bachelor of scienceand master of science degrees in geology in 1957

and 1958, respectively. He earned his Ph.D. atHarvard University, Massachusetts, in 1962. Hejoined Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Uni-versity of California at San Diego, as a SverdrupPostdoctoral Fellow in 1962 to 1963. He thenjoined the faculty of the University of Chicago,Illinois, in 1963. In 1965, he moved to Yale Uni-versity, Connecticut, where he remains today.

Robert Berner has had a very productive ca-reer. His accomplishments are reflected in the factthat he is among the most frequently cited earthscientists in scientific literature. In addition tohaving published more than 200 articles in inter-national journals, he wrote four successful booksincluding Principles of Chemical Sedimentology in1971, Early Diagenesis: A Theoretical Approach in1980, The Global Water Cycle, which he wrotewith his wife, E. K. Berner, in 1987, and GlobalEnvironment (also with E. K. Berner) in 1996.

Berner has been recognized with numeroushonors and awards for his groundbreaking re-search. He was elected to the U.S. NationalAcademy of Sciences at a young age and he is aFellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sci-ences. He was awarded the Huntsman Medal inOceanography from the Geological Society ofCanada in 1993 and the V. M. GoldschmidtMedal from the Geochemical Society in 1995. Hewas awarded the Murchison Medal from the Geo-logical Society of London in 1996 and the ArthurL. Day Medal from the Geological Society ofAmerica in 1996. He was awarded the BownockerMedal from Ohio State University in 2001 and anhonorary doctoral degree, Doctor Honoris Causa,Université Aix-Marseille III, France, in 1991.

5 Berry, William B. N. (1931– )AmericanInvertebrate Paleontologist

Just as John McPhee described in his popularbooks on geology, there is a sharp contrast be-

Berry, William B. N. 17

tween East Coast geology and West Coast geol-ogy. Many of the notable Earth scientists of theEast Coast are “grand old geologists of the Ap-palachians.” Even though they are basically doingthe same sort of research with the same cuttingedge, West Coast geologists are regarded asyoung mavericks. This impression may reflect theage of the rocks (the East Coast is much older) orthe age of the schools or perhaps an historicalmigration of many of the new doctorates fromthe East Coast to the West Coast in the 1950sand 1960s or some combination thereof. WilliamBerry has managed to be from both coasts. Earlyin his career, Berry established himself as one ofthe true leaders in Appalachian paleontologyamong a very talented group and he has never re-ally abandoned that position through all of hisother work. He is a specialist in graptolites andespecially Ordovician graptolites, mainly fromthe Taconic Mountains of New York, althoughhis earliest reports were from Texas. Graptolitesare small enigmatic sawlike fossils that are mainlyfound in deepwater shales. His work expandedinto Silurian graptolites from the Maine slatebelt and nearby Canada and later to Devoniangraptolites, among the others, and his area of in-terest spread to the entire United States and evenwestern Ireland.

Berry’s interest in graptolites has never reallyfaded but he became more interested in biostratig-raphy, especially with regard to regional correla-tions. With his colleague Arthur Boucot, Berrybegan a mammoth project of correlation of Sil-urian rocks worldwide including North America,South America, Southeast Asia and the Near East,Africa, Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, andChina. All the while, he kept expanding his grap-tolite studies to northern Canada and Greenlandbut periodically he returned to his roots in theAppalachians. Eventually his research furtherevolved into paleoenvironmental and paleoclimateanalysis of these ancient settings. Berry studiedthe evolution of the platforms and basins andconsidered the stimuli that caused animals to

evolve. He considered several mechanisms ofchange including ocean venting, destabilization ofocean density gradients, and even meteorite im-pacts. Most of this research was conducted onblack shales where the graptolite fossils are found.These studies drew Berry into the modern groupof environmental geologist and climate changemodelers. His administrative work and service tothe profession also moved in this direction con-currently with his research.

William Berry was born on September 1,1931, in Boston, Massachusetts. He attendedHarvard University and earned a bachelor of artsdegree in 1953 in geology and a master of arts ingeology in 1955. He completed his graduate stud-ies at Yale University, Connecticut, where heearned a Ph.D. in 1957. Upon graduation, he ac-cepted a position at the University of Houston,Texas, but moved to the University of Californiaat Berkeley the next year (1958) and remainsthere today. While a faculty member, Berry hasalso held numerous positions with the Museum ofPaleontology at the University of California atBerkeley including the curator of Paleozoic andMesozoic invertebrate fossils (1960–present), as-sociate director (1962–1966), acting director(1966, 1972–1976), and director (1976–1987).He served as chair of the Department of Paleon-tology (1975–1987) and the director of the envi-ronmental sciences program (1979–1993). He hasalso been a marine scientist in the LawrenceBerkeley National Laboratory since 1989.William Berry has been married to SuzanneSpaulding since 1961; they have one child.

William Berry has led a very productive ca-reer. He is an author on some 165 articles and re-ports in international journals, professional booksand volumes, governmental reports, and confer-ence proceedings. Many of these papers arebenchmark studies on graptolites, paleo-oceanog-raphy, and biostratigraphy that appear in journalssuch as Nature and Science. He is an author or edi-tor of 12 books and volumes. Two of these books,Principles of Stratigraphic Analysis and Growth of a

18 Berry, William B. N.

Prehistoric Time Scale Based on Organismal Evolu-tion, are a widely adopted textbook and a morepopular scientific book that have been reprintedseveral times. Berry was a Guggenheim Fellow in1967.

Berry has performed significant service tothe profession and the public. He has served innumerous roles for the International Strati-graphic Commission, the National ResearchCouncil, the Geological Society of America, theAmerican Geological Institute, and the AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science. Hewas also the director of the Environmental Sci-ences Curriculum Development Program for theSan Francisco, California, Unified School Dis-trict. He was similarly an adviser for the Catalan(Spain) Ministry for the Environment to developan environmental health and safety program.Berry served in numerous editorial capacities in-cluding as associate editor of Paleoceanography(1986–1992) and a member of the board of edi-tors for the University of California Publicationsin the geological sciences.

5 Bethke, Craig M.(1957– )AmericanHydrogeologist

One of the most important applied aspects of ge-ology today is the study of how fluid flowsthrough rock and soil. It not only dictates our abil-ity to find clean sources of groundwater for drink-ing and industrial uses, but because there is such aclose interaction between ground and surfacewater, it also affects our surface water quality. Inaddition, oil and gas flow through rock as they mi-grate into a reservoir where they can be drilled andproduced much in the same manner as groundwa-ter flow. Craig Bethke has quickly established him-self as one of the leading hydrogeologists in thefield. He mathematically models fluid flow andchemical interactions, both at the surface and in

the subsurface, using sophisticated computer pro-grams. Even the more standard computer tech-niques for such analyses, taken from engineeringapplications using procedures called finite ele-ments and finite differences modeling, can havemany tens of thousands of lines of code. Bethke’swork goes beyond the standard applications andmany of his projects require the use of a supercom-puter. He is in an elite class in the whole geologicalcommunity to be able to so quantify such complexphenomena.

Bethke’s main interest has been the fluid mi-gration history in the evolution of sedimentarybasins. When sediments are deposited, they aresaturated with fluids that typically contain mini-mal amounts of dissolved solids. As those sedi-ments are progressively buried beneath additionalstrata, the pressure and temperature build. Thepore fluids dissolve material from the sediments inwhich they are contained or, depending upon con-ditions, precipitate chemicals in which they aresaturated. By this process, they take on the chemi-cal signature of their host sediment. They are thenforced to migrate from this building pressure and

Bethke, Craig M. 19

Craig Bethke demonstrates the models produced bycomputer software that he developed (Courtesy ofLillian Morales)

will chemically interact with any other sedimentthat they pass through. Bethke models these verycomplex multicomponent chemical interactionsbetween fluids and sediments during migration.Their study may require him to study detailed claymineralogy, petrology of the sediments, isotopicanalysis, and detailed geochemistry. These studieshave great application to petroleum exploration.They have been done on the Denver Basin, Col-orado, the Los Angeles Basin, California, and theIllinois Basin, among others.

In addition to these paleohydrogeologic stud-ies which concentrate on flow in ancient systems,Bethke also studies the environmental aspects ofaqueous geochemistry (water chemistry) whichinvolve currently active systems. He uses the dis-tribution of isotopic tracers to map out the flowpatterns in active settings. This work has takenhim to the Western Canada sedimentary basinand the Great Artesian Basin of Australia. A newaspect of his research is to add the interaction ofmicrobiology with geologic processes. This multi-disciplinary study of complex geologic processes isopening up, with great success, an aspect of aque-ous geochemistry that has traditionally been over-looked.

Craig Bethke was born on June 6, 1957, inRolla, Missouri. He attended Dartmouth College,New Hampshire, where he earned a bachelor ofarts degree in Earth sciences with distinction in1979. He did his graduate studies at the Pennsyl-vania State University at University Park in geo-sciences and at the University of Illinois atUrbana-Champaign where he earned a Ph.D. in1985. During his graduate study, he worked as anexploration geologist at ARCO Oil and Gas Co.and at Exxon Production Research Co. and ExxonMinerals Co. Bethke joined the faculty at Univer-sity of Illinois in 1985, and he remains theretoday. Bethke has been a visiting professor at boththe Académie des Sciences in Paris, France, andÉcole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris inFontainebleau, France. Craig Bethke is married toAbigail Bethke; they have three children.

Craig Bethke is in the early stages of whatpromises to be a very productive career. He hasbeen an author of 34 articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes. He has alsowritten one advanced textbook and four pieces ofsoftware documentation. Several of these are sem-inal papers on fluid migration in sedimentarybasins, including one paper in the prestigiousjournal Science. He is also the primary author ofseveral widely used software packages includingThe Geochemist’s Workbench and Basin2. Con-sidering the relatively early point in his career,Craig Bethke has received an astounding numberof honors and awards for his research contribu-tions to the science as well as his teaching. He re-ceived the Meinzer Award from the GeologicalSociety of America, the Lindgren Award from theSociety of Economic Geologists, a PresidentialYoung Investigator Award from the National Sci-ence Foundation, and he was chosen as a ShellFaculty Career Fellow. As a student he was a Na-tional Science Foundation Graduate Fellow; hereceived the Best Student Paper Award from theClay Minerals Society and the Upham Prize atDartmouth College. At University of Illinois, hewas named a Beckman Associate and a Fellow atthe Center for Advanced Study, as well as havingbeen cited for excellence in teaching numeroustimes.

5 Billings, Marland P.(1902–1996)AmericanStructural Geologist

When John McPhee contrasted mountain build-ing events from the East Coast of the UnitedStates with those from the West Coast in hisbook In Suspect Terrain, he did so metaphoricallyby describing geologists. In contrast to the glitzymodern image portrayed for the geologicallyyoung mountains of the West Coast, the Ap-palachians were portrayed as a New England ge-

20 Billings, Marland P.

ologist. This gritty, aging New Englander, toughas nails and self-sacrificing yet with a wry sense ofhumor, is personified by Marland Billings. Butthis image should not convey the idea of a geolo-gist who is hopelessly rooted in archaic theoriesand methods. Rather, the New England geolo-gists began unraveling the histories of unbeliev-ably complex geologic terranes well before theWest Coast geologists. When Marland Billingsbegan his assault on the New England Appalachi-ans, they were considered to be largely Precam-brian crystalline rocks that were so complex thatthey would never be understood. Billings was un-daunted. Using the most modern of petrologicand structural techniques at the time and devis-ing new ones as he went, Billings and a group ofsome of the top geologists in the world, many ofwhom he trained, put New England into context.Three distinct Paleozoic (535 million–245 mil-lion years ago) orogenies (mountain buildingevents) emerged (Taconian, Acadian, and Al-leghenian) and the rock units were assigned ages,many by continuous long-distance correlationswith rocks that contain fossils. New Englandshould really be viewed not as a stodgy old re-gional study but as an early cutting-edge andcontinuing regional study.

With some background experience in theAlps and the Rocky Mountains, MarlandBillings began his work in central New Hamp-shire on Paleozoic rocks where fossils had beendiscovered. From there, he worked his way intothe regionally metamorphosed rocks that com-prise most of New England. These studiesstretched into Vermont and throughout Mas-sachusetts and even into southern Maine. At thetime, having Marland Billings work on an areameant that it would soon be brought into amodern context. He is probably best known forhis research on the White Mountain magma se-ries and surrounding rocks where he and hiswife, Kay, trudged through the PresidentialRange, the most rugged terrain in New En-gland. These observations set the stage for a

reinterpretation of the geologic style of New En-gland.

Marland Billings was born on March 11,1902, in Boston, Massachusetts. He received hisprecollegiate education at Roxbury Latin School,Massachusetts, before enrolling at Harvard Uni-versity in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He earneda bachelor of arts (magna cum laude), master ofarts, and Ph.D. in geology in 1923, 1925, and1927, respectively, and was an instructor duringhis last year. He accepted a position at BrynMawr College in Pennsylvania upon graduationbut returned to Harvard University as a facultymember in 1931. He remained at Harvard Uni-versity throughout his career, serving as depart-ment chair from 1946–1951 as well as curator ofthe Geological Museum. He retired to professoremeritus in 1972. During World War II, Billingsserved with the U.S. Office of Field Service inthe South Pacific in 1944 where he evaluatedstrategic nickel deposits in New Caledonia. Mar-land Billings married geologist and former stu-dent Katherine Stevens Fowler in 1938. Theyhad one son. Marland Billings died on October9, 1996, in Peterborough, New Hampshire.

Marland Billings was an author of numerousscientific articles in international journals and pro-fessional volumes. He is also the author of thewidely adopted textbook Structural Geology thatwas first published in 1942 but still used at collegesinto the 1970s. He also was an author on the bookBedrock Geology of New Hampshire and of the stategeological map of New Hampshire (1955). Manyremember him best for his avid participation in theannual field trip of the New England Intercolle-giate Geological Conference. In recognition of hisresearch contributions to geology, Marland Billingsreceived numerous honors and awards. He was amember of the National Academy of Sciences. Hereceived honorary doctorates from WashingtonUniversity in Saint Louis, Missouri, and the Uni-versity of New Hampshire. In 1987, he was pre-sented with the Penrose Medal, the top award fromthe Geological Society of America.

Billings, Marland P. 21

Billings’s service to the profession was excep-tional. Among numerous panels and committees,he served as the president of the Geological Soci-ety of America (1959) and the vice president ofthe American Association for the Advancementof Science in 1946–1947. He was also presidentof the Boston Geological Society in 1940. Hewas a member of the Mineral Resources Com-mittee of New Hampshire from 1935 on and atthat time he was the de facto state geologist.From 1958, he consulted for the MetropolitanDistrict Commission for Boston, Massachusetts,and evaluated the bedrock for virtually all of thewater supply and other tunnels around Boston atthat time.

5 Birch, A. Francis(1903–1992)AmericanGeophysicist

Francis Birch is famous not only for his contribu-tions to geophysics and geology but also to theWorld War II effort in his role in development ofthe atomic bomb. He is considered one of a fewfounders of the science of solid Earth geophysics.His most famous research was to determine thebasic architecture of the deep Earth. In a 1952paper entitled “Elasticity and the Constitution ofthe Earth’s Interior,” he conclusively showed thatthe mantle of the Earth is mainly composed of sil-icate minerals and that the upper mantle andlower mantle regions are each basically homoge-nous but of different composition. The two re-gions are separated by a thin transition zoneassociated with silicate phase transitions fromopen structured minerals in the upper mantle todenser, closed structured minerals in the lowermantle. Birch also showed that the inner andouter cores are alloys of crystalline and molteniron respectively. This breakthrough remains abenchmark in Earth science that appears in everytextbook in physical geology.

Francis Birch combined theory with experi-mental practices in his research. His geological re-search was combined with the disciplines ofphysics and electrical engineering. By combiningthese three disciplines, Birch was able to success-fully solve many virtually otherwise unaddress-able geologic problems. He had the uncannyability to recognize a geologic problem, decide anapproach to the problem, and use that approachto find a result to the problem. Birch’s researchdealt with elasticity, phase relations, thermalproperties, and the composition of the Earth’s in-terior as summarized in his paper “Elasticity andthe Earth’s Interior.” He knew that there was alimited amount of data regarding high-pressurephysical properties of rocks and minerals. Thesehad to be addressed in order to better interpretmeasurements made by seismological and gravitytechniques. To these ends, Birch’s experimentalresearch concentrated on elasticity, phase rela-tions, thermal properties and heat flow, and thecomposition of the Earth’s interior. His labora-tory studies of seismic wave velocities in rocksand their variation with pressure and temperaturediscovered the first approximations of density-pressure relationships at high compressions. Birchused these data that he collected to interpretglobal seismic data in regard to composition andstructure of the interior.

Another major contribution Birch and his re-search team made was to our knowledge of terres-trial heat flow. By combining experimental dataon thermal conductivities of rocks with tempera-ture gradient measurements from boreholes andtunnels, they helped distinguish heat flow as oneof the most important conditions of continentalgeophysics. This work is presented in severalmajor papers, including “Heat from Radioactiv-ity” and “Heat Flow in the United States.”

Albert Francis Birch was born in Washington,D.C., on August 22, 1903, where he spent hisyouth. He graduated from Western High Schoolin 1920. He attended Harvard University andparticipated in the ROTC program. He graduated

22 Birch, A. Francis

magna cum laude in 1924 with a bachelor of sci-ence degree in electrical engineering. He workedfor two years for the New York Telephone Com-pany in engineering when he decided to changehis course of study to physics. Birch received anAmerican Field Service Fellowship that led to twoyears of study (1926–1928) at the Institut dePhysique, University of Strasbourg, France. Birchstudied under Pierre Weiss who was one of thefounders of modern magnetism. As a result, Birchdecided to return to Harvard in 1928 as a gradu-ate student in physics. He worked in the high-pressure laboratory of Percy W. Bridgman whoreceived the Nobel Prize in physics in 1946. Birchwas an instructor and tutor in physics from 1930to 1932. He received his master of science degreein 1929 and his Ph.D. in 1932.

Just prior to graduation, Harvard Universityoffered Birch the opportunity to work in thenewly established high-pressure research programas the first research associate in geophysics. Thenext year, he became director of the program. Itwas at this time that Francis Birch married Bar-bara Channing; they had three children. FrancisBirch took a leave of absence in 1942 to partici-pate in the World War II effort. He began at theRadiation Laboratory at Massachusetts Instituteof Technology, but in 1943 he accepted a com-mission as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Navy atthe Bureau of Ships in Washington, D.C. This as-signment was short-lived because he was quicklychosen by Robert Oppenheimer to participate inthe Manhattan Project. He moved to Los Alamos,New Mexico, where he was soon promoted tocommander and the head of the Uranium-235 fis-sion bomb project (code name Little Boy). Birchpersonally supervised the assembly and loading of“Little Boy” onto the B-29 Enola Gay prior to thebombing of Hiroshima, Japan. Francis Birch wasawarded the Legion of Merit by the U.S. Navy forthese outstanding efforts.

Francis Birch returned to Harvard Universityin 1945 to resume his academic career. He quicklyadvanced to become the prestigious Sturgis

Hooper professor of geology in 1949 and later hewould be the chairman of the Geological SciencesDepartment. He retired to professor emeritus in1974, but continued his research at a bit slowerpace until his death on January 30, 1992, at 88years old.

Francis Birch led an extremely productive ca-reer serving as author of numerous scientific arti-cles in international journals and professionalvolumes. Many of these papers are benchmarkstudies in mantle structure and processes, heatflow, and the propagation of seismic wavesthrough the Earth. In recognition of his numer-ous contributions to Earth sciences, FrancisBirch received numerous prestigious honors andawards. He was a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences. He received honorary doc-toral degrees from the University of Chicago andHarvard University. He also received the Na-tional Medal of Science from President Johnsonin 1968. He was recipient of the Gold Medalfrom the Royal Astronomical Society of Londonin 1973, the Vetlesen Medal for 1960, both theArthur L. Day Medal in 1950 and the PenroseMedal in 1969 from the Geological Society ofAmerica, the William Bowie Medal from theAmerican Geophysical Union in 1960, and theBridgman Medal from the International Associa-tion for the Advancement of High Pressure Re-search in 1983.

5 Bloss, F. Donald(1920– )AmericanMineralogist

For many years, the analysis of minerals was doneusing a microscope and then wet chemical meth-ods for further resolution if necessary. With theadvent of X-ray analysis and spectroscopy, theseold optical methods, although still used to givegeneral results and to guide the choice of furtheranalysis, were considered archaic for detailed anal-

Bloss, F. Donald 23

ysis. Donald Bloss almost single-handedly keptthese optical methods alive through all of theseyears and he did so using innovative new ap-proaches. Probably the most impressive of thesenew techniques is the Bloss Automated Refrac-tometer, or BAR, which was patented in 1987.One of the most distinctive optical properties ofminerals is the index of refraction, basically thespeed at which light travels through the mineral.Just as objects appear bent as they pass from air towater, so does light bend or refract through min-erals. The BAR shoots a laser beam through amineral and then precisely measures the angle atwhich it bends. This angle will not only uniquelydefine certain minerals but can even give accuratechemistry of minerals with simple two-compo-nent solid solutions like olivine (Mg-Fe) or pla-gioclase (Na-Ca). The ultimate version of thisdevice is to be called the automated petrographerin which a thin section (microscope slide of rock)is mapped out, including all of the minerals and

their orientations. It therefore can determinecomposition and fabric of a rock.

This is not the only device that Bloss in-vented. He also designed and produced the “spin-dle stage,” a simple microscope attachment thatallows single minerals to be observed in all direc-tions for more accurate analysis. The name Blossis known by virtually all students of geology notfor these inventions but for his popular text-books, Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry andIntroduction to the Methods of Optical Crystallog-raphy. These two books have been the standardbearers for their subjects for 40 and 30 years, re-spectively. Their success is based largely on hisability to inject his own teaching philosophy intothe writing.

Bloss’s scientific contributions are mainly in-volved with defining the optical properties of avariety of minerals under a variety of conditions.Much of the information that we have on themore recent quantitative optical properties ofminerals, especially concerning solid solutions,resulted from this research. He also looked at thephysics of light as it passes through minerals.

Don Bloss was born on May 30, 1920, inChicago, Illinois, where he spent his youth. Heenrolled at the University of Chicago, Illinois,where he earned a bachelor of science degree ingeology in 1947, Phi Beta Kappa. He remained atthe University of Chicago for graduate studies andearned a master of science degree in geology in1949 and a Ph.D. in mineralogy in 1951. Hejoined the faculty at the University of Tennessee atKnoxville in 1951. He moved to the University ofSouthern Illinois at Carbondale in 1957. In 1967,he accepted a position at Virginia Polytechnic In-stitute and State University (Virginia Tech) andremained there for the rest of his career. He wasnamed the first-ever alumni distinguished profes-sor at Virginia Tech in 1972. He also served as de-partment chair from 1988 to 1990. He retired toprofessor emeritus in 1991. Bloss was a NationalScience Foundation Senior Postdoctoral Fellow atCambridge University, England, and the Swiss

24 Bloss, F. Donald

Don Bloss working in his office at Virginia Tech in1988 (Courtesy of Don Bloss)

Federal Institute, Zurich, in 1962–1963. He wasalso the first-ever Caswell Silver DistinguishedVisiting Professor at the University of New Mex-ico in 1981–1982. Bloss is a chess enthusiast andhas written four books on the subject, includingone with his grandson, Andrew Kensler, entitledSammy Seahorse Teaches Chess.

Don Bloss has led a very productive career.He is an author of some 70 articles in interna-tional journals as well as six geology books, onechapter in a book, and numerous entries in ency-clopedias, as well as papers in collected volumes.Many of these studies define the state of the sci-ence for optical properties of minerals amongothers. These research contributions have beenrecognized in terms of honors and awards. Be-sides those already mentioned, Bloss received theAward of Merit and Honor from the State Mi-croscopical Society of Illinois, the Ernst AbbeAward from the New York State MicroscopicalSociety, and he was inducted into the Hall ofFame at the Carl Schurz High School, Chicago,Illinois. He also had the mineral “blossite”named after him.

Bloss has also performed service to the profes-sion. He was president (1977) and vice president(1976) of the Mineralogical Society of America,among numerous other positions, panels, andcommittees. He was also of service to the Geolog-ical Society of America and the National ScienceFoundation. Bloss served as chief editor for Amer-ican Mineralogist in 1972–1975.

5 Bodnar, Robert J.(1949– )AmericanGeochemist

When a mineral crystallizes, it can trap a minutebubble of fluid, melt, and/or vapor that is presentduring the crystallization process, whether ig-neous, metamorphic, or sedimentary during dia-genesis (lithification). This encapsulated bubble is

called a fluid inclusion. The fluid within it tellsgeologists something about the composition ofthe fluid that accompanied the crystallization of apluton or the metamorphism of a terrane, or themineralization of a vein, among other things.Heating or cooling the inclusion until all of theliquids and gases combine on a stage attached to amicroscope may use an experimentally deter-mined “isochore” to determine the pressure andtemperature of formation as well. There are manyEarth scientists who study fluid inclusions. RobertBodnar is a pioneer in the production of syntheticfluid inclusions to model those formed in nature.By experimentally reproducing fluid inclusions,Bodnar determines the conditions of their forma-tion. This experimental process allows him to un-derstand and develop models for fluid/rock andfluid/magma interactions at crustal and uppermantle conditions. Bodnar has written numerouspapers on the uses and relations of synthetic fluidinclusions, including “Synthetic Fluid Inclusionsin Natural Quartz II,” and “Applications to Pres-sure-Volume-Temperature Studies.”

To conduct the analyses on the fluid inclu-sions, Robert Bodnar established the Fluids Re-search Laboratory at Virginia Tech. In addition tothe experimental apparatus and standard cooling-heating stages, there is a Laser Raman Microprobeand a Fourier Transform Infrared Microprobe todetermine the composition of the inclusions.Bodnar has worked on a variety of projects fromaround the world and beyond. He studied fluidinclusions in the proposed Martian meteorites.Terrestrial projects include fluids from theSomma-Vesuvius volcanic system, melt inclusionsfrom Ischia in Naples, Italy, the volcanic system ofWhite Island of New Zealand, among others.Closer to home he worked on problems in thesouthern Appalachians and in Massachusetts. Healso works extensively on economic deposits. Hestudied the genesis of Egyptian gold deposits aswell as sulfide deposits in Ducktown, Tennessee,and porphyry copper and precious metal depositsin Wyoming; Arizona; New South Wales, Aus-

Bodnar, Robert J. 25

tralia; Gyeongsang Basin, South Korea; and theMorning Star deposit in California, among oth-ers. He also studied inclusions in the MarmaroshDiamonds and mantle xenoliths from the foldedCarpathian Mountains of eastern Europe. Interms of petroleum exploration, he has worked onproblems in the North Sea oil province as well asthe Monterey Formation in California, amongothers. Papers on economic deposits include “Hy-drothermal Fluids and Hydrothermal Alterationin Porphyry Copper Deposits” and “Fluid Inclu-sion Studies in Hydrothermal Ore Deposits.”

Robert Bodnar was born on August 25,1949, in McKeesport, Pennsylvania, where hegrew up. He attended the University of Pitts-burgh, Pennsylvania, where he earned a bachelorof science degree in geology in 1979. He under-took graduate studies at the University of Arizonaand earned a master of science degree in 1978.Upon graduation, he obtained a position as re-search assistant with the U.S. Geological Surveyin Reston, Virginia, in the experimental geochem-istry and mineralogy section. Robert Bodnar gotmarried in 1979; he and his wife have two chil-dren. By 1980, he heeded the advice of his col-leagues and returned to graduate school at thePennsylvania State University in University Park.He earned a Ph.D. in geochemistry in 1985 as anadvisee of EDWIN ROEDDER from the U.S. Geo-logical Survey. Bodnar obtained a position as re-search scientist at the Chevron Oil Field ResearchCompany of Chevron, U.S.A., in La Habra, Cali-fornia, in 1984. In 1985, he was offered and ac-cepted a faculty position at Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and State University in Blacksburg wherehe remains today. He has been named to a presti-gious C. C. Garvin endowed chair in 1997 andlater as a university distinguished professor.

Robert Bodnar is an author of some 120 sci-entific articles in international journals, profes-sional volumes, and major governmental andindustry reports. Included in these well-cited andseminal papers on all aspects of fluids and melts ingeology are the benchmark papers on synthetic

fluid inclusions. In recognition of his many con-tributions to Earth sciences, Robert Bodnar hasreceived several honors and awards in addition tothose already mentioned. He received a Presiden-tial Young Investigator Award from the NationalScience Foundation, the Lindgren Award from theSociety of Exploration Geologists, and the AlumniAward for Research Excellence from VirginiaTech. Pennsylvania State University named him a Centennial Fellow, and the Society of Explo-ration Geologists named him a Thayer LindsleyLecturer.

Bodnar has served on committees and panelsfor the Geochemical Society, the MineralogicalSociety of America and the National ScienceFoundation. Among his editorial work was theposition of associate editor of Geology.

5 Bouma, Arnold H.(1932– )DutchSedimentologist

Unstable accumulations of sediments at the shelfedge and especially in submarine canyons canslide down the continental slope in essentially anunderwater avalanche. This flow of unconsoli-dated debris is called a turbidity current or tur-bidite and it involves no movement of water, justmaterial (sediments). During the Grand BanksEarthquake of 1929, such a turbidite was deter-mined to have sped down the slope at 30 milesper hour as documented by sequential breaking ofunderwater telephone and telegraph cables. Whenthese turbidites come to rest, they form a verycharacteristic deposit known as a Bouma se-quence, named after its discoverer, sedimentolo-gist Arnold Bouma.

Arnold Bouma is undoubtedly the world’sforemost expert on turbidite deposits and the sub-marine fans that they commonly form. He pro-duced two volumes, Turbidites and SubmarineFans and Related Turbidite Systems, among many

26 Bouma, Arnold H.

other papers that summarize this work. TheBouma sequence divides turbidite deposits into A-D intervals, based upon grain size and sedimentarystructures, and as a reflection of proximity tochannels in submarine fans. Full sequences onlyoccur in or near channels, whereas distal areas of afan contain only partial sequences of finer grainedmaterial. The dominant types and sequences ofsediments can then subdivide the fan. Bouma doc-umented these deposits and the processes that pro-duce them, both in modern settings usingsediment cores taken from research vessels, as wellas in ancient deposits on land all over the world.Every sedimentology class at every college in theworld studies the groundbreaking work of ArnoldBouma. Oil companies also took an interest in hiswork because these deposits can contain petroleumreserves. Bouma spent many years applying his re-search to petroleum exploration. He even appliedhis work to environmental issues like coastal pro-tection and dredging.

Arnold Bouma was born on September 5,1932, in Groningen, Netherlands. He attendedR.H.B.S. (high school and junior college) inGroningen, Netherlands, from 1944 to 1951. Heattended the State University at Groningen from1951 to 1956 and earned a bachelor of sciencedegree in general geology. He earned a master ofscience degree in geology, sedimentology, and paleontology and a doctorate in sedimentary geology from the State University at Utrecht,Netherlands, in 1959 and 1961, respectively.Bouma won a Fulbright Post-doctoral Fellowshipto Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla,California, in 1962–1963. From 1963 to 1966,he was an instructor at the Geological Institute atUtrecht, Netherlands, and a member of the fac-ulty of oceanography at Texas A & M Universityfrom 1966 to 1975. From 1975 to 1981, he wasa research marine geologist with the U.S. Geo-logical Survey, first in the Pacific-Arctic branchand later in the Atlantic-Gulf of Mexico branch.He held positions of senior scientist, manager,chief scientist, and acting vice president for Gulf

Research and Development Company in Har-marville, Pennsylvania, and Houston, Texas, be-tween 1981 and 1985. In 1985, Gulf OilCompany was bought by Chevron USA, Inc. andBouma became a senior research associate atChevron Oil Field Research Company (researchand development branch) in Houston, Texas,and La Habra, California. He left Chevron in1988 to become the Charles T. McCord chairedprofessor of petroleum-related geology atLouisiana State University in Baton Rouge,where he remains today. He also served as direc-tor of the Basin Research Institute and head ofthe School of Geosciences at Louisiana StateUniversity in 1989–1990 and 1990–1992, re-spectively. Arnold Bouma married MechilinaKampers in 1961; they have three children.

Arnold Bouma has been phenomenally pro-ductive in his career. He has written or edited 11books and volumes and authored or coauthored119 articles in professional journals and volumes.Many honors and awards have been bestowedupon him throughout his career, including being adistinguished lecturer for the American Association

Bouma, Arnold H. 27

Portrait of Arnold Bouma (Courtesy of Arnold Bouma)

of Petroleum Geologists in 1982, Francis P. Shep-ard Award from the Society of Economic Paleon-tologists and Mineralogists in 1982, Best PaperAward at the American Association of PetroleumGeologists Annual Meeting in 1984, OutstandingEducation Award from the Gulf Coast Associationof Geological Societies in 1992, and keynotespeaker at the International Geological Congress inRio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2000, and at the GEO-SCIENCE 98 Conference at University of Keele,United Kingdom, in 1998, among many others.

His service to the profession is perhaps evenmore impressive than his papers and awards.Arnold Bouma was editor in chief for Geo-MarineLetters from 1980 to 2000, editor in chief of Ma-rine Geology from 1963 to 1966 (and he is still onthe editorial board), and series book editor forFrontiers in Sedimentary Geology from 1985 topresent, among several other editorial positionsand president of the Society for Sedimentary Ge-ology (SEPM) from 2000 to 2001. He organizedLeg 96 (a deep-ocean expedition) of the Deep SeaDrilling Project in 1980–1985. He organized thefirst COMFAM (Committee on Submarine FansMeeting). He has served as a member and chair ofinternational professional and government panelsand committees too numerous to list here. He or-ganized and convened multiple international con-ferences, short courses and field trips both topical(on turbidites) and general. He even helped toproduce a BBC-AAPG film, Deep Water Sands, in1985–1986.

5 Bowen, Norman L.(1887–1956)CanadianPetrologist, Geochemist

Norman L. Bowen was the greatest petrologist ofthe 20th century and one of the most influentialgeologists of all time. His name is known by any-one who has attended a college course in physicalgeology by virtue of the famous Bowen’s Reaction

Series which appears in every physical geology andpetrology textbook in the world. This diagramand concept shows the crystallization sequence ofcommon minerals in igneous rocks of “average”compositions. Plagioclase forms the continuousreaction series because it continuously changescomposition with temperature from calcium-richat high temperature to sodium-rich at low tem-perature. The discontinuous reaction series showsthe crystallization of a sequence of iron-magne-sium-rich minerals during cooling of magma orlava from about 1,400 to 750 degrees centigrade.The continuous reaction series crystallizes at thesame time as the discontinuous series to form allof the common igneous rocks. Conversely, the di-agram and concept shows how minerals melt ifrocks are heated to their melting point. It neatlyexplains assemblages of minerals in igneous rocks,their temperatures of formation and many ig-neous textures. Although a simplification of a verycomplex series of processes, the Bowen’s ReactionSeries concept is surprisingly applicable in mostrocks.

This widely applicable concept was derivedthrough years of research. Norman Bowen solvedmany of the basic petrologic (study of rocks)field problems by defining laws and principlesderived from experimentally determined chemi-cal relationships (phase diagrams) of commonminerals. As a result of this groundbreaking re-search, petrologists were able to approach ig-neous rocks quantitatively, whereas previouslythe main focus was only on description and clas-sification. His experimental work involved themelting and quenching of rocks at a series oftemperatures to determine their relations of crys-tallization. From these data he would construct a“phase diagram” from which melt percentages,melt compositions, types, and percentages ofminerals crystallized could be determined at anygiven temperature. The nepheline-anorthite dia-gram was the first completed very efficientlyusing 17 different mixtures and 55 quenchingexperiments. This system was the first example

28 Bowen, Norman L.

found in silicates of solid solution. Bowen thenstudied the two-component system of plagio-clase, albite-anorthite. These results helped deter-mine the basis for Bowen’s views on magmadifferentiation and crystal fractionation. Both ofthese theories had not been demonstrated experi-mentally prior to the research Bowen and his col-leagues had accomplished. Bowen subsequentlyexperimented with many other systems.

Bowen published numerous papers but prob-ably his most famous work was his 1928 book,The Evolution of Igneous Rocks. In this book, heexplains phase diagrams for common rock sys-tems. Although still a simplification, the resultsapply so well to field and petrographic observa-tions of igneous rocks that it became an instanthandbook for igneous petrologists. It still remainsone of the most important books in geology.

Norman L. Bowen was born in Kingston,Ontario, on June 21, 1887. He completed his el-ementary and high school education in Kingstonpublic schools, and entered Queen’s University,Canada. Bowen had his sights set on becoming ateacher but after one year decided to join an On-tario Bureau of Mines geological mapping partyto Larder Lake with the allure of money andtravel. It was a revelation for him and he enrolledin the School of Mining upon his return, register-ing in mineralogy and petrology. He graduatedwith a bachelor of science degree in chemistry andgeology in 1909. He received medals in chemistryand mineralogy and was named the 1851 Exhibi-tion Scholar. Bowen continued with his graduatestudies at Massachusetts Institute of Technologyin Cambridge.

In 1910, Bowen applied to the GeophysicalLaboratory at the Carnegie Institution of Wash-ington, D.C., to complete an experimental studyrelated to a geological field problem as part of therequirement for his Ph.D. During this time,Bowen married his college sweetheart, Mary La-mont, on October 3, 1911. The following spring(1912) Bowen graduated with a Ph.D. in geologyand was busy fielding job offers. Bowen accepted

the position as assistant petrologist at the Geo-physical Laboratory. Besides a 10-year period ofteaching at the University of Chicago, Illinois(1937 to 1946), including two years as depart-ment chair, Bowen remained at the GeophysicalLab for his entire career and directed it for mostof the time. He embodied the Geophysical Labo-ratory. Bowen officially retired in 1952 and thenext year he moved to Clearwater, Florida, toenjoy his golden years. However, he grew restlessafter only a few months and returned to Washing-ton, D.C., and was appointed research associate atthe Geophysical Laboratory. Norman L. Bowendied on September 11, 1956.

Norman Bowen led a phenomenally produc-tive career not only in terms of total publicationsbut also in terms of impact on the field. For ex-ample, between 1945 and 1954, five of the 20most often cited articles in all of geology werewritten by Bowen and his associates. There are notruer classics in petrology than those written byBowen. As recognition for these outstanding con-tributions, he received numerous honors andawards. He was a member of the U.S. NationalAcademy of Sciences, the American Academy ofArts and Sciences, the Indian Academy of Sci-ences, and the Finland Academy of Sciences. Hereceived honorary degrees from Harvard Univer-sity, Yale University, and his alma matter, Queen’sUniversity. He also received the Bigsby Medal andthe Wollaston Medal from the Geological Societyof London, the Penrose Medal from the Geologi-cal Society of America, the Roebling Medal fromthe Mineralogical Society of America, the MillerMedal from the Royal Society of Canada, theHayden Medal from the Academy of Natural Sci-ences of Philadelphia, and the Bakhuis Rooze-boom Medal from the Royal NetherlandsAcademy. The American Geophysical Unionnamed a medal in his honor.

Bowen was also very active in service to theprofession. In addition to serving as president ofboth the Geological Society of America (1946) andthe Mineralogical Society of America (1937) he

Bowen, Norman L. 29

was a member and chair of numerous committeesand panels for both societies and the government.

5 Bowring, Samuel A.(1953– )AmericanIsotope Geochemist

The Cambrian-Precambrian boundary is themost profound transition in the geologic recordin terms of life. This boundary marks the demiseof a rich diversity of invertebrate fauna that lackshells, including some jellyfish and worms, butalso some complex forms. They were replaced bya whole new group of shelled invertebrate faunain the Cambrian, many of which are the ances-tors of our modern marine invertebrates. Classi-cally, this boundary was considered to haveoccurred approximately 600 million years ago butwas later revised to 570 million years ago. Re-cently, however, Sam Bowring, working in con-junction with sedimentologist John Grotzingerand paleontologist ED LANDING, among others,has revised that age to 534 million years usingnew high-precision geochronology. This work is a

major contribution to the science. He further de-termined the ages for the appearance and changesof certain animals in the Cambrian age, thus de-termining rates of evolution during this period ofrapid diversification. This detailed geochronologyof individual volcanic layers coupled with de-tailed stratigraphy and paleontology on a layer-by-layer basis as shown in his paper “A New Lookat Evolutionary Rates in Deep Time: Uniting Pa-leontology and High Precision Geochronology,”sets a new precedent in evolutionary analysis. Ithas already led to new insights and will likely leadto more in the future. During this project he per-formed research on rocks from the Avalon Ter-rane in Nova Scotia, Canada, as well as those inNamibia and Madagascar, Africa, and the WhiteSea in Russia.

The other major area of research for SamBowring is the development of the continentalcrust. Ocean crust is created at the mid-oceanridges and destroyed at the subduction zoneswithin about 200 million years. Continentalcrust, on the other hand, has been built through-out the history of the Earth. Because there are nu-merous and complex processes in the assembly ofa continent, all of which overprint and modifyeach other in complex ways, deciphering the geol-ogy of continents becomes a monumental task.Bowring collaborates with tectonic and regionalgeologists to provide the geochronologic (age)constraints on some of these events. He has doneresearch on 3.96-billion-year-old gneiss in theSlave Province of the Northwest Territories ofCanada, which are among the the oldest rocks onEarth and therefore among the earliest continentalcrust. He defined 2- to 2.4-billion-year-old crustin the western United States in Arizona and NewMexico. He also performed research on Precam-brian rocks from the Natal Province of SouthAfrica, as well as those from Namibia, Botswana,and Zimbabwe, Africa. It is clear that Bowringwill travel to the ends of the Earth to find the bestlocation to research the particular process that heis studying at the time. This care in the details of

30 Bowring, Samuel A.

Sam Bowring (left) on a field trip with a student(Courtesy of Sam Bowring)

his isotopic analysis, his effort in forming solidcollaborations with geologists with complimen-tary expertise, and his care in choosing only thebest examples on which to perform research haspropelled Bowring to a position of one of the pre-mier scientists on Precambrian research.

Samuel Bowring was born on September 27,1953, in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where hespent his youth. He enrolled at the University ofNew Hampshire in Durham and earned a bache-lor of science in geology, cum laude, in 1976. Hecompleted a master of science degree at NewMexico Institute of Mining and Technology in ge-ology in 1980. He earned a Ph.D. in geologyfrom the University of Kansas at Lawrence in1985. Bowring joined the faculty at WashingtonUniversity in Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1984. Hemoved to Massachusetts Institute of Technologyin Cambridge in 1991, and he remains there asprofessor of geology today.

Sam Bowring is leading a very productive ca-reer. He is an author of 82 articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes. He also hasseveral other publications in field trip guides andgovernmental reports. Many of these papers areseminal works on the early history of the conti-nental crust or the defining works on the Precam-brian-Cambrian boundary. Many are published inhigh-profile journals like Science. Bowring has re-ceived several honors and awards for his contribu-tions to the science. He is a member of theAmerican Association for the Advancement ofScience. He was named the Louis Murray Fellowat the University of Cape Town, South Africa, in1995. As a graduate student, he received the DeanA. McGee and McCollum Burton Scholarshipsand the Erasmus Haworth Honors in geology. Hehas also been invited to present several importantkeynote addresses worldwide.

Bowring has been involved in significant ser-vice to the profession. He served as associate editorfor Geology Magazine, and Journal of GeophysicalResearch. He was also on the editorial board forPrecambrian Research.

5 Bragg, Sir (William) Lawrence(1890–1971)EnglishMineralogist

Although Sir Lawrence Bragg was trained as aphysicist and employed as a physicist or chemistthroughout his career, he was tremendously influ-ential in Earth sciences, as he was in metallurgyand medicine as well. After Röntgen discovered Xrays in 1895, von Laue demonstrated that the Xrays were diffracted in a three-dimensional scatter-ing if passed through the mineral zincblende in1912. With his father, physicist Sir WilliamBragg, Lawrence Bragg showed that this complexscattering could be perfectly explained by reflec-tions of the X rays from successive planes of atomsin the mineral structure. A paper on this work isentitled, “The Analysis of Crystals by X-Ray Spec-trography.” He determined the mathematical con-ditions of this diffraction in an equation that hasbeen named Bragg’s Law. He and his father thendeveloped an X-ray spectrometer which was usedto determine the atomic structure of rock salt, di-amond, flourspar, pyrite, calcite, cuprite, corun-dum, and metallic copper. For this breakthrough,the father-and-son team were jointly awarded theNobel Prize for physics in 1915. Lawrence Braggwas 25 years old at the time.

It is almost a curse to begin a career with suchsuccess because everything else tends to pale incomparison. This, however, was not the case withLawrence Bragg. He went on to apply his X-raydiffraction techniques to minerals, to metallurgy,and finally to medical problems. He slowlyworked his way through minerals of increasingstructural complexity, finally addressing the sili-cates. His 1934 book, Atomic Structure of Minerals(rewritten as Crystal Structure of Minerals in 1965)is a summary of these findings. Amazingly, scien-tists went from having no idea how the atoms arearranged in minerals to a general understandingof crystal chemistry through this single develop-ment. This development came from a man who

Bragg, Sir (William) Lawrence 31

really knew nothing else about minerals, as he ad-mitted in a famous speech to the American Min-eralogical Society.

Bragg would later show how X-ray patternsand thus atomic structure of deformed metal dif-fers from undeformed metals. He devised an X-ray microscope and a “fly’s eye” apparatus toprovide the basis for high-magnification opticalmethods that would be devised later by others. Healso proved the crystal chemistry of hemoglobinand of proteins still later, which had profound im-plications for the medical field. By this time,Bragg’s notoriety had reached throughout GreatBritain. He was asked to give the vacation lecturesby the Royal Institution and even a highly suc-cessful series of television broadcasts on the prop-erties of matter, which further increased his fame.He devised a series of simple but elegant experi-ments that became classics of British television.

William Lawrence Bragg was born on March31, 1890, in Adelaide, South Australia, the son ofSir William Bragg, a professor of physics at theUniversity of Leeds, England. He attended Cam-bridge University, England, where he earned sev-eral degrees, including a Ph.D. in physics in 1913.He joined the cavalry in 1915 to serve in WorldWar I. He devised a method for location of enemyartillery using sound and was decorated with theMilitary Cross in 1918 as a result. In 1919, hejoined the faculty at the University of Manchester,England, as a professor of physics. He was a visit-ing professor at Cornell University, New York, in1934. Lawrence Bragg was married in 1921; heand his wife, Lady Alice, had four children andnumerous grandchildren. In 1937–1938, Braggserved as the director of the National PhysicalLaboratory of Great Britain before accepting theposition of Cavendish Professor of experimentalphysics at Cambridge University, England, in1939. His final move came in 1953 when he ac-cepted the position of Fullerian Professor ofchemistry at the Royal Institution in London,England. He assumed the role as director in 1954and remained as such until 1966, when he retired.

He lived the rest of his life enjoying his family andoccasionally giving public lectures. Sir LawrenceBragg died on July 1, 1971.

The career of Sir Lawrence Bragg can be de-scribed as nothing less than distinguished. He isan author of more than 180 international publi-cations ranging from cutting-edge scientific togeneral interest. The impact of many of thesepublications on geology as well as physics, metal-lurgy, and medicine cannot be overstated. Inrecognition of this illustrious career, Bragg re-ceived numerous prestigious honors and awards.In addition to the Nobel Prize in 1915 and aknighthood, which he received in 1941, Braggwas named as a Fellow of the Royal Society in1921. He received the Hughes Medal, the CopleyMedal, and the Royal Medal from the Royal Soci-ety of London, the Roebling Medal from theMineralogical Society of America, and the Com-panion of Honor, a rare distinction for a scientist,among many others.

5 Brantley, Susan L.(1958– )AmericanAqueous Geochemist

Environmental geology commands the most in-terest and concern of all of the fields in Earth sci-ence today. A large part of this field is thechemical system formed by the interaction ofrocks, fluids, and gases. It not only affects issueslike water quality and pollution control, but airquality and the greenhouse effect. These complexinteractions are the mainstay of the field of aque-ous geochemistry, of which Susan Brantley is oneof the premier experts. She studies the chemicalprocesses and compositional control of naturalwaters both at the surface of the Earth as well asdeeper in the crust. This research is conductedboth with laboratory experimentation as well asin field areas from the deserts of Peru to theglaciers of Iceland. Experimental work involves

32 Brantley, Susan L.

dissolution studies of certain minerals under a va-riety of conditions to simulate weathering as wellas subsurface process. Brantley has produced twoimportant volumes on this work, including Geo-chemical Kinetics of Mineral-Water Reactions in theField and in the Lab and Chemical WeatheringRates of Silicate Minerals. She is especially inter-ested in feldspars, including the effect of coatings,and the release of trace components. However,she has also conducted dissolution studies onmany other minerals including olivine, antho-phyllite, and pyroxene among others. Another in-teresting aspect of this research is the study of theeffect of bacteria on weathering. Bacteria andother microbes are situated right at the interfacebetween the fluid and the mineral surfaces whereall weathering and other fluid-rock interactionstake place. She has documented the removal ofiron from the silicate mineral surfaces by long-lived bacteria colonies. This field of biogeochem-istry is one of the most promising directions ingeology. It not only has implications for environ-mental sciences but for material sciences and pos-sibly even for the medical field. Bacteria canenhance dissolution or stabilize surfaces as well asprovide a buffering control on the composition offluids.

In addition to this experimental and detailedmineral research, Brantley and her students haveconducted some interesting field projects. Thefield projects are typically designed to comple-ment the experimental research. She does researchon the hydrogeochemistry of active volcanoes.Several of these volcanoes have included VolcanPoas in Costa Rica, Grimsvotn in Iceland, andOl’Doinyo Lengai in Tanzania. The Costa Ricaresearch was completed on the chemistry of La-guna Caliente, one of the most acidic natural wa-ters in the world with pH consistently below zero.Brantley is also studying the carbon dioxide fluxfrom the geysers and other geothermal features ofYellowstone National Park, Wyoming. A similarstudy documents the degassing of the volcanicfield in Campi Flegrei in Italy.

Susan Brantley was born on August 11,1958, in Winter Park, Florida. She attendedPrinceton University, New Jersey, where sheearned a bachelor of arts degree in chemistry(magna cum laude) in 1980. In 1980–81, Brant-ley was a Fulbright Scholar in Peru. She also completed her graduate studies at Princeton Uni-versity, where she earned a master of arts and aPh.D. degree in geological and geophysical sci-ences in 1983 and 1987, respectively. Brantleywas a National Science Foundation Graduate Stu-dent Fellow and an IBM Student Fellow for muchof her graduate career. In 1986, she joined the fac-ulty at Pennsylvania State University at UniversityPark, where she remains as of 2002. She becamethe director of the Center for EnvironmentalChemistry and Geochemistry in 1998 and the di-rector for the Biogeochemical Research Initiativefor Education in 1999. In 1995, Brantley was avisiting scientist at both the U.S. Geological Sur-vey in Menlo Park, California, and Stanford Uni-versity, California.

Susan Brantley is still in the early stages of aproductive career. She is an author of some 78 sci-entific publications in international journals, pro-fessional volumes, and conference proceedings.Many of these papers are seminal studies on ge-omicrobiology and processes of aqueous geochem-istry and appear in the best of journals includingthe high-profile journal Nature. She is also an edi-tor of two professional volumes. Brantley has re-ceived several honors and awards in recognition ofher research contributions to the geologic profes-sion. She received the Presidential Young Investi-gator Award through the National ScienceFoundation (1987–1992), the David and LucilePackard Fellowship (1988–1993), and the WilsonResearch Award from Pennsylvania State Univer-sity (1996).

Brantley has performed outstanding serviceto the profession at this point in her career. Sheserved as councilor for the Geochemical Societyas well as a member of several committees. Shealso served on committees and panels for the Na-

Brantley, Susan L. 33

tional Research Council, the National Academyof Sciences, and the National Science Founda-tion. She served in several editorial capacities in-cluding editor for both Chemical Geology andGeofluids as well as assistant editor for ChemicalGeology.

5 Bredehoeft, John D.(1933– )AmericanHydrogeologist

With the mounting pressure to find clean sourcesof groundwater as the population of the world in-creases, hydrogeology has emerged from theshadows of the Earth sciences to become perhapsits most important discipline. Indeed, protectionof water resources is one of the most pressingneeds of society today. One of the true pioneersin shepherding this emergence is John Brede-hoeft. He was among the first to apply quantita-tive methods to modeling the underground flowof water. He developed numerical models to pre-dict the direction and speed of this flow as well asthe transport of contaminants and wrote theminto widely adopted computer programs. Thesemodels were not only applied to contaminatedsites like the San Francisco International Airport,but also for economic analysis for optimalgroundwater development in a modified version.His expertise in groundwater flow and environ-mental impact was also applied to the disposal ofhigh-level nuclear waste. He developed his ownplan for the burial of waste in crystalline rocksbeneath a cover of sediment that contradicted ac-cepted practices. In this role, Bredehoeft evalu-ated and advised on the Waste Isolation PilotPlant in New Mexico and the Yucca MountainRepository in Nevada.

In more of a pure research role, Bredehoeftconducted several investigations into the hydrody-namics of fluid flow in the deep subsurface. Thesestudies are regional in nature to explain large-scale

movement. Among these investigations are amodel of the Dakota Sandstone and associatedaquifers (water-bearing rock units) and artesian(pressurized) systems in South Dakota and similarstudies of the Denver Basin, Colorado, the BigHorn Basin of Wyoming, the Uinta Basin ofUtah, and the Illinois Basin. He also produced ananalytical flow model for the Caspian Basin ofRussia. Many of these studies provided new andinnovative explanations for the patterns includingthe role of geological membranes and partitioningof aquifers with shale layers. He was even involvedwith the high-pressure injection of fluid into deepwells to produce earthquakes in Rangely, Col-orado. He attempted to use the informationgleaned in this project to help predict earthquakesin California using data from water wells near ac-tive faults.

John Bredehoeft was born on February 28,1933, in Saint Louis, Missouri. He attendedPrinceton University, New Jersey, where heearned a bachelor of science degree in geologicalengineering with honors in 1955. He completedhis graduate studies at the University of Illinoisat Urbana-Champaign, earning a master of sci-ence degree in geology in 1957 and a Ph.D. ingeology with a minor in civil engineering in1962. Between his graduate degrees, from 1957to 1959, he worked as an exploration geologistfor Humble Oil in Vernal, Utah. John Brede-hoeft married in 1958; he and his wife, Nancy,have three children. During the later stages of hisdoctoral work, Bredehoeft also worked as agroundwater hydrologist for the Nevada Depart-ment of Conservation and Natural Resources inReno in 1961–1962. He joined the U.S. Geolog-ical Survey in 1962 as a research geologist in Ar-lington, Virginia, and remained until hisretirement in 1994. During that time, he heldpositions as deputy chief hydrogeologist for re-search (1970–1979), regional hydrogeologist inMenlo Park, California (1980–1984), and re-search geologist supergrade, also in Menlo Park(1984–1994), among others. He was also a visit-

34 Bredehoeft, John D.

ing professor at the University of Illinois(1967–1968) and a consulting professor at Stan-ford University, California (1989–1991). In1995, Bredehoeft established his own environ-mental consulting company, The Hydrodynam-ics Group, in La Honda, California, where he isstill the principal today.

Productivity in John Bredehoeft’s career canbe measured in a variety of ways, including gov-ernmental and industrial reports in addition tosome 100 research papers in scientific literature.Many of these papers contain widely adoptedmethods to model groundwater flow and con-taminant transport in addition to site specificstudies. In recognition of his research contribu-tions to hydrogeology, Bredehoeft has receivedseveral honors and awards. He was named to theU.S. National Academy of Engineering and theRussian Academy of Natural Sciences. He re-ceived the Horton Award from the AmericanGeophysical Union, the Penrose Medal, and theO. E. Meinzer Award from the Geological Soci-ety of America, the Meritorious Service Awardand the Distinguished Service Award from theU.S. Department of the Interior, the BoggessAward from the American Water Resources Asso-ciation, the M. King Hubbert Award from theNational Ground Water Association, and theAlumni Achievement Award from the Universityof Illinois, among others.

Bredehoeft performed extensive service tothe profession and the public through his govern-mental position. He served on the board of direc-tors for the National Ground Water Association,the Council for the International Exchange ofScholars, and on numerous committees for nu-clear waste for the National Research Council.He also served on advisory committees for theU.S. Department of Energy, the National ScienceFoundation, UNESCO, American GeophysicalUnion, and the Geological Society of America,among others. Bredehoeft has also served as theeditor for the journal Ground Water for manyyears.

5 Broecker, Wallace S.(1931– )AmericanChemical Oceanographer

Wallace Broecker has said that his entire researchcareer is simply an elaboration on several chaptersof his Ph.D. dissertation in 1958. Considering themagnitude of accomplishments in his career, thisstatement is analogous to the saying, “All I everneeded to know I learned in kindergarten.” It istrue that two themes, evidence for an abruptchange in climate 11,000 years ago and the distri-bution of radiocarbon around the Atlantic Oceangeneralize the basic ideas of his research, but theyhardly summarize his career.

There are several groundbreaking contribu-tions in Wallace Broecker’s career. His early datingof ocean sediments using carbon-13 methods setthe stage for him to use decay products of ura-nium to obtain an older range. Instead of the25,000-year limit of dating using radiocarbon, heextended his dating to 320,000 years. He studiedthe impact of glaciation on sedimentation in rela-tionship to astronomical cycles. His work on reefsand carbonate banks led him to investigate thecarbon and oxygen cycles with regard to these de-posits and the role of atmospheric gases. He usedstable isotopes to define these relationships andmapped the relative CO2 concentrations in theoceans.

In his most famous work, Broecker definedthe interaction of the sediments, oceans, and at-mosphere using evidence from carbon dioxideflux. He studied CO2 content of ice cores fromGreenland in addition to stable isotopes. Hefound that the CO2 content showed abruptchanges between two basic levels, glacial and in-terglacial. It appears that the content of thisgreenhouse gas could be abruptly changed basedupon ocean circulation in the North Atlantic.This research means that excessive production ofgreenhouse gases could cause a sharp rather thangradual change in climates, which would be dev-

Broecker, Wallace S. 35

astating. Broecker studied the downslope limits ofalpine glaciers as a reflection of temperatures andfound the same abruptness of change. Deep-seacoring of sediments in the North Atlantic sup-ported periodic catastrophic bursts of ice into theocean which completely disrupted the chemicalsystems.

This studying of the surface of the Earth interms of a single large chemical system in variousstages of equilibrium and disequilibrium in re-sponse to flux of various gases defines virtually allof Broecker’s research. He studied the flux of gasby measuring radioactive radon in the water. Be-cause it has such a short life, concentration gradi-ents show flux direction and rate. Using all ofthese chemical systems, he wrote his acclaimedtextbook Tracers in the Sea. He also studied flux interrestrial environments in lakes eutrophied withphosphate in Canada. Considering the vast andever-growing eutrophication of our lakes in devel-

oped areas, this work has great applied impor-tance. He is even involved in carrying out experi-ments in the famous Biosphere 2. Because it is aclosed chemical system, experiments may be car-ried out on mass balances of CO2 and other gases.As evident from this review of his work, WallaceBroecker has produced research that is not onlygroundbreaking within the profession, it also hasprofound implications for our continued exis-tence on the planet. In a field crowded with gi-ants, Wallace Broecker has established himself as aleader.

Wallace Broecker was born on November 29,1931, in Chicago, Illinois. He grew up in OakPark, Illinois, during the Great Depression andgraduated from Oak Park-River Forest HighSchool in 1949, the alma mater of Ernest Hem-ingway. He attended Wheaton College, Illinois,but transferred to Columbia College, New York,where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in 1953.He married his wife, Grace, in 1952. He remainedat the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory ofColumbia University for his graduate studies andearned a master of arts and a Ph.D. in 1956 and1958, respectively. His dissertation adviser was J.Laurence Kulp, but several prominent classmatesand colleagues, both internal and external, appearto have had as much, if not more, influence on hiswork. Broecker never left Lamont-Doherty Obser-vatory. He started as an instructor in 1956 and re-mains there today as the Newberry Professor ofEarth and environmental science since 1977. Heserved as chair of the department from 1977 to1980. He was also a visiting professor several timesto places like California Institute of Technologyand Heidelberg, Germany, where he was a vonHumboldt Fellow.

The productivity that Wallace Broecker hasdemonstrated is simply astounding. He is an au-thor of 385 articles in international journals, pro-fessional volumes, and technical reports. Oneyear he published 23 scientific articles. Thesestudies are some of the best recognized of theirkind and appear in the most prestigious journals.

36 Broecker, Wallace S.

Wallace Broecker outside of the Lamont-Doherty EarthObservatory in 1990 (Courtesy of Susan Rogers)

He has also written six books, two of which arehighly regarded textbooks. His achievements havebeen well recognized by the profession in termsof honors and awards. He is a member of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences and the AmericanAcademy of Sciences. He was awarded a SloanFellowship in 1964, the Arthur L. Day Medal bythe Geological Society of America (1984), theHuntsman Award by the Bedford Institute ofCanada (1985), the Vetlessen Award from theVetlessen Foundation (1987), and the Gold-schmidt Award from the Geochemical Society(1988).

Broecker has performed service to the profes-sion too extensive to list here. He was presidentof the Geochemical Society in 1981. He hasserved on numerous panels and committees forthe National Science Foundation, National Re-search Council, Joint Oceanographic Institute forDeep Earth Sampling, several national and inter-national oceanic boards, the Geochemical Soci-ety, and the Geological Society of America,among others.

5 Bromery, Randolph W. (Bill)(1926– )AmericanGeophysicist

Randolph Bromery pioneered the integration ofAfrican Americans into the world of Earth scien-tists and has achieved the greatest success in thisregard. Not only has he been successful in con-tributing to the science, but also he has assumed anumber of high-profile positions in government,academia, and industry, all with equally impres-sive results. He serves on the board of directors forsuch companies as Exxon, Chemical Bank,NYNEX, John Hancock Insurance, Singer,Southern New England Telephone, and North-western Life. He helped found the Weston Geo-physical International Corporation in 1981, andserved as manager from 1981 to 1986. He also

founded the Geoscience Engineering Corporationin 1983.

Utilizing his pilot training, Bromery’s first re-search efforts were to become involved in pioneer-ing efforts of airborne geophysical surveying. Thiswork involved not only the development and test-ing of new equipment but also the interpretationof the data obtained. The research began with air-borne magnetic surveying of the United States byflying numerous parallel straight paths at one-milespacing or less and taking regular individual read-ings until the whole target area was covered. Thenext airborne geophysical method to be investi-gated was radioactivity, which was also done forthe contemporaneous United States, Alaska andHawaii. This research was extended to WestAfrica, where he planned and executed a survey ofLiberia in a U.S. State Department–sponsoredprogram. The main goal of the program was tosearch for economic mineral deposits and was ex-tended to other countries as well. Bromery alsoconducted land-based gravity and other geophysi-cal investigations.

Randolph (Bill) Bromery was born on Jan-uary 18, 1926, in Cumberland, Maryland, wherehe grew up. The Great Depression made his youthfinancially difficult. He attended the segregatedand poorly funded Frederick Street School, but hewas fortunately able to attend the new GeorgeWashington Carver High School, where he was amember of the first graduating class in 1942. Hesupplemented his formal education with tutoringto make up for the deficiencies of the school. Be-cause he had advanced machine shop training inan after-school program through President Roo-sevelt’s National Youth Administration, Bromerywas able to obtain a machinist job in Detroit,Michigan. It was short-lived, however, because heenlisted in the U.S. Army Air Corps and wascalled to active duty in 1943. He was trained as apilot and assigned to the 99th Air Squadron aspart of the famous Tuskegee (Alabama) Airmen.He was stationed in southern Italy, where he flewfighter escort missions.

Bromery, Randolph W. 37

After his discharge in 1945, Bromery took acorrespondence course in mathematics from theUniversity of Utah to achieve admission to theUniversity of Michigan at Ann Arbor. Unfortu-nately, his mother became ill and he transferred toHoward University in Washington, D.C., to benear her after only one year. He left Howard Uni-versity in 1948 before graduating to take a posi-tion with the Airborne Geophysics Group at theU.S. Geological Survey in Cabin John, Maryland.Bill Bromery married Cecile Trescott that year;they have five children. Bromery finally returnedto Howard University to complete his bachelor ofscience degree in mathematics in 1956. He en-tered the graduate program in geology at theAmerican University in Washington, D.C., as apart-time student, and was awarded a master ofscience degree in 1962. He attended the JohnsHopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, forthe remainder of his graduate studies and earned aPh.D. in geology on a Gilman Fellowship in1968. His adviser was ERNST CLOOS.

In 1967, Bromery accepted a faculty positionat the University of Massachusetts at Amherst.He became chair of the department in 1969, butmoved to vice chancellor for student affairs in1970. In 1971, however, he was made actingchancellor and finally chancellor for the Univer-sity of Massachusetts. In 1977, he was alsonamed executive vice president and then seniorvice president as well. By 1979, Bromery wastired of administrative work and returned to thefaculty as Commonwealth Professor of geo-physics. Soon administrative work beckonedagain and he served as president of WestfieldState College in Massachusetts from 1988 to1990. He moved directly to interim chancellor ofthe board of regents of higher education of Mas-sachusetts from 1990 to 1991. In 1992, he wasnamed president of Springfield College, Mas-sachusetts, where he remained until 1999. Hethen moved back to the position of full chancel-lor of the board of regents where he remainstoday.

Among all of his numerous administrativeand industrial positions, Randolph Bromery man-aged to lead a productive scientific career. He is anauthor of some 100 scientific publications in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Many of these form thebasic groundwork for airborne geophysical survey-ing both in the United States and overseas. Inrecognition of his contributions to geology andpioneering efforts for minority participation inscience, Randolph Bromery has received severalhonors and awards. He has received honorarydoctoral degrees from Western New England Col-lege, Frostburg State College, Westfield State Col-lege, Hokkaido University in Japan, and NorthAdams State College. He was named OutstandingBlack Scientist by the National Academy of Sci-ences and he received the Distinguished ServiceAward from the Geological Society of America,where he has served on numerous committees inleadership roles.

5 Brown, Michael(1947– )BritishMetamorphic Petrologist

One segment of the rock cycle contains the trans-formation of metamorphic rocks into igneousrocks by heating and melting. However, it is notquite so simple. Because minerals melt at differenttemperatures and pressures, there is a point whererocks are part newly melted material and part oldmetamorphic rock. Once crystallized, these rocksare called migmatites (mixed rocks) and com-posed of minimal melts of granitic compositioncalled leucosome and leftover metamorphic rockcalled melanosome. Migmatites are important inthe genesis of granites but also extremely complexboth chemically and in the way they deform.Michael Brown has taken the challenge to re-search these complex rocks and has firmly estab-lished himself as one of the foremost experts. This

38 Brown, Michael

work began with his doctoral dissertation on theSt. Malo Migmatite Belt in northeastern Brittany,France. He extended this work to southern Brit-tany but also to basement rocks in Timor andProterozoic rocks in peninsular India and more re-cently in the northern Appalachians and in Pro-terozoic rocks from Brazil. In the Appalachians,the studies include work on contact metamor-phism around plutons in Maine, whereas theother studies are largely on regionally metamor-phosed rocks. The chemical complexity of theserocks involves the melting reactions and concen-trations of incompatible elements which do not fiteasily into common rock forming minerals. Thestructural complexities result from the deforma-tion of liquid rock sandwiched between layers ofgumlike “solid” rock. Common techniques thatare used on solid rocks do not work well onmigmatites.

Michael Brown has a research interest in thegenesis and emplacement of granitoid plutons. Heconducted research on plutons in the Channel Is-lands between England and France, the Qoqutgranite complex in Greenland with the GeologicalSurvey of Greenland, plutonic rocks of the Ata-cama Region of Chile with the Servicio Nacionalde Geologia y Mineria de Chile, and on graniteplutons in Maine with support from the NationalScience Foundation. The investigations into thegenesis of these plutons is largely an extension ofthe work on migmatites in that they can act as thesource of magma. This research involves detailedwhole rock and mineral geochemistry, as well asisotope geochemistry. He also studies the mechan-ics of the emplacement of the granite plutons andthe contact metamorphism they impose upon thecountry rocks. Many of these plutons were em-placed into regions undergoing strike-slip defor-mation producing intriguing geometries.

Michael Brown was born on March 19,1947, in Hayes, Middlesex, England. He attendedthe University of Keele, United Kingdom, wherehe graduated with a bachelor of arts degree withdouble honors in geography and geology and mi-

nors in chemistry and politics in 1969. He re-mained at University of Keele for his graduatestudies and earned a Ph.D. in geology in 1974,supported by a National Environment ResearchCouncil Studentship. Brown accepted a positionas lecturer at Oxford Brookes University in 1972.He became department head in 1982. In 1984, hemoved to Kingston University, United Kingdom,as head of the School of Geological Sciences. Healso served as assistant dean of academic affairsfrom 1986 to 1989. Brown moved to the UnitedStates in 1990 to become the chair of the depart-ment at the University of Maryland at CollegePark where he remains today. Brown was a visitingprofessor at University of Kyoto, Japan, in 1993and at Kingston University in 1990–1992.Michael Brown has three children.

Brown, Michael 39

Michael Brown works at the petrographic microscopeat the University of Maryland (Courtesy of MichaelBrown)

Michael Brown is in the middle of a produc-tive career. He is an author of some 100 scientificarticles in international journals, professional vol-umes, and governmental reports. Many of theseare seminal works on migmatites and other highlymetamorphosed rocks as well as granites. Severalof these studies appear in high-profile journalslike Nature. Brown has performed significant ser-vice to the geologic profession. He has served inseveral capacities for the Geological Society ofAmerica, the Geological Society of London,where he served as member of the council, theMineralogical Society of Great Britain, the Ameri-can Geophysical Union, and the MineralogicalSociety of America. His editorial roles are also nu-merous. He served as founding editor of the Jour-nal of Metamorphic Geology, subject editor for theJournal of the Geological Society of London, andcoleader of the International Geological Correla-tion Program Project 235 “Metamorphism andGeodynamics.”

5 Buddington, Arthur F.(1890–1980)AmericanPetrologist

Arthur Buddington is a geologist famous for hiswork with the geochemistry and classification ofrocks and minerals, as well as ore deposits. His re-search was based on his perceptive observationsduring the field mapping of geologic terranes thatvary considerably. Buddington may be bestknown for classification of anorthosites, which areigneous rocks composed mainly of the mineralplagioclase feldspar. He defined a Grenville type(approximately 2 billion years of age) that can beformed in one of two ways. Anorthosites can in-trude up into the ground in huge crystallinemasses or by the formation of crystals which settleout within layers of gabbro-based complexes.These two types were based on his fieldwork inthe Grenville terrain of the Adirondacks and his

observations on the Stillwater Complex of Mon-tana. This work is summarized in a 1970 volumeentitled The Origin of Anorthosites and RelatedRocks, published by the New York State Museum.In a 1959 paper, Buddington proposed a systemfor the origin of various igneous intrusive rocksbased upon the depth at which they were formed.He devised this system which would have to waitfor the advent of plate tectonics to be fully appre-ciated based upon observations in Newfoundland,the Alaska Coast Ranges, the Adirondack Moun-tains, and the Stillwater Complex of Montana.

Arthur Buddington was also involved in eco-nomic geology. During his field studies of shallowintrusive igneous rocks of the Oregon Cascadesand their related iron ores he defined a class ofiron ore deposits he termed “xenothermal” whichmeans shallow depth and high temperature. It wasoriginally believed that the temperature duringthe ore formation and the depth at which theywere formed correspondingly affected one an-other. Buddington’s research on this class of ironores showed that this was not the case. He alsoconducted research on iron ore deposits in NewYork and New Jersey. With DONALD H. LINDSLEY,Buddington completed research that contributedto the development of advanced geothermometersand oxygen activity-meters through large amountsof data he collected during many studies on mag-netite-hematite-ilmenite ore deposits of theAdirondack region.

Perhaps the main contribution of Budding-ton to geology was his administrative and organi-zational skills. He enticed NORMAN L. BOWEN togive a series of lectures at Princeton University inthe mid-1920s and then to write them up in thefamous Evolution of the Igneous Rocks. He alsowas a major positive influence on his many stu-dents. Two of these students included HARRY H.HESS and J. TUZO WILSON, who contributedgreatly to the theory of plate tectonics. It wasmainly through Buddington’s influence that Hesswould lead his illustrious career at PrincetonUniversity.

40 Buddington, Arthur F.

Arthur Buddington was born in Wilmington,Delaware, on November 29, 1890, to parentswho operated a small poultry and produce farm.He attended elementary and junior high school inWilmington and in Mystic, Connecticut, andgraduated from Westerly High School, Rhode Is-land, in 1908. Buddington attended Brown Uni-versity, Rhode Island, and graduated with abachelor of arts degree in geology second in hisclass in 1912. He continued his graduate studiesat Brown University and earned a master of sci-ence degree in 1913. He switched to PrincetonUniversity, New Jersey, for the rest of his graduatestudies and received his Ph.D. in geology in 1916.He remained at Princeton University on a post-doctoral fellowship until he accepted a teachingposition at Brown in 1917. In 1918, he enlistedin the army and worked in the Chemical WarfareService during World War I. After the war ended,Buddington returned to Brown University, butquickly accepted an appointment to the Geophys-ical Laboratory at the Carnegie Institution ofWashington, D.C., in 1919. He finally joined thefaculty at his alma mater of Princeton Universityin 1920, and remained for the rest of his career.Arthur Buddington married Jene Elizabeth Muntzof David City, Nebraska, in 1924. They had onechild. During this time he worked with the U.S.Geological Survey in 1930 and from 1943 on andhe served as department chairman from 1936 to1950. He retired to professor emeritus in 1959but remained active for many years. Arthur Bud-dington died on December 25, 1980; his wifehad predeceased him five years earlier.

Arthur Buddington was an author of some 70scientific articles in international journals, profes-sional volumes, and governmental reports. Themost impressive aspect of them is the tremendousrange of subject matter and extraordinary quality.In recognition of these contributions to the sci-ence, Buddington received several honors andawards. He was a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences and the American Academyof Arts and Sciences. He received honorary de-

grees from Brown University, Franklin and Mar-shall College, and the University of Liege. He alsoreceived the Penrose Medal from the GeologicalSociety of America, the Andre Dumont Medalfrom the Geological Society of Belgium, and theDistinguished Service Award from the U.S. De-partment of the Interior. The mineral budding-tonite was named in his honor.

Buddington was also active in service to theprofession. He was president of the MineralogicalSociety of America, vice president of the Geologi-cal Society of America, and section president ofthe American Geophysical Union, among serviceon many other committees and panels. He wasalso chair of the geology section for the NationalAcademy of Sciences.

5 Bullard, Sir Edward C.(1907–1980)BritishGeophysicist

Sir Edward Bullard was one of the giants of geo-physics. Even though he started out as a physicist,carefully experimenting on electron scattering ingroundbreaking research, he quickly realized thathis true calling was in geophysics. His work setthe stage for modern methods in geophysics infour areas: heat flow, generation of Earth’s mag-netic field, and gravity and seismic refractionmethods. Bullard devised the methods that arecurrently used for heat flow surveying shortly afterWorld War II. He devised methods to measurethermal conductivity, which unless incorporatedinto heat flow analysis leads to erroneous results.He used thermal gradients in South African goldmines, as well as British coal mines, in addition tonumerous borehole measurements to show thatthermal conductivity greatly affects the actualtemperatures that are measured at various depths.He established the first reliable average heat fluxvalue for the continents. Perhaps even more im-pressive were his methods to measure heat flow on

Bullard, Sir Edward C. 41

the ocean floor. He invented a device that wasdriven into the ocean floor to obtain temperaturesof the underlying rock. He then tested it on deep-sea cruises with ROGER REVELLE and others at theScripps Institution of Oceanography, California.The result was the identification of elevated heatflow at the mid-ocean ridges, which later served asan important piece of evidence for plate tectonics.

His interest in designing new practical,portable equipment to measure geophysical quan-tities also spread to gravity and seismic refractiontechniques. His earliest geophysical work was toredesign a pendulum apparatus for measuringgravity and then to conduct a field study with itover the East African Rift System, which earnedhim a Smithson Fellowship from the Royal Soci-ety. He designed a portable short period seismo-graph (to take a sonogram-like picture of theEarth) which he used to measure the depth tobasement in a field survey in southeast England.Although these pieces of equipment were later re-designed, his success in carrying out field geophys-ical surveys set the stage for modern geophysicalwork.

After his extensive work in magnetics duringWorld War II, Sir Edward Bullard investigatedhow motions in the Earth’s core might induce themain magnetic field. He measured secular (short-term) changes in the magnetic field, like the rateof westward drift of the poles, and then usedmathematical models to obtain numerical solu-tions for fluid mechanical problems in the Earth’score. He was the first to model the core as a self-exciting dynamo using primitive computers, thussetting the stage for later more appropriate stud-ies. Bullard even got involved with the plate tec-tonic revolution. He was the first to apply Euler’stheorem to determine poles of rotation to betterfit the dispersed continents back together into thesupercontinent of Pangea. Clearly, Sir EdwardBullard was one of the most influential Earth sci-entists of the 20th century.

Edward Crisp Bullard was born on Septem-ber 21, 1907, in Norwich, England. His family

produced Bullard’s Ales. He attended CambridgeUniversity to study natural sciences but switchedto physics and graduated with his doctoral degreein 1932. In 1931, he married Margaret EllenThomas. They had four daughters and the mar-riage ended in divorce in 1974. That same year,he accepted a position as demonstrator in the De-partment of Geodesy and Geophysics, where hewas the second member. Later Sir Harold Jeffreyswould join the department. When World War IIbroke out, Bullard became an experimental offi-cer attached to the HMS Vernon in 1939. TheGermans had developed a very effective magneticmine that could be dropped from airplanes. Theysank 60 ships in three months. With his knowl-edge of magnetics, Bullard developed minesweepers that drastically reduced the threat. Heeven anticipated German advances in triggermechanisms for mines, developing sweepers be-fore the mines even came into use. He became as-sistant director of Naval Operational Researchand oversaw projects on mine development andsubmarine warfare. He returned to CambridgeUniversity after the war, but in 1948 he acceptedthe position of chair of the Department ofPhysics at the University of Toronto, Canada.After spending several months at ScrippsOceanographic Institute in La Jolla, California,in 1949, Bullard returned to England as the di-rector of the National Physical Laboratory, wherehe remained until 1955. He returned to Cam-bridge University as the chair of the Departmentof Geodesy and Geophysics where he remainedfor the rest of his preretirement career. He retiredto professor emeritus in 1974 with his health beginning to fail. He married Ursula CookeCurnow that year and returned to ScrippsOceanographic Institute, where he remained forthe rest of his life. Sir Edward Bullard died in hissleep on April 3, 1980.

It is difficult to overestimate the impact of SirEdward Bullard’s career on the profession. Manyof his papers are true milestones in geophysics(magnetics, seismic refraction, and heat flow) and

42 Bullard, Sir Edward C.

especially in marine geophysics. In recognition ofhis contributions to the profession, Bullard re-ceived numerous honors and awards. In additionto having been knighted for his work at the Na-tional Physical Laboratory he was a Fellow of theRoyal Society. He was a member of the U.S. Na-tional Academy of Sciences and the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He received theHughes Medal and the Royal Medal from theRoyal Society (England), the Bowie Medal andthe Maurice Ewing Medal from the AmericanGeophysical Union, the Chree Medal from thePhysics Society (England), the Arthur L. DayMedal from the Geological Society of America,the Gold Medal from the Royal Astronomical So-ciety (England), the Wollaston Medal from theGeological Society of London, and the VetlesenPrize from the Vetlesen Foundation of ColumbiaUniversity.

Bullard also performed great service to thepublic and the profession. Among others, he wasan adviser to the British government on nucleardisarmament, chair of the Anglo-American Ballis-tic Missile Commission and the chair of theCommittee for British Space Research. He was ac-tive in industry as well, including as the directorof IBM, U.K., and various positions in the familybrewing business.

5 Burchfiel, B. Clark(1934– )AmericanStructural Geologist, Tectonics

With the vast number of highly talented geolo-gists doing research in the frontier field of tecton-ics, progress has become one of inches rather thanthe leaps and bounds that it started out with. Forthat reason, it is always astonishing when somegeologists seem to be able to make those impres-sive advances in spite of the usual slow pace. ClarkBurchfiel is the epitome of that geologist. Al-though Burchfiel has concentrated the bulk of his

efforts on the southwestern United States andTibet, one of the reasons for his great success isthat he will travel to the ends of the Earth to ad-dress a problem in the ideal example. His travelshave additionally taken him to the Alps of easternEurope, the Scandinavian Caledonides, and thePeruvian, Bolivian, and Colombian Andes. Typi-cally, his approach to these problems is with de-tailed field geology coupled with geophysical datawhere available.

Some of the topics that Clark Burchfiel isbest known for include a pull-apart (extensional)origin for Death Valley, California, many studieson the plate tectonic evolution of the westernCordilleras, and studies contrasting plate subduc-tion and convergence in the Carpathians, the

Burchfiel, B. Clark 43

Clark Burchfiel leads a field trip to the Clark Mountains,Basin and Range Province, in California with GregDavis (background) in 1971 (Courtesy of ArthurSylvester)

Caledonides, and the Cordilleras. The studies heis most famous for in recent years are the definingof different types of extension as plates are brokenapart during the formation of an ocean basin.This work with student Brian Wernicke estab-lished a whole new vigorous direction in geology.He and student Leigh Royden found concurrentnormal faulting with parallel reverse faulting inthe Himalayas. Prior to this the generally acceptedidea was that all faults in a compressional areashould be reverse or if there are normal faults,they lie perpendicular to the reverse faults. Thiswork showed that mountains can reach only a cer-tain height and thereafter the crust collapses anyway it can. Many tectonic geologists had to re-think their models and start reexamining theirfield areas as a result of this work. This response ofthe profession is common after Burchfiel pub-lishes a paper.

Clark Burchfiel was born on March 21,1934, in Stockton, California. He attended Stan-ford University, California, where he earned abachelor of science degree and a master of sciencedegree in geology in 1957 and 1958, respectively,in addition to playing varsity football. He earnedhis Ph.D. from Yale University, Connecticut, instructural geology and tectonics in 1961 under ad-visement of JOHN RODGERS. He earned the Silli-man Prize for his work. Burchfiel worked as ageologist with the U.S. Geological Survey duringhis final year at Yale University before accepting aposition at Rice University, Texas, in 1961. Hewas named a Carey Croneis Professor of geologyfrom 1974 to 1976. In 1977, he joined the facultyat Massachusetts Institute of Technology and wasnamed Schlumberger Professor of geology in1984, a chair that he still holds today. He heldseveral exchange and visiting professor positionsduring his career at the Geological Institute of Bel-grade, Yugoslavia (1968), the Geological Instituteof Bucharest, Romania (1970), the Australian Na-tional University (1976), the University of Athens,Greece (1986), and University of Lund, Sweden(1992). Burchfiel married fellow geologist and

Massachusetts Institute of Technology professorLeigh Royden in 1984; they have four children.

Clark Burchfiel has had an extremely pro-ductive career publishing well over 100 articles ininternational journals and professional volumes.Many of these papers are benchmark studies thatare repeatedly cited in other scientific articles. Inaddition to his own superb research, he has men-tored many of the top geologists in the field oftectonics today. Thus his influence has even amore far-reaching effect. Burchfiel has been rec-ognized for his contribution to the field with nu-merous honors and awards. He has been amember of the National Academy of Sciencessince 1985 and was a Guggenheim Fellow from1985 to 1986. He is a Fellow of the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences and an honoraryFellow of the European Union of Geologists aswell as a member of the Chinese Academy of Sci-ences. He received many awards from profes-sional societies including the prestigious CareerContribution Award from the Structural Geologyand Tectonics Division of the Geological Societyof America in 1996. Burchfiel served as editor forthe journal Tectonics and is on the editorial boardfor Tectonophysics as well as prominent journals inNorway, Switzerland, Germany, and China.

5 Burke, Kevin C. A.(1929– )BritishTectonic Geologist

After the pioneers of the plate tectonic theoryproved that there was such a process, the monu-mental task of placing the rest of the features ofthe Earth into that framework remained. The firstgroup of giants included the likes of ALLAN V.COX, HARRY H. HESS, W. MAURICE EWING, and J.TUZO WILSON. The second group is no lessdaunting, and prominent among them is KevinBurke. When Kevin Burke began his research, thegeology of the continents was an open book for

44 Burke, Kevin C. A.

study, just waiting to be interpreted in this newcontext. Kevin Burke and his comrades formed akind of “tectonic cavalry” attacking mountainbelts and ocean basins alike with voracity. Burke’sarea of interest is primarily stratigraphy and thedevelopment of sedimentary basins but he teamedwith others to address virtually every tectonicproblem. His primary research collaborators in-clude JOHN F. DEWEY, A. M. ÇELAL SENGOR, andBill Kidd. They applied the theory of triple junc-tions in continental extension not only in the typeexample of Saudi Arabia where the Gulf of Adenand the Red Sea form active arms and the EastAfrican Rift System forms the failed arm, butworldwide where the relations are not as clear.They were especially interested in the failed arm,which forms a large sedimentary basin with po-tential petroleum reserves called an aulocogen asin the 1977 paper “Aulocogens and ContinentalBreakup.” He compared aulocogens to basins cre-ated by continental collisions which he namedimpactogens in the 1978 paper “Rifts at High An-gles to Orogenic Belts: Tests for their Origin andthe Upper Rhine Graben as an Example.” Hetook the then-nascent idea of escape or extrusiontectonics as defined in the Himalayas and whilemost geologists were still trying to understand theprocess, he identified every place it was currentlyhappening on Earth. This 1984 paper is entitled,“Tectonic Escape in the Evolution of the Conti-nental Crust,” with A. M. Çelal Sengor. Escapetectonics is the lateral movement of continentalmass out of the way of a progressing continentalcollision. It is analogous to how clay squirts side-ways when impacted with a fist or other object.He also addressed the processes of sedimentationin island arc settings with the Caribbean Sea as hisarea of choice.

However, Burke was not satisfied with work-ing only on currently active orogens and basins,he also addressed ancient examples. Everythingfrom small regional studies to large-scale sedimen-tary basin analysis were placed into plate tectoniccontext. Because plate tectonics control the distri-

bution of hydrocarbons, much of Burke’s workwas of great interest to oil companies as exempli-fied by his 1975 paper, “Petroleum and GlobalTectonics.” He consulted with such companies asExxon USA for a decade during the oil crisis. Healso worked extensively with NASA on basalt vol-canism as well as planetary evolution. His latestendeavor is the study of phenomenally large sandoceans that formed after the breakup of the super-continent of Rodinia in the Late Proterozoic time(about 600 to 700 million years ago). They hadan order of magnitude more sand than any otherobserved deposits ever. The largest of these is inNorth Africa and underlies the current SaharaDesert. Africa is one of Burke’s favorite areas, buthe is also well known for his work in theCaribbean Sea and in Asia.

Kevin Burke was born on November 13,1929, in London, England. He attended Univer-sity College, London, where he was a GoldsmidScholar from 1948 to 1951 and the recipient of aDSIR Research Studentship from 1951 to 1953.He earned a bachelor of science degree in geologyin 1951 and a Ph.D. in geology in 1953. Heworked as a lecturer in geology at the Universityof Gold Coast, Africa, from 1953 to 1956, beforeworking in exploration for raw materials foratomic energy both for the Geological Survey ofGreat Britain and as an international atomic en-ergy adviser for the Republic of Korea. He was amember of the faculty and department head atthe University of West Indies, Jamaica, from 1961to 1965 before accepting a professorship at theUniversity of Ibadan, Nigeria, where he remaineduntil 1971. He was a visiting professor at Univer-sity of Toronto, Canada, in 1972 and 1973 andthen moved to the State University of New Yorkat Albany as professor and chair, where he re-mained until 1982. During that time, Burke wasa visiting professor at California Institute of Tech-nology (1976), University of Minnesota (1978),and University of Calgary (1979). He moved toHouston in 1982 where he was the deputy direc-tor and later the director of the Lunar and Plane-

Burke, Kevin C. A. 45

tary Institute of NASA as well as professor of ge-ology at the University of Houston, where he con-tinues today. From 1989 to 1992, Burke left theuniversity to work at the National ResearchCouncil in Washington, D.C., on a major projectto decide the future of solid Earth sciences. KevinBurke married Angela Phipps in 1961; they havethree children.

Kevin Burke has contributed some 140 scien-tific articles in international journals, professionalvolumes, and governmental reports. Many ofthese papers are true classics of plate tectonics andappear in the most prestigious journals, like Na-ture. He was named a Du Toit Memorial Lecturer

by the Geological Society of South Africa inrecognition of these achievements.

Kevin Burke served as editor or associate edi-tor for some of the most prestigious journals inthe world, including Tectonics, Tectonophysics, Geo-logical Society of America Bulletin, Geology, Journalof Geology, and Journal of Geophysical Research,among others. He has served on some of the mostprestigious boards and panels for agencies and so-cieties such as NASA, National Academy of theSciences, International Geological Congress, CO-CORP (continental seismic program), NATOAdvanced Study Institute, Ocean Drilling Pro-gram, and NFR Sweden.

46 Burke, Kevin C. A.

5 Carmichael, Ian S.(1930– )BritishIgneous Petrologist

The introduction of high-energy analytical tech-niques in the mid-1960s revolutionized the fieldof geochemistry and igneous petrology. Ratherthan performing time-consuming and tediouswet chemical analyses, scientists could generatemuch more data quickly and accurately. Data col-lection was no longer an end unto itself and sci-entists could devote an order of magnitude moreof their time and energy to addressing the pro-cesses and relations involved. This breakthroughrapidly advanced the science to its modern paceand depth of inquiry. One of the true leaders ofthis revolution is Ian Carmichael. The freedom toaddress this new depth of inquiry led Carmichaelto the most basic and yet the most difficult prob-lems in igneous petrology, namely the origin andevolution of magmas. His research was accom-plished through detailed analytical work coupledwith comprehensive field studies of classic areas.The results were explained in terms of classicalthermodynamics. In the early days, that approachwas often hampered by the lack of data to con-strain the theories. This need led Carmichael toembark on an experimental program to measurethe thermodynamic properties of minerals and

melts. He pioneered a new kind of experimentalpetrology in which he determined volumes, com-pressibilities, heat capacities, viscosities and otherproperties (e.g., oxidation state) of these magmasand minerals in very complex systems. At thetime, the custom was to consider relatively simplesystems. These experimental results were thenused to model phase equilibria instead of theother way around, as was also common at thetime.

In addition to all of this theoretical and ex-perimental research, Carmichael has always main-tained a strong field program. He has studiedvolcanic systems from Iceland to New Guinea andAlaska to Mexico, where he has concentrated forthe past 25 years. In addition to his boundless en-ergy and productivity, Carmichael is known formentoring some of the premier petrologist-geo-chemists in the profession. He is well known forhis prowess as a mentor.

Ian Carmichael was born on March 29,1930, in London, England. He left England at 17years of age, first going to a school in Connecti-cut, then to Cuba, and finally to the ColoradoSchool of Mines in Golden before returning toEngland after 18 months. He then served as a sec-ond lieutenant in the paratroopers of the BritishArmed Forces for two years, where he was sta-tioned in the deserts of the Sinai and the Sudan.He attended Cambridge University, England,

47

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where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in geol-ogy in 1954. Carmichael then accepted a positionas a geologist, prospecting in northern Ontarioand the Canadian Arctic coast (in winter!) beforereturning to the Imperial College of Science at theUniversity of London, where he earned a Ph.D. in1960. He married in 1955.

Carmichael’s first academic position was as alecturer at Imperial College in London, which heheld from 1958 to 1963. He took a sabbaticalleave as a National Science Foundation senior sci-entist at the University of Chicago, Illinois, touse the new electron microprobe and when hewas denied an extension of his leave, he quit. In1965, he joined the faculty at the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley where he remained for the

rest of his career. While at Berkeley, he served aschairman of the department from 1972–1976and 1980–1982 and associate dean for the gradu-ate school (1976–1978), for graduate academicaffairs (1985) and associate provost for research(1986–2000). He was also an acting provost forresearch (1989) and served as the acting directorof the botanical garden (1996–1998) and the di-rector of the Lawrence Hall of Science(1996–present). Ian Carmichael was marriedagain in 1970 and again in 1986 to KathleenO’Brien.

Ian Carmichael has led an extremely produc-tive career. He is an author of numerous articlesin international journals and professional vol-umes. Many of these papers are benchmark stud-ies on igneous petrology and igneous processes.He is also an author of a classic textbook IgneousPetrology and an editor of a classic volume Ther-modynamic Modeling of Geological Materials:Minerals, Fluids and Melts. For his research con-tributions to the profession, Carmichael receiveda number of honors and awards. He was named aFellow of the Royal Society of London. He re-ceived the Roebling Medal from the Mineralogi-cal Society of America, the Murchison Medalfrom the Geological Society of London, theSchlumberger Medal from the Mineralogical So-ciety of Great Britain, the Arthur L. Day Medalfrom the Geological Society of America, and theBowen Award from the American GeophysicalUnion. Carmichael was a Guggenheim Fellowand also named a Miller Research Professor at theMiller Institute for Scientific Research.

Carmichael has performed significant serviceto the profession at the National Science Founda-tion, National Research Council, Geological So-ciety of America, Mineralogical Society ofAmerica, and the American Geophysical Union.He is probably most noted for his editorial work.He was editor in chief and executive editor to theprestigious journal Contributions to Mineralogyand Petrology from 1973 to 1990. Since 1990 hehas been an associate editor.

48 Carmichael, Ian S.

Portrait of Ian Carmichael in 2001 (Courtesy of IanCarmichael)

5 Cashman, Katharine V.(1954– )AmericanPetrologist (Volcanology)

When a major volcanic eruption occurs, a hugeamount of gas is released into the atmosphere, anexplosion may occur, ash and other particles maybe ejected into the atmosphere, and lava may flowdown the volcano slopes. Depending upon the lo-cation of the volcano, it may impact human habi-tations in one way or another. If the volcano existsin a populated area, the intensity and extent ofthose components of an eruption will determinewhether the eruption can be used as a tourist at-traction or if it will cause significant death and de-struction. A major control on this intensity andextent is the mechanisms, rates, and timing of therelease of gas from the magma. Katharine Cash-man has developed intricate observational meth-ods of textures in volcanic rocks to predict andconstrain some of these destructive events. Shelooks at the size and density of holes (vesicles) leftby the passage of gas through the magma andlava. If the volcanic gases are released quickly, theeruption will be explosive, just like the carbondioxide being released quickly from soda. Severalpapers document this work including “Vesicula-tion of Basalt Magma During Eruption.” She alsomeasures crystal sizes and crystallization rates inthe same rocks. If the crystallization rates arequick, the lava flow will not travel as far. She mea-sures crystal density and crystal sizes and the dis-tribution of them to study rates and relativeviscosity. She also uses Ar/Ar thermochronology(age dating of the individual minerals) to put ab-solute timing on these rates. By comparing thesenatural results with physical and thermodynamicmodels currently being developed for processesoccurring in magma reservoirs a predictive capa-bility may be provided for the hazardous aspectsof volcanic eruptions.

Cashman is also studying the formation ofpumice in volcanic systems especially with regard

to submarine eruptions. She has done extensivework on Mount Saint Helens both regarding the1980 eruption and the minor eruptions that haveoccurred since. This research is the most exhaus-tive of any on this famous eruption and is leadingto new insights on the processes of the eruption.This work is establishing new protocols on how tostudy volcanic eruptions that will be applied toother eruptions worldwide. Some of the otherprojects that Cashman is involved with includethe crystallization, degassing and physical proper-ties of lava from the Mauna Loa volcano, Hawaii,the growth of crystals in lava from Mount Erebus,Antarctica, flow patterns and cooling histories ofvolcanic feeder pipes in Brazil, and studies of fall-out from pyroclastic volcanism from the Shira-hama Formation, Japan.

Katharine Cashman was born on July 19,1954, in Providence, Rhode Island. She attendedMiddlebury College, Vermont, where she earned abachelor of arts degree in geology and biologywith honors in 1976. She earned a master of sci-ence degree in geology with first-class honorsfrom Victoria University, New Zealand, in 1979.She returned to the United States to accept a posi-tion as research scientist at the U.S. GeologicalSurvey at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, from 1979to 1981. She earned a doctorate in geology fromthe Johns Hopkins University, Maryland, in1986. Cashman joined the faculty at PrincetonUniversity, New Jersey, in 1986, but moved to theUniversity of Oregon in Eugene, where she re-mains today. During her tenure, she was a visitingprofessor at Queen’s University, Kingston, On-tario, Canada, in 1991, at the Woods HoleOceanographic Institute of the Massachusetts In-stitute of Technology in 1993, and at GEOMARin Kiel, Germany, in 1999.

Katharine Cashman is leading a productivecareer. She has published some 50 articles in inter-national journals and professional volumes. Sev-eral of these studies establish new processes involcanism and the crystallization of volcanicrocks. She has received several professional awards

Cashman, Katharine V. 49

in recognition of her achievements. She is a mem-ber of the American Association for the Advance-ment of Science. She received several honors as astudent, including being inducted into Phi BetaKappa, and receiving the Charles B. Allen Awardand a Fulbright scholarship. She received theGroup Cash Award in 1982 for her work onMount Saint Helens.

Cashman’s service to the geologic professionis extensive. She served on numerous panels andcommittees, both national and international, onvolcanic processes and volcanic hazards. She is asection president for the American GeophysicalUnion, for which she has served on several com-mittees. She has also served for the Geological So-ciety of America and the Geochemical Society.She has held a number of editorial positions forGeology, Earth in Space, and Journal of GeophysicalResearch.

5 Chan, Marjorie A.(1955– )AmericanSedimentologist

Many scientists travel the globe to study geologybut Marjorie Chan has found that some of thetype examples of her research interests are in herown backyard in Utah. The University of Utahgeologist has research projects that span some 800million years of geologic time from the Precam-brian to the Pleistocene.

The development of the Basin and RangeProvince in the southwestern United States pro-vides one of the great examples of combined to-pographic-structural features of the Earth. Thesedimentation that results from this extreme ge-ometry is also noteworthy. Marjorie Chan is oneof the primary geologists studying the processesin the Great Salt Lake, Utah, and its precursor,Lake Bonneville. During the ice ages of the Pleis-tocene epoch, the huge glacial Lake Bonnevillefilled the Great Salt Lake basin. Chan studies the

shoreline deposits of the lake along the Wasatchfront. This research documents the processes ofone of the premier closed basin, intermontanelakes that formed in response to global glacialconditions. Chan’s studies also stress that theshoreline records of Lake Bonneville comprise im-portant geoantiquities, records of recent Earthhistory. Many of these geoantiquities hold valu-able scientific information and are important as-sets to society and should be preserved. This ideais emphasized in her paper, “Geoantiquities in theUrban Landscape.”

Both surface and ground waters from thebounding Wasatch Range and related mountainsfed the Lake Bonneville basin under tremendouspressure that still affects the area to a lesser extenttoday. Chan’s research tests the validity of climatemodeling utilizing her sedimentologic and geo-morphic field data superimposed onto a databasethat utilizes geographic information systems.These studies show the control of depositionalunits on modern groundwater flow. With theabundant hypersaline nonpotable waters in thebasin and the lack of abundant rainfall, the area isextremely environmentally sensitive. Contamina-tion of the groundwater, which is driven deeplyinto the basin from the slopes of the boundingmountain ranges, could be potentially devastatingto a very large area.

Marjorie Chan has a second area of researchon sedimentary rocks of much greater age but inthe same area. The Proterozoic Cottonwood For-mation of central Utah contains the oldest knownevidence of lunar-solar tidal cyclicity (in the paperOldest Direct Evidence of Lunar-Solar Tidal ForcingEncoded in Sedimentary Rhythmites: Proterozoic BigCottonwood Formation, Central Utah). The goal ofthis research is to detect evidence of ancient cli-mate change, of tidal friction and to documentthe lunar retreat rate over time. Chan has also in-vestigated evidence of climate and global changereflected in ancient aeolian deposits of the Per-mian Cedar Mesa Sandstone in southeasternUtah.

50 Chan, Marjorie A.

Marjorie Chan was born in 1955 in a car onthe Ford U.S. Army base in California (her par-ents did not get to the hospital on time!). Her fa-ther was a marine biologist and field trips withhim kindled her interest in science. She attendedthe College of Martin in Kentfield, California,where she earned an associate of arts degree inmathematics and an associate of science degree inphysical science in 1975. She continued her un-dergraduate studies at the University of Californiaat Davis, where she earned a bachelor of sciencedegree in geology in 1977. Chan completed hergraduate studies at the University of Wisconsin atMadison in geology in 1982 with a Kohler Fel-lowship and as an advisee of ROBERT H. DOTT JR.She joined the faculty at the University of Utah inSalt Lake City upon graduation and has remainedever since. Chan has also worked as an intern andconsultant for numerous companies and organiza-tions over the years, including the California Di-vision of Oil and Gas, Lawrence LivermoreNational Laboratory (California), Marathon OilCompany (Colorado), ARCO Oil company(Texas), and the Utah Geological Survey. MarjorieChan is married and has two sons.

Marjorie Chan is amid a productive career.She is an author of 43 publications in interna-tional journals, professional volumes, and govern-mental reports. Many of these papers are seminalreading about the tidal, fluvial, lacustrine, glacial,and aeolian depositional systems in Utah, both re-cent and ancient. She is also an author of one bookand one videotape. Chan has been an investigatoron numerous external grants totaling some $3 mil-lion. She has received several honors and awards inrecognition of both her research and teaching con-tributions to geology. She received the Outstand-ing Young Women of America Award (1983), twoExcellence of Presentation Awards from the Soci-ety of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralo-gists, the Telly Award for videos, and numerousawards from the University of Utah, including theDistinguished Faculty Teaching Award and theDistinguished Faculty Research Award. The Asso-

ciation for Women Geoscientists, among others,also named her a distinguished lecturer.

Chan performed significant service to theprofession. She has served on numerous commit-tees and functions for the Geological Society ofAmerica, the American Association of PetroleumGeologists, the Society of Economic Paleontolo-gists and Mineralogists, and the Drilling, Obser-vation and Sampling of the Earth’s ContinentalCrust, Inc.

5 Cherry, John A.(1941– )CanadianHydrogeologist

The transport of contaminants and pollutantsfrom landfills, underground storage tanks, and

Cherry, John A. 51

Marjorie Chan on a field trip with her two sons in Utahin 2001 (Courtesy of Marjorie A. Chan)

other point sources into the groundwater systemis the greatest threat facing our ability to obtainclean and safe drinking water. Horrifying storieslike Love Canal in New York are commonly re-ported in newspapers and on television and radioand are even made into popular movies. Thestudy and remediation of such problems has be-come one of the primary legislative goals of manygovernments. Many millions of dollars are de-voted to this work, including the naming of nu-merous U.S. Environmental Protection AgencySuperfund sites and their equivalents in othercountries. John Cherry is one of the true leadersin the development and application of the scienceof contaminant hydrogeology and remediation.His record of innovative research and publicationis unrivaled. He has the rare combination of theunderstanding and prediction of problems, the

technical expertise to pursue them, and the intel-lectual rigor to properly analyze and interpret theresults. This work is carried out at the world’sleading center for hydrogeological research at theUniversity of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, a repu-tation for which Cherry is largely responsible. Healso established the Borden Research Site, whichis among the first field testing hydrogeology sitesin the world where the behavior of industrial con-taminants introduced purposefully in a naturalaquifer has been intensely studied over long peri-ods of time.

John Cherry uses all remedial, chemical, andphysical analytical and modeling techniques avail-able to him including isotopic and chemical stud-ies of water, flow and fluid transport processmodeling, water resource evaluation, and aquiferrestoration, among others. His first project wasthe evaluation of a low-level radioactive waste fa-cility in western Canada, which he had to plod hisway through because there was no accepted ap-proach. It raised many questions that he has beenaddressing ever since. Some of his major areas ofinterest include the fate and transport of densechlorinated solvents (DNAPLs) through bothnon-indurated (porous) soil and rock, as well asfracture systems in both clay and indurated (solid)rock. Remediation of such hazardous substancescould be to isolate them from the rest of thegroundwater system, the methods for which areevaluated by Cherry. He also studies the proper-ties of clay-rich materials that can control themolecular diffusion of such pollutants. Thesestudies have implications for the natural attenua-tion of pollutants versus those situations which re-quire human intervention.

John Cherry was born on July 4, 1941, inRegina, Saskatchewan, Canada. His family movedseveral times in his youth and he attended highschools in Ottawa and Regina, Canada. He at-tended the University of Saskatchewan in Saska-toon and earned a bachelor of science degree ingeological engineering in 1962. He began hisgraduate studies at the University of California at

52 Cherry, John A.

Portrait of John Cherry (Courtesy of John Cherry)

Berkeley and earned a master of science degree ingeology in 1964. He finished his graduate studiesat the University of Illinois at Urbana-Cham-paign, receiving a Ph.D. in 1966. Upon gradua-tion, Cherry became a postdoctoral fellow at theUniversity of Bordeaux, France, but returned toWinnipeg the next year (1967) to join the facultyat the University of Manitoba, Canada. In 1971,he moved to the University of Waterloo in On-tario, and he remains there today. He was the di-rector of the Institute for Groundwater Researchfrom 1982–1987 but switched to the director ofthe University Consortium for Solvents-in-Groundwater Research in 1988. He also holds anNSERC (Environmental Research Council) chairin contaminant hydrogeology. John Cherry ismarried to the former Joan Getty; they have twochildren.

John Cherry is leading a productive career.He is an author of numerous scientific articles ininternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Many of these publica-tions are often-cited benchmark studies on con-taminant hydrogeology and remediation. He isalso the first author of perhaps the historicallymost widely used 1979 textbook in the field,Groundwater with R.A. Freeze. In recognition ofhis research contributions to hydrogeology,Cherry has received numerous honors andawards. Among these are the O.E. MeinzerAward from the Geological Society of Americaand the William Smith Medal from the Geologi-cal Society of London. He also received severalOutstanding Teacher awards from the Universityof Waterloo.

Cherry has performed significant service tothe profession. He has served on several panelsand committees for the National Research Coun-cil, NATO, the Geological Society of America,the Association of Groundwater Scientists andEngineers, and the International Association ofHydrogeologists, among others. He has alsoserved in several editorial roles for the Journal ofHydrology among others.

5 Clark, Thomas H.(1893–1996)BritishPaleontologist, Regional Geologist

Thomas Clark gained fame for his early (1924)visit to the famous Burgess Shale where he met itsrecent discoverer, CHARLES D. WALCOTT of theSmithsonian Institution. Clark was really onlythere to add fossils to his museum’s collection,but the chance meeting spread his name aroundthe geologic circles. For this reason, when helaunched his major 1926 program to map theQuebec Appalachians, it met with much enthusi-asm. Over the next decade, Clark mapped the ge-ology and paleontology along the United Statesborder in the Eastern Townships from the Sut-ton-Dunham area toward Phillipsburg and LakeMemphremagog. This painstakingly detailedwork on complexly deformed and largely meta-morphosed rocks established him as one of theleading geologists in Canada. It also resulted inthe first detailed regional map of the area thatwas internally consistent. By 1937, Clark shiftedhis research area to the relatively weakly de-formed rocks of the St. Lawrence Lowlands fromthe Ontario border to Quebec City. He producednew maps in some areas and the first geologicmaps ever in others. In any event, it once againresulted in an internally consistent map of thisimportant area of southern Canada. The SaintLawrence Valley is likely the most seismically ac-tive area of eastern North America.

During the time of his research in the SaintLawrence lowlands, Thomas Clark performed areconnaissance study on the rocks of the Lavalarea near Montreal. He found that the existingmaps were incorrect and proposed a major map-ping initiative of the entire Montreal area to theMinistère des Mines. That project began in 1938and continued for the next decade along with thatof the Saint Lawrence Valley. This work formedthe basis for development and industrialization ofthe area over the next two decades. By the late

Clark, Thomas H. 53

1960s, however, the development of Montrealand the drilling for the Saint Lawrence Seaway inaddition to other construction projects yielded farmore geologic information than had been previ-ously available. Using the new exposures and ex-tensive drill cores and well log data from bothconstruction projects and oil and gas exploration,Clark revised his geologic maps in a major re-search project.

Thomas Clark was born on December 3,1893, in London, England, where he spent hisyouth. He immigrated to the United States to at-tend Harvard University, Massachusetts, where heearned a bachelor of arts degree in geology in1917. He enlisted in the U.S. Army upon gradua-tion, where he served in the Medical Corps dur-ing World War I. After the war, Clark returned toHarvard University, where he earned a Ph.D. ingeology in 1924. Upon graduation, he accepted ateaching post at McGill University, Canada, andremained there for the next 69 years. ThomasClark met and married Olive Marguerite Melve-nia Pritchard in 1927; they had one daughter.Clark eventually became the director of the Red-path Museum at McGill University, where hebegan as the curator of the paleontology collec-tion. He was also chair of the department formany years. Thomas Clark died in 1996 at theage of 103. His wife had predeceased him severalyears earlier. Clark’s longevity is in stark contrastto most of the famous Earth scientists, who have atendency to die young.

Thomas Clark led a productive career, espe-cially considering that his most productive yearswere during a time when publication was at a farslower pace than it is today. Nonetheless, he wasan author of more than 100 scientific articles, re-ports, and geologic maps in international jour-nals, professional volumes, and governmentalreports. He was also an author of The GeologicalEvolution of North America, which was widely re-garded as a standard textbook for university-levelgeology. In recognition of his many contributionsto geology, Thomas Clark received many honors

and awards. He was elected a Fellow of the RoyalSociety of Canada in 1936. Among his manyawards are the Harvard Centennial Medal fromHarvard University, the Logan Gold Medal andthe Centennial Award from the Royal Society ofCanada, and the Prix Grand Mérité Geoscien-tifique. His service to the profession included nu-merous roles with the Geological Society ofCanada, the Royal Society of Canada, and theNational Environmental Research Council ofCanada.

5 Cloos, Ernst(1898–1974)GermanStructural Geologist

Normally, world travel to the prime examples ofgeological features is required to establish an in-ternational reputation in geology based uponfield research. Ernst Cloos established a stellarreputation in geology based upon his research onthe central Appalachians, essentially in his back-yard. The reason for his success was his meticu-lous attention to detail and concentration on theprocesses of formation rather than just the re-gional relations. He felt that a careful and de-tailed study of a small area yields results moreuseful to others than even the most brilliant gen-eralizations based upon questionable facts. At thetime of Cloos’s main activity, there were a largenumber of reputable geologists applying newideas to the geology of New England. Cloos vir-tually single-handedly analyzed the central Ap-palachians at the same level of sophistication. Hismost famous paper was on South Mountain,Maryland, where he developed new methods toevaluate strain in the rocks using oolites that isnow widely applied and unsurpassed for accuracy(“Oolite Deformation in the South MountainFold, Maryland”). He studied boudinage in apaper of the same name with the same methodi-cal manner using examples from the central Ap-

54 Cloos, Ernst

palachians as well as cleavage, lineation, andslicken side (fault striations) development.

Cloos also performed studies on thicknessvariations in folded strata as the result of the flowof rocks away from the limbs and into the hinge.This began another research direction in develop-ing analog models to replicate structural processes.He used wet modeling clay following the exampleof his brother, Hans Cloos, another famous struc-tural geologist. He modeled joint systems as wellin several papers, including “Experimental Analy-sis of Fracture Patterns.” With all of this researchon the central Appalachians, by necessity he alsobecame an expert on regional geology. Her per-formed many studies on the Piedmont and BlueRidge Provinces on a variety of areas. As a secondarea of expertise, Cloos also studied several graniteand granodiorite plutons in Maryland, California,and Ontario, Canada. His area of concern wasemplacement mechanics rather than geochemicalaspects.

Ernst Cloos was born on May 17, 1898, inSaarbrücken, Germany, but the family soonmoved to Cologne. When his father died in1904, the family moved to a place in the BlackForest near Freiburg. Cloos attended severalboarding schools in his youth but was not muchof a scholar. He enlisted in the armed forces atage 17, and wound up as the pilot of an observa-tion plane during World War I. His plane wasshot down over Switzerland and he was internedfor the remainder of the war. After the war, heentered the University of Freiburg, Germany, in-tent on biology, but soon switched to geology.He transferred to the University of Breslau, Ger-many, but he also spent a short period at theUniversity of Göttingen. In 1923, Cloos gradu-ated with a Ph.D. in geology and married thedaughter of his former instructor, Professor Spe-mann. They had two daughters. Upon gradua-tion he was offered a position at the University ofGöttingen, but the offer was rescinded and hewound up cataloging fossils for SeismosG.m.b.H. in Hannover, Germany. This company

was the first to conduct seismic reflection profil-ing in Texas and Louisiana for oil explorationand Cloos was included. The company thenmoved to the Middle East to continue oil explo-ration there. In 1930, Cloos returned to theUnited States to study the Sierra Nevadabatholith in California with a grant from theGerman government. In 1931, he was offered alectureship at the Johns Hopkins University inBaltimore, Maryland, and he remained there forthe rest of his career. He served as departmentchair from 1952 to 1963 and single-handedly re-built the department. He also served as directorof the Maryland Geological Survey in 1962 and1963. Ernst Cloos retired in 1968 to professoremeritus, but remained active until his death onMay 28, 1974.

Ernst Cloos led a very productive career. Heis an author of at least 65 scientific publications ininternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Many of these papers areseminal works on the structure and tectonics ofthe central Appalachians as well as experimentalstructural investigations. In recognition of his re-search contributions to geology, Ernst Cloos re-ceived numerous honors and awards. He was amember of the U.S. National Academy of Sci-ences and the Finnish Academy of Science andLetters. He was awarded an honorary doctor oflaws degree from Johns Hopkins University. Hewas awarded the Gustav Steinman Medal fromthe German Geological Society, the President’sAward from the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists, as well as a GuggenheimFellowship.

Cloos was also of great service to the profes-sion. He served on numerous committees and inseveral positions for the Geological Society ofAmerica, including president (1954) and vicepresident (1953). He also served as chairman ofthe Division of Geology and Geography for theNational Research Council from 1950 to 1953.He was appointed to numerous positions for theGeological Survey for the State of Maryland.

Cloos, Ernst 55

5 Cloud, Preston E., Jr.(1912–1991)AmericanPaleontologist

Preston Cloud was an outstanding evolutionarypaleontologist, biogeologist, and humanist who isbest known for several popular science books, hisstance against Creationism in public schools, andhis dire warnings about overpopulation. Cloudwas one of the founders and leaders in the bur-geoning field of Precambrian Earth history. Heemployed a holistic approach to understandingthe first 85 percent of Earth history. He devel-oped the idea that periodic radiative explosions oflife and especially metazoans were the result ofevolutionary opportunism rather than an incom-plete record. They reflected the availability ofnew ecological niches and conditions. Metazoansevolved as the result of the availability of freeoxygen which resulted in complex cells. Cloudemphasized complex interrelations through thewhole 4.5 billion years. His depth of investiga-tion gave him a special appreciation of the placeof humankind within this evolving environment.This deep understanding led him to write and as-semble several popular science books on theevolving Earth, including Adventures in EarthScience, Cosmos, Earth and Man and Oasis inSpace: Earth History from the Beginning. From thisunique vantage, Preston Cloud was able to judgethe condition of the Earth within an historicalperspective of planetary dimensions. He was suc-cessful in warning the public of the dangers ofthe rapidly increasing population and the steadilydecreasing availability of natural resources, a reve-lation that Cloud made. This warning has beentaken up by many environmental groups world-wide as a result and is recognized as our mostpressing problem. He was also instrumental inbringing this potentially calamitous situation tothe attention of the National Research Council

and the National Academy of Sciences, whichalso took up the cause.

Other areas that Preston Cloud mastered in-cluded the origin of carbonate atolls in the PacificOcean and the interplay of biological and geologi-cal processes in their formation. This theme ofbiogeology would recur throughout his research ef-forts whether regarding the evolution of bra-chiopods or the biostratigraphy of carbonateplatforms. He was equally skilled in the biostratig-raphy of clastic environments as well. Cloud waswell known for his ability to adapt his research totake advantage of research opportunities and toseek out projects with the greatest potential.

Preston Cloud was born on September 26,1912, in West Upton, Massachusetts. His fatherwas an engineer draftsman who traveled con-stantly. The family moved to Waynesboro, Penn-sylvania, in the late 1920s. In 1929, he graduatedfrom Waynesboro High School. The UnitedStates was amid the Great Depression in 1930, soCloud decided to join in the U.S. Navy. When hewas discharged in 1933 in California, he hiked hisway back to the East Coast. Money was still tightand he was fortunate enough to find enoughmoney to pay for his first semester at GeorgeWashington University in Washington, D.C. Amentor, Ray Bassler, was a curator of paleontologyat the National Museum and employed Cloud toassist him. Cloud completed his bachelor of sci-ence degree in 1938. He enrolled at Yale Univer-sity, Connecticut, and earned a Ph.D. inpaleontology/geology in 1942. He worked withCARL O. DUNBAR.

He was an instructor at the Missouri Schoolof Mines in 1940, and then returned to Yale Uni-versity as a postdoctoral fellow. In 1941, Cloudjoined the U.S. Geological Survey to study man-ganese deposits in Maine for the World War IImineral exploration program. The next year, hewas director of the Alabama Bauxite Project. In1943, Cloud joined the Texas Bureau of Eco-nomic Geology in the Ellenburger Project tostudy the stratigraphy and sedimentology of the

56 Cloud, Preston E., Jr.

Ellenburger carbonate complex. In 1946, Cloudaccepted a position as a professor of invertebratepaleontology at Harvard University, Mas-sachusetts. However, due to a lack of support toexpand the teaching and research areas, he re-turned to the U.S. Geological Survey in 1949.Shortly thereafter he became chief of the Branchof Paleontology and Stratigraphy. He increasedthe staff from 15 to almost 60 geologists and or-ganized the first two marine biology programs.

In 1961, Preston Cloud accepted a facultyposition at the University of Minnesota as a pro-fessor of geology, chairman of the Department ofGeology and Geophysics, and head of the Schoolof Earth Sciences. In 1965, he decided to take aprofessorship at the University of California, LosAngeles, but finally settled down permanently atthe University of California campus at Santa Bar-bara in 1968. In 1974, he convinced the head ofthe U.S. Geological Survey, Vince McKelvey, tobuild a laboratory at Santa Barbara for the studyof early organisms and to rehire Cloud to run it.He officially retired in 1979, but remained activethroughout the rest of his life. He was a LuceProfessor of Cosmology at Mount Holyoke Col-lege, Massachusetts, and a Queen Elizabeth IISenior Fellow at Canberra University, Australia.Preston Cloud died on January 16, 1991, of LouGehrig’s disease. Preston Cloud had three mar-riages during his life, first to Mildred Porter,from 1940 to 1949; second to Francis Websterfrom 1951 to 1965; and finally to Janice Gibsonin 1972. Cloud and Francis Webster had threechildren.

Preston Cloud was the author of some 200publications ranging from scientific papers in in-ternational volumes and journals to governmentalreports to popular science writing. In recognitionof his many contributions, Preston Cloud receivednumerous honors and awards. He was a memberof the National Academy of Sciences, the Ameri-can Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the PolishAcademy of Sciences. He was awarded the Wal-cott Medal from the National Academy of Sci-

ences, the Penrose Medal from the Geological So-ciety of America, the Paleontological SocietyMedal (United States), the L.W. Cross Medalfrom the American Philosophical Society, the A.C. Morrison Award from the New York Academyof Sciences, the Rockefeller Public Service Award,and the Distinguished Service Award and GoldMedal from the U.S. Department of the Interior.

5 Conway Morris, Simon(1951– )BritishInvertebrate Paleontologist

Simon Conway Morris gained his initial fame asone of HARRY B. WHITTINGTON’s two graduatestudents portrayed in STEPHEN JAY GOULD’s bookWonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Natureof History and his career has skyrocketed from

Conway Morris, Simon 57

Preston Cloud leads a field trip in California in1982 (Courtesy of Arthur Sylvester)

there. Beginning with this famous work he beganin graduate school on fossils in the Burgess Shaleof Canada, he established himself as perhaps theforemost authority on metazoan evolution. Thesemetazoans are arthropods that underwent tremen-dous evolutionary changes in the late Proterozoicthrough the early to middle Paleozoic (ca. 700million to 400 million years ago), which set thestage for the metazoans we see today. His famecontinued as he was asked to appear in numerousradio, television, and newspaper interviews. Thisearly media work culminated in his giving theRoyal Institution Christmas Lecture in 1996,which was broadcast by the BBC to an audienceof about 1 million people in Great Britain. He hasappeared on several BBC and NOVA science doc-umentaries, and even written magazine and news-paper articles. His now famous book, Crucible ofCreation: The Burgess Shale and the Rise of Ani-mals, in its seventh printing, began rather dis-creetly. It was first published in Japan in Chinese.Part of its success is that Conway Morris disputesthe opinion of Stephen Jay Gould, who main-tained that each step in the history of life is neces-sary to end up with the life of today, otherwiseeverything would be different. Conway Morrismaintains that within limits, the evolutionaryprocess is more predictable and forms will evolvein certain directions regardless of each step. He isa proponent of widespread convergent evolution,in which animals will tend to evolve toward themost efficient form for a particular environmentalniche and therefore look and behave the same re-gardless of what their ancestors started out as.Sharks and dolphins look very similar but hadcompletely different ancestors; one evolved fromfish and the other from terrestrial mammals.

Simon Conway Morris did not come by thisrespect purely by chance. After he began with theBurgess Shale, he expanded his investigation ofearly animals and the Cambrian explosion of lifeworldwide. He studied preskeletal and early skele-tal fossils in China, Sweden, Mongolia, Green-land, southern Australia, south Oman, Alberta

and Newfoundland, Canada, several places in theUnited States, and closer to home in Oxfordshire,England. He took this vast paleontological experi-ence and successfully interfaced it with molecularbiology, especially in terms of phylogeny andmolecular clocks. Many of his publications are inbiological journals. The discovery of some uniquefossil embryos and separately the oldest fossil fish(in China) ever found (by some 50 million years!)further spread his notoriety. The radically earlierdevelopment of fish than was previously thoughtfurther documents the astounding evolution thattook place in the Cambrian. As an outgrowth ofthe theoretical aspects of the evolution of animals,Conway Morris has even become involved in theSearch for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Institute(SETI). He argues that organic evolution isstrongly constrained so that from DNA to anyorgan, the same evolutionary sequence will occuranywhere in the universe that it is able to do so.

Simon Conway Morris was born on Novem-ber 6, 1951. He attended the University of Bris-tol, England, where he earned a bachelor ofscience degree with honors in geology in 1972.He attended Cambridge University (ChurchillCollege), England, where he earned a Ph.D. in1975 as an advisee of Harry Whittington. Con-way Morris was appointed to a research fellowshipat St. John’s College of Cambridge Universityfrom 1975 to 1979. He was appointed to lecturerand lecturer of paleontology positions in theOpen University at Cambridge University from1979 to 1991, at which point he became a readerin evolutionary paleobiology. He was also nameda Fellow at St. John’s College in 1987. Since 1995,Conway Morris has been a professor of evolution-ary paleobiology at Cambridge University. He wasa Gallagher Visiting Scientist at the University ofCalgary in 1981, a Merrill W. Haas Visiting Dis-tinguished Professor at the University of Kansas in1988, and a Selby Fellow at the AustralianAcademy of Sciences in 1992. Simon ConwayMorris has been married to Zoe Helen Jamessince 1975; they have two sons.

58 Conway Morris, Simon

Simon Conway Morris is an author of morethan 112 articles in international journals, profes-sional volumes, and governmental reports. Manyof these papers are cutting-edge studies that es-tablish a new benchmark in metazoan evolution,the Cambrian-Precambrian boundary, and theo-retical evolution. A number of these papers ap-pear in high-profile journals like Science andNature. He is also an author of some 100 bookreviews, numerous encyclopedia entries, and theone book mentioned, in addition to editing fiveprofessional volumes. In recognition of his re-search contributions to paleontology and evolu-tion, Conway Morris has received numeroushonors and awards. He was awarded an honorarydoctoral degree from the University of Uppsala inSweden. He also received the Charles D. WalcottMedal from the U.S. National Academy of Sci-ences, the Charles Schuchert Award from the Pa-leontological Society of the United States, theGeorge Gaylord Simpson Prize from Yale Univer-sity, and the Lyell Medal from the Geological Society of London.

Conway Morris has also performed signifi-cant service to the profession. He has served nu-merous functions for the Geological Society ofLondon, the Royal Society (England), the U.K.National Environment Research Council, the In-ternational Trust for Zoological Nomenclature,and the Systematics Association among others.

5 Cox, Allan V.(1926–1987)AmericanGeophysicist (Plate Tectonics)

Evidence for the existence for plate tectonics hadbeen mounting for many years, and especially inthe 1950s and early 1960s. The real clincher forthe theory, however, was the documentation ofseafloor spreading. In the 1950s, magnetic surveyswere conducted over the mid-ocean ridges in theAtlantic and Pacific Oceans. A series of odd

stripes parallel to the ridges and symmetric acrossthe ridges were discovered but were consideredenigmatic. A British geologist, Fred Vine, and hisassociates hypothesized that the striping was pro-duced by repeated reversals of the Earth’s mag-netic field coupled with a dual conveyor beltmodel from the mid-ocean ridge. Allan Cox andassociates including Brent Dalrymple, among oth-ers, took the next step by determining the timingof the magnetic polar reversals over the past 4 mil-lion years. They determined the age of largely vol-canic rocks from locations worldwide with knownpolarity. Cox developed and modified the metho-dology for determining paleomagnetism in rocksamples that is still used today. The research teamconstrained the points of reversal by more detailedsampling, paleomagnetic and geochronologicwork. This research established the first paleomag-netic time scale, which could be used for magne-tostratigraphy of sedimentary rocks with magneticsignatures, as well as volcanic rocks.

Cox and associates then applied their paleo-magnetic time scale to the magnetic stripes on theocean floor. There was already a large body of dataon the magnetism of the ocean floor which couldfinally be made comprehensible. With this evalua-tion, they proved unequivocally that new oceancrust was being created at the mid-ocean ridgesand moving symmetrically away in both direc-tions. By comparing the width of the variousstripes with their ages, for the first time the veloc-ity of plate movement could be determined. Thiswork triggered the main revelation about platetectonics that revolutionized the science of geol-ogy. After this work, in addition to continuing hispaleomagnetic research, Cox applied his findingsto the mechanics of plate movements and interac-tions on a spherical body. He described thesemovements in terms of poles of rotation aboutwhich plates move and developed quantitativemethods to determine these poles as well as therelative velocities.

Allan Cox was born on December 17, 1926,in Santa Ana, California. He attended the Uni-

Cox, Allan V. 59

versity of California at Berkeley initially as achemistry major, but a summer job with the U.S.Geological Survey in Alaska convinced him thathis true calling was in geophysics. He earned abachelor of arts degree in 1955, a master of artsdegree in 1957, and a Ph.D. in 1959, all in geol-ogy and geophysics and all from the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley. Upon graduation, Coxwas employed as a geophysicist with the U.S. Ge-ological Survey in Menlo Park, California. In1967, he joined the faculty at Stanford Univer-sity, California, as the Cecil and Ida Green Pro-fessor of Geophysics. Cox was so recognized forhis innovative teaching that a faculty teachingaward was named in his honor. He became deanof the School of Earth Sciences at Stanford Uni-versity in 1979. Allan Cox died on January 27,1987, as the result of a bicycle accident in thehills behind Stanford University.

Allan Cox led a productive career with au-thorship on more than 100 scientific articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports, as well as two popular text-books on plate tectonics. Several of his papers aremilestones in the development of the seafloorspreading model. In recognition of his researchcontributions to plate tectonics and geophysics,the professional community bestowed several hon-ors and awards upon him. Allan Cox was a mem-ber of both the National Academy of Sciences andthe American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Hewas awarded the John Adams Fleming Medal fromthe American Geophysical Union, the Arthur L.Day Medal from the Geological Society of Amer-ica, the Day Award from the National Academy ofSciences, and the Vetlesen Medal from the Vetle-sen Foundation at Columbia University.

In addition to serving on numerous panelsand committees for the National Research Coun-cil, the National Academy of Sciences, the U.S.Geological Survey, and the Geological Society ofAmerica, Allan Cox served as president of boththe Section of Geomagnetism and Paleomag-netism and the entire American Geophysical

Union (1978–1980), in addition to serving onnumerous panels and committees.

5 Craig, Harmon(1926– )AmericanGeochemist, Oceanographer

If there were an Indiana Jones of the Earth sci-ences, it would be Harmon Craig. Not only doeshe work on some of the most important problemsin Earth science, he does it while having the mostdaring of adventures. If he is not sailing over thetop of an erupting submarine volcano or descend-ing into the crater of an active underwater vol-cano, he might be captured by Zairian gunboatsat gunpoint on Lake Tanganyika or robbed byMasai warriors at spear point.

Harmon Craig is an isotope geochemist whospecializes in using helium isotope ratios as atracer to track the release of gases from the deepinterior of the Earth into the oceans and atmo-sphere. He discovered that the rare isotope he-lium 3 was trapped in the Earth at the time offormation 4.5 billion years ago and it is beingcontinuously released by degassing from theEarth’s mantle through mid-ocean ridge volca-noes and seafloor vents. This discovery has led toa greater understanding of how the oceans andatmosphere were formed in the primordial Earth.It also led Craig to search worldwide for mantleplumes or hot spots that tap the deep mantlenear the Earth’s core and release this helium 3 inhigher quantity than in the mid-ocean ridges. Hesampled volcanic rocks and gases in the EastAfrican Rift Valley from northern Ethiopia toLake Nyasa, in the Dead Sea, in Tibet and Yun-nan, China, and in all of the volcanic chains inthe Pacific and Indian Oceans. He has identified16 such volcanic hot spots with deep mantle sig-natures, 14 in ocean islands and two on conti-nents in the Afar Depression of Ethiopia andYellowstone Park, Wyoming.

60 Craig, Harmon

In this research, while using the Scripps Insti-tution of Oceanography Deep-Tow vehicle, Craigdiscovered hydrothermal sea vents in the GalapagosIslands seafloor-spreading center. Using the sub-mersible vehicle ALVIN he discovered similar ventson the Loihi seamount to the east of the island ofHawaii and the next Hawaiian island when itreaches the surface. He also sampled gas and rocksfrom the Macdonald Seamount in the Tubuai Is-land chain. He found more vents in ALVIN inback arc basins of the Mariana Trough some12,000 feet below sea level.

Through this worldwide tracking of helium 3within ocean water, he discovered that the deepwater of the south Pacific Ocean circulates in theopposite direction than had previously been de-scribed and a symmetrical circulation cell exists inthe north Pacific as well. Through similar deepwa-ter circulation studies, Craig found that the ele-ment lead is rapidly scavenged by particulatematerial, the method by which many trace metalsare removed from the ocean.

Craig was also involved with the analysis ofgas trapped in Greenland ice cores. He discoveredthat the methane content of the atmosphere hasdoubled over the past 300 years. This finding hasimportant implications for climate change model-ing. He is currently measuring temperatures ofpast ice ages using his discovery that noble gasesare gravitationally enriched in polar ice as a func-tion of temperature.

Craig and his wife, Valerie, have an ongoingproject to show the source of marble in ancientGreek sculptures and temples using carbon andoxygen isotopes.

Harmon Craig was born on March 15, 1926,in New York City. He enlisted in the U.S. Navy in1944 during the later stages of World War II andserved as a communications and radar officer onthe USS E-LSM until 1946. He attended college atthe University of Chicago, Illinois, and completedhis doctorate in geology in 1951. He was an ad-visee of Nobel Prize laureate Harold Urey in thechemistry department. Harmon Craig married his

wife, Valerie, in 1947 and they had three children.He was a research associate in geochemistry at theEnrico Fermi Laboratory at the University ofChicago, Illinois, from 1951 to 1955. He joinedthe faculty at the Scripps Institution of Oceanogra-phy in 1955 and remained there for the rest of hiscareer. He was a member of numerous oceano-graphic research expeditions including Monsoon in1961, Zephyrus in 1962, Carrousel in 1964, Novain 1967, Scan in 1970, and Antipode in 1971. Hewas also a member of several expeditions forGeochemical Oceanic Section Study (GEOSECS)in 1972–1977, 1982, 1983, 1985, and several ex-peditions to the eastern Pacific, Tibet, and China

Craig, Harmon 61

Harmon Craig aboard a Scripps Institution researchvessel shows a fish that was accidentally speared by anarm of the ALVIN submersible during a dive (Courtesyof Harmon Craig)

(between 1973 and 1993). He was the director ofGEOSECS in 1970.

Harmon Craig has written 182 articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andmajor oceanographic reports. Many of them areseminal studies on isotopic geochemistry of oceans,ice cores, and deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

The research contributions that Craig hasmade to the profession have been well recognizedin terms of honors and awards. He is a member ofthe National Academy of Sciences. He receivedhonorary doctorates from the Université de Pierreet Marie Curie, Paris, France, in 1983 and theUniversity of Chicago, Illinois, in 1992. He re-ceived the V. M. Goldschmidt Medal from theGeochemical Society, a Special Creativity Awardfrom the National Science Foundation, the ArthurL. Day Medal from the Geological Society ofAmerica, the Vetlesen Prize from the VetlesenFoundation, the Arthur L. Day Prize from the Na-tional Academy of Sciences, and the Balzan Prizefrom the Balzan Foundation. He was named aColumbus Iselin Lecturer at Harvard University,Massachusetts, as well as a Guggenheim Fellow.

His service to the profession is equally im-pressive, including serving on numerous commit-tees and panels for the Ocean Drilling Project,National Science Foundation, and the GeologicalSociety of America, among others and as associateeditor for the Journal of Volcanology and Geother-mal Research.

5 Crawford, Maria Luisa (Weecha)(1939– )AmericanPetrologist

Maria Luisa Crawford has about five major inter-ests in which she has established herself as one ofthe foremost authorities in the field. These inter-ests seem to evolve with time and she makes amarked shift in her research always to emerge in aleading role. Early in her career, Crawford was

one of the first scientists to utilize the newly in-vented electron microprobe on metamorphicrocks. However, she soon switched directions andbecame interested in lunar petrology and geo-chemistry. She conducted research on mare basaltsand determined the crystallization history and theorigin of these flood lavas that filled craters earlyin the history of the Moon. The flooding of theselavas came as the result of impacts from large me-teorites. The studies involved analysis of the rocksthat were returned to Earth in the Apollo lunarmissions. She was especially interested in basaltcalled KREEP, a name based on elemental enrich-ment (potassium: K, rare earth elements: REE,phosphorus: P).

Weecha Crawford is especially known for herresearch in Alaska and British Columbia, Canada.With colleagues, she studied the processes in in-tense continental collision at the peak of tectonismin “Crustal Formation at Depth During Conti-nental Collision,” among others. They proposedmagma genesis and emplacement into rapidly de-veloping major folds and faults that they namedthe “tectonic surge.” These plutons are rapidly up-lifted and exhumed. They have distinct large scaleand contact metamorphic relations around them.These structural, metamorphic, and plutonic rela-tions are all part of a major study of the accretionof continental fragments in the growth of conti-nents. By adding small pieces of continent to-gether in a series of collisions, full-sized continentsmay be built. The southern Alaska/BritishColumbia, Canada, area may be the best place onEarth to conduct such a study. This project isnamed ACCRETE and has been well received bythe geologic community.

The other area in which Dr. Crawford hasestablished herself as an expert is on the regionalgeology of the Pennsylvania Piedmont. She con-ducts studies on the metamorphic petrology, geo-chemistry, and geochronology on these complexrocks. Based upon these studies, plate tectonic re-constructions are proposed. Much of this work isdone with graduate students. Crawford has been

62 Crawford, Maria Luisa

an outstanding mentor to her students as well asa teacher. She has been especially encouraging towomen seeking to establish careers in geology. Inthis vein, Dr. Crawford has been an active mem-ber of the Association of Women Geoscientists.Through her efforts in publication, mentoring,and public relations, she has been a real factor inmaking pathways for women to enter the male-dominated field of geology.

Maria Luisa Crawford was born on July 18,1939, in Beverly, Massachusetts. She attendedBryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania where sheearned a bachelor of arts degree in geology in1960. Before she began her graduate studies, shevisited the University of Oslo in Norway in 1960and 1961 on a Fulbright Fellowship. Upon her re-turn, she enrolled at the University of Californiaat Berkeley, where she earned her doctorate in1965. Upon graduation, she joined the faculty ather alma mater of Bryn Mawr College, where shehas remained for her entire career. Crawford wasnamed the William R. Kenan Jr. professor of geol-ogy from 1985 to 1992. She also served as depart-ment chair from 1976 to 1988 and again from1998 to present. She was a visiting professor atseveral colleges including the University of Wis-consin. She is married to William Crawford, a fel-low professor of geology at Bryn Mawr.

Crawford’s very productive career has in-cluded some 68 articles in international journals,professional volumes, and governmental reports.She also edited one book and wrote 18 entries forencyclopedias and similar publications. Many ofthese papers are required reading for lunar studiesas well as metamorphic petrology of the Pennsyl-vania Piedmont and British Columbia, Canada.Crawford has received several awards in recogni-tion of her research and teaching including aMacArthur Fellowship and the Outstanding Edu-cator Award from the Association for WomenGeoscientists Foundation. Crawford has also beenvery successful in obtaining grant funding fromthe National Science Foundation to support herresearch.

Crawford has performed significant service tothe geologic community. She has served on nu-merous committees for the National ScienceFoundation, the Geological Society of America,the Mineralogical Society of America, and the Na-tional Academy of Sciences. She was a member ofthe advisory board for both Princeton University,New Jersey, and Stanford University, California.She was on the evaluating committee for some 11departments nationwide, including such notableschools as Dartmouth College, New Hampshire;University of Toronto, Canada; and Bates College,Maine, among others. Crawford has also served ineditorial positions including associate editor forGeological Society of America Bulletin and an edito-rial board member for Geology and Computers andGeosciences.

Crawford, Maria Luisa 63

Weecha Crawford doing field research in BritishColumbia, Canada (Courtesy of Maria LouisaCrawford)

5 Dana, James D.(1813–1895)AmericanMineralogist

James Dwight Dana was one of the most influen-tial scientists of the 19th century. He was certainlythe leader of American Earth sciences which atthat time were the most important and popular ofall sciences by virtue of their economic potential.Geology accounted for one-fourth of all scientistsbetween 1800 and 1860 and was deemed themost attractive and of highest potential of all sci-ences by the New York Herald and KnickerbockerMagazine. By 1847, Louis Agassiz, another fa-mous geologist, declared that James Dana was “atthe head” of American geology. He had assumedthe chief editor position of the American Journalof Science in 1846, which was the leading scien-tific journal in the United States at the time. Thisposition gave him immense power. He was of theopinion that North American geology was themost straightforward in the world and that itshould serve as the type example against which allother examples should be compared. He cited thebeautifully continuous flat-lying strata that coverthe entire midsection of the country with neatlyarranged mountain belts at its edges as his proof.This idea found its way into his journal, which heedited through most of the second half of the cen-

tury, but also into the American Association forthe Advancement of Sciences where he was themost influential member. At that time, it was theleading scientific society in America (and one ofthe few). Dana served as president in 1855 andusing biblical references furthered his cause atevery opportunity. This attitude found its wayinto American geology for many years to comeand may still exist to some degree.

James Dana is probably best known for oneof his earliest works, the 1837 System of Mineral-ogy. In this work, he first systematized mineralsinto groups based upon their form and chemistry.As a result, mineralogy textbooks bearing hisname were still popular into the late 20th century,nearly 150 years later. He also wrote the Manualof Geology, which was a comprehensive treatmentof geology and a major influence on geologicthought through the 19th century. Dana was themain proponent, if not the originator, of thegeosyncline-contraction hypothesis for mountainbuilding, the accepted mechanism prior to platetectonics. He imagined a thin crust over a viscousregion with cooling cracks and lateral sliding toproduce valleys and mountains. He was a strongproponent of uniformitarianism in that book. Healso wrote a book on Corals and Coral Islands inwhich he defined atolls, barrier reefs, and fringingreefs based upon his observations while part of theWilke’s Expedition. In this work he supported

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many of the observations that his compatriotCharles Darwin had made during his historiccruise aboard the HMS Beagle, but disagreed withthe mechanisms for their formation. He identifiedthe temperature requirements for the formation ofreefs and studied the role of uplift and subsidencein their development. He produced an exhaustivework in which he classified corals and other coe-lenterates, entitled Zoophytes and Geology. Thiswork also resulted from his South Pacific Oceancruise and established him as one of the premierpaleontologists of the time, as well. In this regard,he was at odds with Charles Darwin on occasion.In terms of the evolution of life, Dana was a pro-ponent of catastrophism. He walked a narrow linebetween his strong religious beliefs and the newidea of evolution with strange results at times.

James Dwight Dana was born on February12, 1813, in Utica, New York, where he grew up.He attended Yale University, Connecticut, andfollowed the fixed curriculum, but excelled inmathematics and science. Even before his gradua-tion in 1833 with a bachelor of arts degree, Danatook a position as instructor of midshipmen on aU.S. Navy cruise aboard the USS Delaware to theMediterranean Sea where he was able to visitMount Vesuvius in Italy. He returned to theUnited States in 1834, but did not hold a consis-tent job until 1836 when he returned to Yale Uni-versity as an assistant to Benjamin Silliman, wherehe was also able to continue his education. Danajoined the United States South Seas Exploring(Wilkes) Expedition in 1838 in the position of ge-ologist and did not return until 1842. As a scien-tist traveling around the world to make scientificobservations of the natural world, only CharlesDarwin matched Dana. He invested the moneyhe earned on the expedition in a store owned byhis brother in Utica, New York, and lived off ofthe earnings as well as continuing income fromthe expedition for several years while writing re-ports on the results. James Dana married HarrietFrances Silliman, the daughter of his adviser, in1844. In 1849, Dana was appointed to a Silliman

Professorship of Natural History at Yale Univer-sity, but was not required to teach until 1856. Hebecame the main force of the geology department,if not the United States, for many decades tocome. Although he suffered from poor healththroughout this time, he did not retire until 1890.In his later years, Dana spent increasing time writ-ing hymns and love songs for the guitar. JamesDwight Dana died on April 14, 1895.

5 Dawson, Sir (John) William(1820–1899)CanadianPaleontologist

Sir (John) William Dawson was one of the mostinfluential geologists ever in Canada. He is knownnot only for his detailed research in paleontology,but also for his associations with such geologicaldignitaries as Charles Lyell and for his work inprofessional service. He brought Canada from arelative backwoods reputation to one of respectwithin the profession on an international basis al-most single-handedly. Dawson’s fieldwork inNova Scotia and Quebec yielded more than 200new post-Pliocene fossil discoveries. He also dis-covered a method for perfecting the examinationof thin fossil slices using a microscope. This tech-nique aided Dawson in identifying more than 125new Paleozoic Canadian plant fossils reachingfrom the coastal areas of Nova Scotia to midwest-ern Canada.

Sir William Dawson’s relationship withCharles Lyell was legendary. While exploring Jog-gins, Canada, together, they discovered bones ofsmall amphibians in fossil trunks while examininga thick section of Carboniferous strata. These fos-sils were the first of their kind in this area and theearliest North American Carboniferous reptile,Dendrerpeton acadianum, ever to be collected.Dawson also discovered the earliest land snail, Pu-pavetusta, and remains of Devonian plants. Withall of this extensive research in eastern Canada,

Dawson, Sir (John) William 65

Dawson wrote his opus, Acadian Geology, whichwas first published in 1855. It is the most com-plete volume of the geology of coastal towns inCanada ever published.

In the early 1860s, Dawson began workingon SIR WILLIAM EDMOND LOGAN’s Laurentianfossils. He discovered colonial forms of strangejellylike structures that contained limestone filledwalls. These strange new discoveries were namedEozoon canadense which means “dawn animal ofCanada.” Dawson strongly believed that his newdiscoveries were foraminifers (single-celled crea-tures usually classified in the protist kingdom).Dawson was met with resistance from several ge-ologists and paleontologists from Ireland and Ger-many who believed that his discoveries were notorganic in nature at all. Dawson and his support-ers continued to steadfastly maintain their posi-tion and prevailed.

John William Dawson was born October 13,1820, in the small coastal fishing village of Pic-tou, Nova Scotia. He was given the opportunityto earn a reputable education through PictouAcademy, a public school in town that concen-trated on teaching the natural sciences. He wasalso fortunate enough to be surrounded by sand-stone and shale formations in his hometown ofPictou that contained Carboniferous plant fossils.This environment allowed the already science-ori-ented youth to investigate the disciplines of bothgeology and paleontology. In the fall of 1840,Dawson’s father sent him to the University of Ed-inburgh in Scotland. There were only a few col-leges and universities in the world at that timethat included a natural science major that con-centrated in geology and botany in their curricu-lum. Due to financial difficulties, however,Dawson was forced to return to Nova Scotia tohelp his family business for one year. During histrip back to Canada, Dawson met geologistWilliam Logan, who was about to become direc-tor of the Geological Survey of Canada.

He returned to the University of Edinburghin 1841 to complete his studies. It was then that

he met his future wife, Margaret Ann Young Mer-cer. Upon completion of his second period ofstudy in 1947, Dawson again returned to Canadaand joined the General Mining Association ofLondon. He completed a geological survey ofCape Breton and investigated coal and other min-eral deposits for the government of the provinceand for several small mining companies. In 1849,he gave a series of lectures on several disciplines ofnatural history including geology to his formergrade school, the Pictou Academy, the HalifaxMechanic’s Institute, and at Dalhousie College inHalifax, Nova Scotia.

From 1850 to 1853 Dawson held the posi-tion of the first-ever superintendent of educationfor the province of Nova Scotia. The publicschool system was poorly managed and unorga-nized when Dawson took it over in 1850. Duringhis tenure with the Nova Scotia school system heworked so tenaciously that he reformed the entireschool system in less than three years. He was alsoable to continue his scientific research during thistime. The job required extensive traveling andDawson used this time to gather data and investi-gate several paleontological inquires. Some ofDawson’s greatest paleontological discoveries weremade during his extensive travel for the schoolsystem. Dawson had the opportunity to workwith the great Charles Lyell in 1853 during oneof his trips to North America to continue his re-search there. In 1855, Dawson became principalof McGill University in Montreal. Dawson’s hardwork is the reason that the university became oneof Canada’s most best-known and most reputablecolleges. It was a huge accomplishment for aschool that was attended by the non-English mi-nority. Sir William Dawson retired from McGillUniversity in 1893, but remained active until hisdeath on November 19, 1899, in Montreal,Quebec, Canada.

Sir William Dawson led an extremely pro-ductive career, especially for those years. He wasan author of some 200 publications ranging frompopular essays on both scientific and religious

66 Dawson, Sir (John) William

topics. His technical research papers ranged fromearthquake accounts to descriptions of fossil am-phibians and mollusks and include such titles asthe “Geological History of Plants,” among others.His first popular book, Arcadia, or Studies of theNarrative of Creation in the Hebrew Scriptures didnot raise public interest until it was reissued asOrigin of the World after Darwin stirred up thecontroversy between Christian theology and sci-ence. Dawson attempted to quell that controversyin his next book, Nature and the Bible and in Factsand Fancies of Natural Sciences. He also wroteLinks in the Chain of Life, which illustrated severalplants and animals through geologic time.

Sir William Dawson received many scientificawards and honors in recognition of his manycontributions. In 1854, he became a Fellow of theRoyal Society of London. He also formed theRoyal Society of Canada in 1882, serving as itsfirst president. He was also the fifth president ofthe Geological Society of America. In 1884, hewas knighted by Queen Victoria for his contribu-tions to geology and was given the title of SirWilliam Dawson. He also received the LyellMedal from the Geological Society of London.His son, George Mercer Dawson, also went on tobecome the director of the Geological Survey ofCanada and the 12th president of the GeologicalSociety of America.

5 Day, Arthur L.(1869–1960)AmericanGeochemist, Geophysicist

The name of Arthur L. Day is still well knownfor the awards in his honor as well as his exten-sive shaping of the profession. Although he re-ferred to himself as a physicist, his majorcontributions were in the Earth sciences. He ap-plied physics and chemistry to the solution of ge-ological problems long before it was fashionable.He was also distinctly interested in practical ap-

plications of his high temperature experimentalresearch while director of the Geophysical Labo-ratory at the Carnegie Institution of Washington,D.C. The lab was considered of little use bymany until Day used it to save the day in theWorld War I effort. Quality optical glass forthings like gun sights, periscopes, rangefinders,binoculars, and the like had come exclusivelyfrom Germany prior to 1917. When America en-tered the war, they found themselves in a criticalshortage with military needs of 2,000 pounds ofoptical quality glass per day while the capacity ofthe country was 2,000 pounds per month.Arthur Day was appointed to the General Muni-tions Board (War Industries Board) in charge ofoptical glass production. He designed a plan toupgrade several commercial facilities and stream-line production in existing facilities. Day super-vised the production of more than 90 percent ofthe optical glass produced in the United Statesand the crisis was averted.

Arthur Day was also the main force in estab-lishing the Carnegie Institution SeismologicalObservatory in Pasadena, California. He orga-nized numerous agencies and institutions to de-sign it. This facility was the most advanced of itskind at the time and the first of its kind in theUnited States. It would set the pace for earth-quake studies including prediction and preven-tion. The facility would later become part of theCalifornia Institute of Technology when Day re-tired and boast the likes of BENO GUTENBERG

and CHARLES F. RICHTER.Arthur Day also made significant contribu-

tions with his research as well. He first extendedthe capabilities of standard gas thermometers tovery high temperatures. He used this as a practicaltemperature scale for melting points. This re-search involved the determination of the physicalproperties and phase relations of solids and liq-uids. The first system he investigated was plagio-clase feldspar, but he also looked at sulfur,platinum, graphite, and quartz glass. He turnedhis attention to the geophysics and geochemistry

Day, Arthur L. 67

of volcanoes. He devised new gas sampling equip-ment and sampled exhalations of the Hawaiianvolcanoes, Yellowstone National Park, LassenPeak, and Geyserville, California. This researchwould help determine the composition and phaserelations of these gases. He would later work onthe volcanic areas of New Zealand. He was alsointerested in radioactivity and devised new deep-sea coring tools to investigate the radioactive con-tents of marine sediments.

Arthur L. Day was born on October 30,1869, in Brookfield, Massachusetts, where hegrew up. He attended the Sheffield ScientificSchool of Yale University, Connecticut, where heearned a bachelor of science degree and a Ph.D. inphysics in 1894. He taught physics at Yale Uni-versity upon graduation, but decided that heneeded postdoctoral experience. In 1897, he wentto the Physicalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt inCharlottenburg-Berlin, Germany, as a volunteerassistant but he was soon offered a paid position.He was offered a one-year position as a physicalgeologist at the newly established high tempera-ture laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey in1900 and a permanent position in 1901. ArthurDay married Helene Kohlrausch in 1900; theywould have four children. His work on the hightemperature relations of plagioclase, and the ex-tension of the gas thermometer scale to high tem-peratures was at the U.S. Geological Survey. Thisresearch caught the interest of the newly estab-lished Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C.,and it funded his research for several years. In1906, the institution hired him as the director ofthe newly created Geophysical Laboratory. He re-mained in the position of director until his retire-ment in 1936. This streak was interrupted onlywith a two-year leave of absence from 1918–1920to become vice president in charge of manufactur-ing at the Corning Glass Works in New York. Hisretirement did not curtail his research activitiesuntil 1946, when he had a physical breakdown.Arthur L. Day died suddenly of a coronarythrombosis on March 2, 1960.

Arthur L. Day led a very productive careerwith authorship on numerous scientific articles ininternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental and industrial reports. Most of hisgeological papers were on high temperature pro-cesses and especially on volcanoes. His papers onvolatile components in igneous processes and seis-mology are benchmark studies. In recognition ofthese many contributions, he received numerousprestigious honors and awards. He was not just amember of the National Academy of Sciences butalso home secretary and vice president. He wasalso a member of the American Academy of Artsand Sciences, as well as a member of the scientificacademies in Sweden, Norway, and the USSR. Hereceived honorary degrees from Columbia Univer-sity, Princeton University, the University of Penn-sylvania, and the University of Groningen. Healso received the Penrose Medal from the Geologi-cal Society of America, the Wollaston Medal fromthe Geological Society of London, the WilliamBowie Medal from the American GeophysicalUnion, the John Scott Award from the City ofPhiladelphia, and the Bakhius Roozeboom Medalfrom the Royal Academy of Amsterdam, amongothers. Arthur Day also has awards in his honorfrom both the National Academy of Sciences andthe Geological Society of America.

Day served the profession as well. He waspresident (1938) and vice president (1934) of theGeological Society of America. He also served aspresident of the Philosophical Society of Washing-ton and the Washington Academy of Sciences.

5 DePaolo, Donald J.(1951– )AmericanIsotope Geochemist

The use of isotopes in geology began in earnest inthe 1950s. The earliest evaluated systems wereuranium-lead followed by potassium-argon, andrubidium-strontium. In the mid-1970s the new

68 DePaolo, Donald J.

system of neodymium (Nd) to samarium (Sm)was investigated and Donald DePaolo was one ofthe true pioneers. He was one of the first to mea-sure Nd isotopic compositions of terrestrial sam-ples. He used these Nd compositions toconvincingly constrain a fundamental process ofEarth circulation. He compared Nd isotopic com-positions of ocean island basalts with those fromthe mid-ocean ridges to show that the source ofthe mid-ocean ridge basalts cannot be from theentire mantle. It has to be purely shallow. As a re-sult, DePaolo proposed a two-layer geochemicalmodel for the Earth’s mantle in which only thetop layer participates in the melting and subduc-tion process. This new model now appears in allintroductory textbooks and has more recentlybeen supported by seismic tomography studies bygeophysicists. He was further able to define theNd isotopic evolution for this shallow layer in themantle. This work in turn allowed him to modelthe Nd ages for mantle separation from varioussegments of continental crust. These separationages yield a more accurate age of the developmentof continents than the traditional radiometricmethods. This work is described in the paper“Geochemical Evolution of the Crust and Man-tle.” DePaolo is the author of the definitive bookon Nd isotopic systems entitled Neodymium Iso-tope Geochemistry: An Introduction.

But Nd is only one aspect of DePaolo’s re-search. He has also investigated the fine scalestrontium (Sr) isotopic evolution of seawater byusing high-resolution stratigraphy of marine sedi-ments. A careful study relating the composition ofdeep-sea carbonates with ocean water allowed himto develop a correlation scheme in order to tracethis history. By careful fine scale investigations ofsediments in San Francisco Bay and other areas,not only could he trace the isotopic evolution buthe could also identify climate changes. As if all ofthese contributions are not enough, DePaolo alsodabbled in other topics like groundwater-bedrockinteractions using Sr isotopes as tracers, Sr iso-topic zoning in garnets as a measure of metamor-

phic evolution, and Sr isotopes to document tim-ing of large granitic magma systems. He was eveninvolved in a project to drill through the crust inthe Hawaiian Islands to conduct detailed geo-chemical and isotopic studies. The list of researchtopics continues to grow every year.

Donald DePaolo was born on April 12,1951, in Buffalo, New York. He grew up in NorthTonawanda, New York, on the Niagara Frontier.He entered college at Cornell University, NewYork, in 1969, intent on engineering, but quicklychanged his mind to go into geology and trans-ferred to the State University of New York atBinghamton. He graduated in 1973 with a bache-lor of science with honors in geology and did hisgraduate studies at the California Institute ofTechnology in Pasadena. He graduated with aPh.D. in geology with a minor in chemistry in1978 as an advisee of Gerald Wasserburg. Upongraduation, he joined the faculty at the Universityof California at Los Angeles where he rosethrough the ranks to professor. In 1988, he ac-cepted a faculty position at the University of Cali-fornia at Berkeley, where he remains today.DePaolo is the director of the Center for IsotopeGeochemistry and a senior faculty scientist at theLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Heserved as chair of the Geology and GeophysicsDepartment from 1990 to 1993 and he is cur-rently the head of the Geochemistry Departmentat Lawrence Berkeley Lab. He was also namedMiller Research Professor in 1997 to 1998. Hehas been a visiting scientist several times duringhis career including as a Fulbright Senior Scholarat the Australian National University. Donald De-Paolo has been married to Bonney L. Ingramsince 1985 and he is the father of two children.

Donald DePaolo is amid a very productivecareer. He is an author of more than 130 scientificarticles in international journals, professional vol-umes, and governmental reports. Many of theseare benchmark studies of the isotopic evolution ofseawater, isotopic evolution of the mantle, and theuse of Nd/Sm systems. In recognition of his con-

DePaolo, Donald J. 69

tributions to geology, DePaolo has received nu-merous honors and awards. He is a member of theNational Academy of Sciences and a Fellow ofboth the American Academy of Arts and Sciencesand the California Academy of Sciences. He re-ceived the F. W. Clarke Medal from the Geo-chemical Society, the J. B. MacElwane Awardfrom the American Geophysical Union, the Min-eralogical Society of America Award, and theArthur L. Day Medal from the Geological Societyof America.

DePaolo also performed significant service tothe profession. He served on numerous commit-tees in various capacities for the Mineralogical So-ciety of America, the Geochemical Society,American Geophysical Union, and the GeologicalSociety of America. He also served on panels andworking groups for the U.S. Nuclear RegulatoryCommission, the National Research Council, andthe National Science Foundation. DePaolo servedin numerous editorial roles including associate ed-itor for Isotope Geochemistry and for Journal ofGeophysical Research.

5 Dewey, John F.(1937– )BritishTectonic Geologist

After the pioneers of plate tectonics proved thatthe concept actually existed in the 1950s and1960s, it was time to show how the Earth, bothcurrent and ancient, fit into this revolutionaryparadigm. John Dewey went from a respected ge-ologist to a household name among geologistsworldwide with a single scientific article: “Moun-tain Belts and the New Global Tectonics.” Writ-ten with J. M. Bird in 1970, it was a benchmarkin this study that is still cited in scientific litera-ture today. This initial article led to a flood ofstudies to place many of the mountain belts of theEarth into the plate tectonic context and fill inthe various parts of the model. This research has

been soundly based on field observations coupledwith any supporting evidence, be it geochemical,geophysical, or paleontological. This pioneeringspirit and willingness to boldly address any prob-lem within the field has most certainly earnedJohn Dewey the respect of the profession. He canundoubtedly be considered the “father of modernplate tectonics.”

The list of topics that John Dewey has ad-dressed in his research reads like the chapters in atextbook on plate tectonics. He investigated con-tinental breakup and dispersion, including triplejunctions and hot spots. He investigated the ob-duction of ophiolites (pieces of ocean floor onland) during continental collisions and the com-plexities of the suture zones (where the old conti-nents are stuck together) of those collisions. Heinvestigated fracture zones (transform bound-aries) on the ocean floor. He studied the distribu-tion of relative strength profiles within the crustand upper mantle as the control on plate processand the collapse of orogens (mountain systems)as a result. He studied transpression (mixed com-pression) and transtension (mixed extension) instrike-slip fault zones among many other topics.Between all of these studies that defined a platetectonic process, Dewey was constantly investi-gating specific areas worldwide and writing theseminal papers on the tectonics of them as well.His work has focused on the British Isles (Cale-donides), but he has done detailed studies on theAlps, the Himalayas, the Appalachians (especiallyNewfoundland), Turkey, the Andes, and theCaribbean. His research always seems to guidethe major direction of interest in the field of tec-tonics and is the topic of conversation aroundmany universities worldwide.

John Dewey was born on May 22, 1937, inLondon, England. He attended Bancrofts Schoolin Woodford Green, Essex, from 1948 to 1955before entering Queen Mary College at the Uni-versity of London, England, where he earned abachelor of science degree in geology with firstclass honors in 1958. He continued his graduate

70 Dewey, John F.

studies at Imperial College at the University ofLondon where he earned his Ph.D. in geology in1960. His first academic position was at Univer-sity of Manchester, England, where he was a lec-turer from 1960 to 1964. He then joined thefaculty at Cambridge University, England, in 1964where he was a Fellow at Trinity College and a Fel-low and associate dean of Darwin College. In1970, Dewey accepted a position at the State Uni-versity of New York (SUNY) at Albany. From1980 to 1982, he was a distinguished professor atSUNY and a research professor after 1982. He be-came a professor and head of the department atthe University of Oxford, England, in 1986. Hejoined the faculty at the University of California atDavis in 2000, where he remains today. Duringhis career, he was a visiting scholar at Lamont-Do-herty Geological Observatory of Columbia Uni-versity, New York (1967), and at University ofCalgary, Canada (1979). John Dewey was marriedon July 4, 1961, and he has two children. He is aserious cricket player and gymnast and enjoys ski-ing and model railroads.

John Dewey has led a very productive career.He is an author of some 134 articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. Severalof these papers appear in high-profile journalssuch as Nature and many establish new bench-marks for the state of tectonics. Dewey has re-ceived many honors and awards for hiscontributions to tectonics from the geologicalcommunity. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society ofLondon and a member of the National Academyof Sciences. He was awarded two honorary doc-torates from Memorial University of Newfound-land (1995) and the National University ofIreland (1998). He received the A. Cressy Morri-son Medal from the New York Academy of Sci-ences in 1976. In 1983, he was awarded the T. N.George Medal from the Geological Society ofGlasgow, Scotland, the Lyell Medal from the Geo-logical Society of London, and the Award for Ex-cellence in Journal Design for Tectonics from theAssociation of American Publishers. Additionally,

he received the Arthur Holmes Medal from theEuropean Union of Geosciences (1993), the Wol-laston Medal from the Geological Society of Lon-don (1999), the Penrose Medal from theGeological Society of America, and the Paul Four-marier Prize and Medal from the AcadémieRoyale de Belgique (1999), among numerousother honors.

The service John Dewey has contributed tothe profession is unparalleled. He is a member orfellow of 12 geological societies from all over theworld. He served on numerous advisory commit-tees, including International Geodynamics Com-mission (secretary, 1972–1980), InternationalGeological Correlation Programme, numerouscommittees for the Natural Environment Re-search Council of Great Britain, and the Interna-tional Lithosphere Commission, among others.He served numerous committees for the Royal

Dewey, John F. 71

Portrait of John Dewey (Courtesy of John Dewey)

Society and the Geological Society of London. Allelse pales, however, in comparison to his editorialwork. He was founding editor and editor in chieffor both Tectonics (1981–1984) and Basin Re-search (1989–present) and associate editor for Ge-ology, Geological Society of America Bulletin, andJournal of Geology. He has been on the editorialboard for nine journals and books. He has beenan external evaluator for nine universities includ-ing Cambridge University, Oxford University, andUniversity of Leeds.

5 Dickinson, William R.(1931– )AmericanSedimentologist, Tectonics

When it comes to showing how plate tectonicscontrols sedimentation, there is no greater author-ity than William Dickinson. He devised a systembased upon numerous observations to determinethe plate tectonic setting of ancient sandstones.This system is presented in a paper entitled “PlateTectonics and Sandstone Compositions,” and in-cludes a series of ternary discrimination diagramsbased upon certain mineral and rock fragmentproportions. By the relative percentage of thesecomponents, sandstones can be classified as towhether they originated in an island arc, stable in-terior, or in a rift setting with uplifted basementblocks, among others, even if the rocks had noother evidence of their settings. The term for theorigin of these sediments is the provenance. Thediagrams are now used regularly on a worldwidebasis in the analysis of ancient sandstones.

Although far and away his most famouswork, sandstone petrology is just the beginning ofthe contributions that Dickinson has made to ge-ology. He has done extensive research on the evo-lution of sedimentary basins in all senses as well asthat of island arcs, suture zones, transform plateboundaries, and foreland regions, as well as theaccumulation of petroleum reserves in all these

settings. The studies built his concept of petrofa-cies for lateral relations of sedimentary rocks dur-ing a given time interval. Several details on theseareas of research were to define the methods toevaluate volcaniclastic sedimentation related tomagmatic arcs by carefully studying the field rela-tions and sandstone petrology in California, Ore-gon, and Fiji. It was in this work that he definedhis petrotectonic assemblages, which are charac-teristic groups of rocks and their structures to de-fine plate tectonic setting. He studied lateralchanges in sedimentation along the San Andreas,California, fault, in response to continuing move-ment along this transform margin. He defined thestratigraphy and structure of modern forearc andarc-trench systems in the western United States, aswell as in Japan and New Zealand. Another areaof research is the syntectonic sedimentation thataccompanies severe Cenozoic crustal extension inthe southwest United States. This research in-volves the development of sedimentary basinsalong active normal faults in Arizona. He alsostudied the tectonic and sedimentary develop-ment of Phanerozoic basins in the Cordillera andinterior United States including Laramide basins,the Great Valley sequence, and the Ouachitas inOklahoma.

Dickinson even studied the provenance ofsand tempers in Melanesian and Polynesian pot-sherds. The results of these studies critically con-strained the timing and directions of humanmigration among the south Pacific Islands. Thiswork is deemed a breakthrough by archaeolo-gists and anthropologists who study this area.Dickinson is by all means versatile in addition tohis effectiveness.

William Dickinson was born on October 26,1931, near Nashville, Tennessee. He grew up on ahorse farm there. He attended Stanford Univer-sity, California, and earned a bachelor of sciencedegree in petroleum engineering in 1952. He thenenlisted in the U.S. Air Force for a two-year hitch.He returned to Stanford University to earn masterof science and Ph.D. degrees in geology in 1956

72 Dickinson, William R.

and 1958, respectively. He joined the faculty ofStanford University upon graduation where hisstudents referred him to fondly as “Cowboy Bill.”He was also dubbed the “perfect Prof” in a 1975school newspaper for his inspired lectures. Al-though Dickinson was first married in 1953, hemarried his lifelong companion, Jacqueline Kleinin 1970. In all, he has four children. In 1979,Dickinson moved to the University of Arizona inTucson where he remained for the rest of his ca-reer. He served as department chair from 1986 to1991 whereupon he retired to professor emeritus.

William Dickinson has led an extremely pro-ductive career. He is an author of more than 300articles in international journals and professionalvolumes. Many of the definitive studies on the re-lations of sedimentation and petrology to platetectonics (both descriptive and methodologies) areincluded in this group. Dickinson’s contributionsto geology have been well recognized by the pro-fession in terms of honors and awards. He is amember of the National Academy of Sciences. Hereceived both the Penrose Medal and the L. L.Sloss Award from the Geological Society of Amer-

ica and the Twenhofel Medal from the Society ofEconomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. Hewas also a Guggenheim Fellow as well as havingheld numerous named lectureships.

Dickinson has performed significant serviceto the profession. He has held numerous positionsof administrative responsibility for the GeologicalSociety of America (including president and chairof the 1987 annual meeting), the National Re-search Council, and the Society of Economic Pa-leontologists and Mineralogists (including vicepresident), among others. He has also served ineditorial positions for the Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin and the American Journal of Sci-ence, among several others.

5 Dietz, Robert S.(1914–1995)AmericanMarine Geologist (Oceanographer)

Robert Dietz was one of the small group of revo-lutionaries who helped to turn the theory of platetectonics into reality. His expertise was ocean floormapping aboard literally dozens of research expe-ditions using the latest of technology. With thelikes of H. WILLIAM MENARD, he studied mid-ocean ridges in the Pacific, submarine scarps (latercalled fracture zones and transform faults), andmade the first map of the deep-sea fan at themouth of the Monterey Submarine Canyon. Thiswork showed that large amounts of sedimentcould be channeled into the deep sea from thecontinent. He contributed some of the seminaloriginal work on the development of the conti-nental shelves as well as the slopes. This geomor-phic research added an important component tothe plate tectonic paradigm.

Dietz was also interested in meteorite impactstructures. In fact, he coined the now well-ac-cepted phrase “astrobleme” to describe them. Hestudied craters both on Earth and on the Moon.He argued that the nickel-iron rich deposit of the

Dietz, Robert S. 73

William Dickinson on a field trip in California in1989 (Courtesy of Arthur Sylvester)

Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, resulted froman extraterrestrial impact. He used some of hisnewly proposed features to further identify impactsites in the Ries and Steinheim basins in Germanyand the Vredefort Ring in South Africa.

Dietz had a gift for finding adventure. Heteamed up with Jacques Piccard to write a bookabout the deepest dive ever to the ChallengerDeep at 35,800 feet. He visited and pho-tographed Soviet oceanographic laboratories dur-ing the height of the cold war. He was presentduring the Russian invasion of Czechoslovakia in1968 and even wrote slogans in chalk on Russiantanks. He sneaked a camera out onto the streetsand photographed slaughtered Czechs and rebelsfighting back. Some of those photos appeared inLife magazine.

Robert Dietz was born in Westfield, New Jer-sey, on September 14, 1914. He attended theUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign from1933 to 1941 during which time he earned bache-lor of science, master of science, and Ph.D. degreesin geology with a minor in chemistry. Most of hisresearch for his doctorate, however, was done atthe Scripps Institution of Oceanography at theUniversity of California at San Diego. He was inROTC during his junior year and was called to ac-tive duty as a ground officer in the U.S. Army AirCorps with the 91st Observation Squadron in FortLewis, Washington, during World War II. Heserved as a pilot with many missions in SouthAmerica. After active duty, he remained in the re-serves for 15 years and retired a lieutenant colonel.After World War II, Dietz accepted a position atthe U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory in SanDiego where he became the founder and directorof the Sea Floor Studies Section. Through this po-sition he participated in many marine expeditions,including Admiral Richard E. Byrd’s last visit toAntarctica. His laboratory purchased the firstCanadian Aqua-Lungs invented by Emile Gagnanand Jacques Cousteau. In 1953, the group who be-came expert with this equipment formed a privateconsulting company (Geological Diving Consul-

tants) to service the petroleum industry. Dietz wasa Fulbright scholar at the University of Tokyo,Japan. He served with the Office of Naval Re-search in London, England, from 1954 to 1958.In 1963, Dietz accepted a position with the U.S.Coast and Geodetic Survey in Washington, D.C.,which moved to Miami, Florida, and eventuallybecame part of the U.S. National Oceanic and At-mospheric Administration (NOAA). He retiredfrom NOAA to a series of visiting professor posi-tions at University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign(1974–1975), at Washington State University inPullman (1975–1976), and Washington Univer-sity in Saint Louis, Missouri (1976–1977), beforeaccepting a permanent faculty position at ArizonaState University. He retired to an emeritus profes-sor position in 1985. Robert Dietz died of a heartattack on May 19, 1995, at his home in Tempe,Arizona.

Robert Dietz had a very productive career,producing numerous articles in international jour-nals, professional volumes, and government re-ports. He was also an author of several books.Many of his works are seminal reading for platetectonics and ocean bathymetry. He received nu-merous honors and awards for his contributionsto geology. Among these awards are the Walter H.Bucher Medal from the American GeophysicalUnion, the Gold Medal of the U.S. Departmentof Commerce, the Alexander von Humboldt Prizefrom West Germany, and the Penrose Medal fromthe Geological Society of America. In addition,Dietz served numerous positions in professionalsocieties as well as editorial positions for journals.

5 Dott, Robert H., Jr.(1929– )AmericanSedimentologist

Robert Dott may be best known for making astrong stand against a growing creationist move-ment in the early 1980s based upon sound sci-

74 Dott, Robert H., Jr.

ence. He wrote editorials and made numerousspeeches attacking creationist claims for a youngEarth and catastrophic change. He argued thatepisodic events like storms, volcanic eruptions,and earthquakes are the rule of the Earth ratherthan the exception. All could be explained by nor-mal science. He also writes popular textbooks onEarth history that are widely adopted and read bygeology majors and non-majors alike on collegecampuses around the country.

However, Robert Dott is known in the fieldfor being one of the true pioneers of modern sed-imentology. He did extensive research on ancientdepositional systems in the southern Andes toAntarctica. The Dott Ice Rise was named forwork done in Antarctica around 1970. At thattime, he also conducted research on ancient sys-tems in the western United States. Dott’s timingwas perfect, as he became one of the leaders infitting sedimentology of mountain belts into theplate tectonic paradigm which was culminating atthe time. He also attempted to fashion ancientplate reconstructions based upon paleomagnetic,paleontologic, and paleogeographic evidence.These ideas were applied to his next area of inter-est, which was the ancient sedimentary processesand environments within the stable craton inte-rior during Proterozoic and early Paleozoic times.The research techniques were not innovative buthis new eye for fitting the results into plate tec-tonic scenarios was innovative and many newideas on the depositional systems of continentalinteriors arose as a result of Dott’s work.

The impact that Dott made on geology withhis sedimentologic research and defense of the sci-ence was enough for any career, but he also be-came renowned for his interest in the history ofgeology. He investigated the careers of several ge-ologists who made significant impacts on thefield. He studied the evolution of geological con-cepts and how episodic advances shaped the pro-fession, similar to how such events shape thestratigraphy of an area. He has written numerousarticles and several books on the subject.

Robert Dott was born on May 2, 1929, inTulsa, Oklahoma. He attended the University ofMichigan in Ann Arbor where he earned a bache-lor of science degree in geology in 1950 and amaster of science degree in 1951. He earned aPh.D. from Columbia University, New York, in1956. From 1954 to 1958, Dott worked part-time and full-time as an exploration geologist forHumble Oil and Refining Company (now ExxonInc. of Exxon-Mobil, Inc.). In 1957 and 1958, heserved as a first lieutenant for the U.S. Air ForceGeophysics Research Directorate. In 1958, Dottjoined the faculty at the University of Wisconsinat Madison where he remained for the rest of hiscareer. From 1974 to 1977, he served as chair ofthe department. In 1984, he was named theStanley A. Tyler Distinguished Professor of Geol-ogy. He retired in 1994 as a professor emeritus.During his years at University of Wisconsin, Dott

Dott, Robert H., Jr. 75

Robert Dott shows the location of the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary in strata in a quarry in Madison,Wisconsin (Courtesy of Robert Dott Jr.)

was twice a National Science Foundation VisitingFellow at Stanford University, California (1978),and the University of Colorado, Boulder (1979).He was a Cabot Visiting Professor at Universityof Houston, Texas (1986–1987), and an ErskineVisiting Fellow at Canterbury University, NewZealand (1987). He also served as chief scientistaboard the research vessel Hero to Cape Hornand Tierra del Fuego. Dott is married with fivechildren.

Not only has Dott been the author of numer-ous articles in international journals and profes-sional volumes, he is also author of several books,including Evolution of the Earth, probably the pre-mier textbook of historical geology. His papers arealso often-cited benchmark studies in the field ofsedimentology. Dott’s research contributions togeology have been well recognized by the profes-sion as shown by his numerous honors andawards. He is a member of the American Associa-tion for the Advancement of Science. From theAmerican Association of Petroleum Geologists, hereceived the President’s Award for a young author(1956) and the Distinguished Service Award(1984). He received the 1992 Ben H. ParkerMedal from the American Institute of ProfessionalGeologists, the 1993 W. H. Twenhofel Medalfrom the Society for Sedimentary Geology, andthe 1995 History of Geology Division Award andthe 2001 L. L. Sloss Award from the GeologicalSociety of America.

Robert Dott has performed extensive serviceto the profession. He was president of the Societyof Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists(SEPM) in 1981–1982 and of the History ofEarth Sciences Society in 1990. He served on theU.S. Committee on the History of Geology (Na-tional Research Council) from 1981 to 1983 andthe U.S. National Committee on Geology (Na-tional Academy of Sciences) from 1982 to 1986.He served on numerous committees for the Geo-logical Society of America and was associate editorfor Geology. He was also a distinguished lectureron numerous occasions.

5 Drake, Charles L.(1924–1997)AmericanGeophysicist

In the tradition of several other renowned geo-physicists from Lamont-Doherty Geological Ob-servatory, New York, one of the main reasons thatCharles Drake is so well known is for his advisorypositions in politics. Like former colleaguesFRANK PRESS and LYNN SYKES, Drake was a mem-ber of the Council of Advisors on Science andTechnology to a president of the United States. Inhis case, it was President George H. W. Bush,from 1990 to 1992. In this role, Drake was astrong proponent of maintaining an active pro-gram of pure science as the emphasis shifted toapplied science with the end of the cold war. Thisrole was not the first experience in national-inter-national politics for Drake. In 1986, he was askedto meet with the minister of geology of the USSRto discuss research directives.

In terms of geological research, Charles Drakeestablished himself as one of the leading expertson the geology of continental margins. The mar-gin marks the transition from continental crust tooceanic crust and is thus complex in terms ofbasement structure and coupling. It is also an areaof active and varied sedimentation and is thuscomplex in terms of its cover geology as well. Hestudied this transition using geophysical tech-niques in addition to the results of deep-oceandrilling programs. Although he began with gravitystudies, his most notable research involved the useof seismic reflection studies (like a sonogram ofthe Earth) on ocean sediments. In 1962, with JackNafe, he established a relation between the densityof ocean sediments and the speed at which seismicwaves travel through them known as the Nafe-Drake curve. It is still in use today. Drake alsostudied the development of these margins fromrifted continent to mid-ocean ridge. He con-ducted a detailed study of the Red Sea, in addi-

76 Drake, Charles L.

tion to several seminal studies on the developmentof the Atlantic Ocean. Considering the timing ofthis research, primarily in the 1950s and 1960s,Drake became one of the important contributorsof the plate tectonic paradigm.

Later in his career, primarily as the result ofhis interest in the geology of the ColoradoPlateau, Drake became embroiled in the dinosaurextinction controversy. He took a strong stand incontrast to the popular opinion that the dinosaurswent extinct as the result of a giant meteor im-pact. He felt that terrestrial causes might be justas plausible.

Charles Drake was born on July 13, 1924, inRidgewood, New Jersey, where he grew up. Heenlisted in the U.S. Army and served in the SouthPacific during World War II. After being dis-charged, Drake attended Princeton University,New Jersey, where he earned a bachelor of sciencedegree in engineering in 1948. Upon graduation,he obtained a position with the U.S. Navy per-forming gravity measurements in submarines.This work sparked his interest and eventually ledhim to the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observa-tory of Columbia University, New York, where heearned a Ph.D. in geophysics in 1958. He re-mained at Lamont-Doherty, first as a research as-sociate and later as a member of the faculty. In1969, he accepted a position at Dartmouth Uni-versity in New Hampshire and remained thereuntil his retirement in 1992. He served as chair ofthe department in 1978–1979 and dean of gradu-ate studies and associate dean of the science divi-sion from 1979–1985. Charles Drake marriedElizabeth Ann Churchill on June 24, 1950; theyhad three children. In his spare time, he enjoyedboating, playing music, and woodcarving. CharlesDrake died on July 8, 1997, at his home in EastThetford, Vermont.

Drake was one of the premier examples ofjust how much service to the profession and pub-lic one person can perform. In addition to that al-ready mentioned, Drake served as president of theAmerican Geophysical Union (1982–1984), the

Geological Society of America (1976–1977), theInternational Geological Congress (1989), andthe International Council of Science Unions,Geodynamics Committee (1970–1975) in addi-tion to serving on numerous committees and pan-els for each. He served on some 25 panels andcommittees for the National Academy of the Sci-ences-National Research Council, on many ofwhich he was chair. He was a member of the Na-tional Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmo-spheres and the governing board for theInternational Geological Correlation Program. Healso served on many committees for the NationalScience Foundation, NASA, and the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration. In ad-dition to all of this professional work, Drakesomehow found time to serve as a trustee for theVillage of South Nyack, New York, for eight yearsand even as deputy mayor from 1968–1969.Charles Drake received the G. P. Woolard Awardfrom the Geological Society of America for hiscontributions to the profession.

5 Dunbar, Carl O.(1891–1979)AmericanPaleontologist

Carl Dunbar was an expert on fusulinids, football-shaped foraminifera that were common in the Pa-leozoic. He was especially expert in NorthAmerican fusulinids from the late Devonianthrough Permian. Much of his effort was in themid-continent in Illinois and Nebraska southwardthrough Oklahoma and Texas, but also in BritishColumbia and Newfoundland. Because thesefusulinids were so widespread and responsive toenvironmental changes, they make excellent fossilmarkers. Dunbar used them to study biostratigra-phy and regional correlations of units as an exten-sion. On this basis, he prepared several papers onmajor North American correlations of late Paleo-zoic biostratigraphic units. He was especially inter-

Dunbar, Carl O. 77

ested in major changes that took place across theprofound Carboniferous to Permian boundary. Topursue this boundary required Dunbar to extendhis studies outside of the United States, which hedid with relish. He studied late Paleozoic fusilinidsand related invertebrates worldwide in places likeIndia, Central America, Mexico, South America(Peru and Argentina), the southern Urals in Rus-sia, northwestern Yunnan, China, and east Green-land, among others. His correlations becameworldwide and he identified subtle variations re-lated to the shifting climates. Dunbar clearly estab-lished himself as the world expert on fusulinidsand identified many new species in the process.His regional correlations, interpretations of paleo-climatic history, and evolutionary responses offusulinids to these changes would later be utilizedas key evidence in plate tectonic reconstructions.

Carl Dunbar was born on January 1, 1891,near Hallowell, in Cherokee County, Kansas. Heworked as a wheat farmer in his youth and gradu-ated from Cherokee County High School in1909. He attended the University of Kansas inLawrence where he earned a bachelor of sciencedegree in geology in 1913 under the guidance ofWILLIAM H. TWENHOFEL. He remained at theUniversity of Kansas for one year of graduatestudies before enrolling at Yale University, Con-necticut, where he earned a Ph.D. in geology in1917. He studied under Charles Schuchert. CarlDunbar married Lora Beamer in September 1914;they had two children. Dunbar was an instructorat the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, from1918 to 1920. He returned to Yale University as ajunior faculty member as well as the assistant cu-rator of invertebrate paleontology at the PeabodyMuseum. He became curator in 1925 whenSchuchert retired. Dunbar remained at Yale Uni-versity through his entire career, retiring to profes-sor emeritus in 1959. He was a visiting professorat the University of Kansas in 1962. Carl Dunbar

died suddenly on April 7, 1979, in Dunedin,Florida. His wife had recently predeceased him inDecember 1978.

Carl Dunbar was a productive geologist au-thoring more than 70 scientific publications in-cluding articles in international journals andprofessional volumes, chapters in books, and gov-ernmental reports. He was also an author of sev-eral popular textbooks, including Textbook ofGeology: Part II, Historical Geology with CharlesSchuchert and Principles of Stratigraphy withJOHN RODGERS. In recognition of his contribu-tions to geology, the profession bestowed numer-ous honors and awards upon him. He was amember of both the National Academy of Sci-ences and the American Academy of Arts and Sci-ences. He received the Paleontological Society(United States) Medal, the Twenhofel Medal fromthe Society of Economic Paleontologists andMineralogists, the Hayden Memorial GeologicalMedal from the Academy of Natural Sciences ofPhiladelphia, and several awards from his almamater at the University of Kansas, including theErasmus Haworth Distinguished Alumni Awardin geology and the Alumni Distinguished ServiceCitation.

Dunbar’s service to the profession was equallyimpressive. He was vice president (1952) andcouncilor (1940–1942) for the Geological Societyof America. He was president (1952) and trea-surer several times for the Paleontological Society.He was probably best known for his role as chair-man for the Committee on Stratigraphy for theNational Research Council (1934–1953), amongmany other panels and committees. He was alsoone of 27 scientists chosen to observe OperationCross-Roads, the atomic bomb tests at BikiniAtoll. His editorial roles included associate editorof the Geological Society of America Bulletin, andthe Journal of Paleontology.

78 Dunbar, Carl O.

5 Ernst, W. Gary(1931– )AmericanGeochemist (Plate Tectonics)

The pioneers of the plate tectonic paradigm wereprimarily concerned with large-scale physicalforms on the planet. Geophysicists and theoreti-cians dominated this group. However, plate tec-tonics affects all aspects of geology. Gary Ernst is atrue pioneer in the geochemistry of plate tecton-ics. He attacks these geochemical–plate tectonicproblems from all angles, be it experimental, ana-lytical, isotopic, or field-based and he travels tothe ends of the Earth to find the best location. Hebecame the world expert on high-pressure, sub-duction zone–related metamorphism and platesubduction processes gleaned from this research.His maverick approach, outstanding productivityin terms of both research and publication, andwillingness to take on leadership roles in profes-sional societies and on federal panels made himlikely one of the top influential geologists in theworld of the late 1970s to mid-1980s. In discus-sions among graduate students in departments na-tionwide, Ernst was regarded with awe as one ofthe heroes of the field. He still remains influentialand respected.

Ernst’s specific locations of research on sub-duction zone metamorphism include a complex

of rocks of the Dabie-Sulu Belt of eastern Chinawith Chinese, Japanese, and Russian colleagues.He has also begun work on the North Qaidamand North Qilian belts of northwest China. Previ-ously he worked on the Maksyutov Complex inthe southern Urals, the Kokchetav Massif ofnorthern Kazakhstan and the Franciscan Complexof the California Coast Ranges, among others. Be-sides the high-pressure studies, Ernst has con-ducted field research in the White-Inyo Range ofCalifornia for many years. This work involves pet-rogenesis of the Barcroft Granodiorite and contactmetamorphism in the country rock. He even con-ducts environmental research in this area. He alsocontinues his experimental studies on the synthe-sis of hydrothermal minerals, which he has donefor many years.

W. Gary Ernst was born on December 14,1931, in St. Paul, Minnesota, where he spent hischildhood. He attended Carleton College, Min-nesota, where he earned a bachelor of arts degreein geology in 1953. He attended the University ofMinnesota, Twin Cities, for graduate studies andearned a master of science degree in geology in1955. He then moved to the Johns Hopkins Uni-versity, where he completed his graduate educa-tion by earning a Ph.D. in geochemistry. He wona postdoctoral fellowship from the National Sci-ence Foundation to the Geophysical Laboratory atthe Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., in

E

1959 and 1960. He joined the faculty at the Uni-versity of California at Los Angeles in 1960, andremained until 1989. During that time he servedas chair of the department from 1970 to 1974and 1978 to 1982. From 1987 to 1989, he wasthe director for the Institute of Geophysics andPlanetary Physics at UCLA. In 1989, he moved toStanford University as dean of the School of EarthSciences. Since 1999, Ernst has held the BenjaminM. Page Endowed Chair at Stanford University.During these years, he was a Crosby Visiting Pro-fessor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in1968, a National Science Foundation Senior Post-doctoral Fellow at University of Basel, Switzer-land, from 1970–71, visiting professor at theSwiss Federal Institute, Zurich, from 1975–76,the William Evans Visiting Professor at OtagoUniversity, New Zealand, from 1982–83, theUniversidade Federale de Pernambuco, Brazil, in1988, and visiting professor at Kyoto University,Japan, in 1988.

Gary Ernst has been phenomenally produc-tive, even if all of the administrative positions hehas held are discounted. He has authored six

books and research memoirs from popular scienceto textbooks to cutting-edge research works. Healso served as editor of another 14 professionalvolumes. He was an author of more than 180 arti-cles in international journals and professional vol-umes. Many of these papers are landmark studiesthat appear in some of the most prestigious jour-nals and often-cited volumes in the field. His out-standing research has been recognized in the fieldin terms of honors and awards. He is a member ofNational Academy of Sciences and was chair ofthe geology section from 1979 to 1982 and 2000to the present, as well as secretary from 1997 to2000. He was a Fulbright Research Scholar at theUniversity of Tokyo in 1963, a GuggenheimMemorial Fellow in 1975–1976 and a Japan Soci-ety for the Promotion of Science Fellow in 1995.He also won the Geological Society of JapanMedal in 1998.

Gary Ernst has performed extensive service tothe profession. He was chairman of the board ofEarth sciences for the National Research Councilin 1984 to 1987 and a member from 1988 to1993. He was president of the Geological Societyof America in 1985 and 1986 and the president ofthe Mineralogical Society of America in 1980 and1981. The rest of his service is in such abundancethat it cannot all be listed here.

5 Eugster, Hans P.(1925–1987)SwissGeochemist

Hans Eugster was one of those rare people whocan be given the title of “Renaissance Man” be-cause he excelled at so many pursuits. He couldhave had a successful career as an artist or a musi-cian or a chemist or a mathematician, among oth-ers. Fortunately for the Earth sciences, he chose tobe a geochemist and an outstanding teacher. Un-fortunately, he died far too young. His geochemi-cal research was much like his life; he chose

80 Eugster, Hans P.

Gary Ernst discussing Earth science aboard a researchship in California (Courtesy of Arthur Sylvester)

several directions and he excelled in all of them.Probably his greatest contribution to geochem-istry was to demonstrate the control of gases, bothin terms of presence and participation (called fu-gacity), on high-temperature chemical reactionsamong minerals in igneous and metamorphicrocks. These very minor components can actuallycontrol the minerals that will form with the majorcomponents. The first components consideredwere oxygen and hydrogen. With his colleague,DAVID R. WONES, Eugster investigated their par-ticipation in the formation of micas. Later, thiswork was extended to other minerals, as well as toother fluid components like carbon, fluorine, ni-trogen, and sulfur species. He even looked atacids, bases, and metal chlorides in fluids, ulti-mately establishing a whole new field concernedwith measuring the properties of fluids. It all ledto a quantitative understanding of the role of flu-ids in the processes of mineral formation withinEarth’s crust and mantle.

Although this research may seem purely theo-retical, it has practical applications as well. Eugsteronce began a project with a student through Gen-eral Electric Corporation to devise a substancethat was a perfect insulator in one direction and aperfect conductor in another. Eugster thoughtthat synthesizing micas with gold lining the inter-stices would solve the problem. The student leftand the project fell through. But if it had contin-ued, they would have produced the first siliconchip well ahead of its time.

Eugster’s second main research direction wasin geochemistry as it applies to hydrogeology andsedimentology. Considering that his first interestwas in high temperature applications, this seconddirection in surface reactions is surprising. In thisresearch, he evaluated the hydrogeologic, chemi-cal, and sedimentologic processes that lead to theformation of continental and marine evaporites.He discovered several new minerals and proposeda new origin for bedded chert including Pre-cambrian banded iron formations. This researchincluded experimental work, thermodynamic

modeling, and geologically reasonable computersolutions to the evaporation of seawater, a featthat was attempted several times previously byother researchers without success. Two of themore important papers from this work include,“The Evolution of Closed Basin Brines” and“Minerals in Hot Water.”

Finally, Eugster was also interested in the ori-gin of ore deposits. He conducted experiments onthe solubility of ore minerals to explain their de-position in hydrothermal systems. He explainedseveral types of deposits with this work and heeven investigated the source of these fluids in de-watering granites.

Hans Eugster was born in Landquart, Switzer-land, on November 19, 1925, where he spent hisyouth. He gained an interest in geology climbingto the high Alps in the Grisons where he would lagbehind the rest of his family because he was toobusy collecting rocks. He attended the Swiss Fed-eral Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurichwhere he earned a diploma in engineering geologyin 1948. He continued at ETH for his graduatestudies and earned a Ph.D. in 1951 in geochem-istry (his adviser was Paul Niggli). Eugster had ac-cepted an eight-month postdoctoral research postat Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to returnto ETH at its conclusion. However, the untimelydeath of Niggli led Eugster to accept a position atthe Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Insti-tution of Washington, D.C., in 1952 with HAT-TEN S. YODER JR.. In 1957, he taught a course atthe Johns Hopkins University as an adjunct andaccepted a permanent position there the followingyear. He remained at Johns Hopkins for the rest ofhis life, serving as chair of the department from1983 to 1987. He died suddenly of a rupturedaorta on December 17, 1987. His second wife,Elaine Koppelman, the James Beall Professor ofMathematics and Computer Science at GoucherCollege, and three daughters from his first mar-riage survived him. In addition to his talent as ageochemist, Eugster was also an accomplished vio-linist, painter, and potter.

Eugster, Hans P. 81

Hans Eugster had a very productive career,publishing numerous articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes. Many of themare considered benchmarks of geochemistry. Thegeologic profession has acknowledged his researchcontributions in terms of honors and awards. Hewas a member of both the National Academy ofSciences and the American Academy of Arts andSciences. He received the Arthur Day Medal fromthe Geological Society of America in 1971, theGoldschmidt Medal from the Geochemical Soci-ety in 1976, and the Roebling Medal of the Min-eralogical Society of America in 1983. He evenhad the new mineral eugsterite named after himin 1983. He served as the president of the Miner-alogical Society of America in 1985.

5 Ewing, W. Maurice(1906–1974)AmericanGeophysicist

Maurice Ewing is one of the giants of Earth sci-ences and especially geophysics. He not onlymade significant discoveries about the ocean floor,he developed a good amount of the equipment tostudy it. In a field of some very impressive scien-tists, Maurice Ewing is still so prominent that hecan be considered the “father of modern marinegeophysics.” He began this pioneering research inthe 1930s, when he devised a method and devel-oped the equipment to conduct the first seismicrefraction profiles (like sonograms of the Earth) atsea. This work first established the shape of thecontinental shelf, slope, and rise, and showed howthe sedimentary cover thickened oceanward over ahighly faulted basement. That was just the begin-ning. He would later redesign the bathythermo-graph (temperature with depth) for use in movingships, build equipment for continuous echosounding (depth profiling) and precision depthrecording, develop ocean bottom seismographsand advanced methods for marine seismic reflec-

tion and refraction surveying. He and his group atLamont-Doherty Geological Observatory woulddevelop the methods and protocol for piston coresampling of deep ocean sediments and Ewingwould help found the Deep Sea Drilling Project,as well as serving as its first chief scientist in 1968.He would develop new methods for gravity andmagnetic surveying at sea and with FRANK PRESS,he would establish the WorldWide StandardizedSeismograph Network to monitor earthquakes aswell as nuclear tests.

Naturally, all of these inventions and newmethodologies were used to obtain the first dataof their kind. Some of this research was physical-process based, such as how seismic waves travelthrough layered media or in ocean water, amongmany others; whereas other research was Earth-process based. He was the first to establish thatthere are fundamental differences between oceancrust and continental crust geophysically, geo-chemically, and petrologically. He studied the dif-ferences between them and formulated the basicfeatures of all ocean basins. He determined thatthe mid-ocean ridges formed long chains of seis-mic activity and that they are unstable and ever-changing permanent features. In his sedimentarycoring efforts, he identified a fundamental changein the sediment type and composition from iceages versus those of interglacial periods and hemodeled climatic oscillations on that basis. Evenmore fundamental was his publication of the firstdetailed maps of the seafloor in the North At-lantic, South Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceanbasins. All of this classic fundamental researchwould later be expanded to spur discoveries inplate tectonics as well as climate change studiesand it is still having major influence on many cur-rent research topics. It is difficult to overempha-size the impact that Maurice Ewing had on theEarth sciences.

William Maurice Ewing was born on May12, 1906, in Lockney, Texas, near Amarillo, wherehe grew up. He was somewhat of a prodigy andgraduated from Lockney High School at age 15.

82 Ewing, W. Maurice

Unfortunately, this high school was unaccreditedand he had a difficult time getting into college.He was finally accepted at Rice Institute (nowRice University) in Houston, Texas, where hebegan as an electrical engineering major in 1922.He switched to mathematics and physics, andgraduated in 1926 with a bachelor of science de-gree with honors and the title of HohenthalScholar. He remained at Rice Institute for gradu-ate work and earned a master of arts in 1927 anda Ph.D. in 1931, both in physics. Maurice Ewingmarried in 1928 and was father to five children.Ewing was an instructor of physics at the Univer-sity of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from 1929–1930before joining the faculty at Lehigh University,Pennsylvania, also in physics. However, he partici-pated in marine geophysical surveying with geo-physicists there and was moved to the geologydepartment in 1940. That year, he also became aResearch Associate at the Woods Hole Oceano-graphic Institution, Massachusetts. During WorldWar II, Ewing worked with the U.S. Navy discov-ering and investigating the “Sofar” long-rangesubmarine sound ranging and transmission sys-tem in which all underwater sound is naturallyfunneled in a 1,500 m depth horizon where it canbe readily transmitted. He would receive the U.S.Navy Distinguished Service Award in 1955 forthis research. In 1944, he moved to ColumbiaUniversity, New York, where he would remain forthe rest of his career. Ewing established and be-came director of the Lamont-Doherty GeologicalObservatory (now the Lamont-Doherty EarthObservatory) of Columbia University in 1949. Itwould become one of the world’s premier geo-physical laboratories, hosting such giants as FrankPress, JACK E. OLIVER, MANIK TALWANI, CHARLES

L. DRAKE and LYNN R. SYKES, among others. Hewas named Higgins Professor of geology in 1959and retired to professor emeritus in 1972. Mau-rice Ewing suffered a massive cerebral hemorrhageon April 28, 1974, in Galveston, Texas, and diedin Palisades, New York, on May 4, 1974. Hiswife and five children survived him.

Maurice Ewing was an author of more than340 scientific articles and reports in interna-tional journals, professional volumes, and gov-ernment reports. Many of these publications aretrue classic works on all aspects of marine geo-physics including numerous new and modifiedgeophysical methods and processes as well assome of the basic work on the plate tectonics ofocean basins. His book, Elastic Waves in LayeredMedia, is still considered a seminal work. Inrecognition of his vast contributions to Earthsciences, Maurice Ewing was bestowed numer-ous honors and awards in addition to those al-ready mentioned. He was a member of both theNational Academy of Sciences and the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He received theU.S. National Medal of Science in 1973 andnumerous honorary degrees, including Washing-ton and Lee University in Virginia. He receivedboth the Agassiz Medal and the John J. CartyMedal from the National Academy of Sciences,both the Penrose Medal and the Arthur L. DayMedal from the Geological Society of America,both the William Bowie and the Walter H.Bucher Medal from the American GeophysicalUnion, the Gold Medal from the Royal Astro-nomical Society, the Sidney Powers MemorialMedal from the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists, the Earl McConnellAward from the American Institute of Mining,Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, and theVega Medal from the Swedish Society of An-thropology and Geography, among others. Amedal from the American Geophysical Union isnamed for him.

Impossible as it seems, Ewing found time toperform significant service to the profession. Hewas president of the American Geophysical Union(1956–1959), president (1955–1957) and vicepresident (1952–1955) of the Seismological Soci-ety of America, and vice president (1953–1956)and councilor (1946–1948) of the Geological So-ciety of America.

Ewing, W. Maurice 83

5 Fairbridge, Rhodes W.(1914– )AustralianGeomorphologist (Climate Modeling)

Rhodes Fairbridge has several areas of expertise forwhich he is renowned. He studies coastal geomor-phology, climate change and its control, and pro-duces Earth science encyclopedias. His work incoastal geomorphology centers on eustatic sealevel changes and their control, the role of gravita-tional processes in tectonic changes and resultingsedimentation patterns, and world geotectonics.His research concerns the emergence and submer-gence of coastlines, especially in response to iceages and glacial loading of the crust. The crust inthe far northern latitudes has undergone glacialrebound after the mile-thick continental ice sheetmelted away after the last ice age. The plates weredepressed into the mantle by the sheer weight ofthose continental glaciers by hundreds of feet insome cases. Fairbridge was the first to documentand explain this depression and rebound and heshowed the complex interaction of the rising sealevel from the melting of the ice coupled with thisemergence. The understanding of the shape andfeatures of our coastlines is largely due to thework of Fairbridge. He also studied the effect ofthe sea level rise on coral reefs. He is truly the fa-ther of the modern science of coastal processes.

Fairbridge is even better known for his work onclimate change. He uses his coastal geomorphologycoupled with pollen analysis (palynology) and sedi-mentation patterns to chart climate changes. Hecorrelates these climate changes with extraterrestrialinfluences. He proposed that planetary ephemeus,the alignment torque of the planets on the Sun, hasan effect on solar particulate radiation mostlythrough sunspot activity. He showed that the car-bon 14 flux rate has changed drastically and pro-posed that it controls the number and intensity ofcatastrophic droughts and floods. He looked at car-bon dioxide abundances in the ocean through timewith ROGER REVELLE by charting changes in theproduction of carbonates well before its currentpopularity. These studies led him to consider the in-terplay of sea level, greenhouse effect, and droughtson a worldwide scale through time.

Fairbridge is also the king of the Earth sci-ence encyclopedia. He has produced more than24 high-quality encyclopedias on geomorphology,climatology, oceanography, environmental sci-ence, soil science, planetary science, geochemistry,sedimentology, hydrology and water resources,and world regional geology, among many others.He gathers the experts in the various fields to con-tribute to these works, but it is nonetheless phe-nomenal that he is so well versed in such a diversevariety of disciplines in Earth sciences to be ableto attempt such endeavors.

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Rhodes Fairbridge was born on May 21,1914, in Pinjarra, Australia, son to the famousKingsley Fairbridge. His family ran the Fair-bridge Farm School, a world-renowned boardingschool. He attended Queens University, Aus-tralia, where he earned a bachelor of arts degreein 1936. He then attended Oxford University,England, where he earned a bachelor of sciencedegree in geology in 1940. During the period of1938 to 1941 he was also a field geologist for theIraq Petroleum Company. He returned to Aus-tralia to complete his graduate studies at the Uni-versity of Western Australia, where he earned adoctor of science degree in 1944. He was a lec-turer at University of Western Australia from1946 to 1953 and a member of the faculty at theUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign from1953 to 1954. In 1955, he joined the faculty atColumbia University, New York, and remainedthere for the rest of his academic career, until hisretirement in 1982, when he became professoremeritus. Throughout his academic career, Fair-bridge served as a consultant to numerous com-panies and agencies, including the HydroelectricCommission of Tasmania, Richfield Oil Com-pany, Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources,Snowy Mountain Hydroelectric Authority, PureOil Company, and others. He also worked withseveral publishing companies, including Lifemagazine and Reader’s Digest Books. After hisretirement, Fairbridge became an associate ofNASA-GISS, where he remains today. RhodesFairbridge married Dolores Carrington in 1943;they have one son.

Rhodes Fairbridge has led an extremely pro-ductive career. He is an author of more than 300scientific publications. Many of these are seminalworks on coastal geomorphology and climatechange. As mentioned, he is an editor of 24 ency-clopedias, in addition to being an author and edi-tor of several professional volumes and books. Hehas received several honors and awards for hiscontributions to geology. He received an honorarydoctorate from the University of Gothenburg,

Sweden. He was also awarded the Alexander vonHumboldt Prize from the Humboldt Society,Germany, and the 1999 Mary B. Ansai Best Ref-erence Work Award from the Geoscience Infor-mation Society.

Fairbridge has also performed significant ser-vice to the profession. He is a founder and thecurrent vice president of the Coastal Educationand Research Foundation. He was the presidentof the Shorelines Commission of the InternationalUnion for Quaternary Research. He also servedon numerous committees and panels for the Na-tional Academy of Sciences, the National Re-search Council, Office of Naval Research,National Science Foundation, and others. He alsoserved in an amazing number of editorial capaci-ties including founder and editor of Journal ofCoastal Research, series editor for 90 volumes ofthe Geological Benchmark Collections (Hutchinson-Ross Publishing Co.), and adviser for RandomHouse, Fabbri Publishing Co., Milan, Italy, theVan Nostrand Reinhold Encyclopedia of Earth Sci-ences, and the Chapman-Hall Encyclopedia ofEarth Sciences.

5 Folk, Robert L.(1925– )AmericanSedimentologist, Archaeological Geologist

Robert Folk became interested in classifying sedi-mentary rocks as a boy admiring his rock collec-tion because the igneous rocks had such exoticnames and the sedimentary rocks did not. Theirnames, sandstone, limestone, shale, were boring.He decided even then that he would remedy thesituation and after his years at college, he did justthat. If he had done nothing else with his career,Robert Folk would still be remembered for his clas-sification system for carbonates, which still appearsin many textbooks more than 40 years later, as wellas a definitive textbook on sedimentology from

Folk, Robert L. 85

about the same time. However, this work barelyscratches the surface of a very successful career.

In addition to much more extensive work oncarbonate deposition, Folk also became interestedin Aeolian deposits. He researched grain round-ness and coloring of sand in the Simpson Desertin Australia. He similarly investigated pebbleshapes in rivers and on beaches in Tahiti. He thenturned his attention to archaeological geology. Hedid research on environmental geology of classicalMacedonia, limestone used in construction of thepyramids, and the archaeological geology of Israel,and especially Galilee. He located sources forbuilding materials, isotopically determined theages of mortar in structures, and determined howiron smelting was carried out in ancient Israel. Heeven began investigating how the ancient ruinswere deteriorating.

An unquenchable love for Italy led to the dis-covery that bacteria mainly constructed Roman

hot-water travertine (a kind of limestone insprings). Work on these rocks with the ScanningElectron Microscope (SEM) led to the discoveryof dwarf bacteria (nannobacteria). About 10,000of them will fit on a pinhead. He published onthe topic with papers like “Nannobacteria in theNatural Environment and in Medicine” to littlefanfare or even notice. Nonetheless, Folk began afull research program on the role of nannobacteriain both sedimentary and weathering processes.Then came the announcement by NASA thatthey may have found nannobacteria in Martianmeteorites. The question as to whether there waslife on Mars captivated the imagination of thepublic. Now Folk finds himself in the middle of acontroversy and a frenzy of research and publica-tion on terrestrial rocks, Martian meteorites, andhuman nannobacterial diseases.

Robert Folk was born on September 30,1925, in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated fromShaker Heights High School and enrolled inPennsylvania State University in College Park in1943. He earned all of his degrees at Penn State,including a bachelor of science degree in 1946, amaster of science degree in 1950, and a Ph.D. in1952. His adviser for all of his research was PaulKrynine, but he also spent a year at ColumbiaUniversity, New York. He married MarjorieThomas in 1947, and they had three children. Hehas enlisted them as field assistants on several pro-jects. At the end of his graduate career he accepteda position as a geologist for Gulf Research andDevelopment Co. in Houston, Texas, andPascagoula, Mississippi. In 1952, Folk joined thefaculty at the University of Texas at Austin and re-mained there for his entire academic career. Heheld several endowed chairs in the department in-cluding the Gregory Professorship in sedimentarygeology (1977–1982) and the Carlton Professor-ship of geology (1982–1988). He retired as a pro-fessor emeritus in 1988 as well as accepting aposition of senior research scientist at the TexasBureau of Economic Geology, Austin. He was avisiting professor several times during his career at

86 Folk, Robert L.

Robert Folk in a marble quarry in Lipari, Italy (Courtesyof James K. Mather)

the Australian National University in Canberra(1965), at Università degli Studi in Milan, Italy(1973), and at Tongji University in Shanghai,China (1980).

Robert Folk has led a very productive careerauthoring more than 100 articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes. Many of thesearticles are definitive works on carbonate petrol-ogy. He also wrote a successful textbook entitled,Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, with six printingsbetween 1957 and 1980. His research contribu-tions and teaching ability have been well recog-nized by the profession as evidenced by hisnumerous honors and awards. For teaching, he re-ceived The Geology Foundation OutstandingTeacher Award and the Carolyn G. and G. MosesKnebel Distinguished Teaching Award, both fromthe University of Texas, the Neil Miner Awardfrom the National Association of Geology Teach-ers (1989), and the Distinguished Educator Medalfrom the American Association of Petroleum Ge-ologists (1997). For his research, Folk receivedthree best paper awards from American Associa-tion of Petroleum Geologists, and Society of Eco-nomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM).He was awarded the Twenhofel Medal fromSEPM (1979), the Sorby Medal from the Interna-tional Association of Sedimentologists (1990), andthe Penrose Medal from Geological Society ofAmerica (2000).

5 Friedman, Gerald M.(1921– )GermanSedimentologist

Two of the main benefits that geology provides tosociety are energy and environmental analysis.The principles behind these seemingly oppositefields overlap in the most important parts. Thepassage of oil and gas through sediments and sedi-mentary rock to a point of accumulation is analo-gous to the passage of groundwater and pollutants

through the same materials. For this reason, therewas a large migration of oil geologists to the envi-ronmental field during the oil bust of the 1980s.Unlike most academicians who simply refused toacknowledge the transition, Gerald Friedmanmoved from his position as one of the true leadersin petroleum geology to a position of prominencein environmental geology. Friedman’s area of ex-pertise is sedimentology of both clastic and car-bonate rocks. He worked in the petroleumindustry for some 10 years, discovering some ofthe major oil and gas fields mostly by using thisexpertise in sedimentology. When he moved on toacademia in earnest, he brought his practical expe-rience to research. Prior to his oil experience, hehad done some of the groundbreaking research oncarbonate diagenesis, which he continued uponhis return. He performed primary research on thedevelopment of petroleum reservoirs in carbonaterocks and on sedimentology and depositional en-vironments. He investigated both modern systemsin the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, Bermuda,Florida, the Red Sea, and the Dead Sea in Israel,and ancient systems in the Anadarko Basin in Ok-lahoma, the Permian Basin of west Texas, theMichigan Basin, the Appalachian Basin, and theWilliston Basin.

Friedman truly came to the service of theworld during the oil crises of the 1970s both withhis research and by training large numbers of stu-dents to work in the petroleum industry or inacademia related to petroleum exploration. He isalso of service to the profession with his excep-tional organizational ability.

Gerald Friedman was born on July 23, 1921,in Berlin, Germany. He attended the University ofLondon, England, where he earned a bachelor ofscience degree in chemistry in 1945. He immi-grated to the United States and accepted a posi-tion as an analytical chemist at E.R. Squibb andSons, New Jersey. He married Sue Tyler Theil-heimer in 1948 and entered the graduate programat Columbia University, New York. He earned amaster of arts degree in 1950 and a Ph.D. in geol-

Friedman, Gerald M. 87

ogy in 1952. In 1950, he joined the faculty at theUniversity of Cincinnati, Ohio, but took a job asa consulting geologist in Sault Ste. Marie, On-tario, Canada, in 1954. From 1956 to 1964,Friedman was a research geologist and supervisorof research for Amoco Production Company inTulsa, Oklahoma. In 1964, he joined the facultyat Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, New York. Headditionally became the president of the North-eastern Science Foundation, New York, in 1978, aposition he holds today. He joined the faculty ofBrooklyn College of the City University of NewYork (CUNY) and the CUNY Graduate School in1985, where he continues today. In 1988, he wasnamed Distinguished Professor of geology. Healso served as deputy executive officer for thegraduate program. Over the years, Friedman was avisiting professor at several schools, including He-

brew University, Israel; University of Heidelberg,Germany; Institute of Petroleum Research andGeophysics, Israel; the Geological Survey of Israel;and Martin Luther University in Halle-Witten-berg, Germany. Friedman and his wife have fivechildren. In his leisure time, Friedman is a Judomaster. He achieved third-degree black belt andwas named a sensei.

Gerald Friedman is an author of more than300 articles in international journals, professionalvolumes, and governmental reports. Several ofthe papers are seminal works on sedimentologyand diagenesis. He has written or edited 16books. One textbook, Principles of Sedimentology,sold more than 30,000 copies and won an award.Other highly regarded books by Friedman in-clude Depositional Environments in CarbonateRocks and Exploration for Carbonate PetroleumReservoirs, among others. Friedman’s achieve-ments in research and professional leadershiphave been recognized with honors and awardstoo numerous to list fully here. Therefore, theseare just the highlights. He has two honorary doc-torates, one from the University of London, En-gland, in which he was hooded by the late QueenMother, and one from the University of Heidel-berg, Germany, which issues them only onceevery 50 years. He received the Kapitsa GoldMedal of Honor from the Russian Academy ofNatural Sciences. From the American Associationof Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), he received theDistinguished Service Award in 1988, the Distin-guished Educator Award in 1996, the SidneyPowers Medal in 2000, and the EnvironmentalTeaching Award in 2001. From the eastern re-gional AAPG, he received the John T. GaleyMemorial Award and a Certificate of Merit. Hewon the Twenhofel Medal from the Society ofEconomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists(SEPM), the Award for Outstanding Editing orPublishing Contributions from the Association ofEarth Science Editors, and the James Hall Medalfrom the New York State Museum, among oth-ers. He also received a Best Paper Award and two

88 Friedman, Gerald M.

Gerald Friedman leads a field trip for the InternationalGeological Correlation Project (IGCP) in the northernAppalachians in 1979 (Courtesy of James Skehan, S.J.)

Honorable Mentions from The Journal of Sedi-mentary Petrology, as well as a Best Paper Awardfrom an SEPM section.

Friedman’s service to the profession rivals hishonors and awards and as such can only betouched upon. He was president (1975–1978)and vice president (1971–1975) of the Interna-tional Association of Sedimentologists. He wasthe president (1974–1975) and the vice president(1970–1971) of SEPM and vice president ofAAPG in 1984–1985, among many other posi-tions in both societies. He was president(1972–1973) and vice president (1971–1972) ofthe Association of Earth Science Editors and co-founder of the History of Earth Sciences Society.His editorial work is equally impressive. He servedas editor for Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,Northeastern Geology and Environmental Sciences,Earth Sciences History, and Carbonates and Evapor-ites, and associate editor for Sedimentary Geology,Journal of Geology, Geo Journal, and Journal of Ge-ological Education among others.

5 Fyfe, William S.(1927– )New ZealanderGeochemist

A summary of the accomplishments of WilliamFyfe in his geological career is very simple: he hasdone virtually everything and he has done it well.Originally, he was an experimental geochemistwho was interested in problems of metamorphicpetrology. Innovative techniques to conduct dehy-dration chemical reactions allowed him to definethe formerly enigmatic appearance of the zeoliteminerals. This research allowed him to define anew metamorphic facies (zeolite facies) that nowappears in every petrology and introductory phys-ical geology textbook. But he was not satisfiedwith considering only the low-temperature side ofmetamorphism, he also studied partial meltingdynamics in the granulite facies within Archean

crust and high-pressure metamorphic rocks fromthe subduction zone complex in the Franciscanrocks of California. He was also interested in theformation of metal complexes and especially thatof gold in hot fluid systems. This work truly revo-lutionized the field of hydrothermal systems andfluid flow, especially within fault zones, and alsowith regard to ore genesis. He pioneered the ap-plication of crystal field theory to the partitioningof trace elements among minerals. He also de-fined the application of stable isotope techniquesto metamorphic problems among many otherstudies. These interests led him to write severalclassic memoirs and textbooks on the subjects in-cluding Metamorphic Reactions and MetamorphicFacies, Geochemistry of Solids, and Fluids in theEarth’s Crust. He clearly established himself as oneof the foremost authorities on metamorphism andperhaps the foremost authority on hydrothermalprocesses.

Later in his career, Fyfe became interested inenvironmental problems and he was no less pro-ductive in those studies. He pursued such topicsas iron sulfide contents of coal from Ohio and itscontribution to acidity in the environment,methods to determine soil erosion in the Arcticusing smectite clay mineralogy, improvement ofthe crop potential of tropical laterite soils usinggeochemistry, manganese oxide precipitation onmicrobial mats within hot springs, the geochem-istry of supratidal sediments in the Niger Delta,Africa, and many others in the general field ofbiogeochemistry. These studies are generally envi-ronmental and led Fyfe to become an outspokenadvocate for science in the addressing of worldproblems. His research helped him to give soundadvice on agricultural and environmental geo-chemistry, deep waste disposal, resource conserva-tion, global climate changes, and assistance toThird World countries. In recognition of his un-tiring efforts in education and advocacy for astronger role on the part of humankind in stew-ardship of the Earth, Fyfe was awarded the Com-panion of the Order of Canada, the nation’s

Fyfe, William S. 89

highest civilian award. Truly, the accomplish-ments of William Fyfe comprise several successfulcareers.

William Fyfe was born on June 4, 1927, inAshburton, New Zealand. He attended OtagoUniversity, New Zealand, where he earned a bach-elor of science degree in geology in 1948, a masterof science degree in 1949, and a Ph.D. in 1952.From 1952 to 1954, he was a Fulbright Scholar ingeology at the University of California at Berkeley.He had his first academic position at the Univer-sity of California at Los Angeles for one year be-fore moving back to Otago University as a readerin chemistry (1955–1958), and finally back to theUniversity of California at Berkeley as a facultymember. In 1968, Fyfe was the recipient of aRoyal Society Research Professorship in geochem-istry at Manchester University in England. Hewas also a visiting professor at Imperial College inLondon, England. In 1972, he joined the facultyat the University of Western Ontario, Canada, inLondon as chair of the department, where he re-mained for the rest of his career. He was ap-pointed dean of the faculty of science there from1986 to 1990 and he is currently a professoremeritus. William Fyfe married Patricia Walker in1981, and they have three children.

William Fyfe has led a phenomenally produc-tive career. His tally of professional publicationsnumbers in the vicinity of 800. He was typicallyan author of 30 or more books and articles peryear. Many of these publications are benchmarkstudies on everything from hydrothermal meta-morphism to the formation of soils. Fyfe receivednumerous honors and awards in recognition of hisresearch contributions to the science. He wasawarded six honorary doctoral degrees from col-

leges worldwide, including Memorial Universityin Newfoundland, Canada; University of Lisbon,Spain; Lakehead University, England; and OtagoUniversity, New Zealand, among others. He is amember of the Russian Academy of Sciences, theIndian Academy of Sciences, the BrazilianAcademy of Sciences, the American Academy ofArts and Sciences, and a Fellow of the Royal Soci-ety of London and the Royal Society of NewZealand. He received the Logan Medal from theGeological Association of Canada, the Willet G.Miller Medal from the Royal Society of Canada,the Canadian Commemorative Medal, the ArthurHolmes Medal from the European Union of Geo-logical Scientists, the Arthur L. Day Medal fromthe Geological Society of America, the RoeblingMedal from the Mineralogical Society of America,the Canadian Gold Medal for Science and Engi-neering from the Natural Science and EngineeringResearch Council, the Queen’s New ZealandCommemorative Medal, the Wollaston Medalfrom the Geological Society of London, the Sri-brnou Medaili from the Czech Republic, and theMedal of the National Order of Scientific Meritfrom the country of Brazil, among many others.

Fyfe performed service to the profession tooextensive to list here. His latest position was thatof president of the International Union of Geo-logical Scientists (IUGS) (1992 to 1996), wherehe has been especially active. He has served ondozens of important committees for the NaturalSciences and Engineering Research Council ofCanada, commonly as chair. He also served in aneditorial capacity for several international jour-nals, including Chemical Geology, EnvironmentalGeophysics and Geochemistry, Geology, and MineralScience and Engineering, among others.

90 Fyfe, William S.

5 Garrels, Robert M.(1916–1988)AmericanGeochemist

Igneous and metamorphic rocks were treated aschemical systems early in the history of geologybecause there are diverse minerals involved andthey are large enough to analyze. On the otherhand, sedimentary rocks hold most of the eco-nomic reserves whether petroleum related or orerelated. Robert Garrels did for the chemistry ofsedimentary rocks what the likes of NORMAN L.BOWEN did for igneous rocks; he established thechemical systems. His 1952 paper, “Origin andclassification of precipitants in terms of pH andoxidation-reduction,” sums up much of his earlyresearch, which was specifically on rocks whichformed as precipitants from water. One of hismain areas of study at this time was the origin ofiron deposits, which he would return to severaltimes. However, he also worked on uranium andvanadium geochemistry. His later work looked atthe rock-water interface geochemistry. This workinvolved both experimental research and advancedthermodynamics. The latter of these set him apartfrom many of the other researchers of the time andseveral of his students still maintain that position.

Garrels investigated the interaction of oceansand the sediments produced in them in chemical

terms. He studied chemical mass balances be-tween rivers, which carry on the chemical species,and oceans, which receive them. He set the stan-dard for research on geochemical cycles with re-search on carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus. Hemodeled the interaction between oceans and theatmosphere with ROBERT BERNER to explain car-bon dioxide abundances in the atmosphere in hisfamous “BLAG” model.

Much of this work was translated into booksthat became the handbooks for all geologists whoventured into this field. His book, Mineral Equi-libria at Low Temperatures and Pressures, in 1960showed how minerals form at surface and nearsurface conditions. His famous textbook, Evolu-tion of the Sedimentary Rocks, published in 1971,set the standard for understanding the sedimen-tary cycle. It uniquely emphasized his research onthe ocean-sediment interactions and clearly ad-vanced the level at which students were intro-duced to the chemistry of sedimentary rocks.

Robert Garrels was born in Detroit, Michi-gan, on August 24, 1916, the second of threechildren. He spent some of his early years inSaltville, Virginia, before moving to Grosse Ile,Michigan, in 1928, where he attended highschool. Garrels was a true athlete as well as ascholar, specializing in track and field. In fact,later in life he would hold the world high jumprecord for men over 57 years of age. Garrels en-

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tered the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, at17 years of age, vacillating between chemistry andliterature. Instead, he turned to geology and grad-uated with a bachelor of science degree with hon-ors in 1937. He entered graduate school atNorthwestern University in Illinois the same year.He earned a master of science degree in 1939 anda Ph.D. in 1941. He then joined the faculty atNorthwestern University, but quickly joined theMilitary Geology Unit of the U.S. Geological Sur-vey for the duration of World War II. He returnedto Northwestern University in 1945, but then re-turned to the U.S. Geological Survey in 1952. In1955, he accepted a position at Harvard Univer-sity, Massachusetts, where he remained for 10years, including serving as chair. He moved backto Northwestern University in 1965, but only re-mained until 1969, when he accepted a positionat Scripps Institution of Oceanography at theUniversity of California at San Diego. There hewas married to Cynthia Hunt in 1970. However,Garrels moved to the University of Hawaii in1971, where he was named the James Cook Pro-fessor of oceanography. In 1974, he returned toNorthwestern University, only to leave once againin 1980. He accepted the St. Petersburg ProgressChair in marine science at the University of SouthFlorida, where he remained until his death. Hecontracted cancer of the spine in 1987 and suc-cumbed to it on March 8, 1988. His wife, Cyn-thia, two daughters and a son by a previousmarriage, and 13 grandchildren survived him.

In his very productive career, Robert Garrelsproduced numerous articles in international jour-nals and volumes as well as several books. Manyof these books and papers are the classical defin-ing works for the field of sedimentary geochem-istry. His work was well recognized and rewardedwith honors and awards. He was a member of theNational Academy of Sciences. He received hon-orary doctorates from the Free University ofBrussels, Belgium, in 1969; the Louis PasteurUniversity of Strasbourg, Austria, in 1976; andthe University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1980.

He received both the Arthur Day Medal (1966)and the Penrose Medal (1978) from the Geologi-cal Society of America. He received the Gold-schmidt Medal from the Geochemical Society(1973), the Roebling Medal from the Mineralog-ical Society of America (1981), and WollastonMedal from the Geological Society of London,England. He served as the president of the Geo-chemical Society in 1962.

5 Gilbert, G. Karl(1843–1918)AmericanGeomorphologist

G. Karl Gilbert is one of the most famous Ameri-can geologists of the 19th century and one of thefounders of the U.S. Geological Survey. His geo-logic research of the American West during thelate 19th century and early 20th century is his-toric. During his expeditions, Gilbert crossedDeath Valley on foot and by mule, traveled alongthe steep, upstream terrain through the GrandCanyon, documented the Basin and RangeProvince of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, andexplored the deserts of Nevada. He was even inthe San Francisco earthquake of 1906 and fullydocumented the event. He is famous for themeticulous and detailed drawings and field notesthat he kept on almost every geological, and on alesser scale, biological feature he observed duringhis travels.

Karl Gilbert was a geomorphologist who de-veloped many of the fundamental concepts thatwould define the discipline for many years. In hisfamous work, “Report on the Geology of theHenry Mountains,” he determined that an intru-sive body (laccolith) may deform its host rock.However, the real contribution was the expansionof John Wesley Powell’s concept of subaerial ero-sion and base level into a fundamental theory. Heemphasized lateral planation in this expansion.This idea would later be expanded into the theory

92 Gilbert, G. Karl

of geographic cycles. Gilbert also studied gradedstreams. He showed that either by cutting downtheir beds or building them up with sediment,streams would always make room for themselves.On a long-term basis, they will transport exactlythe load of sediment that is delivered to themfrom above. To quantify his observations, Gilbertconducted a series of flume experiments at theUniversity of California at Berkeley from1907–1909. This work was done largely to ex-plain the sedimentary effects of hydraulic miningon the Sacramento River and San Francisco Bayand the great power of humans as geologic agents.

Gilbert was the first to describe the Basin andRange Province in terms of block faultingthrough extension. His real interest was the hugeglacial Lake Bonneville, the ancestor of the GreatSalt Lake, and the displaced shorelines as relatedto isostatic rebound. This interest in glaciationled him to participate in the Harriman Expedi-tion to Alaska in 1899. He accompanied JohnMuir in studying the features of alpine glaciers.He described the effects of climate and topogra-phy on the motion of glaciers in his book,Glaciers and Glaciation. Gilbert even proposed animpact origin for the craters on the Moon in yetanother famous study.

Grove Karl Gilbert was born on May 6,1843, in Rochester, New York. He excelled inschool in both academic achievements and socialgraces. Even with his family’s limited resources,Gilbert graduated from high school at age 15, andwent on to attend the University of Rochester,New York. While in college, his curriculum con-sisted of mathematics, Greek, Latin, logic, andone geology class. That one class was all that wasneeded to pique Gilbert’s interest. In 1862,Gilbert graduated from college while the CivilWar was beginning to tear the country apart. Ei-ther due to poor health or his dislike for violence,Gilbert did not enlist in the army. In 1863, withmounting student loans and no way to repaythem, Gilbert accepted a position as a school-teacher with the public school system in Jackson,

Michigan. He lived with his sister on the outskirtsof Jackson. Gilbert did not adapt well to teachingunruly teenage schoolboys and returned to hishometown of Rochester before the school yearended. Gilbert found a position as a clerk withWard’s Cosmos Hall, a natural-science center,where he worked for the next five years(1863–1868). Even though Gilbert was inexperi-enced, he spent hours studying and documentingfossil samples.

The famous New York State geologist JamesHall was leading an expedition to excavate amastodon along the Mohawk River for Ward’s. In

Gilbert, G. Karl 93

G. K. Gilbert studies a rock exposure at MontereyFormation in California in 1906 (Courtesy of the U.S.Geological Survey)

late 1863, Hall injured his hip and Gilbert wasgiven the opportunity to lead the expedition. Asthe expedition continued, it was evident that theskeleton was incomplete. Even though most ofGilbert’s early work concentrated on paleontology,his real interest was in surficial geology. Duringthe excavation process, he discovered potholes inthe riverbed and began investigating their forma-tion, as well as their association with a nearby re-treating waterfall.

In 1869, Gilbert was hired by the GeologicalSurvey of Ohio to conduct fieldwork. In 1871,Lieutenant G. M. Wheeler offered him a positionas geologist with the newly formed Wheeler Geo-logical Survey. The Wheeler Survey was one offour geological surveys (Hayden, King, Powell,Wheeler) that each had jurisdiction over a geo-graphic area of the United States. The WheelerSurvey specialized in military and engineeringgoals. He met John Wesley Powell while complet-ing the Wheeler Reports in Washington, D.C. In1874, Gilbert moved to the Powell Survey. Thefour geological surveys were combined into theU.S. Geological Survey in 1878 and Gilbert andPowell were two of the original six geologists incharge. G. K. Gilbert spent the next three decadeswith the U.S. Geological Survey, including theposition of the second director (1881–1892).Gilbert was married to Fanny Porter in 1874.They had three children, but his daughter died in1883 and soon after, his wife became an invalid.She died in 1899. G. Karl Gilbert died on May1, 1918, in Jackson, Michigan.

G. Karl Gilbert has some 400 scholarly publi-cations of all varieties to his credit. Many of theseare benchmarks of geomorphology, among otherareas. He received numerous honors and awardsin recognition of these contributions. He was amember of the National Academy of Sciences. Hewas awarded honorary doctoral degrees from theUniversity of Rochester, the University of Wis-consin at Madison, and the University of Pennsyl-vania, among others. He received the WollastonMedal from the Geological Society of London,

the Walker Grand Prize from the Boston Societyof Natural History, and the Hubbard Medal fromthe National Geographic Society, among others.Gilbert is the only person ever to have beenelected president of the Geological Society ofAmerica twice (1892 and 1909). He was alsopresident of the Society of American Naturalists,the American Geographic Society, and the Philo-sophical Society and Geological Society of Wash-ington, D.C., among others. He has awardsnamed in his honor from the Geological Societyof America, the U.S. Geological Survey, and theAssociation of American Geographers.

5 Gilbert, M. Charles(1936– )AmericanPetrologist (Geochemistry)

Polymorphs are minerals with the same chemicalcomposition but different atomic bonding con-figurations. The best-known example of a poly-morph is the transition of graphite to diamond,very different minerals but with the same chemi-cal formula. In metamorphic rocks, the most im-portant polymorphic transition involves analuminum silicate mineral that changes basedupon physical conditions. At high pressure it iskyanite; at high temperature it is sillimanite; andat low pressure it is andalusite. Charles Gilbertwas involved in establishing the first accurate cal-ibration of that transition published in the paper,“Experimental Determination of Kyanite-An-dalusite and Andalusite-Sillimanite Equilibria;The Aluminum Silicate Triple Point.” Until reli-able geothermometers and geobarometers ofcommon metamorphic minerals were estab-lished, this study provided the only real con-straints on the physical conditions ofmetamorphism. Even today, before any analyticalwork is attempted, Gilbert’s results are used as afirst approximation based upon which poly-morph is present.

94 Gilbert, M. Charles

The research career of Charles Gilbert canbe divided into two parts, experimental geo-chemistry of minerals and assemblages of miner-als as described above, and regional geology andpetrology, mainly in Oklahoma. His experimen-tal work was mostly performed on amphibolesand pyroxenes. He determined their stabilityunder a variety of conditions both physical andchemical. These experimental studies provide thebasic geochemical properties of the minerals as abasis for comparison with naturally occurringminerals and mineral assemblages. In terms offield-regional geology and petrology, Gilbert ismainly interested in the generation of magmaduring regional extension and especially in theNorth American mid-continent. There was amajor extensional event in North America in thelatest Precambrian and early Cambrian bothalong the East Coast and in the mid-continent.The Iapetus Ocean was created along the EastCoast but the rifting in the mid-continent failed,creating a rift valley like that in East Africa. Ex-tensive granite plutons intruded the rocks ofsouthern Oklahoma. These granites are true clas-sics for those formed during extension of thecrust. Gilbert also studied some of the mafic plu-tons. With all of this petrologic work, he pro-posed models for the tectonic development ofthe southern mid-continent.

Charles Gilbert was born in Lawton, Okla-homa, on January 21, 1936. He graduated fromLawton High School in 1954. He enrolled inCameron State Agricultural College, Oklahoma,before transferring to the University of Oklahomaat Norman in 1955. He earned a bachelor of sci-ence degree in geology with honors, Phi BetaKappa, in 1958. Charles Gilbert married MaryCarol Leonard in 1958; they would have threechildren. Gilbert continued at the University ofOklahoma and earned a master of science degreein geology in 1961. He then attended the Univer-sity of California at Los Angeles where he was thefirst graduate student of W. GARY ERNST. Heearned a Ph.D. in 1965 and accepted a postdoc-

toral fellowship at the Geophysical Laboratory atthe Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. Hisfirst academic position was as a faculty member atVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State Universityin 1968. He served as department chairman from1975 to 1980. During this time he was a visitingscientist at the Oklahoma Geological Survey onseveral occasions. Gilbert moved to Texas A & MUniversity in 1983, where he served as departmenthead from 1983 to 1985. During his time at TexasA & M University, he took a three-year leave toserve as a director in the Office of Basic EnergySciences at the U.S. Department of Energy in Ger-mantown, Maryland (1986–1989). Gilbert movedto his alma mater at the University of Oklahomaat Norman in 1990, where he remains today. Heserved as director of the School of Geology andGeophysics until 1998 and was named EberlyFamily Professor from 1992 to 1998.

Charles Gilbert is an author of more than 60articles in international journals, professional vol-

Gilbert, M. Charles 95

Charles Gilbert lectures to students in the Huntonquarry in the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma(Courtesy of M. C. Gilbert)

umes, governmental reports, and field guides.Many of these are seminal papers on the geo-chemistry of minerals and rocks and the regionalgeology of Oklahoma. He is also an author or edi-tor of three books and volumes. Gilbert has re-ceived extensive research funding from theNational Science Foundation, NATO, NASA,U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of En-ergy, and the Oklahoma Geological Survey.

Gilbert has performed extensive service to theprofession. He served on numerous committeesand panels for the Mineralogical Society of Amer-ica and was elected secretary from 1979 to 1983.He also served as chair or member of numerouscommittees and panels for the American Geo-physical Union, the Geological Society of Amer-ica, the American Geological Institute, theNational Research Council, the ILP Global Geo-science Transect Project, and the Basement Tec-tonics Association. He also served in numerouseditorial positions including associate editor forthe Journal of Geophysical Research and the Geolog-ical Society of America Bulletin.

5 Glover, Lynn, III(1928– )AmericanStratigrapher (Tectonics)

There is a division between pure geologic researchand applied geologic research in that one is purelyfor the sake of knowledge and the other for apractical application. However, at certain times,applied research can drive the pure research. Dur-ing the oil and gas crises of the 1970s, there was atremendous effort to find alternative energysources to petroleum. Although trained in classi-cal geology, Lynn Glover III became an expert inbalancing pure and applied geology to help withthis search for alternative energy. This expertisewas shown in his ability to obtain grants and con-tracts for applied energy research while still per-forming significant pure research within those

guidelines. Between 1974 and 1992, he organizedseveral collaborators and obtained nearly $12 mil-lion in funding from the U.S. Department of En-ergy, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,U.S. Geological Survey, and the National ScienceFoundation.

One project was to explore the geothermalpotential of the granite plutons of the southeast-ern United States. Because granite is enriched inradioactive elements, it has an elevated heat flow.It is considered a “hot dry rock” in geothermal en-ergy terms. By circulating water through deepwells, it can be heated enough to heat homes inthe winter. The project involved drilling and cor-ing numerous granite plutons, heat flow measure-ments, and analysis of radioactivity. There wasmore pure science done on the huge number ofgranites in the southeast in a short period of timethan in all of the rest of the years of research com-bined. A successful well was drilled in the AtlanticCoastal Plain at Chrisfield, Maryland. This wellwould save much energy required by heat-pumptechnology to serve hospitals, apartment com-plexes, and commercial buildings.

Another project was to evaluate currentearthquake activity in several areas where nuclearpower plants are located or may be located in thefuture. The project involved detailed field map-ping of these areas to identify the faults and possi-ble surface expressions of them. Coupled with thefieldwork was seismic reflection profiling, similarto that which is used for petroleum exploration.A 20-ton truck is lifted on a pad, which thenshakes, sending vibrations into the ground. Seis-mographs receive these vibrations after they havebounced off underground rock layers. The pro-cess is like a sonogram (ultrasound) of the subsur-face geology. Such a seismic reflection profile wasmade all the way across the Appalachians in cen-tral Virginia similar to the COCORP profile farther south.

Although he participated in applied re-search, Lynn Glover’s real passion is in the tec-tonics of the central and southern Appalachians.

96 Glover, Lynn, III

However, unlike many researchers who jump onbandwagons of current popular ideas, LynnGlover deals only with the geology rather thanthe models of others. His retirement symposium,sponsored by his former students, was entitled,“Renegade Tectonic Models and other GeologicHeresies . . .” because he was well known forstrongly standing by his views. He proposed rela-tively straightforward plate reconstructions basedon available data and steadfastly avoided theconstant bombardment from people trying toapply the newest tectonic ideas to the southernAppalachians. He is well known for his willing-ness to battle out ideas with fellow researchers.Such an exchange of ideas forms a series ofchecks and balances for the science. A volume tosummarize his contributions to Appalachian ge-ology is entitled, Central and Southern Ap-palachian Sutures: Results of the EDGE Projectand Related Studies.

Lynn Glover was born on November 29,1928, in Washington, D.C. He spent most of hisyouth in Occoquan, Virginia, but moved aroundduring World War II because his father was in theU.S. Navy. He earned his bachelor of science andmaster of science from Virginia Polytechnic Insti-tute in 1952 and 1953, respectively. He was em-ployed as a geologist for the U.S. GeologicalSurvey from 1952 to 1967. He worked as a ura-nium exploration geologist in the southern Ap-palachians as well as a field geologist in PuertoRico and the eastern Greater Antilles. He earnedhis Ph.D. from Princeton University, New Jersey,in 1967 as an advisee of HARRY H. HESS. Hejoined the faculty at Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University in 1967, and remained therethroughout the rest of his career. During that timehe served as director of the Orogenic Studies Lab-oratory. He retired in 1998, and became an emeri-tus professor. Since his retirement he hasdeveloped and chaired an alumni relations com-mittee for the department. Lynn Glover is mar-ried to Ellen Glover, to whom he credits most ofhis accomplishments.

Lynn Glover has had a very productive career.In addition to his success with grants, he is an au-thor of 43 articles in international journals andprofessional volumes. He edited seven volumesand guidebooks and wrote one monograph. Be-cause of the unconventional nature of his work,he also produced 16 reports and maps. Glover hasalso performed service to the profession and espe-cially to the Geological Society of America forwhich he was associate editor of the Geological So-ciety of America Bulletin from 1988 to 1996, vicepresident of the Southeast Section (1994), andchair of the Southeast Section meeting in 1994,among others.

5 Goldsmith, Julian R.(1918–1999)AmericanMineralogist, Geochemist

Many experimental mineralogists-geochemistsspecialize in a single mineral, performing researchsolely on that mineral throughout their career. Ju-lian Goldsmith chose the most abundant andmost important rock-forming mineral group inthe Earth’s crust, the feldspars. Following in the

Goldsmith, Julian R. 97

Lynn Glover III in Spain with his wife, Ellen Glover(Courtesy of Lynn Glover III)

footsteps of his mentor, NORMAN L. BOWEN, heperformed several groundbreaking experiments onalkali feldspars that concentrated on the orderingof silicon and aluminum atoms. With colleagues,he developed a new X-ray diffraction technique todetermine the ordering in his samples that is stillin use today. He also made a groundbreaking dis-covery on the formation of sodium feldspar at lowtemperatures. He was the first to synthesize or-dered samples in this range although they areknown in nature. Goldsmith never really figuredout how he managed this synthesis, but he postu-lated that there was an unknown flux that drovethe process. The flux was surmised to be hydrogenthat penetrated his research vessels from dissoci-ated water. Such an explanation would be consis-tent with observations of high water pressure innatural situations.

Goldsmith was not satisfied with becomingthe foremost expert on the feldspars—he alsoperformed extensive research on another impor-tant and abundant mineral group, the carbon-ates. He was interested in the mechanics of thesubstitution relations of calcium and magnesiumwith each other in the minerals calcite anddolomite. These experiments have implicationsfor how certain marine animals make their shells.He also investigated the high temperature rela-tions of these minerals and elements and in sodoing, he established a method for determiningthe temperature of formation for metamorphiccarbonate minerals. This “geothermometer” isstill used today. Yet even conquering carbonates(as much as they can be conquered) was notenough for Goldsmith. He also investigatedscapolite, admittedly a less important mineral torock-forming processes. Nonetheless, this furtherbranching into yet another mineral system atteststo his versatility.

Even though Julian Goldsmith was certainlyone of the pioneers in experimental mineralogyand geochemistry, the trait that he is most re-membered for is his humor and friendliness. Heliterally rebuilt the department (and building) at

the University of Chicago and is likely the greatestinfluence on this great program. The easygoingpersonality of this great researcher is a rare combi-nation that added greatly to all of his successes.

Julian Goldsmith was born on February 26,1918, in Chicago, Illinois. He grew up in Chicagoduring the Great Depression but he was well pro-vided for. He attended the University of Chicago,Illinois, and earned all of his college degrees there,including a Ph.D., which he earned in geochem-istry in 1947. His dissertation adviser was N. L.Bowen. World War II interrupted his graduate ca-reer when he left the University of Chicago from1942 to 1946 to do defense research at the Corn-ing Glass Works in Corning, New York. He ac-cepted a position of research associate at theUniversity of Chicago upon graduation, and re-mained there for his entire career. Goldsmith in-herited N. L. Bowen’s lab when Bowen departedfor the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C.;soon after, he joined the faculty. He was namedDistinguished Service Professor in 1969, and heretired to professor emeritus in 1990. Goldsmithserved as chair of the department from 1963 to1971 and even served as associate dean for a shorttime. He married Ethel Frank and together theyhad three children. Julian Goldsmith died ofleukemia in 1999.

Julian Goldsmith produced papers on thethermodynamics of feldspars in the late 1940sand 1950s that he was still being asked for copiesof in the 1980s. Most articles are considered an-cient and of marginal use if they are more than 10years old, much less 40 years old. His contribu-tions to the science were widely recognized and hereceived numerous awards and honors. He re-ceived the Mineral Society Award and the Roe-bling Medal from the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica in 1955 and 1988, respectively. He alsoreceived the Harry H. Hess Medal from theAmerican Geophysical Union in 1987.

Goldsmith performed outstanding service tothe profession. He served on the board of the Na-tional Science Foundation from 1964 to 1970.

98 Goldsmith, Julian R.

He served as both vice president (1973) and presi-dent (1974) of the Geological Society of America.He served as both vice president (1968) and presi-dent (1970) of the Mineralogical Society of Amer-ica, and both vice president (1955) and president(1965) of the Geochemical Society. Needless tosay, he also served on and chaired numerous com-mittees for all three of these organizations. He wasalso editor of the Journal of Geology, as well as sev-eral other editorial positions.

5 Gould, Stephen Jay(1941–2002) AmericanPaleontologist

Although Stephen Jay Gould was an outstandinginvertebrate paleontologist and evolutionary the-orist, he is best known for his popular books andmedia productions. In fact, these apparently sepa-rate careers are not so unrelated. Gould’s scien-tific research on fossils led him to propose apunctuated equilibrium theory for evolution,probably the single most important modificationto Darwin’s theory of evolution. Animals tend toremain relatively unchanged for long periods oftime (many generations) and then periodicallyundergo very rapid evolutionary changes. Thesechanges are in response to some environmentalstimulus and continue until the animal eitheradapts to that stimulus or becomes extinct. Thespeed of these adaptations between the otherwiseslow changes accounts for the apparent abun-dance of “missing links” in the record of life.There would be many times more examples ofthe stable periods than the quickly changing onesby this theory. Human missing links are perfectexamples. This idea was the impetus for his book,The Panda’s Thumb. This quick turnover of sci-ence into ideas for public consumption exempli-fies his apparent dual career. In fact, his fluencyin paleontology, geology, and zoology fueled hismedia popularity. Other books that address this

topic of evolutionary adaptations, as well as ex-tinctions and their causes, include Hen’s Teethand Horse’s Toes, The Flamingo’s Smile, WonderfulLife: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History,Ever Since Darwin and Eight Little Piggies. Thesebooks are therefore further outgrowths of his sci-entific research.

Several of his other books more readily ad-dress the human condition and largely reflect hisown experiences, but with a scientist’s eye. Themost famous of these, The Mismeasure of Man,argues convincingly that measures of human intelligence are inappropriate because they are not objective. The impetus for this book wasGould’s eldest son Jesse’s autism. His essay FiveWeeks and his book Questioning the Millennium(1998) also deal with this subject. His bookDeath and Horses: Two Cases for the Primacy ofVariation, Case One 1996 documents his battlewith the “invariably fatal” abdominal mesothe-lioma with which he was diagnosed in 1982.Later, Gould championed the battle against cre-ationism as a replacement for evolution in publicschools that has cropped up in various parts ofthe country.

Stephen Jay Gould was born on September10, 1941, in New York City. He attended Anti-och College in Yellow Springs, Ohio, where heearned a bachelor of arts degree in geology in1963. He attended graduate school at ColumbiaUniversity, New York, in evolutionary biologyand paleontology. In 1965, he married DeborahLee, an artist, and then accepted an instructor-ship at Antioch College for the summer of 1966.In 1967, he completed his Ph.D. and accepted aposition at Harvard University as assistant profes-sor and assistant curator of invertebrate paleon-tology. He remained at Harvard, where in 1982he became the Alexander Agassiz Professor of zo-ology. In 1996, he became the Vincent Astor Vis-iting Research Professor of biology at New YorkUniversity.

The productive Gould authored several hun-dred articles in international journals and profes-

Gould, Stephen Jay 99

sional volumes. In recognition of his research andpopular books, Gould received an astoundingnumber of awards and honors too numerous tolist individually in this biography. He wasawarded 44 honorary doctoral degrees from theUnited States, Canada, England, and Scotland.Included in this group are Duke University,Leeds University, England, McGill University,Canada, Rutgers University, New Jersey, and theUniversity of Pennsylvania, among many others.He had 15 literary awards bestowed upon him,including the National Book Award in science(for The Panda’s Thumb) in 1981, and theRhone-Poulenc Prize (Britain’s leading award forscience books) for Wonderful Life in 1991. In1992, he received the Golden Trilobite award forpaleontological writing. In 1991, he was nomi-nated and became a finalist for a Pulitzer Prize forWonderful Life (nonfiction). He received 47 aca-demic medals and awards. In 1975, he receivedthe Schuchert Award for excellence in paleonto-logical research (under age 40). He was namedScientist of the Year by Discover magazine in1981. In 1983, he received the Neil Miner Awardfor excellence in teaching from the National As-sociation of Geology Teachers and the HumanistLaureate from the Academy of Humanism. In1985, the NOVA profile “S. J. Gould, This Viewof Life,” won the Westinghouse Science FilmAward. Stephen Gould received DistinguishedService Awards from American Geological Insti-tute in 1986, American Institute of ProfessionalGeologists in 1989, and the National Associationof Biology Teachers in 1991, and Public ServiceAwards from the National Science Board of theNational Science Foundation, as well as the Geo-logical Society of America in 1999. He receivedtwo History of Geology Awards, one from theGeological Society of America in 1988 and theGeological Society of London (Sue T. FriedmanMedal) in 1989. He received the James T. SheaAward for excellence in geological writing fromthe National Association of Geology Teachers in1992.

Stephen Gould was a member of the board orcouncil for numerous groups, institutions, andmuseums, including NASA, National ScienceFoundation, NOVA, Smithsonian, and the BritishMuseum. He served in various editorial roles forseveral top journals including, Science, Evolution,Systematic Zoology, Paleobiology (includingfounder), and American Naturalist. He was a Fel-low at most of the societies with which he was as-sociated, including American Academy for theAdvancement of Science, European Union ofGeosciences, Geological Society of London, Lin-naean Society of London, National Academy ofSciences, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

This short biography does not begin to dojustice to the monumental accomplishments ofStephen Jay Gould as a top evolutionary theoristand paleontologist, a renowned writer of science,an inspired teacher, a contributor to the produc-tion of television science specials, and an advisercontributing his wisdom to countless organiza-tions. He was also a historian of science.

Stephen Jay Gould died on May 20, 2002, ofcancer. He is survived by his second wife, RhondaRoland Shearer, with whom he had no children.He had two sons with his previous wife.

5 Grew, Priscilla C.(1940– )AmericanEarth Science Advocate

Priscilla Grew may have started out in a very tra-ditional geological career, but she changed courseand quickly established the epitome of an aston-ishingly successful nontraditional career in thegeosciences. Early in her career, she was a meta-morphic petrologist studying metamorphism insubduction zones. However, she soon became in-terested in broader geoscience issues that are ofimportance to the public. This change occurred asshe moved to California, one of the leading stateswhere geoscience meets public policy. With some

100 Grew, Priscilla C.

practical experience in applied geoscience issueslike nuclear waste disposal, geothermal energy,earthquakes, and groundwater resources, PriscillaGrew moved into the public sector. This biogra-phy could have easily been recounting her careeras an elected official, but instead she remained be-hind the scenes as a successful director and ad-viser. She has been one of the foremost publicadvocates in the United States for applying geol-ogy to public policy. Her influence has been notonly at the state level in California, Minnesota,and Nebraska, but also has extended to the na-tional arenas of energy, the environment, and edu-cation, where she has been a diligent adviser forthe past three decades.

Priscilla Grew was born Priscilla CroswellPerkins on October 26, 1940, in Glens Falls,New York. She attended Bryn Mawr College,Pennsylvania, and earned a bachelor of arts degreein geology in 1962, graduating magna cum laude.That year she married Richard Dudley, currently aprofessor of mathematics at Massachusetts Insti-tute of Technology. She earned her doctoral de-gree in geology from the University of Californiaat Berkeley in 1967, and joined the faculty atBoston College, Massachusetts. She was divorcedin 1972, and moved to California, where she be-came an assistant research geologist at the Univer-sity of California at Los Angeles and executivesecretary for the Lake Powell Research Project. In1973, she had a one-year visiting assistant profes-sorship at the University of California at Davis. In1975, she married Edward Grew, currently a re-search professor of geology at the University ofMaine at Orono. In 1977, then governor JerryBrown appointed her the director of the Depart-ment of Conservation for the State of California,which includes the Division of Mines and Geol-ogy (State Geological Survey) and the Division ofOil and Gas. In 1981, the governor appointed heras one of the five commissioners of the CaliforniaPublic Utilities Commission. She then became thedirector of the Minnesota Geological Survey in1986, and with it, a concurrent professorship at

the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. In1993, Priscilla Grew became the vice chancellorfor research at the University of Nebraska at Lin-coln, a position she held until 1999. She held aconcurrent appointment of professor in the de-partments of geosciences and the Conservationand Survey Division of the Institute of Agricul-ture and Natural Resources. She has also been theNative American Graves Protection and Repatria-tion Act compliance coordinator since 1998.

Priscilla Grew has had a very productive ca-reer, however nontraditional. She is an author ofsome 57 publications but only about 15 are in in-ternational journals. Many are technical reports,treatises on geoscience and public policy, and pol-icy evaluations. The profession has recognized herwork in terms of honors and awards. She receivedthe Distinguished Service Award from the SoilConservation Society of America (1980), the Out-standing Service Award from the National Com-

Grew, Priscilla C. 101

Portrait of Priscilla Grew (Courtesy of PeterHasselbalch)

munity Action Agency (1984) and a Certificate ofAchievement from the Association of Environ-mental Professionals (1983). She also received theTribute to Women Award from the YoungWomen’s Christian Association (1994), two “Peo-ple Who Inspire” Awards from Mortarboard (1997and 1998), and the Ian Campbell Medal from theAmerican Geological Institute (1999).

The amount of professional service in whichPriscilla Grew has been involved covers six pagesin her curriculum vitae and is far too extensiveeven to begin to summarize here. She was a mem-ber of the advisory board for the secretary of en-ergy (1995–1997). She was usually chair on likelyevery board or task force relating to geology inCalifornia at one time or another. She was on sev-eral committees for the National Academy of Sci-ences and the National Research Council. She wason numerous important committees and panelsfor the National Science Foundation as well aschair of the national Geology and Geography Sec-tion of the American Association for the Advance-ment of Science. She served as chair of theResearch Coordination Council for the Gas Re-search Institute. Yet she still served on numerousimportant committees and took several leadershiproles in the Geological Society of America, Ameri-can Geophysical Union, International GeologicalCorrelation Project, and the Mineralogical Societyof America. She has been on the evaluating com-mittee and the advisory board for several universi-ties including Stanford University, ChibaUniversity, Japan, and the University of Coloradoat Boulder. Priscilla Grew has been involved in ad-visory committees for many of the key geoscienceinitiatives at the national level, including conti-nental drilling, global change research, and issuesassociated with energy and mineral resources.

5 Griggs, David T.(1911–1974)AmericanGeophysicist, Rock Mechanics

David Griggs had a true dual career, one in geo-physics and one in national defense. He is trulythe “father of modern rock mechanics.” Hegreatly modified existing high-pressure experi-mental equipment that had been neglected formany years, or invented new equipment. Onesuch apparatus, the “simple squeezer,” achievedpressures up to 50 kilobars and temperatures upto the melting point. This equipment was uniquein the world at the time. He then conducted ex-haustive experiments on natural rock samples todetermine their mechanical properties. He per-formed “creep” experiments in which he placedmaterials under high pressure and temperatureconditions for periods up to nine months, allow-ing them to deform slowly. These conditions sim-ulated the deep crust and mantle. The results andthe processes that he defined are still the state ofthe art for the science. This research placed thefirst real constraints on deformational microtex-tures observed in naturally deformed rocks andthe processes of developing alignment of mineralsin metamorphic rocks. He defined the materialscience of many rocks and minerals in terms ofstrength and response, whether fracturing in abrittle response or stretching in a plastic response.In 1965, Griggs discovered a phenomenon hecalled “hydrolytic weakening” in minerals. Theaddition of very small amounts of water actuallybonded into the quartz atomic structure causedsignificant weakening. The mechanism is not fullyunderstood but it may be one of the most signifi-cant controls on deformation in the shallow tomid-crustal range.

This interest in rock deformation stemmedfrom Griggs’s interest in mountain building pro-cesses. He wanted to better understand the defor-mational processes responsible. Before he startedhis groundbreaking experimental studies, hewrote a paper entitled “A Theory of MountainBuilding” in which he proposed that thermalconvection currents in the mantle were largely responsible for the distribution, structure, andperiodicity of mountain building events. Even

102 Griggs, David T.

though the ideas were later proven sound duringthe plate tectonic revolution of the 1960s, at thetime of publication they were roundly de-nounced and dismissed. It was Griggs’s drive tovindicate his ideas that led him to undertake hislater advanced experimental work.

David Griggs was born on October 6, 1911,in Columbus, Ohio. He spent his early childhoodin Ohio, but his high school days in Washington,D.C. His father was a professor of botany atGeorge Washington University and took expedi-tions to Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Texas, andAlaska where he discovered the famous Valley ofTen Thousand Smokes, near Mount Katmai. Thehighest mountain in the area was named MountGriggs in his honor. David Griggs began his col-lege career at George Washington University in1928 but quickly transferred to Ohio State Uni-versity and graduated with a bachelor of sciencedegree in geology, Phi Beta Kappa, in 1932. Hespent one year as a graduate student at Ohio StateUniversity before transferring to Harvard Univer-sity, Massachusetts, and became a junior fellow thefollowing year. During World War II, he served atthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology Radia-tion Laboratory to develop microwave radar, andas an expert consultant to Secretary of War HenryStimson. However, to introduce radar-guidedbombing, he flew both training and combat mis-sions in Europe, but after almost falling out thebomb bay doors on one mission and gettingwounded on another (he received the PurpleHeart), he was grounded. He then served with theTactical Air Command. After VE day, he moved tothe Pacific theater, where he was the liaison be-tween General Douglas MacArthur and his staff,as well as prepared for the atomic bombing of Hi-roshima. He received the Medal for Merit, thehighest civilian honor, from President Truman forhis efforts. Griggs married Helen Avery on May 4,1946. They would have two children.

Griggs continued his activity in national de-fense even after the war. He worked with theAtomic Energy Commission and helped set up

the RAND Corporation, serving as its first headof physics in 1947. He accepted a faculty positionat the University of California at Los Angeles in1948, but also served as chief scientist for the U.S.Air Force from 1951–1952. He became infamousin this role for supporting the government’s desireto build a hydrogen bomb, in direct opposition tothe position of J. Robert Oppenheimer, the headof the Manhattan Project, who was opposed to it.Many scientists regarded him as a Judas for thisstand. Griggs got involved in an active combat sit-uation when in 1967 he went to Vietnam to helpGeneral William Westmoreland design a scientificsupport structure. He improved the performanceof new sensor technology to cut off enemy supplylines during the Tet Offensive.

David Griggs died of a heart attack duringvigorous skiing in Colorado with former Secretaryof Defense Robert McNamara. He had had aprecedent heart attack but in typical Griggs style,he ignored it.

5 Gutenberg, Beno(1889–1960)GermanGeophysicist

Beno Gutenberg gained fame for his work in thedevelopment of the Richter scale. In reality, thiswork was only a small part of his outstandingcontributions to the science of seismology, andthe interpretation of the deep structure of theEarth, both by natural and artificially generatedseismic waves. He began this work while still inGermany and made many discoveries on the na-ture of the propagation of seismic waves there.The best-known volumes to which he contributedare entitled, Handbuch der Geophysik (Handbookof Geophysics).

Gutenberg’s research during the second halfof his career in the United States has led to someof the world’s leading-edge scientific papers. Hepublished a series of papers, entitled “On seismic

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waves,” with CHARLES F. RICHTER between 1931and 1939. The information provided by these ex-ceptional papers included travel times of severalseismic phases, information that researchers usedto create models of the Earth’s mantle and core.Also at this time, Gutenberg’s keen observationaltalent led him to believe that a low-velocity zoneexisted in the upper mantle, now recognized asthe asthenosphere.

In 1941, Gutenberg and Richter began work-ing together again and published a book entitledSeismicity of the Earth. The theory of plate tecton-ics was developed from information obtainedfrom illustrations of geographical patterns pub-lished in this book. Gutenberg and Richter alsoworked on establishing the famous “magnitudescales” using different types of seismic waves, sothat magnitudes of earthquakes that had bothshallow and deep foci and take place at differentepicentral distances could be assigned by peopleobserving their effects.

Beno Gutenberg was born in Darmstadt, Ger-many, on June 4, 1889. He attended the Univer-sity of Göttingen, Germany, where he received abachelor of science degree and later a Ph.D. in1911, both in geophysics. His dissertation topicwas on microseisms. He later used this topic dur-ing World War II in an attempt to track hurricanesand typhoons in the western Pacific. After receiv-ing his Ph.D., Gutenberg joined the University ofStrasbourg, Germany, in 1913, which at that timewas the headquarters of the International Seismo-logical Association. After a brief time, he left toserve with the Meteorological Service of the Ger-man army during World War I. When the warended in 1918, Gutenberg accepted a professor-ship at the University of Frankfurt-am-Main, Ger-many. He also took a job as a business executivedue to financial difficulties. In 1929, the CarnegieInstitution of Washington, D.C., invited Guten-berg to participate in a meeting to discuss the fu-ture plans for the Seismological Laboratory inPasadena, California. As a result, he was offered a

position at the laboratory in 1930. That same year,he joined the faculty at the California Institute ofTechnology as a professor of geophysics. In 1936,the Seismological Laboratory became integratedwith Caltech and in 1947, Gutenberg became thedirector. Through Gutenberg’s hard work andleadership ability, the laboratory became the lead-ing center for the study of earthquakes and thedeep Earth. Gutenberg retired to professor emeri-tus in 1958, but continued to conduct research.He contracted a virulent form of influenza that de-veloped into fatal pneumonia. Beno Gutenbergdied on January 25, 1960.

Beno Gutenberg led an extremely productivecareer. He was an author of close to 300 researcharticles in both German and English in interna-tional journals and professional volumes through-out his career. Many of these papers are trueclassics of earthquake seismology. In 1959,Gutenberg published his final book entitledPhysics of the Earth’s Interior, which summarized alot of his views on the earthquakes and thephysics of the Earth’s internal structure. In recog-nition of his contributions to geophysics, BenoGutenberg was awarded many scientific honorsand awards during his career. He was a memberof the National Academy of Sciences. He wasawarded an honorary doctoral degree from theUniversity of Uppsala, Sweden, in 1955. He wasalso awarded the Bowie Medal from the Ameri-can Geophysical Union in 1933, the LagrangePrize from the Royal Belgian Academy in 1950,and the Wiechert Medal of the Deutsche Geo-physikalische Gesellschaft, among others. TheAmerican Geophysical Union named a medal inhis honor.

Gutenberg also performed service to the pro-fession. He served many committees and sectionsin the International Union for Geodesy and Geo-physics, served on the board of directors and aspresident of the Seismological Society of America,and as a member of the Academia dei Lance andthe Royal Society of New Zealand.

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5 Handin, John W.(1919–1991)AmericanStructural Geology

John W. Handin was one of the first geologists tospecialize in and dramatically improve many as-pects of engineering geology including theory, ap-plication, and research. He was also instrumentalin creating the world’s leading laboratory in exper-imental rock deformation first at Shell Oil Com-pany and later at Texas A & M University.Handin took an investigative approach to struc-tural geology of the late 1950s and perfectedmany aspects, including theoretical, experimental,and observational methods. These improvementswere readily adopted by his peers and are to thisday considered the modern or new aspect ofstructural geology. A lot of the understanding andinterest in the mechanical properties of rocks andhow they apply to geological, geophysical, geo-science engineering, and general engineeringproblems has been attributed to Handin’s researchin the mid-20th century.

The problems that Handin addressed in hisresearch include the effects of confining pressure,pore fluid pressure, and the effects of temperatureon the strength and mechanical response of vari-ous types of rocks. Several of his special studies in-clude the rate of strain, water phase changes, the

surface energy of fractures, cracking on the surfaceand in the internal area of rocks due to tempera-ture, analyses of rock fabric, and the flow andfracturing of folded rocks, among others. Handindeveloped many of the high-pressure and high-temperature techniques that made his laboratorywork possible. Other studies that Handin beganwere the frictional sliding of rocks, and the studyof remnant stresses in individual rocks as well asrock masses. He used the information that hegained during his research on the mechanicalproperties of rocks to model solutions for earth-quake control.

Because this work is so applicable to engi-neering and earthquake studies, Handin was in-vited to serve on numerous committees andorganizational boards. Several of these positionsinclude the U.S. Geological Survey’s advisorypanel on earthquake studies, the policy board ofthe National Geotechnical Centrifuge Facility,and the JOIDES panel on sedimentary petrologyand physical properties. He has also consulted forthe U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Army Corp of Engi-neers, and the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, in addition to the National Academy ofSciences and the National Research Council.

John Handin was born in Salt Lake City,Utah, on June 27, 1919. He grew up in West LosAngeles, where on he had the Santa MonicaMountains a short distance away and the Pacific

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Ocean just a few miles in the other direction.During the 1930s, the country was in the middleof the Great Depression and college was the alter-native to the sparse job market. In order to stayclose to home, Handin enrolled in the Universityof California at Los Angeles (UCLA) in civil engi-neering. After taking only one course in geology,Handin decided to change his major from engi-neering to geology. In 1941, Handin graduatedwith a bachelor of science degree in geology, butWorld War II had just begun and the U.S. CoastArtillery Corps drafted him as a second lieu-tenant. His battalion wound up fighting in theliberation of the Philippine Islands, as well as inOkinawa, Japan. Handin remained in the U.S.Army Reserve after the war and he later retired alieutenant colonel.

Upon discharge, Handin decided to return toUCLA to earn a master of science degree in geol-ogy and physics in 1947. That year, he marriedFrances Robertson; they would have two children.He finished his doctoral work on the source,transportation, and deposition of beach sands in1949. Upon graduation, Handin accepted a post-doctoral fellowship with DAVID T. GRIGGS, at theInstitute of Geophysics at UCLA. They worked atthe high-pressure laboratory with Frank Turner ofthe University of California at Berkeley on dy-namic petrofabric analysis of experimentally de-formed marble.

M. KING HUBBERT developed a research pro-gram in structural geology at the Shell Explo-ration and Production Research Laboratory inHouston and hired Handin in 1950 to establish ahigh-pressure laboratory. Handin joined the fac-ulty of Texas A & M University in College Stationin 1967 as a distinguished professor of geologyand geophysics. He established the Center ofTechnophysics and became its first director.Handin was also director of the Earth ResourcesInstitute and also associate dean for the College ofGeophysics at Texas A & M University all at thesame time. He was appointed the director of theEarth Resources Institute from 1978 to 1982. He

retired to professor emeritus in 1984 and simulta-neously established John Handin, Inc., geologicalconsulting company. John Handin died in 1991.

During his career, John Handin was an authorof more than 75 scientific articles in internationaljournals, professional volumes, and governmentalreports, in addition to numerous industry reports.Many of these papers are seminal studies on rockmechanics. In recognition of these contributionsto geology, John Handin received several honorsand awards. He received the DistinguishedAchievement in Rock Mechanics award from theAmerican Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, andPetroleum Engineers and the Walter Bucher Awardfrom the American Geophysical Union. The JohnWalter Handin Laboratory for Experimental RockDeformation at Texas A & M University wasnamed in his honor.

5 Harrison, T. Mark(1952– )CanadianIsotope Geochemistry

A relatively newer system of isotope geochemistryto determine the age of rocks and minerals in-volves the decay of radioactive parent potassiumof atomic weight 40 to daughter argon 39. Theproblem is that potassium is a solid, whereasargon is a gas. The solution is that the samples areirradiated in a nuclear reactor to convert thepotassium 40 to argon 40 so that both parent anddaughter can be analyzed in a gas mass spectrome-ter. Because the daughter is a gas, at high temper-atures it can escape from the mineral structure. Ata certain temperature, the mineral will lock up thegas and prevent it from escaping, thus setting theclock going to record ages using this isotopic sys-tem. Different minerals have different lock-in or“closure” temperatures. Therefore, determiningthe age of a mineral using the Ar/Ar system inmany cases yields the time when the mineralcooled through a certain temperature rather than

106 Harrison, T. Mark

the age of the rock. Therefore, it is termed ther-mochronology (age of a temperature) rather thansimply geochronology. Mark Harrison has donemuch of the background research on the methodsof this complex system as well as a good deal ofthe application. He has become one of the fore-most experts on Ar/Ar geochronology and he didit in an astonishingly short time.

Determining the closure temperatures foreach of the minerals that can be dated usingAr/Ar, namely biotite, muscovite, K-feldspar, andamphibole, and the factors which may affect thatclosure temperature, constitute the laboratory partof the research in which Harrison has partici-pated. The methods for analysis and data reduc-tion are also another analytical part of the researchthat he has reported on. However, he also applied

the Ar/Ar system to specific areas, including theHimalayas, in papers like “Raising Tibet,” theNew England metamorphic belt in “Pressure,Temperature, and Structural Evolution of West-Central New Hampshire: Hot Thrusts over ColdBasement,” locations in California, southeast Asia(e.g., “Tectonic Evolution of Asia”), and other en-vironments. With these regional studies, he ad-dressed numerous topical problems that have alsoset the standard for Ar/Ar analysis. Some of thesetopics include dating of extraterrestrial impacts,dating detrital minerals in sedimentary basins,dating uplift and fault movements using thermaldecay curves of metamorphic rocks, and the dat-ing of plutons.

The research described above would consti-tute a successful career for anyone. However, for

Harrison, T. Mark 107

Mark Harrison (right) with University of California at Los Angeles colleague An Yin in the Himalayas with MountBauda behind them (Courtesy of T. M. Harrison)

Mark Harrison, it is not enough. He also partici-pated with BRUCE E. WATSON of Rensselaer Poly-technic Institute on the role of accessoryminerals in magma. He conducted studies on thegranite generation, ascent, and emplacement. Heparticipated in research on fission track dating ofminerals and other isotope systems used in thedating of minerals. He collaborated in researchon tectonic processes, especially in the Hi-malayas and New England. The amount andquality of this research out of the Ar/Ar fieldwould constitute another successful career formost people but for Mark Harrison it is simply“additional interests.”

Mark Harrison was born on November 2,1952, in Vancouver, Canada. He attended theUniversity of British Columbia, Canada, wherehe earned a bachelor of science degree in geologywith honors in 1977. He earned a Ph.D. in geol-ogy from the Australian National University in1981. Harrison was a postdoctoral research asso-ciate at the Carnegie Institution of Washington,D.C., in 1981 before joining the faculty at theState University of New York at Albany in 1982.In 1989, he accepted a faculty position at theUniversity of California at Los Angeles (UCLA),where he remains today. He served as the chair ofthe department at UCLA from 1997 to 2000. Healso serves a concurrent position of director of theResearch School of Earth Sciences at the Aus-tralian National University from 2001 to thepresent, where he also was a visiting fellow from1984–1985. Mark Harrison is married to SusanAnnette Harrison; they have two children.

To date, Mark Harrison is the author of some131 articles in international journals and profes-sional volumes. Many of these studies are trulygroundbreaking and appear in prestigious journalslike Nature, Science, and Geology. He is the editorof one volume and the coauthor of the definitivetextbook on argon geochronology/thermochronol-ogy entitled Geochronology and Thermochronologyby the Ar40/Ar39 Method. Astoundingly, his booksand articles are cited some 400 to 500 times per

year in other scientific articles and books. He hasreceived some $5.6 million in grant funding. Thisproductivity and the wealth of his contributions tothe profession have been well recognized in termsof honors and awards. He received the PresidentialYoung Investigator Award from the National Sci-ence Foundation in 1989. He also received theOutstanding Young Alumnus from the Universityof British Columbia (1989), the N. L. BowenAward from the American Geophysical Union(1995), and an Outstanding Contribution in Geo-science Research Award from the U.S. Departmentof Energy (1996).

Harrison has performed significant service tothe profession. He served on several committeesand panels for the National Research Council, Na-tional Science Foundation, National Academy ofSciences, American Geophysical Union, LawrenceLivermore National Laboratory, and NASA. Hewas the associate editor for Geochimica et Cos-mochimica Acta and on the editorial board for Ge-ology and Earth and Planetary Science Letters.

5 Hatcher, Robert D., Jr.(1940– )AmericanRegional Tectonics

After the plate tectonic paradigm was establishedduring the late 1950s and 1960s, the secondorder of questions about how ancient continentalareas fit into this paradigm became the next fron-tier in the 1970s and early 1980s. This researchinvolved reevaluating previously mapped areaswithin this new context. The field can be classi-fied as regional tectonics and many new methodsfor unraveling complex relationships developed.Certain areas became hot spots for regional tec-tonic study. One major area was the central andsouthern Appalachians primarily because of theoil and gas potential of the Valley and Ridgeprovince along the western side. This period co-incided with the oil crisis of the 1970s. Many no-

108 Hatcher, Robert D., Jr.

table geologists and geophysicists participated inthis evaluation, but without a doubt, BobHatcher was the leader. He is mainly interested inoverthrust terranes, which are important topetroleum exploration. He established his leader-ship position by being the first to stick his neckout and propose an all-encompassing modernplate tectonic model for the entire southern Ap-palachian orogen. Every researcher thereafter hadto address Hatcher’s model, whether they sup-ported it or refuted it. He has modified and re-vised this model several times and publishedadditional models.

Based on this willingness to take such well-calculated risks in a high-profile venue, BobHatcher became the person with whom to collab-orate in the southern Appalachians. Although hisresearch is strongly field based, Bob is well versedin many supporting techniques in geophysics andgeochemistry so he could participate in manyprojects. When JACK E. OLIVER’s group at Cor-nell University decided to produce their world-fa-mous COCORP seismic reflection line (like asonogram of the Earth) across the southern Ap-palachians, it was Bob Hatcher they contacted.That research proved that much of the southernAppalachians had been thrust faulted westwardsome 200 kilometers and there were possible hid-den oil and gas reserves under the crystallinerocks as reported in the paper, “Thin SkinnedTectonics in the Crystalline Southern Appalachi-ans; COCORP Reflection Profiling of the BlueRidge and Piedmont.” When the concept ofbuilding orogens (and continents) with exoticpieces of crust from other parts of the Earth wasborn, the concept of suspect terranes, BobHatcher was coauthor of the definitive work withHAROLD WILLIAMS from Memorial University(e.g., Appalachian Suspect Terranes). When thesignificant strike-slip faulting was discovered,Hatcher was quick to bring it into context. Hecompiled a detailed geologic map in 1990 thatsucceeded the famous map of Harold Williams asthe standard for the Appalachians (e.g., Tectonic

Map of the United States Appalachians). Anotherhigh-profile project that Hatcher spearheadedwas the National Science Foundation Ap-palachian deep hole project (ADCOH) whichwas to be drilled through the Blue Ridge over-thrust and into the Valley and Ridge sedimentaryrocks that are proposed to be hidden beneath.The project fell through in the end but the orga-nization and work was outstanding and reportedin the paper, “Appalachian Ultradeep Core Hole(ADCOH) Project Site Investigation RegionalSeismic Lines and Geological Interpretation.”

Robert Dean Hatcher Jr. was born on Octo-ber 22, 1940, in Madison, Tennessee. He at-tended Northwestern High School in Springfield,Ohio, and he graduated in 1957. He earned bach-

Hatcher, Robert D., Jr. 109

Portrait of Robert Hatcher (Courtesy of R. D. Hatcher Jr.)

elor’s and master’s degrees from Vanderbilt Uni-versity, Tennessee, in 1961 and 1962, respectively,with majors in geology and chemistry and aminor in mathematics. His Ph.D. was in struc-tural geology from the University of Tennessee atKnoxville in 1965. He then worked as an explo-ration geologist for Exxon USA for one year be-fore accepting a faculty position at ClemsonUniversity in 1966. He achieved the rank of pro-fessor and remained there until 1978 when he ac-cepted a position at Florida State University. Hemoved again in 1980 to the University of SouthCarolina at Columbia. In 1986, he returned to hisalma mater at the University of Tennessee atKnoxville, where he occupied an endowed chair atthe University of Tennessee/Oak Ridge NationalLaboratories.

Bob Hatcher has authored or coauthoredsome 140 journal articles, five books and mono-graphs, and numerous field guides. One of thesebooks is a popular textbook entitled, StructuralGeology, Principles, Concepts and Problems, andanother is a companion lab manual. His serviceto the profession is unparalleled. He served as ed-itor for the Geological Society of America Bulletinfrom 1984 to 1988. For this work, he wasawarded the first-ever Geological Society ofAmerica Distinguished Service Award in 1988.He served as president of the Geological Societyof America in 1993 and the American GeologicalInstitute in 1996. He served as science adviser toSouth Carolina governor Richard Riley for dis-posal of radioactive waste from 1984 to 1986.His interest in nuclear waste disposal resulted inHatcher’s serving a six-year term on the NationalAcademy of the Sciences/National ResearchCouncil Board on radioactive waste managementand a three-year term on the U.S. Nuclear Regu-latory Commission nuclear reactor safety researchreview committee (1993–1996). Other awardsinclude the 1997 I. C. White Award for his con-tributions to Appalachian geology and beingmade an honorary citizen of West Virginia in1998 for the same reasons.

5 Hayes, John M.(1940– )AmericanBiogeochemist

Science has gone through something of a cycleover the years. At the dawn of modern sciencemore than 150 years ago, researchers were simplyscientists with no real affiliation. As science grew,it partitioned off into a whole series of highly spe-cialized unrelated fields. However, this overspe-cialization was not conducive to solving thecomplex environmental problems that we facetoday. Now the new trend to study biodiversity,for example, has evolved into biocomplexity. JohnHayes realized that a multidisciplinary approachwas required to fully understand these complexinteractions long before it was popular. JohnHayes can be considered the “father of biogeo-chemistry,” a new field of great interest and greatopportunities for the future.

Hayes studies the Earth’s “carbon cycle,” theglobal network of processes in which plants andalgae produce organic matter and animals andbacteria degrade that material to produce mobile,reactive substances like carbon dioxide andmethane. Over time, these processes have builtthe atmospheric inventory of oxygen and con-trolled the abundance of atmospheric greenhousegases, thus profoundly shaping conditions atEarth’s surface. Hayes’s particular specialty hasbeen the measurement and interpretation of varia-tions in the abundance of the isotopes of carbon,hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. He has devel-oped techniques that allow measurement of thesevariations using samples as small as one billionthof a gram. Such miniaturization has proven im-portant because it allows isotopic analyses of indi-vidual organic compounds. As a result, intricatedetails of Earth’s environmental machinery can beobserved and mechanisms of control understood.For example, Hayes and his colleagues providedthe first evidence for the origin of oxygen-produc-

110 Hayes, John M.

ing photosynthesis at least 2.8 billion years ago.They have also reconstructed pathways of carbonflow in ancient lakes, oceans, and sediments andshown that the concentration of CO2 in oceanicsurface water is a key factor controlling the abun-dance of the carbon 13 isotope in the organicmatter produced by marine algae. Accordingly,isotopic analysis of ancient algal debris can aid es-timation of former concentrations of CO2.

John M. Hayes was born in Seattle, Washing-ton, on September 6, 1940, and spent his child-hood mainly in the American Northwest. Heattended Iowa State University in Ames where heearned a bachelor of science degree in geology in1962. He obtained his Ph.D. in chemistry at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam-bridge, in 1966. He was briefly a postdoctoralscholar at the University of Chicago, Illinois, atthe Enrico Fermi Institute in 1966. He served inthe U.S. Army from 1967–1968 in the ChemicalEvolution Branch at the NASA Ames ResearchCenter in California. After that, he held a one-year NATO–National Science Foundation post-doctoral fellowship in organic geochemistry at theUniversity of Bristol, England, in 1969. He joinedthe faculty at Indiana University, Bloomington, in1970, where he was named Distinguished Profes-sor of biogeochemistry in 1990 and served aschairperson of the department from 1994 to1996. In 1996, Hayes accepted the position of se-nior scientist and director of the National OceanSciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility atthe Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology, where heremains today. Hayes has also been professor ofpractice at Harvard University, Massachusetts,since 1997. He was a visiting scientist at the Uni-versity of California at Los Angeles (1979–1980),and Australia Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geol-ogy and Geophysics (1988). Since 1962, JohnHayes has been married to Janice Maria Boeke.They have three children.

John Hayes has been an author of 170 arti-cles in international journals, four chapters in

professional volumes, and two textbooks in thefields of mass spectrometry, organic cosmochem-istry, microbial biochemistry, isotopic and or-ganic geochemistry, and chemical oceanography.He has received numerous honors and awards forhis research. Hayes won an Eastman Prize as agraduate student at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology in 1962–1964. In 1987–88 he was aFellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial

Hayes, John M. 111

John Hayes and technician attaching a sampling bottleto the hydro wire for a research project aboard theresearch vessel Knorr in October, 1977 (Courtesy ofJohn Hayes)

Foundation. He was a Bennett lecturer at theUniversity of Leicester in 1990, an Ingersoll lec-turer with the Geochemical Society in 1994, anda Krumbein lecturer at the University of Chicagoin 1994. In 1997, he was awarded the Harold C.Urey Medal of the European Association forGeochemistry. In 1998, he was awarded theTreibs Medal of the Geochemical Society andelected to membership in the National Academyof Sciences and the American Academy of Artsand Sciences.

Hayes has also performed significant service tothe profession. He has been on editorial boards forPrecambrian Research (1977–1998), Organic Geo-chemistry (1987–present), and Biomedical MassSpectrometry (1975–1983). He was associate editorfor Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta from 1971 to1975. He was the chair of two Gordon Conferencesfor the Geochemical Society from 1981–1983 and1986–1988. He served on several committees forthe Geochemical Society, as well as NASA.

5 Head, James W., III(1941– )AmericanPlanetary Geologist

How do we know anything about the earliest his-tory of the Earth when tectonic and weatheringprocesses have destroyed all of the early features?The answer is to study the development of theother planets and moons as analogs. None ofthem is exactly the same as the Earth so differentplanetary processes can be observed, but there aresome general similarities. This is the type of re-search done by planetary geologists, and JamesHead III is one of the premier planetary geologistsin the field. He has performed research on theMoon, Mars, Jupiter, moons of other planets, andseveral asteroids. He investigated processes of dif-ferentiation of the planets into layers and the for-mation of crust, volcanic processes, surfacedeformation (faulting), and impact structures.

Head’s greatest achievements, however, havebeen through his research on Venus. He was oneof the main participants on the Magellan mission,which mapped the surface of Venus using Syn-thetic Aperture Radar (SAR), as well as collectinggravity data on the planet. The images of the sur-face of Venus are superb with pixels at the 20–25meter resolution for the whole planet. Therefore,very detailed and delicate features can be seen(imaged). Most of the discoveries made aboutVenus involved the participation of James Head.He identified mountain ranges formed by foldbelts as reported in the paper, “Processes of For-mation and Evolution of Mountain Belts onVenus,” large normal faults in rift zones, largestrike-slip faults, and strange deformation featurescalled wrinkle ridges that we do not have onEarth. He did research on the volcanism onVenus, most of which is formed through hotspots. He mapped flows and their chronology byoverlapping relations and radiating dike swarmson the planet. He also interpreted the large flatpancakelike volcanoes, which have no counterparton Earth.

By looking at the density of impact structureson the planet surface relative to other planets andmoons, Head realized that the surface of Venusmust be relatively young. There was an apparentcatastrophic resurfacing of the planet about 300to 500 million years ago. There are highland areasthat contain fragments of crust that are older butthe majority of the surface is relatively young.This represents a planetary process that is not ob-served on Earth. Head theorizes that an abruptchange in the structure and chemistry of the man-tle may have initiated this event. It likely involvedmassive deformation, which can still be observedin the highland structure, and large-scale volcanicflooding of the surface. Some of the crust mayhave been recycled in the mantle or else it wascovered over by the massive eruptions. He haswritten several planetary interpretations of Venusincluding the paper, “The Geologic History ofVenus: A Stratigraphic View.”

112 Head, James W., III

James Head performed research on otherplanets and moons which produced such articlesas Oceans of the Past History of Mars: Tests for theirPresence Using Mars Orbiter Laser Altimetry,among others.

James Head III was born on August 4, 1941,in Richmond, Virginia. He attended Washingtonand Lee University, Virginia, where he earned abachelor of science degree in geology in 1964. Heattended graduate school at Brown University,Rhode Island, and earned a Ph.D. in geology in1969. He accepted a position as a geologist withBellcomm, Inc., in Washington, D.C., at NASAheadquarters, in 1968. In 1973, he was the in-terim director at the Lunar Science Institute inHouston, Texas, as well as a faculty member atBrown University, Rhode Island, where he re-mains today as the James Manning Professor ofgeological sciences. James Head has two childrenand outside interests in music and literature.

James Head III has had an extremely produc-tive career. He is the author of some 225 publica-tions in international journals, governmentalreports, and professional volumes. Many of thesepapers establish new benchmarks in lunar andplanetary processes and evolution, especially thatof Venus. His research contributions have beenwell recognized by the profession in terms of hon-ors and awards. Head is a Fellow of the AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science.From NASA, he received the Medal for Excep-tional Scientific Achievement in 1971 and thePublic Service Medal for his work on the Magel-lan mission in 1992. He received a Special Com-mendation from the Geological Society ofAmerica in 1973 and was named the CASE Pro-fessor of the Year for Rhode Island in 1990.

Head has performed an exceptional amountof service to the profession. He has served on nu-merous committees and panels for the NationalAcademy of Sciences, Geological Society of Amer-ica, Universities Space Research Association, andInternational Union of Geological Sciences. Hehas been an associate editor for The Earth, Moon

and Planets since 1974 and serves on the editorialboard for Planetary and Space Science for Perga-mon Press, Ltd. However, his real service has beento NASA. In addition to serving on most of themajor committees and panels, he was a memberof the Viking mission to Mars, Galileo mission toJupiter, Magellan mission to Venus, the LunarScout II mission, and the USSR Venera 15/16and Phobos missions.

5 Helgeson, Harold C.(1931– )AmericanGeochemist

What could geology have to do with the origin oflife? The obvious answer is “nothing,” until weconsider the conditions of the Earth at the timelife originated. There was a lot of rock in variousstates of decomposition and fluids and gas carry-ing by-products of that decomposition. Not onlywere minerals (like clays) involved in this transfor-mation but the thermodynamics of the biochemi-cal molecules in this geochemical system mustalso have been a controlling factor in the first life.These truly revolutionary ideas are those ofHarold Helgeson, who has established himself asthe leader in this new field of biomolecular geo-chemistry that he originated. The existence of liv-ing microbes in deep oil field brines or around thevents deep under the ocean at the mid-oceanridge, among others, tell us that the experimentsdone by microbiologists at conditions of standardtemperature and pressure may not be completelyrepresentative. After all, the surface conditions ofthe Earth some 3.5 to 4 billion years ago or morewere far from the standard conditions of today. Asa result, Helgeson conducted thermodynamicstudies of biomolecules at elevated temperatures.He also collected samples and observed the envi-ronments of these hyperthermophilic (high tem-perature) microbes on the island of Vulcano inSicily to characterize their natural habitats. The

Helgeson, Harold C. 113

steps in this research process are to determinewhat stabilizes the biomolecules that stabilizecells, as well as the conditions and role of en-zymes. To accomplish this, Helgeson became in-terested in protein chemistry and even beganworking with the thermodynamics of DNA, andultimately RNA. This new approach is basically tolook at the physical chemistry of these organicbiomolecules. This combining of microbiologywith physical chemistry and encapsulating it ingeology to provide natural constraints almost de-fines a whole new science rather than simply anarm of existing sciences. It is truly a field of thefuture that may have profound implications forlife.

This hybrid biogeochemistry is not the onlyarea of research of Harold Helgeson. He first es-tablished his expertise by solving geochemicalproblems using elegant advanced mathematicalsolutions. By using advanced thermodynamics,Helgeson was able to explain old and puzzlingproblems for which there had been solutions thatexplained only part of the observations. Much ofthis work was on aqueous geochemistry andwater-rock interactions including hydrothermaldeposits, but mineral thermodynamic solutionswere also addressed. This mathematical approach,using any and all variables taken together, reallytook the profession by storm. As a result, manygeologists have come to view Helgeson’s workwith a combination of awe and trepidation.

Harold (Hal) Helgeson was born on Novem-ber 13, 1931, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Hespent his youth in the Saint Anthony Park sub-urb of Saint Paul, Minnesota. He attendedMichigan State University in chemical engineer-ing through ROTC, but switched to geology andgraduated with a bachelor of science degree in1953. He accepted a job with the Technical MineConsultants, Ltd., Toronto, Canada, as a ura-nium geologist that year. He was called to activeduty in 1954 and became a second lieutenant inthe U.S. Air Force, first for training in Denver,Colorado, and later with the 497th Recon Tech-

nical Squadron in Schierstein am Rhein, Ger-many. He met his first wife Velda there; theywere married in 1956. The same year, Helgesontook a job as a mining exploration geologistsearching for diamonds with the Anglo AmericanCorporation in South Africa (owner of DeBeers). He enrolled in Stanford University, Cali-fornia, for graduate studies in the spring of 1959,but changed his mind and switched to HarvardUniversity, Massachusetts, instead. He graduatedwith his Ph.D. in 1962 as an advisee of ROBERT

M. GARRELS and accepted a position as a researchchemist with Shell Oil Company in Houston,Texas, that year. In 1965, Helgeson accepted hisfirst academic position at Northwestern Univer-sity, Illinois, at the request of Robert Garrels. Hejoined the faculty at the University of Californiaat Berkeley in 1970, and has remained there eversince. He was a Miller Research Professor in1974–1975. Hal Helgeson was married twicemore, currently to France Damon, and he hasthree children.

Hal Helgeson has contributed to numerousarticles in international journals and professionalvolumes. Many of these papers establish newbenchmarks in applying mathematical solutions(mostly using physical chemistry) to geochemicalproblems. He received the Goldschmidt Medalfrom the Geochemical Society in 1988 in recog-nition of his research contributions to the profes-sion. He was also a Guggenheim Fellow in 1988.

5 Herz, Norman(1923– )AmericanArchaeological Geologist

Although Norman Herz began his career as aneconomic geologist who also addressed problemsof regional geology, he made a decision midwaythrough his career to apply his experience to ar-chaeological problems and has firmly establishedhimself as one of the leading archaeological geolo-

114 Herz, Norman

gists in the world. Because archaeological geologyinvolves the use of geological materials for eco-nomic purposes, the transition from economic ge-ology to archaeological geology was a smooth one.Herz’s most important contribution to the scienceis to establish methods to determine the sources ofmarble used in ancient building, statuary, andother applications. He uses stable isotope geo-chemistry in combination with petrology andtrace element geochemistry to identify the rockunits and perhaps even the quarries where themarble in these pieces was obtained. Such workcan help identify the trade routes and tradingpartners in the ancient world. Herz is an author ofthe definitive book on this topic, entitled ClassicalMarble: Geochemistry, Technology and Trade. Herzhas worked on problems from Neolithic–EarlyBronze Age, classical Greece and Rome, and eventhrough Renaissance and modern times. Thiswork has resolved several puzzling issues regardingancient trade patterns, especially in Greece. It hasalso resolved questions regarding association ofbroken fragments for reconstruction and the au-thenticity of artifacts. Herz has been consulted bynumerous museums, including the Louvre, theBritish Museum, the J. Paul Getty Museum, theNy Carlsberg Glyptotek (Copenhagen), theMetropolitan Museum of Art, the Art Institute ofChicago, the Walters Art Gallery, and the Na-tional Gallery of Art to help with such problems.He is especially well known for his work on theGetty Museum kouros, an article about which ap-peared in the New York Times.

Norman Herz’s other major contribution togeological archaeology has been organizational.In addition to establishing his own reputable cen-ter, he has consulted worldwide, helping to estab-lish state-sponsored surveys and professionalsocieties.

Norman Herz was born on April 12, 1923, inNew York, New York, where he spent his youth.He attended the City College of New York andearned a bachelor of science degree cum laude ingeology in 1943. Upon graduation he enlisted in

the U.S. Air Force, where he advanced to secondlieutenant between 1943 and 1946. After he wasdischarged, Herz attended the Johns Hopkins Uni-versity and earned a Ph.D. in geology in 1950. Be-tween 1950 and 1951, he was employed as aninstructor at Wesleyan University, Connecticut,and a part-time geologist for the Connecticut Ge-ological Survey. From 1951–1952, Herz was a Ful-bright Senior Research Scholar in Greece beforeaccepting a position as a research geologist withthe U.S. Geological Survey. From 1956 to 1962,he worked in the Brazil office. Herz left the U.S.Geological Survey in 1970 to become a professorand head of the department at the University ofGeorgia in Athens. He stepped down as depart-ment head in 1977, but would serve again from1991 to 1994. He also helped set up the Centerfor Archaeological Sciences at the University ofGeorgia, and served as its director from 1984 to1994. Norman Herz retired to professor emeritusin 1994. He was a visiting professor several timesduring his career to the University of São Paulo,Brazil, George Washington University, Universitéd’Orléans, France, American School of ClassicalStudies, Greece, as well as the Romanian and Bul-garian Academy of Sciences. Norman Herz mar-ried his current wife, Christine M. Suite, in 1993.He has three children by previous marriages.

Norman Herz has been very productivethroughout his career, serving as an author ofsome 200 scientific articles in international jour-nals, professional volumes, and governmental re-ports. These papers run the gamut from regionalgeology to economic geology to archaeological ge-ology, where he has produced several benchmarkstudies. Since 1988, he has been an author or edi-tor of five books, mainly on archaeological geol-ogy, including the definitive textbook, GeologicalMethods for Archaeology. In recognition of his con-tributions to the field, Norman Herz has receivedseveral honors and awards. He is a foreign mem-ber of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences. He re-ceived the Pomerance Award from theArchaeological Institute of America and the Cre-

Herz, Norman 115

ative Research Medal from the University ofGeorgia, among others.

Herz has also performed service to the profes-sion and the public. He has served as adviser tothe U.S. National Park Service, the ArchaeologicalSurvey of India, and the National Research Coun-cil, mainly for preservation and dealing with acid-rain problems. Herz is also the U.S. member forthe International Council on Monuments andSites. He was the founding member and presidentof the Association for the Study of Marble andOther Stones used in Antiquity (ASMOSIA),originally a NATO-sponsored program, from1988 to 1998.

5 Hess, Harry H.(1906–1969)AmericanPlate Tectonics

Harry Hess was one of the mavericks who pio-neered the plate tectonic paradigm. His namestands prominently among the giants of the Earthsciences. Using the bathymetric data he collectedwhile a commander of a naval vessel during WorldWar II and gravity and magnetic data from otherwork, he identified mid-ocean ridges and theirimportance. He hypothesized that they were thelocation where new ocean crust was being formedand proposed the mechanism of large thermallydriven circulation (convection) cells in the mantleto drive the plates. He proposed that the oceancrust was therefore youngest at the mid-oceanridge and was progressively older away in both di-rections. He even identified oceanic trenches asthe location where old ocean crust was returned tothe mantle in a conveyor-beltlike system. This1960 theory that he called an “essay in geopoetry”sparked the research efforts of such later giants asALLAN V. COX, Fred Vine, and DRUMMOND H.MATTHEWS, among many others who would con-firm his hypotheses. This work forms the funda-mental basis for our current understanding of

plate tectonics and places Hess on par with AL-FRED WEGENER as one of the two fathers of thetheory.

Plate tectonics, however, came late in HarryHess’s career. He first achieved prominence for hiswork on peridotites, serpentinites, and pyroxenes.His papers, “Pyroxene of Common Mafic Mag-mas” and “A Primary Peridotite Magma,” first es-tablished him in the field of geology. This interestwould take him to study alpine peridotites butalso to the oceans. He became interested in geo-physical surveys over ocean crust while still a grad-uate student but later he combined the twoapparently disparate areas to consider the genera-tion of his beloved rocks. This attempt to combineideas that had not been previously related led tohis breakthroughs on oceanic processes. He mod-eled the serpentinization of mafic and ultramaficrocks at the mid-ocean ridges and formulated hy-potheses for the origin of the Hawaiian Islands, aswell as oceanic guyots, among others. He devotedmuch effort to explaining the circulation of seawa-ter into the newly formed, dual-layered hot rocksat the mid-ocean ridge and the chemical reactionsthat took place as a result. These studies wereunique in their addressing features at so manyscales from so many directions and would all even-tually contribute to the plate tectonic work. Thisexpertise in mafic and ultramafic rocks would laterlead NASA to invite Hess into a prominent posi-tion in the Apollo program to explore the lunarsurface. Unfortunately, he did not live longenough to see this project to completion.

Harry H. Hess was born on May 24, 1906,in New York, New York. He attended AsburyPark High School, New Jersey, before enteringYale University, Connecticut, in 1923 to becomean electrical engineer. Along the way, he switchedto geology and graduated with a bachelor of sci-ence degree in 1927. Upon graduation, he ac-cepted a position with the Loangwa Concessions,Ltd., as an exploration geologist in Rhodesia. Hereturned to the United States in 1929 to attendgraduate school at Princeton University, New Jer-

116 Hess, Harry H.

sey, as an advisee of ARTHUR F. BUDDINGTON. Heearned a Ph.D. in 1932 and accepted a teachingposition at nearby Rutgers University. In 1934, hereturned to Princeton University to join the fac-ulty. Harry Hess married Annette Burns on Au-gust 15, 1934; they would have two sons. Hesswas a U.S. Navy reserve officer and was called toactive duty after the attack on Pearl Harbor in1941. He was first stationed in New York City,where he oversaw the detection of enemy subma-rine operation patterns in the North Atlantic. Hiswork resulted in the virtual elimination of thethreat within two years. He even tested the effec-tiveness of the program by serving on the decoyvessel USS Big Horn. He then took command ofthe attack transport USS Cape Johnson and tookpart in four major combat landings, includingIwo Jima. Hess carefully chose his travel routesaround the Pacific Ocean and used his echosounder continuously to map the bathymetry ofthe ocean floor. Through this surveying, he dis-covered flat-topped submarine volcanoes whichhe named guyots after the geology building atPrinceton University. Hess remained in the activereserves after the war and was called up during theCuban Missile Crisis, the loss of the submarineThresher, and the Pueblo affair. He held the rankof rear admiral at the time of his death. Hess re-turned to Princeton University after the war andwas named the Blair Professor of geology in 1964.He also served as department chair from 1950 to1966, when he retired to professor emeritus. Hewas a visiting professor at the University ofCapetown, South Africa (1949–1950), and Cam-bridge University, England (1965). Harry H. Hesssuffered a fatal heart attack on August 25, 1969,in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, while serving aschair of a meeting of the Space Science Board ofthe National Academy of Sciences.

Harry Hess was an author of more than 110monographs, articles, and discussions in interna-tional journals and professional volumes; his pa-pers on “Serpentinites, Orogeny and Epeirogeny,”“The Ocean Crust,” and “Sea Floor Spreading”

are true classics. In recognition of his vast contri-butions to geology, Hess received numerous hon-ors and awards. He was a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences and the American Academyof Arts and Sciences. He was awarded an hon-orary doctorate from Yale University. Hess also re-ceived the Penrose Medal from the GeologicalSociety of America, the Distinguished ServiceAward from NASA, and the Feltrinelli Prize fromthe Academia Nazionale dei Lincei, among others.He now has an award of the American Geophysi-cal Union named in his honor.

Equally impressive was Harry Hess’s service tothe profession and the public. Amazingly, heserved as president of the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica (1955), the Geological Society of America(1963) and two sections of the American Geo-physical Union (geodesy, 1951–1953, and tec-tonophysics, 1956–1958).

5 Hochella, Michael F., Jr.(1953– )AmericanGeochemist, Mineralogist

It is commonly the case that the Earth sciences lagbehind the other sciences in terms of perceivedimpact in the future. It is viewed more as a histor-ical discipline because it deals mainly with eventsthat occurred many years ago; many of which areunlikely to result in new applications. The glam-our of genetic engineering and the developmentof new energy sources, medicines, and supercon-ductors are not typically in the realm of the Earthscientist. Michael Hochella, however, is involvedin unique research on that level. Working withmicrobiologists, he studies how microorganismsattach themselves to the surface of minerals andthen use the chemicals in those minerals to live.For example, Hochella and colleagues have stud-ied how the common microorganism Shewanellaattaches itself to the widespread mineral in soilscalled goethite. Shewanella uses a weak attractive

Hochella, Michael F., Jr. 117

force to attach itself and then makes a special pro-tein that allows it to use the iron in the goethite torespirate when oxygen is not available. This re-search has profound implications for a variety ofapplied sciences. Not only will it demonstratehow microorganisms degrade rock and soil, butalso it could let us take a critical step forward inenvironmental remediation. It even has implica-tions for food production. How do the basicchemicals in rock and soil wind up within thefood we eat? Combined with genetic engineering,the implications for this research are as importantas any science today.

To perform such research, Michael Hochellahas become one of the foremost experts on the sur-face chemistry of minerals. His papers, “AtomicStructure, Microtopography, Composition and Re-activity of Mineral Surfaces” and “Mineral Surfaces:Characterization Methods and their Chemical,Physical and Reactive Nature,” are classics in thefield. Chemical reactions occur on the surface ofthe minerals, so the understanding of the surface iscritical to all geochemistry whether environmentalat surface conditions or in igneous rocks at 1,000

degrees Centigrade. Surfaces can be analyzed asdeep as many layers of atoms, or the analysis can berestricted to the top layer. All of these analyses re-quire the most advanced of high-tech analyticaltechniques. The instruments he uses employ scan-ning tunneling and atomic force microscopies andspectroscopies, transmission electron microscopy(TEM), X-ray and ultraviolet photoelectron spec-troscopies, scanning Auger microscopy and spec-troscopy, and low energy electron diffraction.Hochella has written several papers describing theapplication of these new techniques including,“Auger Electron and X-ray Photoelectron Spectro-scopies.” These methods use electrons under vari-ous states and trajectories and electromagneticradiation to image the actual individual atoms onthe mineral surface. The applications of these tech-niques to minerals alone are a whole field of re-search, much of which Hochella defined. He alsoapplied them to the surfaces of minerals, includingplagioclase and degraded plagioclase, sulfides(pyrite and galena), calcite, hematite, barite, gyp-sum, goethite, asbestiform riebeckite, and evengold. Like the microbial research, this advancedmineral surface chemical analysis is one of, if notthe most, significant and pioneering research that isbeing conducted today. The potential for impor-tant discoveries is immense.

Michael Hochella was born on September29, 1953, in Yokohama, Japan. His father was ahighly decorated B-25 pilot in World War II whowas flying missions in the Korean War at the time.He remained in the U.S. Army after the war andthe family moved to New Jersey, France, Ger-many, Arizona, and Bel Air, Maryland, where hisfather retired and Hochella was able to spendsixth through twelfth grades in the same town. Heattended Virginia Polytechnic Institute and StateUniversity and earned a bachelor of science degreein geology in 1975. He completed his graduatestudies at Stanford University in California, wherehe earned a Ph.D. in geochemistry in 1980 as anadvisee of Gordon Brown. Hochella began his ca-reer in industrial science at Corning Glass, Inc., in

118 Hochella, Michael F., Jr.

Michael Hochella demonstrates some of the analyticalequipment in his laboratory at Virginia Tech (Courtesyof Michael Hochella Jr.)

Corning, New York, as a research chemist in1981. Realizing that academia was more to hisliking, he returned to Stanford University in 1983as a senior research associate and later as an associ-ate research professor. He joined the faculty at hisalma mater of Virginia Polytechnic Institute andState University in 1992, where he remains today.Michael Hochella is married to fellow geologistand faculty member at Virginia Tech, Barbara M.Bekken. They have two children. In his sparetime, Hochella is an avid amateur aviator.

Michael Hochella is amid a strongly produc-tive career having been an author of some 100 sci-entific articles in international journals andprofessional volumes. Several of these papers es-tablish new benchmarks in mineral surface chem-istry and the use of the latest in high-energyanalytical techniques in their study. He is also aneditor of an important volume, Mineral-Water In-terface Geochemistry. He has been very successfulin obtaining funding for his research, with morethan $4.6 million to date. In recognition of his re-search contributions to geology, Hochella has re-ceived several honors and awards. He received theDana Medal from the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica, the Alexander von Humboldt Awardfrom the von Humboldt Society, Germany, andwas named a Fulbright Scholar and a Mineralogi-cal Society of America distinguished lecturer.

Hochella served as president of the Geochem-ical Society (2000–2001) as well as a member ofseveral committees there and for the Mineralogi-cal Society of America, and a member of the advi-sory committee for geosciences for the NationalScience Foundation.

5 Hoffman, Paul(1941– )CanadianStratigrapher (Tectonics)

A relatively recent but high-profile concept thatPaul Hoffman has championed is that of the

“Snowball Earth” hypothesis. This idea, first pro-posed by Joe Kirschvink in 1992 but dismissed asa “wild idea” by the geologic community, hasbeen proven through the work of Paul Hoffman.There has always been a problem with Neopro-terozoic stratigraphy (just before Cambrian, orabout 700 to 550 million years ago). It appearsthat there was glaciation on a worldwide basis,even at low latitudes. Hoffman has found evi-dence of this odd situation in Namibia in theDamaran fold belt, in the Svalbard Archipelagoin the Barents Sea and the Anti-Atlas Mountainsof Morocco. It has been long known in manyother areas (Scandinavia and Canada, for exam-ple) including the Appalachian Mountains of theUnited States. It seems that the whole Earth wentinto a deep-freeze condition, causing continentalglaciation all over. This glaciation is not only evi-dent in glacial deposits of this age but also in geo-chemical signatures of the sediments. Theglaciation accompanied one of the most pro-found extinction events on record, the develop-ment of shells on animals right after the event,and the deposition of the largest terrestrial sandoceans ever in geologic history. It is clear that thiswas a very momentous time in Earth history;Paul Hoffman has provided a reason for it.

Although Paul Hoffman is now associatedwith the snowball earth idea, he did not even ad-dress it until age 57 and would have still qualifiedto be in this book based upon his accomplish-ments until that time. He is probably the foremostexpert on Proterozoic plate tectonics of the Cana-dian shield. He took an extremely complex geol-ogy and put it in the context of modern plateinteractions, particularly the Wopmay orogen. Herecognized geometries and interactions in theseancient rocks that were barely understood in mod-ern frameworks such as conjugate strike-slip sys-tems through plate collisions. He figured outsediment transport directions on 2-billion-year-old rocks. He used modern geochemical tech-niques on carbonate rocks to predict the chemistryof ancient oceans. His recognized authority led

Hoffman, Paul 119

him to be asked to construct a tectonic synthesisof the Precambrian evolution of Laurentia (NorthAmerica and Greenland) as part of the Decade ofNorth American Geology project for the Geologi-cal Society of America in 1984. He compiled a ge-ologic map of the northern half of the Canadianshield from original sources.

Paul Hoffman was born on March 21, 1941,in Toronto, Canada. He was attracted to geologythrough classes and field trips at the Royal On-tario Museum. He attended McMaster Universityin Hamilton, Ontario, and earned a bachelor’s de-gree in geology in 1964. Summer employmentwith the Ontario and Canadian Geological Sur-veys gave him 15 months of practical field experi-ence before he started graduate school at the

Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Mary-land. Paul’s dissertation advisers were FRANCIS J.PETTIJOHN and Robert Ginsburg. He did a fieldresearch project on a Paleoproterozoic fold belt inGreat Slave Lake of the Northwest Territories. Hegraduated in 1968 and taught for one year atFranklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Penn-sylvania, before accepting a permanent position atthe Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) in Ot-tawa. Paul Hoffman married Erica Westbrook in1976; they would have one child. Hoffmann leftthe GSC in 1992 to become a professor of geol-ogy at the new School of Earth and Ocean Sci-ences at the University of Victoria, BritishColumbia. In 1994, he joined the faculty at Har-vard University where he is the current Sturgis

120 Hoffman, Paul

Paul Hoffman shows features of a research sample at Harvard University (Courtesy of John Chase, Harvard News Office)

Hooper Professor of geology and associated withNASA’s Astrobiology Institute as well as the Cana-dian Institute for Advanced Research.

Paul Hoffman is a foreign associate of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences and the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He is a Fellow ofthe Royal Society of Canada and the AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science. He isan Alfred Wegener Medalist of the EuropeanUnion of Geosciences, a William Logan Medalistof the Geological Association of Canada, and aHenno Martin Medalist of the Geological Societyof Namibia.

5 Holland, Heinrich D.(1927– )GermanGeochemist

Every student in historical geology classes world-wide learns about the evolution of the atmo-sphere. They learn about the chemical changesthat have taken place, the buildup of oxygen, forexample, and their causes. These students andthose in environmental geology classes learnabout the close interaction and chemical ex-changes between the atmosphere and hydro-sphere. Indeed, the evolution of both is tightlyassociated. Heinrich “Dick” Holland is the mainreason for this understanding. As far back as themid-1960s, long before it was fashionable, Hol-land was investigating the exchange of gases andchemical interdependence of the two, includinggeochemical cycles. This important research cul-minated in his award-winning book, The Chemi-cal Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans in1984, although his research continues. Now all ofthe climate modelers seeking to determine ourfate apply Holland’s groundbreaking research ona daily basis. Holland can really be considered the“father of the climate modeling movement”which is now by far the most vigorous and well-funded field in Earth sciences.

Holland has also been called the “father ofmodern geochemistry of hydrothermal ore de-posits” because that is his “other” research life.He was originally trained as an economic geolo-gist and unlike many of his peers, he was wellversed in all aspects of hydrothermal ore depositsincluding theoretical, experimental, and analyti-cal aspects. Holland was the first to use thermo-dynamic theory and data in order to estimate theconditions of formation of the ore deposits. Hewas among the first to perform experimentalstudies to determine solubilities of sulfides andcarbonates at elevated temperatures, as well as thepartitioning of elements between fluids and min-erals or melts. He also determined stability rela-tions of minerals in hydrothermal fluids andwater-rock interactions at elevated temperaturesin his experiments. Holland was the first to usethe analytical techniques of fluid inclusion analy-sis on ore deposits as well as stable isotope studieson ores. He was also the first geochemist onALVIN dives to investigate hydrothermal miner-alization at mid-ocean ridges. He was even in-volved in reporting the oldest traces of life on

Holland, Heinrich D. 121

Dick Holland working in his office at HarvardUniversity (Courtesy of H. Holland)

Earth in the paper, “Evidence for Life on Earthmore than 3,850 Million Years Ago.” With all ofhis “firsts” it is no wonder that the professionholds him in such high esteem.

Heinrich Holland was born on May 27,1927, in Mannheim, Germany. He received hisprimary education in Germany, but his secondaryeducation was completed in England and theUnited States. He attended Princeton University,New Jersey, and graduated in 1946 with a bache-lor of arts degree in chemistry. He graduatedmagna cum laude, Phi Beta Kappa, and with thePhysical Chemistry Prize. He was in the armedforces in 1946 and 1947, where he held the rankof technical sergeant assigned to work with Wern-her von Braun’s group. He attended ColumbiaUniversity, New York, for graduate study andearned master of science and doctoral degrees in1948 and 1952, respectively. His first faculty po-sition was at his alma mater, Princeton University,where he remained from 1950 to 1972. He thenmoved to Harvard University in 1972, where heremains today. He was named H.C. Dudley Pro-fessor of economic geology in 1996, and he stillholds that endowed chair.

Heinrich Holland wrote or edited five booksand professional volumes and published some 147articles in international journals, chapters in pro-fessional volumes, and professional reports. An as-tonishing number of these papers are seminalworks in the field of geochemistry, appearing inthe most prestigious of journals and often-citedvolumes. Holland has received numerous honorsand awards in recognition of this work. He wasawarded a National Science Foundation postdoc-toral fellowship at Oxford University, England, in1956–57. He was a Fulbright lecturer at DurhamUniversity and Imperial College, London, En-gland, in 1963–1964. He was a Guggenheim Fel-low in 1975–1976. He received the Alexandervon Humboldt Senior Scientist Award in1980–1981 and the 1984 Best Physical ScienceBook Award by the Association of American Pub-lishers for Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere

and Oceans. He received the 1994 V. M. Gold-schmidt Award of the Geochemical Society andthe 1995 Penrose Gold Medal from the Society ofEconomic Geologists.

Holland has also performed notable service tothe profession. He is a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences and a Fellow of the Ameri-can Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has heldpositions of member of council, vice president,president, and chair of several important commit-tees for the Geochemical Society.

5 Holmes, Arthur(1890–1965)BritishIsotope Geochemist, Geophysicist, Geomorphologist, Petrologist

Arthur Holmes has been called the greatest geolo-gist of the 20th century. He made some of thegreatest contributions to geology on the whole, aswell as to numerous individual disciplines. He evenmade the first steps toward the plate tectonicparadigm. His most famous contribution was hisreevaluation of The Age of the Earth published inthe book of the same name. During the 19th cen-tury, many scientists attempted to derive an abso-lute time scale for our planet. The age of Earth wasa question that had been plaguing geologists for along time. Lord Kelvin published a scientific paperthat proposed geologic time to span 20 to 40 mil-lion years. His calculations were based on the as-sumption of a uniformly cooling Earth andgravitational and chemical sources for terrestrialand solar energies. Holmes decided to initiate hisown research into the subject and after collectingenough data, he showed that Kelvin’s conclusionswere not valid by the availability of radioactiveheat. He compared the amounts of uranium andthorium in rocks with their decaying products(daughter products) of lead and helium, respec-tively, and was able to make an assumption of aconstant half-life for each element. Based on this

122 Holmes, Arthur

information, Holmes felt the age of the Earth wasat least 1.6 billion years old, which he later revisedto 4 billion years. He also placed the beginning ofthe Cambrian at 600 million years. These ages wererefined later but considering the primitive technol-ogy of the time, they are remarkably accurate.

The research Arthur Holmes conducted onthe age of the Earth added insight into otherquestions that were plaguing geologists at thetime. By recognizing that radioactive heat wasavailable from the breakdown of uranium, tho-rium, and potassium, it could no longer be be-lieved that the Earth was cooling and contracting.Holmes believed that the tectonic movements ofthe crust were caused by cyclical expansion alter-nating with contraction of the crust. He alsoagreed with ALFRED WEGENER that continents aredrifting, in stark contrast to the popular opinionof the profession. Holmes was also the first geolo-gist to deduce that convection currents were pres-ent in the mantle of the Earth and likely drove thecontinents. HARRY HESS would later expand onthis idea to form the basis of the plate tectonicparadigm.

The work of Arthur Holmes in the field ofpetrology was also groundbreaking. He was astrong believer in the idea that both extrusive andintrusive igneous rocks originated from liquidmagma. However, due to the limited amount ofphysiochemical and thermodynamic data at thetime, he began to question the idea. Holmesbegan to work with the Geological Society ofUganda due to the excellent specimens of alkalicvolcanic rocks that were found in the WestAfrican Rift Valley and began to think about solidstate metasomatism and transformation of preex-isting rocks by differential introduction of fluxesof hydrothermal fluid. He also made importantlinks between geophysics and petrology, with re-gard to the origin of kimberlite rocks (diamondpipes) and his belief in eclogite as a high-pressureequivalent of basalt. Holmes’s wide range of scien-tific research can be found in detail in his highlyregarded book, Principles of Physical Geology.

Arthur Holmes was born on January 14,1890, in Hebburn-on-Tyne, England. His first in-sight into geology was discovered while he at-tended Gateshead High School. After graduatingfrom high school, Holmes enrolled at ImperialCollege in London, England, in 1907. He earneda bachelor of science degree in physics under R. J.Strutt (later Lord Rayleigh), but changed to geol-ogy as an advisee of W. W. Watts. Holmes gradu-ated with a second degree in geology as anassociate of the Royal College of Science in 1910.Holmes did his graduate studies with Strutt in in-vestigating the area of radioactivity with geology.He also took a position as a prospector toMozambique, Africa, to earn money, where helearned the art of fieldwork and then began study-ing Precambrian metamorphic rocks and Tertiarylavas. He contracted malaria there. After graduat-ing with a Ph.D. in 1912, he accepted the posi-tion of demonstrator at Imperial College, wherehe taught petrology. In 1920, he decided to workin industry and accepted the position of chief ge-ologist of an oil exploration company in Burma.He lost his young son to dysentery at that time.He returned to England in 1925 to become pro-fessor of geology and chair at the University ofDurham. Holmes reorganized the entire depart-ment and conducted some of his most extensiveresearch there. He transferred to the University ofEdinburgh, Scotland, where he was appointedregius chair of geology in 1943. He remaineduntil his retirement to professor emeritus in 1956.Arthur Holmes was married twice, first to Mar-garet Howe in 1914, and after her death to petrol-ogist Doris Reynolds in 1939. Arthur Holmesdied in London on September 20, 1965.

Arthur Holmes was extremely productive interms of numbers of scientific articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. These pa-pers include numerous benchmark studies in avariety of topics ranging from geochronology andthe age of the Earth to geomorphology, petrology,and Earth history. In recognition of his outstandingcontributions to the many fields of geology, Arthur

Holmes, Arthur 123

Holmes received numerous honors and awards. Hewas a Fellow of the Royal Society of London.Among many other additional awards, Holmes re-ceived the Penrose Medal from the Geological Soci-ety of America and the Vetlesen Prize fromColumbia University. He also has a medal namedin his honor at the European Union of Geosciencesand a society in England named after him.

5 Hsu, Kenneth J.(1929– )ChineseTectonics, Sedimentologist, StructuralGeologist

Surprisingly, Kenneth Hsu is probably bestknown by the general public for the popular andsometimes controversial books and papers that hehas written. Most of these are the scientific re-search with which he was involved, translated intomaterial that is understandable by the generalpublic. Books like The Great Dying: Cosmic Catas-trophes, Dinosaurs, and Evolution; The Mediter-ranean was a Desert; and Challenger at Sea areexamples of geology for the public. On the otherhand, he wrote books like Applied Fourier Analysisand Circle Graphs in Polynomial Time and paperslike “Fractal Geometry and Music” and “Is Dar-winism Science?” (some written with his son thatare only marginally related to geology). Many ofthese wind up in the newspapers and on multiplewebsites for a variety of reasons.

This popular work is surprising because Ken-neth Hsu is one of the giants of the professionwho has led a full career in geology as well. Thisversatility in apparent multiple careers character-izes his geologic career as well, thus the difficultyin titling his specialty. To tectonics researchers,Hsu is the discoverer and definer of the melange, achaotic mixed deposit that forms in a subductionzone. It contains sediment and volcanics scrapedfrom the ocean floor mixed with metamorphicrock squirted back up the subduction zone and

into a mass. If found in the mountains, these rocksdefine the line marking the “suture zone” betweentwo ancient plates. He is also the editor of thegroundbreaking book, Mountain Building Pro-cesses. To structural geologists, Hsu is the inventorof a diagram bearing his name in which strain fea-tures in rocks may be plotted and compared. He isalso a contributor to the understanding of thrustfault movement through his work in the Alps. Toclimatologists and oceanographers, he is the leaderof an historic cruise of the Glomar Challengerthrough the Mediterranean Sea, which resulted inthe Mediterranean salinity crisis idea. It showedthat large sea-level changes could affect climateand biota and was the impetus for his later popularbook. To sedimentologists, he is the definer ofAlpine carbonate and flysch sedimentation by in-vestigating modern analogs again aboard the Glo-mar Challenger from the stormy Atlantic to thesun-scorched Persian Gulf. He developed newideas on how evaporation affects the deposition ofcarbonate rocks that appear in all textbooks today.He is a great contributor to the understanding ofsedimentary facies (lateral changes in deposits). Tothe Chinese, he is a returning hero who mentoredstudents and breathed new life into the geologicresearch there. He even wrote the book GeologicAtlas of China. Hsu’s great success for each of theseendeavors is his rare combination of an “eye fordetail” but a “mind for the whole.” He is also will-ing to travel to the ends of the Earth to track downa problem; he has visited every continent exceptAntarctica. Hsu is a true renaissance man in everysense of the term.

Kenneth Jinghwa Hsu was born on July 1,1929, in Nanking, China. He attended the Na-tional Central University at Nanjing, China, andearned a bachelor of science degree in geology in1948. He moved to the United States and at-tended Ohio State University, where he earned amaster of arts degree in geology in 1950. Heearned a Ph.D. in geology from the University ofCalifornia at Los Angeles in 1954 as an advisee ofDAVID T. GRIGGS. Upon graduation, he accepted

124 Hsu, Kenneth J.

the position of geologist and later as project chiefand research associate at Shell DevelopmentCompany in 1954, and he remained there until1963. He joined the faculty at Harpur College in1963 and moved to the University of California atRiverside in 1964. Ken Hsu was married to RuthHsu. They had three children but a tragic auto ac-cident took her life in 1964. Hsu was remarried in1966 to Christine Eugster, a native of Switzer-land; they had one child. He accepted a facultyposition at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technol-ogy (ETH) in Zurich in 1967. Hsu remained atETH until 1994 and twice served as chair of thedepartment. He was a visiting professor at ScrippsInstitution of Oceanography at the University ofCalifornia at San Diego in 1972 and at CaliforniaInstitute of Technology in 1991. After he leftETH, he was a visiting professor at National Uni-versity of Taiwan in 1994–1995, at Hebrew Uni-versity in Jerusalem in 1995, at the BerlinInstitute for Advanced Studies, Germany, in1996, and at Colorado School of Mines in 1997.

Kenneth Hsu has had an amazingly produc-tive career, producing more than 400 articles ininternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports, and 20 books and volumesof international importance. Many papers arepublished in high-profile journals and establish anew benchmark for the state of the science. Hisresearch contributions have been recognized bythe geologic profession as shown by his numeroushonors and awards. Hsu is a member of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences. He received an hon-orary doctoral degree from Nanjing University,China, in 1987. He was awarded the WollastonMedal by the Geological Society of London(1984), the Twenhofel Medal from the Society ofEconomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists(SEPM)(1984), and the Penrose Medal from theGeological Society of America (2001). He wasalso a Guggenheim Fellow in 1972.

Hsu has also performed outstanding serviceto the profession. He was the co-chief scientist forthe Deep Sea Drilling Project, Atlantic and

Mediterranean, a panel chair for the JointOceanographic Institute for Deep Earth Sampling(JOIDES), and a section chair for the Interna-tional Union for Geological Sciences (IUGS), aswell as serving on numerous committees for each.He was president of the International Associationfor Sedimentology in 1978 to 1982. He served aseditor in chief for the journal Sedimentology andthe associate editor for Journal of SedimentaryPetrology and Marine Geophysical Research.

5 Hubbert, M. King(1903–1989)AmericanGeophysicist

In its classical form, Earth science is largely de-scriptive in nature. But it is also a composite sci-

Hubbert, M. King 125

Kenneth Hsu (center) studying a deep sea drill corewith colleagues aboard a research cruise (Courtesy ofKenneth Hsu)

ence, drawing upon methods of other sciences toexplain phenomena of the Earth. The integrationof ideas from quantitative fields into geologycaused a major revolution in each of the geologicdisciplines as it was realized. M. King Hubbertwas one of the true pioneers of this integration.He had training in physics and mathematics, but astrong interest in rock mechanics as well. FRANCIS

J. PETTIJOHN called him “a student of nobody”even while he was a graduate student. Nobodyhad the knowledge that he was after. His first as-sault on the science was a 1937 paper entitled“Theory of Scale as Applied to the Study of Geo-logic Structures,” in which he used dimensionalanalysis and continuum mechanics to scale-modelgeologic structures. He derived scaling laws tomodel familiar geologic systems based upon thelength, mass, and time constants of the systems.The work was considered controversial and raiseda stir in the profession. He later applied this work

to all of Earth in a paper entitled “The Strength ofthe Earth,” which would later form the basis forderiving more quantitative plate tectonic models.

In his second major assault, M. King Hubbertaddressed the process of fluid flow. He verifiedDarcy’s law of flow through experimentation andthen derived field equations for the movement offluids through the permeable media of the Earth’scrust in his paper, “Theory of Groundwater Mo-tion.” He introduced gravity as the major control-ling factor, but showed that fluids did notnecessarily flow from higher to lower pressure.This work caused the previously feuding hydroge-ologists and petroleum geologists to join forcesagainst him because it made all of their work obso-lete. But Hubbert prevailed and later applied thiswork to the migration and subsequent entrapmentof oil and gas. He modeled the interactions of flu-ids with unlike densities in a dynamic continuumwhich produced several counterintuitive outcomes,

126 Hubbert, M. King

King Hubbert (front left) with colleagues on a resistivity survey in Franklin County, Alabama (Courtesy of the U.S.Geological Survey, E.F. Burchard Collection)

at least with regard to accepted ideas. It altered thecourse of petroleum exploration.

Hubbert took this fluid research and appliedit to rock mechanics. He showed that increasedfluid pressure would decrease the strength of rock,ultimately causing fracturing in unexpected orien-tations. This work was directly applied to oil ex-ploration by pumping fluids under high pressureinto oil wells to cause the rock around the well tofracture, thus increasing permeability. But it wasalso applied to problems of overthrusting, whichoccurs at angles that were previously unexplain-able. He was involved with the classic “beer canexperiment” in which a warming empty beer canscoots along a virtually flat piece of glass on acushion of air. Thrust sheets were shown to movein the same manner but on a cushion of fluid in aclassic Hubbert paper.

M. King Hubbert was born on October 5,1903, in San Saba County, Texas, where he grewup on a farm. He attended Weatherford College, anearby two-year school from 1921 to 1923. Heenrolled at University of Chicago, Illinois, buthad to perform grueling work as a wheat harvesterand to replace track for Union Pacific just to ob-tain travel money. He finally arrived at the Uni-versity of Chicago in 1924 and earned a bachelorof science degree in geology and physics with aminor in mathematics in 1926. He remained atthe University of Chicago for graduate studies andearned a master of science degree in 1928 and aPh.D. in 1937 in geophysics. Hubbert workedover the summers from 1926 to 1928 as an explo-ration geologist for the Amarada Petroleum Com-pany in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He became aninstructor at Columbia University, New York, in1931 while working summers for the Illinois Geo-logical Survey. He met and married MiriamGraddy Berry in 1938. He left Columbia Univer-sity in 1940 to write and conduct his own re-search. In 1942, Hubbert joined the World War IIeffort as a senior analyst for the Board of Eco-nomic Warfare in Washington, D.C. He joinedShell Oil Company in 1943 as a geophysicist and

held various positions. He retired from Shell OilCo. in 1963 to assume concurrent positions as ageophysicist at the U.S. Geological Survey inWashington, D.C., as well as a member of the fac-ulty at Stanford University, California. In 1968,Hubbert retired to professor emeritus from Stan-ford University. After his second retirement, hewas a visiting professor at the Johns Hopkins Uni-versity in 1968, and a regents professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley in 1973. In1976, Hubbert retired for a third and final timefrom his position at the U.S. Geological Survey.M. King Hubbert died in his sleep of an em-bolism on October 11, 1989.

M. King Hubbert’s busy career can be mea-sured in many ways. His written contributionsspanned governmental reports, industrial reports,nearly 100 articles in scientific journals and pro-fessional volumes and presentations. The subjectshe addressed were just as varied, ranging frompetroleum exploration to geophysical techniquesto rock mechanics, among others. They were typi-cally innovative and nontraditional, and thereforepioneering. He also wrote a popular textbook,Structural Geology. In recognition of his contribu-tions to the science, numerous honors and awardswere bestowed upon him. Hubbert was a memberof the National Academy of Sciences and a Fellowof the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.He was awarded honorary doctoral degrees fromSyracuse University, New York, and Indiana StateUniversity. He received both the Arthur L. DayMedal and the Penrose Medal from the Geologi-cal Society of America, the William Smith Medalfrom the Geological Society of London, the El-liott Cresson Medal from the Franklin Institute ofPhiladelphia, the Rockefeller Public ServiceAward from Princeton University, the Anthony F.Lucas Gold Medal from the American Institute ofMining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineersand the Vetlesen Prize from the Vetlesen Founda-tion at Columbia University.

In terms of professional and public service,Hubbert was equally notable. He served as presi-

Hubbert, M. King 127

dent of the Geological Society of America in1962, among many other committees and panels.He served on numerous committees and panelsfor the National Research Council, the NationalAcademy of Sciences, the U.S. Office of NavalResearch, U.S. delegations to the United Nations,

and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Interms of editorial work, he was editor of Geo-physics and associate editor of the American Associ-ation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin and theJournal of Geology.

128 Hubbert, M. King

129

5 Imbrie, John(1925– )AmericanInvertebrate Paleontologist, Paleoclimatologist

One of the “hottest” areas of the Earth sciencestoday is climate change, and one of the mainspokespersons for its study is John Imbrie. Hisprimary approach to research is to study the his-tory of climate, carefully documenting its variabil-ity with time. Much of this work involves lookingat the changes which have taken place in the ma-rine environment using biological, sedimentologi-cal, and chemical markers mostly found indeep-sea cores. He then models these changes inan attempt to identify the main mechanisms ofclimatic change and control. These variationsrange in duration from as short as one month toas long as 100,000 years or more. The modelsidentify the cyclicity in these variations and at-tempt to tie them to astronomical sources like dis-tance of the Earth to the Sun (Milankovitchcycles) or terrestrial sources. He has even trans-lated his research into a more popular forum bypublishing an award-winning book entitled, IceAges: Solving the Mystery. This book provides asummary of his research findings on the controlsand processes in moving into and out of ice agesthat can be understood by laypersons.

Imbrie has truly had two careers in geology:in paleoclimatology as described, as well as anearlier career as a premier invertebrate paleontol-ogist. His areas of expertise include paleoecologyand biometrics. Imbrie developed methods ofstudying assemblages of fossils and their relativeabundances to predict the paleoenvironment.Small changes in relative abundances can indicatesignificant ecological changes. Clearly, this workhas been applied to the climate research. Biomet-rics is a highly quantitative treatment of paleon-tological changes using probability and statistics.These quantitative results can detect smallchanges in features of animal populations thatmight otherwise go unnoticed using standard ob-servational techniques. It was these numericalmethods that established John Imbrie as a leaderin paleontology and established a whole new di-rection of research.

John Imbrie was born on July 4, 1925, inPenn Yan, New York. He enlisted in the U.S.Army in World War II and served in combat inItaly as an infantryman in the 10th Mountain Di-vision. He was wounded in the Po Valley. He laterwrote a book about his experiences there. Imbrieattended Princeton University, New Jersey, upondischarge where he earned a bachelor of arts de-gree in geology in 1948. He attended graduateschool at Yale University, Connecticut, and earneda master of arts degree in geology in 1951 and a

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Ph.D. in 1952. He accepted a position at the Uni-versity of Kansas at Lawrence in 1951, but movedto Columbia University, New York, the followingyear. He served as department chair in 1966 and1967. In 1967, he joined the faculty of BrownUniversity, Rhode Island, where he spent the restof his career. In 1976, he was named the Henry L.Doherty Professor of oceanography and in 1990he retired to professor emeritus. He remains ac-tive, but more with regard to his work on the his-torical records of World War II. Imbrie was avisiting scientist at Lamont-Doherty GeologicalObservatory of Columbia University and at theUniversity of Rhode Island. John Imbrie marriedBarbara Z. Imbrie in 1947, and they have twochildren.

John Imbrie has had an extremely productivecareer. He was an author of some 60 articles onclimate change and numerous others on inverte-brate paleontology in international journals andprofessional volumes. Both groups include manyseminal works that are required reading in theirrespective fields. He has also written four books,two of which are popular rather than purely scien-tific. His contributions to science have been well

recognized by the profession in terms of honorsand awards. He is a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences and the American Academyof Arts and Sciences. He was awarded honorarydoctoral degrees from the University of Edin-burgh, Scotland, and from the Christian-Al-brechts University of Kiel, Germany. He receivedthe Vega Medal of the Swedish Society of Anthro-pology and Geography, the Vetlesen Prize fromthe Vetlesen Foundation, the Lyell Medal fromthe Geological Society of London, the Leopoldvon Buch Medal from the Deutsche GeologischeGesellschaft, the Maurice Ewing Medal from theAmerican Geophysical Union and the U.S. Navy,the Award for the Advancement of Basic and Ap-plied Science from the Yale Science and Engineer-ing Association, and the MacArthur PrizeFellowship. He also won the Phi Beta Kappa Prizefor his book, Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery.

Imbrie has also given professional service tooextensive to list here. In short, he served on nu-merous committees and panels as both a memberand chair for the National Science Foundation,the National Academy of Sciences, and the Na-tional Research Council, among many others.

130 Imbrie, John

131

5 Jahns, Richard H.(1915–1983)AmericanMineralogist, Petrologist

Granite pegmatites are formed from the last liq-uids in a crystallizing magma or the first melts ina metamorphic rock undergoing partial melting.Because of this fringe position relative to normaligneous processes, the liquid tends to be enrichedin anything that will not readily fit into the com-mon rock-forming minerals. These componentsinclude incompatible elements and water and re-sult in many economic mineral deposits. It washis World War II assignment with the U.S. Geo-logical Survey to find sources of strategic (incom-patible) elements and minerals that sparkedRichard Jahns’ interest in pegmatite dikes. Peg-matites can contain economic sources of beryl-lium, tantalum, and lithium, in addition tominerals like mica, feldspar, and gemstones likeberyl, emerald, tourmaline, and others. Early inhis career he established himself as arguably theforemost authority on pegmatites in addition totraining himself as a renowned field geologist. Hecollaborated with some of the top mineralogistsand geochemists like Wayne Burnham and O.FRANK TUTTLE to produce the classic studies onpegmatites. These studies include both experi-mental work as well as observational and thermo-

dynamic. He explained an old and perplexingphenomenon of the layering of pegmatites withaplites with the cycling of fluid during crystalliza-tion. He explained the giant crystals up to 40 feetlong that he observed using a fluid model.

Even as Jahns completed these pure sciencestudies, he never drifted far from the applied as-pect of the science. Later in his career, he took onadministrative roles and used this applied interestto greatly energize the departments and schools inwhich he served. Several departments owe theircurrent success to his effectiveness and foresight.He also used this interest to form a very successfulconsulting business to industry, largely for mineralexploration and mining. In addition, he success-fully applied his geologic expertise to public ser-vice. He was one of the outspoken leaders on landuse management as well as mining and earth-quake preparedness. He served in leadership ca-pacities for several state agencies.

Richard Jahns was born on March 10, 1915,in Los Angeles, California, but he grew up inSeattle, Washington. He graduated from SeattleHigh School as class valedictorian. He enteredCalifornia Institute of Technology at age 16 intenton chemistry but switched to geology after oneyear and graduated with a bachelor of science de-gree in geology with honors in 1935. He playedvarsity baseball as an undergraduate. Jahns at-tended graduate school at Northwestern Univer-

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sity, Illinois, and earned a master of science degreein 1937 in petrology. He married Frances Hodappwhile a graduate student. They would have a sonand a daughter. He accepted a position with theU.S. Geological Survey upon graduation and hadnumerous assignments, including mapping gran-ites in New England, mica deposits in the south-eastern United States (Piedmont), and pegmatitesin New Mexico. He completed his doctoral workthrough this period and was awarded a Ph.D.from the California Institute of Technology,Pasadena (Cal Tech), in 1943. He joined the fac-ulty at Cal Tech in 1946. In 1960, Jahns movedto the Pennsylvania State University at State Col-lege where he served as chair of the Division ofEarth Sciences and dean of the College of MineralIndustries. Jahns returned to California to becomethe dean of the School of Earth Sciences of Stan-ford University in 1965, where he spent the restof his career. He was named the Welton J. andMaud L’ Anphère Crook Professor of geology andapplied Earth sciences at Stanford. He retired toprofessor and dean emeritus in 1980. He died of aheart attack on December 31, 1983.

Richard Jahns had a very productive careerproducing numerous articles in international jour-nals, collected volumes, and governmental re-ports. These articles define the state of knowledgefor pegmatites and their genesis. His publication,The Study of Pegmatites, remains the classic in thefield. Jahns’s research was well received by the geo-logic profession and as a result, he received nu-merous honors and awards. He received the IanCampbell Award from the American GeologicalInstitute (1981), the Public Service Award fromthe American Association of Petroleum Geologists(1982), the Distinguished Achievement Awardfrom the American Federation of MineralogicalSocieties (1972), and the Distinguished AlumnusAward from California Institute of Technology.He also received the Outstanding Teaching Awardfrom the Stanford School of Earth Sciences.

Jahns performed outstanding service to theprofession. He served as president of the Geologi-

cal Society of America (1970–1971), amongmany committees and panels. He served on manycommittees and panels for the Mineralogical Soci-ety of America. For NASA, he was in the astro-naut training program for Apollo 15 and 16, aswell as part of the Lunar Exploration PlanningGroup. He was chairman of the Earth SciencesAdvisory Panel for the National Science Founda-tion. He was president of the California Academyof Sciences and served as chair, president, and/ormember of most of the California state boardsthat relate to geology (earthquakes, mining, li-censing, etc.). Jahns also served editorial roles toonumerous to list here.

5 Jordan, Teresa E.(1953– )AmericanStratigrapher

The Earth Science department at Cornell Univer-sity has undertaken a broad multi-investigator,multidisciplinary research objective called theCornell Andes Project. This project focuses onmodern mountain building in relation to platetectonics and climate. Teresa Jordan contributesthe expertise of physical stratigraphy and sedi-mentology to the project. She is a strongly con-tributing member of this team because shetraditionally looks broadly into problems integrat-ing other geologic research with her stratigraphicstudies. She collaborates with other diverse Earthscientists like earthquake seismologists, gravity-magnetic geophysicists, groundwater hydrologists,stable isotope geochemists, structural geologists,igneous petrologists-geochemists, climatologists,and plate tectonic modelers. Jordan investigatesstratigraphy and related structures in the field andcombines them with satellite image analysis of thesurface features, seismic stratigraphy which usesseismic reflection profiles (like sonograms of theEarth) to determine the geometry of the strata un-derground, and magnetic polarity stratigraphy

132 Jordan, Teresa E.

which yields ages of the rocks based upon the pre-served orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field atthe time of deposition compared to a calibratedchart. She combines these data with the texturaland compositional distribution of the sedimentsas studied microscopically to determine the his-tory of the stratigraphic sequences, the geometryand timing of subsidence of the basin, the sourceof the sediments making up the rock and conse-quently the nearby uplift history of the surround-ing rocks. She also determines the environmentalconditions and evaluates whether the observedchanges are episodic or simply continuous slowchange. With all of this information in hand, Jor-dan then models the history of the basin. Thisprocess allows her to isolate the controlling factorsin the changes she observes. Some factors can in-clude plate tectonics, sea level change, propertiesof the source region for the sediments, and cli-mate change. Such a multidisciplinary approachto large-scale geologic problems sets a new stan-dard for research and Teresa Jordan is one of theleaders in this field.

This move to undertake research in the Argen-tine and Chilean Andes is a natural outgrowth ofTeresa Jordan’s background. She began her researchon the development of sedimentary basins inhighly deforming mountainous areas by studyingthe ancestral Rocky Mountains in western NorthAmerica (Idaho and Wyoming). She calculated theflexing of the crust downward under the tremen-dous loads imposed during mountain buildingwhich consequently forms basins in the foreland(just ahead of the main mountains) that fill withsediment. She took this experience to the AndesMountains where she investigated the Bermejoforeland basin in western Argentina. She looked atthe fluvial drainage patterns, as well as the basinaldistribution of sediment grainsizes and the devel-opment of evaporite deposits. This climatic andhydrologic information was then correlated withconcurrent structural studies to determine the sedi-mentary response to deformation versus climatechanges. Because the area is a desert, small changes

in water supply have a great impact on sedimentsupply and distribution as well as organic compo-nent resulting from changes in plant growth. Sev-eral important papers have resulted from this workincluding, “Andean Tectonics Related to the Ge-ometry of Subducted Nazca Plate” and “RetroarcForearc Basins,” among others.

Teresa Jordan was born on April 14, 1953, inrural Dunkirk, New York. She attended RensselaerPolytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, where sheearned a bachelor of science degree in geology in1974 and received the Joseph L. RosenholtzAward. She completed her graduate studies atStanford University, California, on a National Sci-ence Foundation graduate fellowship, where shecompleted a Ph.D. in geology in 1979. She alsoreceived an American Association of UniversityWomen doctoral fellowship and worked as a geol-ogist for the U.S. Geological Survey upon gradua-tion. That year Jordan accepted a position as apostdoctoral research scientist at Cornell Univer-sity in Ithaca, New York, but joined the faculty in1984. She remains at Cornell University as a fullprofessor today. She was a visiting scientist at theColorado School of Mines in Golden. Teresa Jor-dan is married to structural geologist and fellow

Jordan, Teresa E. 133

Teresa Jordan explains the geology of the rock exposurein the background (Courtesy of Carrie Allmendinger)

Cornell University professor Richard All-mendinger. They have one daughter.

Teresa Jordan is amid a very productive ca-reer. She is an author of more than 90 scientificarticles in international journals and professionalvolumes. Many of these are seminal papers onthe tectonics and stratigraphy of the AndesMountains. In recognition of her contributionsto geology, Jordan received the National Science

Foundation Award to Women Faculty in Scienceand Engineering. She performed several in-stances of service to the profession, includingmembership on several committees for the Geo-logical Society of America, as well as on severalpanels for the National Research Council. Shehas also taught numerous short courses to pro-fessional societies and oil companies in Ar-gentina and Chile.

134 Jordan, Teresa E.

5 Karig, Daniel E.(1937– )AmericanMarine Geologist, Geophysicist

Island arcs are one of the major discoveries by thegiants of plate tectonics. These convergent zones ofocean plate consumption, however, exhibit manycomplex relations and processes that are unique onEarth. If a student researched the literature to learnabout these features, he or she would quickly learnthat one of the foremost authorities on them isDaniel Karig. The interaction of rapid deforma-tion complexly interacting with rapid sedimenta-tion forms a radically diverse deposit sitting withina deep-sea trench. This pile of complex sedimentplus metamorphic and igneous rock forms theforearc or accretionary prism or wedge and is anal-ogous to the wedge-shaped pile of snow scrapedup by a snowplow. Because it is such a dynamicsystem, erosion and sedimentation work in con-cert. In addition to normal sedimentary processes,there is tectonic erosion and addition of materialand the regular earthquakes in these zones play arole in shaking sediments loose. Daniel Karig stud-ied these sediments in several ways. He studiedthem on land where the forearc prism emergesabove sea level; he studied them in deep-sea drillcores taken within these areas; and he studiedthem aboard submersible vehicles like the famous

ALVIN launched from the research vessel, GlomarChallenger. He studied exposed forearc prisms inJapan, Iran, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Hestudied these areas directly on Deep Sea DrillingProgram (DSDP)/Ocean Drilling Program (ODP)projects in several areas in the western PacificOcean (Marianas, Philippines, Sumatra, etc).These studies resulted in such papers as “Ridgesand Basins of the Tonga-Kermadec Island Arc Sys-tem” and “Structural History of the Marianas Is-land Arc System,” among others. He later modeledthe features he observed by building an analog ex-perimental subduction zone apparatus to study thepaths of deforming objects in forearc prisms.

The articles that Karig produced from this re-search include some descriptions of specific areasbut many define the processes that occur in sub-duction zones. They include definitive papers like“Remnant Arcs, Tectonic Erosion at Trenches”and “Initiation of Subduction Zones: Implicationsfor Arc Evolution and Ophiolite Development,”among many others. He has shown how deforma-tional fabrics form in sediments from forearcprisms as well as how the fluids (mostly water)within the sediments are squeezed out under highpressure as a result of the extreme deformationalpressures. Sedimentary structures are formed as aresult of this process. In addition to the forearcwork, Karig also researched (and defined) theback-arc-basin areas and their processes. He inves-

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136 Kay, Marshall

tigated island arcs where the two plates do notcollide head-on but instead at an angle in a pro-cess called oblique convergence. He also showedhow fragments of ocean crust (ophiolites) couldbe lifted (obducted) from their plate and em-placed onto the island arc. His explanation was anew and sensible approach to an old problem.

Daniel Karig was born on July 20, 1937, inIrvington, New Jersey. He attended the ColoradoSchool of Mines in Golden, where he earned abachelor of science degree in geological engineer-ing in 1959 and a master of science degree in geol-ogy in 1964. From 1960 to 1961, Karig served asa second lieutenant in the U.S. Army Corps of En-gineers with combat training and even attendedranger school. He completed one year of researchat Victoria University in Wellington, NewZealand, before enrolling in a doctoral program atthe Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the

University of California, San Diego, in 1965. Heearned his doctoral degree in 1970 in Earth sci-ences as an advisee of H. WILLIAM MENARD. Heremained at Scripps Institution for a year aftergraduation as a postdoctoral fellow before joiningthe faculty at the University of California at SantaBarbara in 1971. He moved to Cornell University,New York, in 1973, and remained there for therest of his career. He served as department chairfrom 1991 to 1995 and retired to professor emeri-tus in 1998. Since his retirement, Karig pursuedathletic events, including winning three nationalcross-country ski championships and a nationalchampionship in tandem marathon canoeing. Hehas also been involved in local environmental is-sues. Daniel Karig is married to Joanne Molenock;they have one son.

Daniel Karig has had a very successful ca-reer. He is an author of some 120 articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andmajor professional reports. Many of these papersare often-cited seminal studies on the mechanicsof subduction zones and development forearcprisms. Karig’s research has been well received bythe geologic community as evidenced by hishonors and awards. He received the D.C. VanDienst Medal from the Colorado School ofMines and was a Fulbright Fellow, among otherhonors.

Karig has also performed significant service tothe profession. He served on numerous panels andcommittees for the Ocean Drilling Project (ODP).He was an associate editor for the Bulletin of theGeological Society of America, Journal of GeophysicalResearch, and Neotectonics as well as Ophioliti.

5 Kay, Marshall(1904–1975)CanadianStratigrapher

Although primarily a stratigrapher, Marshall Kaygained fame as the originator and champion of

Dan Karig on a research cruise aboard the researchvessel Glomar Challenger (Courtesy of Daniel Karig)

the geosynclinal theory. In this theory, deep sub-siding sedimentary basins, called geosynclines,evolve into mountain ranges. The geosynclinaltheory was widely accepted until the originationof the plate tectonic theory in the 1960s. Kay’s1951 publication, “North American Geosyn-clines” (and later “Geosynclines in ContinentalDevelopment”), was the high point of the theory.He concluded that the nature of the sedimenta-tion within geosynclines depends upon the com-plex interrelationships of uplift, contemporaneoussubsidence, weathering, and the presence or ab-sence of volcanism. These observations describeddeposition within active basins where sedimentsources and rates of input are constantly shifting.These sources could be volcanic, recycled sedi-mentary rocks or uplifted basement blocks. Thegeosynclines were divided into three major groupsbased upon their association with tectonically ac-tive margins, passive margins, or on continentalcratons. Each of these categories was subdividedinto one to three geosynclinal terms with a prefix.For example, within tectonically active (conver-gent) zones there could be a Eugeosyncline if vol-canic strata are interlayered or a Miogeosyncline ifthe sequence is volcanic-free, though these werenot Kay’s terms. Kay was not overbearing with hissystem and yet it became almost sneered at duringthe plate tectonic revolution of the 1960s, eventhough the distinctions and processes have valid-ity. Unfortunately, Kay commonly took the bruntof the criticism.

Marshall Kay was considered one of the lead-ing stratigraphers in the world. He gained recog-nition during the biostratigraphic revolution ofthe 1930s, as he was a recognized paleontologistas well. Out of this beginning, he became a pio-neer in physical stratigraphy, especially with re-gard to basin reconstructions. Three of his papers,“Paleogeographic and Palinspastic Maps” (1945),“Analysis of Stratigraphy” (1947), and “Isolith,Isopach, and Palinspastic Maps” (1954), estab-lished the new methods by which stratigraphywould be analyzed in the future. These bench-

mark works are among the most important in sed-imentary geology.

Kay was born in Paisley, Ontario, Canada, onNovember 10, 1904. He was raised in a scientifichousehold with a father, George F. Kay, who was adistinguished geologist in his own right. Kay’s fa-ther moved his family to the United States in 1904to accept a position as a professor at the Universityof Kansas. He taught Pleistocene (2 million–8,000years ago) geology. He became head of the depart-ment and state geologist in 1911, and then dean ofliberal arts from 1917 to 1941.

Marshall Kay graduated with a bachelor ofscience degree cum laude and Phi Beta Kappafrom the University of Iowa in 1924, and with amaster of science degree in 1925, both in geol-ogy. He received the Lowden Prize for his thesiswork. Kay decided to attend Columbia Univer-sity, New York, where he received his Ph.D. in1929 on a Roberts Fellowship and as assistant cu-rator of paleontology. After receiving his Ph.D.,he accepted a teaching position at Barnard Col-lege, New York, before joining the faculty atColumbia University in 1931, where he taughtgeology for 44 years. He served as chair of the de-partment from 1953 to 1956 and again from1971–1973, after which he retired to professoremeritus. He achieved his greatest appointmentas Newberry Professor of geology in 1967. From1944 to 1946, Kay was administrator ofColumbia University’s Division of War ResearchProgram, which was part of the Manhattan Pro-ject. Marshall Kay married Inez Clark in 1935;they would have four children, three of whomwould go into geology. Marshall Kay died onSeptember 3, 1975.

Marshall Kay served as an author of some110 scientific articles in international journals andprofessional volumes. He also produced threebooks. Several of these are classics on stratigraphicprocesses, as well as the geosynclinal theory. Inrecognition of his outstanding contributions togeology, Marshall Kay received several honors andawards. He was awarded an honorary doctoral de-

Kay, Marshall 137

gree from Middlebury College, Vermont. He re-ceived the Penrose Medal from the Geological So-ciety of America, the Distinguished Service Awardfrom the University of Iowa, and the Kunz Prizefrom the New York Academy of Sciences, amongothers.

Kay was very active in terms of service to theprofession. He served as vice president of the Pale-ontological Society (United States), and of theNew York Academy of Sciences. He also served inleadership roles on numerous committees for theInternational Geological Congress, the Interna-tional Commission on Stratigraphy, the AmericanAssociation of Petroleum Geologists, and the NewYork Botanical Gardens, among others.

5 Keller, Edward A.(1942– )AmericanGeomorphologist

When an earthquake occurs in the eastern or cen-tral part of the United States there are seismicwaves that shake buildings and other structures,but rarely is there evidence on the surface as towhere it occurred. The only way to locate theearthquake is with seismographs and patterns ofseismic activity, which are as uncommon as thesurface features. For that reason, geomorphologyis regarded as a rather gentle branch of geologythere. In the western United States, on the otherhand, earthquakes and other tectonic movementsleave scars, induce landslides, and generally wreakhavoc on buildings and people. In stark contrastto the East, tectonic geomorphology is a dynamicand dangerous study in the West. Edward Kelleris one of the foremost experts on tectonic geomor-phology especially with regard to earthquake haz-ard reduction and prevention. By studying relativeuplift and subsidence both in terms of rates andelevation changes, tectonic movements and theirextent and intensity may be revealed. The beauti-ful wave-cut terraces of the California Pacific

coast are excellent examples of the types of fea-tures that Keller studies. They reveal sequentialtectonic uplift of the land surface with erosionduring the quiet periods. Such studies can revealinformation on recurrence intervals for earth-quakes, potential for blind faults, as well as land-slides and other hazards. They have greatimplications for building codes and disaster pre-paredness plans. Keller primarily studies the geo-morphology and Quaternary deposits related toactive faults and folds that result from faults.

Edward Keller’s other main area of interest isfluvial geomorphology. He studies the develop-ment of channels in streams, as well as the con-trols on where pools and riffles develop and howthey change with time. This research involves anattempt to explain and even quantify a processthat is otherwise chaotic in appearance. In addi-tion to determining location of the features of astream, Keller studies the processes involved in thetransport of material as well as the seasonalchanges in streams. This research has profoundimplications for studies of drainage basins andplanning especially with regard to flood control.Currently, as an offshoot of this research, he hasbeen studying the hydrologic processes in the cha-parral ecosystem of southern California and roleof wildfire in the recurrence of high magnitudeflood deposits and debris flow deposits.

Edward Keller was born on June 6, 1942, inLos Angeles, California. He attended CaliforniaState University at Fresno where he earned a bach-elor of science degree in mathematics in 1965.However, he decided that he was really bettersuited to geology and returned to California StateUniversity to earn a bachelor of arts degree in ge-ology in 1968. Keller was married in 1966. Hethen earned a master of science degree in geologyfrom the University of California at Davis in1969. He earned a Ph.D. from Purdue University,Indiana, in geology in 1973. He joined the facultyat the University of North Carolina at ChapelHill the same year. In 1976, he accepted a posi-tion at the University of California at Santa Bar-

138 Keller, Edward A.

bara and has remained there ever since. He hasserved as chair of both the Environmental Studiesand the Hydrologic Science programs severaltimes. Keller and his wife have two children.

Edward Keller has had a very productive ca-reer. He is an author of some 90 articles in inter-national journals, governmental reports, andprofessional volumes. Many of these are seminalworks on fluvial processes and tectonic geomor-phology. Even more impressive are the books hehas written. He is the author of the most success-ful environmental geology textbook, Environmen-tal Geology, in its eighth edition in 2000. He alsowrote the definitive textbook on tectonic geomor-phology, Active Tectonics, in its second printing.He is also an author of four other books includingEnvironmental Science. Keller has received severalhonors and awards for his contributions to theprofession. He received a Hartley Visiting Profes-sor Award from the University of Southampton,England, in 1982–1983 and the Quatercentenary

Fellowship from Cambridge University, England,in 2000. He received two Outstanding AlumnusAwards from Purdue University, Indiana, onefrom the department (1994) and one from theSchool of Science (1996). He also received a Dis-tinguished Alumnus Award from California StateUniversity at Fresno in 1998. He received theOutstanding Research Award from the SouthernCalifornia Earthquake Center in 1999.

5 Kent, Dennis V.(1946– )American/CzechoslovakianGeophysicist (Paleomagnetics)

When a volcanic rock that contains magnetitecools through the Curie temperature of 578°C, themagnetite crystals capture the direction of the pre-vailing magnetic field of the Earth as thermorem-nant magnetism. In contrast, small magnetitegrains that settle in water as sediment will spin andalign with the prevailing geomagnetic field of theEarth like a compass needle as they settle alignedto the ocean floor, thus preserving depositionalremnant magnetism. Dennis Kent helped to de-fine this processes of paleomagnetism as describedin his paper, “Post Depositional Remnant Mag-netism in Deep Sea Sediments.” He studied paleo-magnetism on the layer-by-layer basis in marinesediments taken from deep-sea piston cores fromlocations throughout the world. Kent discernedthe recurrent reversals of the Earth’s magnetic polesin these sediments. The patterns of these observedreversals were correlated with known magnetic re-versals from studies of paleomagnetism in theocean crust recorded by the thermoremnance ofoceanic basalts. Between the thermoremnant anddetrital remnant magnetism, a detailed “magne-tostratigraphy” for the past 180 million years wasestablished. This research provided the frameworkfor the integration of a fossil and isotopic datingsystem that virtually all modern geologic timescales for the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic now in-

Kent, Dennis V. 139

Edward Keller aboard a research boat in California(Courtesy of Edward Keller)

corporate. Papers describing this work include“Cenozoic Geochronology” and “A Cretaceousand Jurassic Geochronology.” Kent is one of thepioneers in establishing and applying the magneticpolarity time scales.

Kent has been extending the application ofmagnetostratigraphy for time correlation to moreremote geologic periods. This fine resolution is es-pecially useful in continental sediments that havefew index fossils or appropriate rock types for dat-ing. He collaborated with PAUL E. OLSEN of La-mont-Doherty Earth Observatory to studyclimate cycles during the late Triassic as a baselinefor comparison with proposed climate change oftoday. They drilled a continuous core more than5,000 meters long through the Mesozoic NewarkBasin of the Middle Atlantic, which contains oneof the most continuous non-marine sedimentarysections on Earth. The complete magnetostratig-raphy recorded by these sediments and the fineage control to model provided by the climatic cy-cles allowed construction of a new geomagnetic

polarity time scale for more than 30 million yearsof the late Triassic and early Jurassic. Kent and hiscolleagues have been using this template to linkthe history of the early Mesozoic rift basinsthroughout North America, Greenland, andNorth Africa.

Kent also did research on some of the late Pa-leozoic units mainly in the central, but also in thenorthern Appalachians. This work was dominatedby studies on the Catskill and Helderberg se-quences of New York and the relative positions ofLaurentia and other continents during the late Pa-leozoic. These studies evolved into tracking Al-leghenian deformation, large-scale rotations, andremagnitization during orogeny. Kent’s land-basedstudies also included plutons from New England,as well as collaborations on more exotic areas likethe Antarctic, the Yangtze Platform of China,West Africa, the southern Alps, the Greek Islands,and the Colorado Plateau, among others.

Dennis Kent was born in Prague, Czechoslo-vakia on November 4, 1946, and after residing inLondon, England, he came with his family to theUnited States in 1953. He attended the City Col-lege of New York and earned a bachelor of sciencedegree in geology in 1968. He completed hisgraduate studies at the Lamont-Doherty Geologi-cal Observatory of Columbia University in ma-rine geology and geophysics, earning a Ph.D. in1974. He accepted a research position at Lamont-Doherty upon graduation and moved through theranks of research scientists, ultimately becomingthe director of research for the renamed Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in 1993. He joinedthe faculty at Rutgers University in NewBrunswick, New Jersey, in 1998, and remainsthere today. During his tenure at Lamont-Do-herty, he twice accepted a visiting professorship atthe Institute for Geophysics at ETH (Swiss Na-tional Institute) in Zurich. Dennis Kent marriedCarolyn Ann Cook in 1971 and they have onedaughter.

A prolific author, Dennis Kent is a contribu-tor to nearly 200 articles in international jour-

140 Kent, Dennis V.

Dennis Kent drills a rock core from the Paleocene-Eocene Esna Formation in Egypt for paleomagneticstudies in 2001 (Courtesy of Dennis Kent)

nals, professional volumes, and professional re-ports. Many of these articles are in high-profilejournals like Nature and set new benchmarks forpaleomagnetism and especially magnetostratigra-phy. He is also an editor of four professional vol-umes. He has performed significant service to theprofession. He served on numerous panels andcommittees for the Joint Oceanographic Institu-tions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES). Heserved on the U.S. Continental ScientificDrilling Program, the ICS/IUGS, and manycommittees for the Lamont-Doherty Earth Ob-servatory. Kent served on several committees forthe American Geophysical Union and was sectionpresident from 1994 to 1996. He served as asso-ciate editor for several journals including Journalof Geophysical Research, Geophysical Research Let-ters, Paleoceanography, Terra Nova, and the elec-tronic journal G3. He also participated in fivescientific cruises including the Glomar Challengerin 1979.

5 Kerr, Paul F.(1897–1981)American(Applied) Mineralogist, Economic Geologist

There is the study of mineralogy for theoreticalpurposes to understand the chemistry, physics,and processes of formation of minerals and thereis applied mineralogy to determine the processesinvolved in economic and environmental applica-tions. Paul “Pappy” Kerr is considered the “fatherof applied mineralogy in the United States.”Among his research directions was an interest inrefining analytical techniques. He began with X-ray diffraction techniques to identify minerals inhis graduate career and pioneered their use inmineral identification as described in his paper,“The Determination of Opaque Ore Minerals byX-ray Diffraction Patterns.” His work on opaqueminerals and clay minerals was unparalleled and is

still used today. He would later pioneer X-ray flu-orescence and infrared and ultraviolet spec-troscopy applications to mineralogy as well. He isprobably best known for his systematic organiza-tion and compilation of optical techniques andproperties for the study of minerals using an opti-cal microscope. The technique of differential ther-mal analysis (DTA) was also taken from aninteresting observation to a cutting-edge analyticalmethod especially for clays as the result of Kerr’sinnovations and adaptations of the instruments.

All of this analytical organization and adapta-tion was applied toward economic minerals. Thesystematic nomenclature and classification of clayminerals that is used today is the result of effortsby Paul Kerr. He was especially interested in“quick clays” and their role in landslides and slopestability. Expanding clays that take on largeamounts of water have generated numerous devas-tating landslides and other mass movements. Hewas also interested in the clay mineralogy in alter-ation of rocks around ore deposits. The interest inthese “alteration haloes” around ore depositsstemmed from his interest in ores themselves. Hedid an enormous amount of research on tungstenmineralization in the western United States andpublished a comprehensive study on the nature oftungsten mineralization in general, entitled Tung-sten Mineralization in the United States.

Kerr was also interested in uranium mineral-ization which brought him a great amount of no-toriety. As part of the Manhattan Project, Kerrinvestigated the availability of raw materials foratomic weapons. In addition to the westernUnited States he traveled to the Belgian Congo inAfrica and the Northwest Territories in Canada,among others, which continued for many years asan association with the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-mission. Because of this expertise, in 1945 he waschosen by the Carnegie Endowment for Interna-tional Peace to chair a commission to investigateproblems associated with inspection of atomicmaterials. In 1955, on behalf of the United Na-tions, Kerr set up a program on raw materials for

Kerr, Paul F. 141

the First International Conference on PeacefulUses of Atomic Energy in Geneva, Switzerland.

Paul Kerr was born on January 12, 1897, inHemet, California. He worked in the citrus or-chards and bean fields in San Jacinto Valley inhis youth to save enough money for college. Heattended Occidental College, California, wherehe earned a bachelor of science degree in chem-istry and mathematics in 1919. His undergradu-ate career was interrupted by a brief period ofmilitary service during World War I. He contin-ued with his graduate studies at Stanford Univer-sity, California, where he earned a Ph.D. in1923. He was a visiting assistant professor atStanford University for one semester as a sabbati-cal replacement before joining the faculty atColumbia University, New York, where he re-mained for the rest of his career. He became theNewberry Professor of mineralogy at ColumbiaUniversity in 1959. Kerr served as departmentchair from 1942 to 1950. During that time hewas largely responsible for the acquisition of thesite for the future Lamont-Doherty GeologicalObservatory, as well as for naming it. He retiredto professor emeritus in 1965, whereupon hemoved back to California to become a consultingprofessor until 1977. Paul Kerr died of a heartattack on February 27, 1981, in Palo Alto, Cali-fornia. His wife of 54 years, Helen Squire Kerr,died several years earlier in September of 1978.They had three children.

Paul Kerr led an extremely productive career.He is an author of some 250 scholarly publica-tions in international journals, professional vol-umes, and governmental reports, including severalbooks and monographs. He is probably bestknown for his widely used textbook, Optical Min-eralogy, originally entitled Thin-Section Mineralogyand published in 1933. However, he also pub-lished an astounding number of benchmark pa-pers on X-ray techniques, clay mineralogy,uranium mineralogy, tungsten mineralogy, andapplied mineralogy. In recognition of his manycontributions to geology he received numerous

honors and awards. He received an honorary doc-torate from his alma mater, Occidental College.He also received the K.C. Li Medal, the Distin-guished Member Award from the Clay MineralsSociety, and he was made an honorary member ofGreat Britain’s Mineralogical Society.

Kerr also performed extensive service to theprofession. He was president (1946) and secretary(1934 to 1944) of the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica, as well as serving on numerous commit-tees. He was vice president of the Geological Soci-ety of America in 1947, as well as serving onnumerous committees. He was also vice presidentfor the American Association for the Advance-ment of Science and held several positions for theNew York Academy of Sciences, among others.

5 Kerrich, Robert(1948– )BritishGeochemist

The formation of many of the deposits of eco-nomic minerals occurs through hydrothermal pro-cesses. Hot chemically reactive fluids dissolvecertain mineral species and transport them tochemically favorable areas to precipitate them.These favorable areas can be in lithologic units ofa certain chemistry, but commonly they are faultsand fractures. By this process, minerals can benaturally concentrated to economic abundance.Robert Kerrich is one of the foremost experts onmetamorphic hydrothermal processes. One of hismain interests is gold deposits. He devised what isregarded as the standard model for the formationof the layering of gold within seams produced bymetamorphic-hydrothermal processes. By study-ing isotopic systematics of zircons within goldveins produced under low-temperature hydrother-mal conditions, Kerrich was able to prove a frac-tionation model for the segregation of gold.However, this is not his only contribution to goldexploration. By studying numerous other isotopic

142 Kerrich, Robert

systems in lode gold deposits in addition to theirrelation to metamorphism, magmatism, deforma-tion, and plate tectonics he has evaluated the pro-cesses of gold deposition from Archean to present.Through this exhaustive study he identified a tim-ing paradox from the processes that derive thegold to those that deposit it. There can be lags ofmany millions of years between them. This workon the timing of deposits relative to tectonism inan area allowed Kerrich to place the process ofgold emplacement to the supercontinental cycle.He also found odd lamprophyric magmatism thatincludes gold in the igneous rock. This all-encom-passing research makes Kerrich one of the top fewexperts on gold in the world.

Robert Kerrich did not start out with gold ashis primary interest. Rather, he was more inter-ested in the geochemistry and role of fluids in thedevelopment of crustal features. He looks at thedevelopment and diffusion of fluid reservoirswithin the crust. These reservoirs take on certainchemical characteristics based upon physical con-ditions as well as the composition of the rocks inwhich they are contained. Kerrich has become in-terested in the development of the Archean crustin his adopted country of Canada. He concen-trates his efforts on the Superior Province of theCanadian Shield. This work relies on isotopic sys-tems to track the role of fluids in the develop-ment of the lithosphere. He evaluated Archeanmantle chemical reservoirs by studying 3.0-to2.7-billion-year-old ocean plateau basalts andother basalts. By looking at trace elements inthese rocks as well as plutons that intrude themin conjunction with unconventional ratios of iso-topes like niobium/uranium and thorium/lan-thanum he had shed light on how this ancientcrust was formed. The continuing research isadding an important aspect to models of the earlyformation of continents.

Robert Kerrich was born on December 15,1948, in England. He attended the University ofBirmingham, England, where he earned a bache-lor of science degree in geology in 1971. He com-

pleted his graduate studies at Imperial College inLondon, England, earning a master of science de-gree in 1972 and a Ph.D. in geology in 1975.Kerrich immigrated to Canada, where he wasawarded a NATO postdoctoral Fellowship at theUniversity of Western Ontario from 1975 to1977. He remained at the University of WesternOntario as a member of the faculty until 1987.He then moved to the University of Saskat-chewan, Canada, where he was named to aGeorge L. McLeon Chair in Geology. In 1996,Kerrich was awarded an earned doctor of sciencedegree from the University of Saskatchewan. Heremains at the University of Saskatchewan today.

Robert Kerrich is amid a very successful sci-entific career. He has been an author of some 156articles in major international geoscience journalsand professional volumes. Several of these areseminal papers on hydrothermal geochemistry,gold mineralization, and global tectonics, and ap-pear in top-quality journals. In recognition of hisresearch contributions to geology, Kerrich has re-ceived several honors and awards in addition tothose mentioned. He was the youngest personever to be elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ofCanada. He received the W.H. Gross Medal fromthe Geological Association of Canada, a SteacieFellowship from the National Environmental Re-search Council of Canada, the Willett G. MillerMedal from the Royal Society of Canada, and theDistinguished Researcher Award from the Univer-sity of Saskatchewan.

5 Klein, George D.(1933– )DutchSedimentologist, Petroleum Geologist

Geology plays a prominent role in everyday life.Major sources of energy are oil, gas, and coal, allof which originate in sedimentary rocks. GeorgeKlein is one of the foremost experts on the appli-cation of sedimentology to petroleum exploration.

Klein, George D. 143

Although he has actively participated in exploringfor, finding, and developing oil and gas fields, hismain contribution is the development of deposi-tional models to help geologists predict wherepetroleum can be found. He taught oil geologistshow to use sedimentology in their exploration byteaching numerous short courses. In his research,he developed the concept of “Tidalites”, which aresediments deposited by tidal currents. He also de-veloped an evolutionary model for the develop-ment of cratonic (on continental crust) basins. Heapplied the tidalite concept to predict tidal circu-lation on ancient craton platforms (shelves) basedon observations of modern processes. Kleinshowed that increasing shelf width also increasedtidal range and thus tidal circulation dominatedcratonic seaways. Other work on tidal flats in-cludes the documentation of vertical sequences ofrocks and sedimentary structures developed incarbonate banks. He developed new criteria forrecognizing features and sediment distribution

within tidal flats and the tidal reach in coastalareas.

In addition to his tidal work, Klein docu-mented the control of the bedrock source on thecomposition of sandstone in rift margins. Suchdeposits form in basins over granites that areformed during continental breakup and a wholemodel was proposed for this scenario. This modelis especially applicable in the breakup of super-continents. Klein also developed new field meth-ods to identify ancient lake deposits.

George Devries Klein was born on January21, 1933, in s’Gravenhage, Netherlands. He im-migrated to the United States and attended Wes-leyan University, Middletown, Connecticut,where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in geol-ogy in 1954. He attended the University ofKansas in Lawrence and earned a master of artsdegree in geology in 1957. He worked for theKansas State Geological Survey while completinghis degree. He earned a Ph.D. from Yale Univer-sity, Connecticut, in 1960. Sinclair Research Inc.(petroleum) employed him as a research sedimen-tologist in 1960 and 1961. He joined the facultyat University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in1961, but moved to the University of Pennsylva-nia in Philadelphia in 1963. In 1970, Klein ac-cepted a position at the University of Illinois atUrbana-Champaign, where he remained for therest of his academic career. He retired to professoremeritus in 1993. From 1993 to present, Kleinhas been the president of the New Jersey MarineSciences Consortium and director of the New Jer-sey Sea Grant College. He has also run a geologicconsulting business (George D. Klein and Associ-ates, and SED-STRAT Geoscience Consultants,Inc.) part-time from 1970 to 1996, and has beena full-time consultant in the petroleum field since1996. He has been a visiting professor severaltimes to Oxford University, England; Universityof Tokyo, Japan; University of Utrecht, Nether-lands; Seoul National University, Korea; Univer-sity of Chicago, Illinois; Scripps Institution ofOceanography, California; and several others.

144 Klein, George D.

Portrait of George Klein (Courtesy of George Klein)

George Klein has led an extremely productivecareer. He is an author of some 137 articles in in-ternational journals, governmental reports, fieldguidebooks, and professional volumes. Several ofthese establish new processes in sedimentology. Heis the author or editor of eight books and volumes.His book, Sandstone Depositional Models for Explo-ration for Fossil Fuels, has been reprinted in threeeditions. Other books and volumes include TidalSedimentation and Clastic Tidal Facies. He has alsowritten some 41 technical reports for companies,societies, and trade magazines. Klein received nu-merous awards for his contributions to the profes-sion. He received the Outstanding Paper Awardfrom the Society of Economic Paleontologists andMineralogists (SEPM) in 1970 and honorablemention in 1971. He received the Laurence L.Sloss Award from the Geological Society of Amer-ica in 2000. He was awarded a Citation of Recog-nition from the Illinois House of Representativesand the Erasmus Haworth Distinguished AlumnusAward from the University of Kansas, both in1980. He was a Senior Fulbright Research Fellowin 1989 and Senior Research Fellow for the JapanSociety for the Promotion of Science in 1983. Atthe University of Illinois, he was twice an associateat the Center for Advanced Study, and he receivedan Outstanding Faculty Award.

Klein has performed outstanding service tothe profession. He has served as member andchair of numerous committees and panels for theAmerican Association of Petroleum Geologists,Geological Society of America, Society of Sedi-mentary Geology of SEPM, International Associ-ation of Sedimentologists, Global SedimentaryGeology Program, JOIDES (Joint OceanographicProgram), DOSECC (Deep Drilling of Conti-nents), and the Society for Exploration Geophysi-cists, among others. He served in numerouseditorial roles including associate editor for theGeological Society of America Bulletin and on theeditorial board for Geology, Sedimentary Geology,and Journal of Geodynamics, and numerous advi-sory boards for publishing companies.

5 Kuno, Hisashi(1910–1969)JapaneseIgneous Petrologist

Hisashi Kuno was one of the greatest volcanolo-gists of the 20th century. He had to overcome alanguage barrier to publish his studies in interna-tional literature. Perhaps his most famous workwas the study of Japanese volcanoes, in which hediscovered an association between how the sourceof various basaltic rocks is distributed relative tothe depths of earthquake foci. He found thattholeiite basaltic magma is produced at less than200 kilometers and alkali olivine basaltic magmais produced at greater than 200 kilometers. Withadditional research, he also found that there is ahigh alumina basalt magma, which lies betweenthe two magmas in composition and forms at anintermediate depth. This hypothesis sparked in-terest among fellow petrologists. Several petrolo-gists decided to test this model. HATTEN S. YODER

JR. and ALFRED E. RINGWOOD, among others,conducted several different experiments at hightemperatures and pressures on laboratory con-structed systems that contained olivine, pyroxene,and natural rocks. Many of these experimentsconcluded that Kuno’s hypothesis was correct.

One of his earliest papers, entitled, “Petrolog-ical Notes on Some Pyroxene Andesites fromHakone Volcano,” was well received. This earlierwork and subsequent papers were evidence of hisremarkable talents as a field petrologist. Kuno’sfield data and optical data were evidence of hishard work and natural ability to observe geologi-cal characteristics. He researched and discoveredhow the mineral pyroxene crystallized from mag-mas. The key to this important discovery is thegroundmass minerals, which are the materials sur-rounding the phenocrysts (a relatively large, con-spicuous crystal) of a volcanic rock.

Kuno also produced the world-famous andoften-cited Catalog of Active Volcanoes. His 1954book, Volcanoes and Volcanic Rocks, was used

Kuno, Hisashi 145

throughout Japan as a standard textbook. Hetraveled to Hawaii to conduct research onHawaiian magmas. Kuno’s research paper on histravels, “Differentiation of Hawaiian Magmas,”illustrates his idea that a possibility exists thatgranitic magma can be generated from tholeiiticmagma.

Hisashi Kuno also conducted research onmany other aspects of volcanology, including suchtopics as the development of the craterlikecalderas that sit atop volcanoes, volcanic eruptionsbased on pyroclastic materials, and the origins ofandesite and petrographic provinces. During thelast years of his career, Kuno became extremely in-terested in the petrology of the Moon. He workedwith NASA as a principal investigator on the ac-quisition of lunar samples.

Hisashi Kuno was born on January 7, 1910,in Tokyo, Japan, where he grew up. His parentssent him to Sendai to complete his studies at theSecond High School. Even though he was veryinterested in geology, he spent much of his timeon extracurricular activities. In 1929, he enrolledin the Geological Institute of the University ofTokyo and studied petrology. He earned a bache-lor of sciences degree in geology in 1933, and re-mained at the University of Tokyo for graduatestudies. In 1939, he was appointed to the facultyat the University of Tokyo, but was drafted inthe armed forces in 1941 to fight in World WarII. He was stationed in northeastern Chinathroughout the war. He returned to academia in1946, but did not finish his Ph.D. until 1950.In 1951 and 1952, he was invited to collaboratewith HARRY H. HESS at Princeton University,New Jersey, on the study of pyroxenes, and as aresult became internationally known. Kuno waspromoted to full professor of petrology in 1955,a position he would hold until his untimelydeath resulting from cancer on August 6, 1969,in Tokyo. His wife Kimiko and two children sur-vived him.

Hisashi Kuno was the author of numerous sci-entific articles in both English and Japanese in in-ternational and national journals and professionalvolumes. Several of his papers on igneous processesin volcanoes and volcanic rocks are benchmarks inigneous petrology. In recognition of his contribu-tions to the profession, Hisashi Kuno had severalgreat honors and awards bestowed upon him. Hewas a member of the U.S. National Academy ofSciences and an honorary member of numerousprofessional societies. His most prestigious awardwas the Japan Academy Prize, which he received in1954. He also served in a leadership role in manysocieties, including president of the VolcanologicalSociety of Japan, the Geological Society of Japan,and the International Association of Volcanologyand Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior, as well asvice president of the International Union ofGeodesy and Geophysics.

146 Kuno, Hisashi

Hisashi Kuno (front left) on a visit to Boston College,Massachusetts (Courtesy of James Skehan, S.J.)

5 Landing, Ed(1949– )AmericanPaleontologist, Stratigrapher

Coming of age in the 1960s, Ed Landing main-tained parallel interests and energy for socialchange and the study of paleontology and its usein biostratigraphy (relative time correlation ofsedimentary rocks). He is one of the foremost ex-perts of one of the most profound transitions inthe geologic record, the Cambrian-Precambrianboundary. This boundary marks the demise of arich diversity of invertebrate animals that lackedshells. These soft-bodied Ediacarian animals,named for a sequence of strata particularly rich infossils in Australia, include soft corals, jellyfishand wormlike forms. They were replaced by awhole new group of hard-shelled invertebrate ani-mals in the Cambrian. Many of these organismswere the ancestors of the marine invertebrates oftoday. The current global reference rock sectionfor this boundary is located at Fortune Head,eastern Newfoundland, Canada, and Landingand associates established it. This area is part ofthe Avalon Terrane, which records part of thebuilding of the supercontinent Rodinia, but thetype section is in the overlying breakup sequence.Landing and his colleagues studied evolutionarychanges in metazoans through this period and de-

termined the actual beginning of the Cambrianby a change in the behavior of the animals. Thegeologic community deemed this careful work ona very complete section in the Avalon terrane thebest of its kind. Other top researchers, like SAM A.BOWRING collaborated with Landing on thiswork to tightly define the actual age of the strataby performing uranium-lead geochronology oninterlayered volcanic units. Ed Landing has pro-duced some of the seminal works on this impor-tant time interval and he is in great demand fortalks and papers for volumes.

The Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in an-cient Avalon is not the only area of expertise forEd Landing. He has also done extensive work inthe Cambrian to Ordovician-age rocks of the shal-low shelf and in the outboard Taconic sequence ofNew York, Vermont, Quebec, and west New-foundland. These rocks were formed offshore ofthe ancient Laurentian (North American) conti-nent. They are mostly from deep water. He stud-ied enigmatic animals like graptolites andconodonts within these rocks and shed some lighton this mysterious group of rocks. He proposedthat the black shale in this sequence reflects peri-ods of global warming and stagnation of theworld’s oceans whereas green shale reflects fallingsea levels and glaciation. Landing also docu-mented a unique early Paleozoic reef made com-pletely of snails.

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148 Lehmann, Inge

Ed Landing was born on August 10, 1949,in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and he grew up in PortWashington, to the north of the city. He attendedUniversity of Wisconsin at Madison, where hegraduated with a bachelor’s of science degree withhonors in geology in 1971. He earned a master’sof science degree and a Ph.D. in geology from theUniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1975 and1978, respectively. His theses were both in earlyPaleozoic paleontology and biostratigraphy. Edthen completed several postdoctoral research posi-tions. His first position was in 1978–79, at Uni-versity of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, where heworked on early Ordovician conodonts fromDevon Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Henext held a prestigious National Research Councilpostdoctoral assistantship in 1979–80, at the U.S.Geological Survey in Denver, Colorado, where heworked on late Cambrian-early Ordovician con-odonts and stratigraphy of the Bear River Range,Utah–Idaho. Finally, he was a postdoctoral fellow

at the University of Toronto, Canada, in 1980–81where he worked in Jasper National Park, south-ern Canadian Rocky Mountains, Alberta. He washired as a senior scientist-paleontology by theNew York State Geological Survey in 1981, andbecame the seventh New York State paleontolo-gist, following such notables as Don Fisher,Rudolf Ruddeman, and James Hall. In 1996, hewas promoted from senior scientist to the onlyprincipal scientist in the New York State Geologi-cal Survey. He lives in Albany, New York, withJeanne Finley.

Ed Landing has edited 10 professional vol-umes and been an author of 99 peer-reviewedprofessional articles. He received the 1990 BestPaper Award from the Paleontological Society. Hewas also recognized in the State of New York Leg-islative Assembly (number 479) for establishingthe Precambrian-Cambrian boundary global stra-totype. Ed Landing has had continuous fundingfor his research from the National Science Foun-dation for some 20 years. He is a voting memberand co-vice chair of the Cambrian Subcommis-sion of the International Stratigraphic Commis-sion and a corresponding member of the Ordo-vician Subcommission.

5 Lehmann, Inge(1888–1993)DanishGeophysicist

Inge Lehmann was not only the first true womangeophysicist, she was also the first Danish geo-physicist, among other firsts. She made funda-mental contributions to geophysics and to theunderstanding of the Earth’s structure. She en-sured her place in the history of geophysics withher 1936 paper simply titled, “P’” (P prime). Thisstudy suggested a new discontinuity in the seismicstructure of the Earth, now known as theLehmann Discontinuity. This discontinuity wasbased on the diffraction of seismic waves and

New York State Paleontologist Ed Landing in hisoffice (Courtesy of Ed Landing)

Lehmann, Inge 149

marks to boundary between the solid inner coreand liquid outer core of the Earth. Before that theinner core was not known; now it is a basic piecein the architecture of the Earth. However,Lehmann did not stop at the Earth’s core. Shesubsequently began studying body-wave ampli-tudes and travel times in the upper mantle andbecame an expert there as well. She proposed a220-km discontinuity (also named after her)based upon seismic velocities and would figureprominently in plate tectonic models and morerecent seismic tomography.

Because Inge Lehmann was a real organizer inestablishing seismic networks, she was invited tobecome significantly involved in nuclear testmonitoring. She helped design and implementthe Worldwide Standardized Seismographic Net-work, which was extensively used during the coldwar. She played a pivotal role in both the moni-toring and interpretation of the seismic expressionof these nuclear tests. Standards were establishedto estimate timing, location, and strength of thetests as well as test-ban treaties. Her contributionswere therefore not only to the Earth sciences, butthe public as well.

Inge Lehmann was born on May 13, 1888,at Osterboro by the Lakes in Copenhagen, Den-mark, where she grew up. Her father, AlfredLehmann, was a professor of psychology at theUniversity of Copenhagen. Inge Lehman at-tended an enlightened coeducational school thatwas run by Hannah Adler, an aunt of Niels Bohr.She entered the University of Copenhagen in1907 to study mathematics and passed the firstpart of the examination in 1910. She was admit-ted to Newham College in Cambridge Univer-sity, England, where she spent one year beforedropping out of school. Instead of college, sheworked as an actuary for the next six years. Shereentered the University of Copenhagen in 1918,and graduated with a master of science degree inmathematics in 1920. By 1923, Lehmann was anassistant to the professor of actuarial science atthe University of Copenhagen, but in 1925 she

switched to assisting in setting up the first seis-mic networks in Denmark and then Greenland.In 1928, she earned a second master of sciencedegree in geodesy and was appointed as the chiefof the seismological department in the newly es-tablished Royal Danish Geodetic Institute.Lehmann remained in this position until her re-tirement in 1953. She described herself as the“only Danish seismologist.” In 1952, she wasfirst invited to be a visiting scientist at the La-mont-Doherty Geological Observatory. Shewould visit several other times in 1957–1958,1960, 1962–1964 and 1968. She was also a visit-ing scientist at the Dominion Observatory in Ot-tawa, Canada (1954, 1957, 1965, 1968), and theUniversity of California at Berkeley (1952, 1954,1965, 1968), as well as the California Institute ofTechnology. Inge Lehmann died in 1993 at 105years old.

Inge Lehmann was an author of numerousscientific articles in both Danish and English. Sev-eral of these are benchmarks on the deep structureof the Earth as well as the travel of seismic waves.She published with some of the most notable geo-physicists ever, including Sir Harold Jeffreys,BENO GUTENBERG, FRANK PRESS, and W. MAU-RICE EWING, among others. In recognition of hervast contributions to geophysics and the under-standing of the internal structure of the Earth,Lehmann received numerous honors and awards.She was awarded honorary doctorates fromColumbia University and the University ofCopenhagen. She received the Gold Medal fromthe Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Let-ters, the William Bowie Medal from the AmericanGeophysical Union, the Emil Weichert Medalfrom the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft,the Medal of the Seismological Society of America(first woman), two Tagea Brandt Awards fromDenmark, the Harry Oscar Wood Award in seis-mology, and she was named an Honorary Fellowof the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Scotland. TheAmerican Geophysical Union named an award inher honor.

Lehmann was also very active in service to theprofession. She was one of the founding membersof the Danish Geophysical Society of which shewas chair in 1941 and 1944. She was the firstpresident of the European Seismological Federa-tion (1950) and the vice president of the Interna-tional Association of Seismology and Physics ofthe Earth’s Interior (1963–1967), as well as amember of the executive committee.

5 Liebermann, Robert C.(1942– )AmericanGeophysicist, Mineral Physicist

Geophysicists who study the travel of seismicwaves through the mantle of the Earth havefound that the velocities of these waves vary withdepth and location. Seismic imaging of the man-tle indicates that processes appear to vary spa-tially as well. Considering that we cannot visit orsample these places, how can we tell what thesevariations represent? The answer is to studyphysics and chemistry of minerals under simu-lated high pressure and temperature conditions.Robert Liebermann is among the foremost ex-perts in this field. He and two colleagues estab-lished a Center for High Pressure (CHiPR)beginning in 1985 with facilities that are the firstof their kind in North America. There are twolarge volume high-pressure devices. One of thesegenerates 2,000 tons of force and the other isused for synthesizing materials at pressures to 250kilobars and temperatures to 2,500°C. The sec-ond is a cubic anvil that is installed at the Na-tional Synchotron Light Sources, a high-energysource of X rays at the Brookhaven National Lab-oratory. The research that Liebermann conductsincludes the transformation of minerals in re-sponse to pressure. Just as graphite converts to di-amond with pressure, so do other mineralschange their form, becoming denser with eachchange. The new higher-pressure minerals and

their transformations are studied both with Xrays and electron microscopy to determine theactual mechanisms by which the transformationtakes place. The velocity of seismic waves of thenew minerals and even the transformation statesis then measured and compiled as a function ofpressure and temperature even under these ex-treme conditions. Liebermann then compares theobserved velocities of seismic waves in the deepEarth with this experimental information. By thismethod, he can interpret the mineralogy andcomposition of the Earth as a function of depthand discuss the implications for large-scale dy-namic processes of the Earth’s interior. The re-search involves the study of numerous differentmineral species typically with colleagues who in-vestigate the same systems under less extremeconditions. This research even has application tosuperconductive materials, as many are formed orexist under these extreme conditions. Althoughhe has done more typical geophysical research aswell, Liebermann’s real contributions to the sci-ence are more uniquely to provide geophysicistswith guidelines to more accurately interpret theresults of their observations on mantle processes.In this important function, he is among the topfew authorities in the world. Several of the papersby Liebermann on these topics include “ElasticProperties of Minerals, Mineral Physics and Geo-physics” and “Material Sciences of the Earth’sDeep Interior.”

Robert Liebermann was born on February6, 1942, in Ellwood City, California. He at-tended the California Institute of Technologywhere he was an Alfred P. Sloan Scholar. Heearned a bachelor of science degree in geophysicsin 1964. He attended graduate school at the La-mont-Doherty Geological Observatory ofColumbia University, New York, where heearned a Ph.D. in geophysics in 1969. He was aresearch scientist at Lamont-Doherty Observa-tory in 1969–1970 and a research fellow at Cali-fornia Institute of Technology in 1970. Heserved as a research fellow and a senior research

150 Liebermann, Robert C.

fellow at the Australian National University inSydney from 1970 to 1976, where he workedwith ALFRED E. RINGWOOD. He joined the fac-ulty at the State University of New York at StonyBrook in 1976, and he remains there today.Liebermann was named a distinguished serviceprofessor in 1996, a title which he still holds. Hehas been chair of the department from 1997 to2001 and associate director of the MineralPhysics Institute at Stony Brook since 1993. Henow serves as interim dean of the College of Artsand Sciences at Stony Brook. He has been a vis-iting professor numerous times throughout hiscareer at schools like University of Tokyo, Japan,University of Paris VII, France, Australian Na-tional University, and others. Liebermann ismarried with three children.

Robert Liebermann has led a very productivecareer. He is an author of some 134 articles in in-

ternational journals and professional volumes.Many of these papers are benchmarks in mineralphysics. As a result of the respect he has earned inthe profession through his research contributions,Liebermann has been invited into several of themost prestigious groups in the world. He has beena member of several committees for the NationalAcademy of Sciences and the National ResearchCouncil. He represented the United States in sev-eral U.S.–Japan High Pressure Research Seminars.He has served on numerous committees and pan-els for the American Geophysical Union, the U.S.Geodynamics Committee, and the InternationalAssociation of Seismology and Physics of theEarth’s Interior. Liebermann has also served nu-merous editorial roles including associate editor ofGeophysical Research Letters and associate editor,section editor, and senior editor of Journal of Geo-physical Research.

Liebermann, Robert C. 151

Robert Liebermann (right) at the Center for High Pressure Research at State University of New York at Stony Brookwith Dr. Gwanmesia (center) and a summer scholar (Courtesy of Robert Liebermann)

5 Lindsley, Donald H.(1934– )AmericanPetrologist, Geochemist

Sometimes fate has a way of bringing together thebest people into just the right field at just theright time. This is the case with Donald Lindsley.His primary interest through a good part of hiscareer was in the mafic and accessory minerals ina basalt and especially in Fe-Ti oxides. His paper,“Experimental Study of Oxide Minerals,” is aclassic. He started his career just before the studyof basalt was to become critical in several areas ofgeology. During this time, through experimentaland theoretical thermodynamic research, he de-veloped many of the tools that would be used tostudy basalts. These tools include methods to tellthe temperature at which basalts erupted, in addi-tion to how oxidized they were and how much ofa role silica played in the chemistry and mineral-ogy. His work on Fe-Ti oxides was especially pop-ular, but work on pyroxenes and olivine was alsotimely. He developed unique graphical methodsto solve the quantitative results. A computer pro-gram and a series of papers to apply these meth-ods are entitled, “Equilibria among Fe-Ti Oxides,Pyroxenes, Olivine and Quartz.” This work camejust as the deep-ocean drilling project became aregular and popular research area, as well as whenthe first lunar samples were being brought toEarth. Both of these sources contain overwhelm-ing amounts of basalt. At that time, the StateUniversity of New York decided to build a world-class geology department at the Stony Brook,Long Island, campus where only a small one hadexisted before. This new powerhouse departmentincluded many analytical experts, but even moreimportant, many experts on mafic rocks and py-roxenes, in particular. This group developed someof the most fundamental concepts about lunarpetrology. Don Lindsley was one of the founding

members of this department and participated inthe heyday of its success.

After the Apollo missions ended and thefuror over lunar processes subsided, Don Lindsleyreturned to his roots and began a more tradi-tional field petrology research career. He began astudy on the Laramie Anorthosite Complex whileon a visit to the University of Wyoming in 1979purely by accident. He was stranded in a snow-storm and just happened to look at the rocks forcuriosity’s sake. It took a while for that researchto reach a self-sustaining level because the profes-sion regarded Lindsley as an experimentalist. Hepersevered and the research has now lasted 21years, most of which have been quite successful.Much of this research involves the field-testingand application of the earlier experimental andtheoretical work.

Donald Lindsley was born on May 22, 1934,in Princeton, New Jersey. He spent several years inCharlottesville, Virginia, where much of his interestin minerals came from spending time on the Uni-versity of Virginia campus. He attended PrincetonUniversity, New Jersey, where he earned a bachelorof arts degree in geology with high honors in 1956.He earned a doctoral degree in geology with aminor in physical chemistry from the Johns Hop-kins University in 1961. His first professional posi-tion was as petrologist at the GeophysicalLaboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-ton from 1962 to 1970. During this time he wasalso a visiting associate professor at California Insti-tute of Technology (1969). In 1970, he joined thefaculty at the State University of New York at StonyBrook, where he still remains as a professor ofpetrology. He was awarded the title of distinguishedprofessor in 2001. He was visiting professor severaltimes during his tenure at Stony Brook. Don Linds-ley is married and has three children.

Donald Lindsley has been leading a very pro-ductive career. He is an author of numerous articlesin international journals and professional volumes,many of which are benchmark studies on oxidethermodynamics, among others. He has received

152 Lindsley, Donald H.

several honors and awards for his work includinghaving a new Ba chromium-titanate mineralnamed after him as “lindsleyite” in 1983. He re-ceived the Roebling Medal from the MineralogicalSociety of America in 1996.

Don Lindsley’s service to the profession hasbeen outstanding. He was especially active in theMineralogical Society of America, where he wascouncilor in 1972 to 1973, vice president in 1981,and president in 1982. He served as associate editorfor American Mineralogist from 1984 to 1987, andwas the editor for the Reviews in Mineralogy (vol-ume 25) on oxides. He was equally active in theGeochemical Society, where he served on the pro-gram committee from 1969 to 1971, as councilorfrom 1977 to 1980, as vice president from 1989 to1991, and as president from 1991 to 1993.

5 Logan, Sir William Edmond(1798–1875)CanadianEconomic Geologist

William E. Logan is generally considered the “fa-ther of Canadian geology.” His story is straightout of a Horatio Alger novel in that he never re-ceived formal training in geology. Instead, hespent more than 20 years in the area of account-ing and copper smelter management and justpicked up geology as an outside interest. The be-ginning of his work and research in geology re-sulted from his interest in understandingeconomic minerals, such as coal and ores, as an es-tablished middle-aged man. He began to gainrecognition among Britain’s top geologists for hismapping abilities of coal seams and ore deposits.It was for this reason that Logan was selected toestablish the Geological Survey of Canada in1842. Logan headed the survey for nearly 25 yearsand his geologic achievements and his work as anadministrator and financial planner enabled himto gain national and international attention.

William Logan’s contributions to geologywere significant. He presented a paper to the Geo-logical Society of London in 1840 on Welsh coalseams. He noted the invariable presence of under-clays, containing plant remains in the footwall ofeach seam. With this paper, he established the for-mation of coal in situ (in place) from the meta-morphosis of organic deposits. He confirmed thistheory by surveying coal deposits in North Amer-ica as well.

His other main contribution was to the un-derstanding of the geology of Canada. In his roleas director of the Geological Survey of Canada, by1850, Logan had mapped the Gaspé Peninsula,parts of the Eastern Townships south of the St.Lawrence River, and the area around Lakes On-tario, Erie, Huron, and Superior. He defined threemajor geological units: folded Paleozoic rocks ofGaspé and the Eastern Townships (Eastern Divi-sion), flat-lying Paleozoic rocks extending west

Logan, Sir William Edmond 153

Portrait of Don Lindsley (Courtesy of Mary Lou Stewart)

from Montreal to Lake Huron (Western Division),and Primitive (Precambrian) rocks to the north(Northern Division). Many of his observationswere based on their structure and stratigraphy, onthe absence of coal, and on the potential for eco-nomic ores in the Lake Superior region. Logan wasable to produce maps and reports, and classify theeconomic minerals and deposits of Canada with allthe information he collected. He continued to ex-tend his work throughout his career.

William Edmond Logan was born in Mon-treal, Canada, on April 20, 1798. At age 16,William was sent to Edinburgh, Scotland, to at-tend high school. Upon graduation at age 18, hedecided to remain and attend Edinburgh Univer-sity. He studied logic, chemistry, and mathemat-ics. He remained at the university for just oneyear before joining his uncle in London, En-gland, to work in his accounting house. He re-mained at this position from 1817–1831, wherehe excelled at business and management. In1831, Logan traveled to Wales to work in anotherof his uncle’s businesses, the Forest CopperWorks. He worked with practical miners and sur-veyors in the coalfields. He became joint managerof the Copper Works in 1833 and began estab-lishing quite a reputation as a knowledgeable andfield-oriented geologist in Wales. Logan wasfounder of the Swansea Philosophical and Liter-ary Institution and honorary curator of its geo-logical section. He was elected in 1837 to theGeological Society of London. During this timehe also exhibited his geological maps of theGlamorganshire coalfield. Logan’s maps caughtthe attention of Henry De la Beche, who was di-rector of the Ordinance Geological Survey ofGreat Britain. The maps were so detailed andflawless that they were published without beingrevised.

In 1838, his uncle passed away and Loganresigned from his job at the Copper Works. Heleft Swansea in Southern Wales and pursued hisgeological interests. He visited the coalfields inPennsylvania and Nova Scotia to continue verify-

ing his observations in the Welsh coals. It was atthis time that he applied for a job with the Ordi-nance Geological Survey in 1841. Canadian gov-ernor general Sir Charles Bagot offered Logan theposition, and he accepted it on April 14, 1842.This was the birth of the Geological Survey ofCanada.

Logan had a hard task ahead of him due tothe political conditions of the times. He neededto convince the government and the public of theusefulness of the geological survey. To everyone’ssurprise, he did so by using practicality and edu-cating the people. Another mammoth task he hadahead of him was the geological mapping of thehuge Canadian colony. The geology of Canadawas unknown and there were no topographicmaps at that time. Logan’s home base was locatedin Montreal, where he put together maps, pre-pared reports, researched and examined fossil andmineral specimens, and dealt with the govern-ment politics that went along with his position.There was never enough funding, so Logan oftenused his own money to continue his research andto keep his office running. Logan constantly lob-bied legislators and submitted a geological surveybill that was passed in 1845. It provided £2,000annually for the next five years.

By 1863, Logan and his associates hadenough mapping completed to release his famousreport, “Geological Survey of Canada: Report ofProgress from its Commencement to 1863.” Thisreport was supposed to be his swan song, but heremained director of the Geological Survey until1869 when he retired. Even then, he returned asacting director on more than one occasion. In1874, he returned to Wales to live with his sister,still intent on more geological work. However,his health failed and he died on June 22, 1875.

The contributions of William Logan to thegeology of Canada cannot be overemphasized.Against overwhelming odds, he almost single-handedly established the framework for all Cana-dian geology that was to follow. In recognition ofthese vast contributions, William Logan received

154 Logan, Sir William Edmond

numerous prestigious honors and awards. He wasknighted by Queen Victoria in 1856 and namedto the French Legion of Honor by EmperorNapoleon III in 1855. He was elected a Fellow ofthe Royal Society of London in 1851. He receivedan honorary doctorate from McGill University,Canada, and the University of Lennoxville.Among 22 medals bestowed upon him, he re-

ceived the Wollaston Medal of the Geological So-ciety of London 1856. The most prestigiousmedal of the Geological Association of Canada isnamed in his honor. Among all of the fossils and amineral (weloganite), he even has two mountainsnamed after him; one is the highest point inCanada.

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5 Mahood, Gail A.(1951– )AmericanPetrologist, Geochemist

The most common and well-known divergentboundary is a mid-ocean ridge. Indeed, in the lifeof a margin where plates pull apart, they mark itfor probably 99 percent of the time. They pro-duce only basalt volcanism. However, most ofthese boundaries begin on continental crust.These early stages of rifting are very complex inmany ways, including volcanism. Not only isthere basalt volcanism, as in the later stages, butthere also may be rhyolite or silicic volcanism aswell. Gail Mahood is one of the foremost expertson this rare and complex volcanic activity. Rhyo-lites are blends of magmas resulting from partialcrystallization of the basalts and from partialmelting of continental crust through which thebasalt travels. Because the composition of thebasalt and lower crust vary, the composition ofthe rhyolite is also highly variable. This variabilityoccurs on the major element scale, but even moreso on the minor and trace element scale. Becauserhyolites are the last bits of liquid in a crystalliz-ing basalt or the first bits of melt from heatedcrust, they contain only the lowest temperatureminerals, as well as all of the elements that do notfit into standard minerals known as incompatible

elements. Mahood uses these elements and iso-topes, both stable and radioactive, to unravel theprocesses of formation of rhyolitic magmas.These elements can not only help to determinethe source of the magma but also the igneousprocesses that occur during the ascent and erup-tion of these rocks. One of her more notable pa-pers is “Synextensional Magmatism in the Basinand Range Province; A Study from the EasternGreat Basin.”

Gail Mahood is also interested in the me-chanics of the volcanic eruptions. Rhyolite tendsto be very sticky and viscous. Coupled with a po-tentially and commonly high water content thatexplodes to steam as the eruption occurs, thesevolcanoes can be very dangerous. They produceenormous amounts of ash in highly explosiveeruptions with high eruption columns that resultin widespread ash deposits. The biggest volcaniceruptions in North America in recent geologichistory were from rhyolite volcanoes. Mahoodstudies several of these famous deposits like theBishop Tuff but also several others from thesouthwestern United States, especially in Califor-nia and Colorado. Her paper, “Correlation of AshFlow Tuffs,” is seminal reading. She has also doneextensive research on rhyolite volcanoes fromnorthwestern Mexico and in Alaska and Italy. Ad-ditionally Mahood has investigated the ancientmagma chambers that fed the rhyolite volcanoes

M

in the Sierra Nevada, California, and the Andes ofChile.

Mahood has applied her geologic research toMesoamerican archaeology, where she also has astrong interest. Obsidian (volcanic glass) is com-monly produced in these rhyolite volcanoes. Ma-hood provides constraints on migration andtrading routes by determining the source of obsid-ian, which was used extensively in tools andweapons by the native peoples of the southwest-ern United States, Mexico, and Central America.

Gail Mahood was born on June 27, 1951, inOakland, California. She enrolled at the Universityof California at Berkeley in 1969, but left collegeafter one tumultuous year. She enrolled at the Col-lege of Marin in Kentfield, California, in 1971,but returned to the University of California atBerkeley the next year. She earned a bachelor ofarts degree in geology in 1974, and remained forgraduate studies. She earned a Ph.D in 1980 as anadvisee of IAN S. CARMICHAEL. During her gradu-ate career she was a National Science FoundationFellow as well as a geologist for the Proyecto Ar-queologico Copan in Honduras. In 1979, Mahoodjoined the faculty at Stanford University, Califor-nia, where she remains today. She served as chairof the department from 1996 to 1999. She was avisiting professor at Pennsylvania State Universityat State College in 1983 and at the University ofMichigan at Ann Arbor in 1989 under a NationalScience Foundation program. Gail Mahood ismarried to Wes Hildreth, a well-known volcanolo-gist/petrologist with the U.S. Geological Survey.

Gail Mahood is amid a productive career. Sheis an author of some 45 articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes. Many of theseare seminal papers on igneous processes, especiallyvolcanic, and appear in high-profile journals likeScience and Nature. Gail Mahood has performedoutstanding service to the profession. In additionto serving on numerous committees and panels,she served as councilor for the Geological Societyof America in 1996 to 1999. She also served onseveral committees for the American Geophysical

Union and panels for the National Science Foun-dation, National Research Council, and she eventestified before the U.S. Congress on the role ofthe U.S. Geological Survey. Mahood served in nu-merous editorial roles as well. She was the found-ing editor of Proceedings in Volcanology at theInternational Association of Volcanology andChemistry of the Earth’s Interior, the executiveeditor and a member of the editorial board for theBulletin of Volcanology, and an associate editor forthe Geological Society of America Bulletin. She ad-ditionally served as an external reviewer for thegeology department at Dalhousie University inHalifax, Canada.

5 Marshak, Stephen(1955– )AmericanStructural Geologist

After the assembly of continental masses is com-plete, the stable craton of the continental interioris considered to be an inactive area. Consideringthat the assembly of most cratons somewhat re-sembles a war, it is not surprising that the postwarmight be overlooked. Stephen Marshak hasbrought attention to and shown the importanceof the tectonic development of continental interi-ors. He studies folds and faults that form alongdiscrete zones of great length within areas of noother activity. They commonly exert very strongcontrols on depositional patterns and basin devel-opment but they also form the locus of earth-quake activity, including current seismicity.Considering that the New Madrid seismic zone,which produced the most powerful earthquakes inthe continental United States of Richter magni-tude 8.4 and 8.8 in 1811–1812, is one such zoneof activity, this study is very important. They alsoserve as sensitive indicators of changing states ofstress inside of continents. The problem is thatsuch zones are barely ever exposed. Their docu-mentation is mostly done using geophysical logs

Marshak, Stephen 157

showing the distribution of rock types from oiland gas wells and from seismic reflection profiles,which are like a sonogram of the subsurface. Mostof this research has been conducted on the inte-rior United States.

Prior to this new interest, Stephen Marshakwas primarily known for his work on fold andthrust belts in the active part of continents. Thesethick layers of sedimentary rocks are slid like a rugon a floor ahead of an advancing continental colli-sion. They took on great interest in the 1970s be-cause they are areas of significant oil and gasaccumulation. Marshak not only performs fieldstudies to identify the detailed processes in thesebelts, he also attempts analog experiments usingsand and clay models and computer simulations.Most of this work concentrates on the three-di-mensional structures and processes. He is espe-cially well known for his work on the developmentof map view curves in these otherwise ruler-straight belts. The field areas for this research in-clude the Appalachians, the Rocky Mountains,and Australia.

To make sure that he leaves no stone un-turned in terms of the depth and intensity of fea-tures, Stephen Marshak also studies thedevelopment of heavily deformed and metamor-phosed rocks in Brazil. He has concentrated on

the development of dome and keel structureswhich apparently result from collapse of the oro-gen subsequent to collision but his interest ex-tends to many aspects of Precambrian tectonicprocesses. Much of his Brazilian research is fo-cussed on the São Francisco craton where he hasnot only studied structural geology, but also thetectonic events and their ages.

Stephen Marshak was born on March 4,1955, in Rochester, New York. He is the son ofthe famous physicist Robert E. Marshak, whoworked on the Manhattan Project during WorldWar II and later was a faculty member at theUniversity of Rochester, New York. Stephen Mar-shak attended Cornell University, New York,where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in geol-ogy with distinction in 1976. He earned a masterof science degree in geology from the Universityof Arizona in Tucson in 1979. Later, he attendedColumbia University, New York, where he earneda Ph.D. in geology in 1983. Upon graduation,Marshak joined the faculty at the University ofIllinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he remainstoday. He has served as department head from1999 to present. He has also held visiting ap-pointments at the Federal University of OuroPrêto, Brazil; Lamont-Doherty Geological Obser-vatory, New York; the University of Adelaide,Australia; and the University of Leicester, En-gland, during his tenure at the University of Illi-nois. Steven Marshak is married to KathrynMarshak; they have two children.

Steven Marshak is amid a very productive ca-reer. He is an author of some 55 scientific articlesin international journals, professional volumes,and governmental reports. Many of these papersare seminal reading on the processes of structuralgeology as well as regional distribution of struc-tural styles. He is also an author or editor of fivetextbooks and professional volumes. Several of thetextbooks, including Basic Methods of StructuralGeology, Earth Structure: An Introduction to Struc-tural Geology and Tectonics, and Earth, Portrait of aPlanet, are widely adopted and regarded as of the

158 Marshak, Stephen

Steve Marshak at an exposure of deformed rocks inBrazil (Courtesy of Steve Marshak)

highest quality. Marshak has received numeroushonors and awards in recognition of his contribu-tions, both in terms of research and teaching. Hereceived the Stilwell Medal from the AustralianJournal of Earth Science and several teachingawards from the University of Illinois, includingthe Luckman Undergraduate DistinguishedTeaching Award, the Prokasy Award, the AmocoFoundation Award, and the University of IllinoisCourse Development Award.

Marshak has also performed extensive serviceto the profession. He has served on several panelsfor the National Science Foundation, numerousfunctions for the Geological Society of Americaespecially in the Division of Structural Geologyand Tectonics, and as a board member for boththe International Basement Tectonics Associationand the Illinois State Surveys. He was an associateeditor for Geology, a member of the editorialboard for Tectonophysics and coeditor for theAmerican Geological Institute Glossary of Geology.Marshak was also an external evaluator for theUniversity of São Paulo, Brazil.

5 Matthews, Drummond H.(1931–1997)BritishGeophysicist

Drummond Matthews helped revolutionize ourunderstanding of the lithosphere of the Earth. Hewas trained as a geologist but applied that back-ground to geophysical applications with outstand-ing success. His most famous research was thatdone with Fred Vine. They were involved in anexpedition to the Indian Ocean, where they per-formed a detailed geophysical survey over part ofthe crest of the Carlsberg Ridge in the northwest-ern part of the ocean. They discovered a large areaof reversely magnetized ocean crust. This was thefirst major discovery of direct evidence of HARRY

H. HESS’s concept of Sea-Floor Spreading. Whatensued was a foot race between an American team

led by ALLAN V. COX and the Vine and Matthewsteam to fully document the evidence and pro-cesses of mid-ocean ridges. Both teams con-tributed significantly to this, the most importantsupport for the plate tectonic paradigm.

As a reward for this groundbreaking research,Drummond Matthews was put in charge of themarine geophysics group at Cambridge Univer-sity, United Kingdom. This group participated insome 72 cruises and expeditions. They did re-search on plate boundaries in several key locationslike Azores Gibraltar Ridge, the Gulf of Oman,the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean Seas, andin the North Sea, where they were the first to doc-ument crustal thinning. This research program ledto many new insights into the development andcharacter of ocean crust.

The third major contribution that Drum-mond Matthews made to geology resulted from avisiting professorship to Cornell University inNew York. There he learned about the U.S. Con-tinental Reflection Profiling Program (COCORP)that was developed by JACK E. OLIVER and col-leagues. He modeled and developed funding for aBritish version of the program, which he calledthe British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndi-cate (BIRPS). In this program, Matthews appliedhis knowledge of marine geophysical methods toshallow shelf areas with great success. These datarevealed lower crustal and upper mantle structuresthat were previously unknown. The most signifi-cant of this work was the Deep Reflections of theUpper Mantle (affectionately called DRUM afterMatthews) work in northern Scotland. This re-search would be instrumental in applications toexploration for North Sea oil reserves as well as itsacademic implications.

Drummond Matthews was born in 1931 inPorlock, Somerset, England. He attended theBryanston School in Dorset for his primary andsecondary education. He performed his nationalservice with the Royal Navy before attendingCambridge University, where he earned a bache-lor of science degree in geology in 1955. For the

Matthews, Drummond H. 159

next two years (1955–1957), Matthews was withthe Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey, laterto become the British Antarctic Survey, mainlyon the South Orkney Islands. He returned toCambridge University to complete a Ph.D. inmarine geophysics in 1960. Upon graduation, hewas appointed as a senior assistant in research inthe Department of Geodesy and Geophysics atCambridge University, as well as a research fel-low at King’s College. From 1961 to 1963,Matthews oversaw the British contribution tothe International Indian Ocean Expedition. Itwas there that he met his first graduate student,Fred Vine. Drummond Matthews marriedRachel McMullen in 1963; they would have twochildren. In 1966, Matthews became assistantdirector of research at Cambridge University, aswell as the head of the marine geophysics group.In 1982, he became the first scientific director ofthe British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syn-dicate (BIRPS). Drummond Matthews marriedhis second wife, Sandie Adam, in 1987.Matthews suffered a heart attack in 1989, andtook an early retirement in 1990 to professoremeritus as a result of his failing health. Drum-mond Matthews died in 1997 from complica-tions from diabetes.

Drummond Matthews was an author of morethan 200 scientific publications. Several of thesepapers are true classics on plate tectonics, marinegeophysics, and lithospheric structure. In recogni-tion of these contributions to the science, Drum-mond Matthews received numerous honors andawards. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society ofLondon. He received the Bigsby Medal and theWollaston Fund from the Geological Society ofLondon, the G.P. Woollard Award from the Geo-logical Society of America, the Chapman Medalfrom the Royal Astronomical Society, the ArthurL. Day Prize from the U.S. National Academy ofSciences, the Charles Chree Medal from the Insti-tute of Physics (Great Britain), the Hughes Medalfrom the Royal Society of London, and the BalzanPrize from the Balzan Foundation.

5 McBride, Earle F.(1932– )AmericanSedimentologist

One of the main contributions of geology to so-ciety is in providing sources of energy and themain source of energy is petroleum. Petroleumreserves are contained primarily in clastic sedi-mentary rocks and especially sandstone. The un-derstanding of the processes of sands depositionand the compaction and cementation processesthat turn sand into sandstone is of utmost impor-tance to petroleum exploration. Earle McBridehas contributed significantly to our understand-ing of these processes and both indirectly and di-rectly to success in our search for petroleumreserves.

Probably most significant of this work areMcBride’s contributions to the understanding ofthe process of diagenesis. His paper “Diagenesis ofSandstone and Shale—Applications to Explorationfor Hydrocarbons” is a good example. As sandbeds are progressively buried under additional sed-iments, they mechanically compact, thus reducingthe pore space. In addition, groundwater that per-colates between the sand grains may become en-riched in dissolved minerals, which can thenprecipitate in the pore spaces. Typical precipitatedminerals include quartz and calcite, dependingupon the chemistry of the groundwater. The pre-cipitated minerals are called cement and serve tofurther reduce the pore space and also to isolatethe pores from each other thus reducing fluid andgas flow. This process significantly reduces theability of sandstone to act as a good reservoir forhydrocarbons. His paper “Quartz Cement inSandstone: A Review” summarizes much of thiswork. On the other hand, the groundwater chem-istry may change with depth and redissolve the ce-ment re-creating porosity and permeability (asdescribed in “Secondary Porosity—Importance inSandstone Reservoirs in Texas,” for example).These ideas are now the mainstay of academic re-

160 McBride, Earle F.

search on diagenesis as well as the constraints onhydrocarbon formation.

Other areas of research for McBride includethe origin of horizontal laminations in sandstoneand the origin of bedded chert. He is also theforemost expert on the sedimentary geology of thePaleozoic rocks of the Marathon Basin in westTexas. This basin is one of the larger hydrocarbonprovinces in the United States and the last area ofmarine deposition in North America during thebuilding of the supercontinent Pangea.

Earle McBride was born on May 25, 1932,in Moline, Illinois. He grew up in the QuadCities area of Illinois around the Mississippi River.He attended Augustana College in Rock Island,Illinois, and earned a bachelor of arts degree inchemistry and geology in 1954. He then attendedthe University of Missouri at Columbia where heearned a master of arts degree in geology in 1956.He earned his doctorate from the Johns HopkinsUniversity in sedimentary geology in 1960 as anadvisee of FRANCIS J. PETTIJOHN. While at JohnsHopkins, McBride worked for Shell Oil Com-pany in Texas over two summers as an explorationgeologist. In 1959, he joined the faculty at Uni-versity of Texas at Austin, where he spent his en-tire career. From 1982 to 1990, McBrideoccupied the Wilton E. Scott centennial profes-sorship. In 1990, he was named to the J. NalleGregory centennial chair in sedimentary geology,which he still holds today. He served as chairmanof the department from 1980 to 1985. Duringthat time of high oil prices, there were an amazing850 undergraduate majors and 250 graduate stu-dents. In 1975, McBride served as the MerrillHaas distinguished professor at the University ofKansas. In 1977, he was a NATO visiting profes-sor at the University of Perugia, Italy, and in1995, he was a Fulbright Fellow to Egypt.McBride wound up in jail on three occasions,once because he needed a place to sleep, once be-cause he forgot his visa while entering Japan, andonce because he was carrying a tear gas pen inEngland.

Earle McBride has had an outstanding career,as demonstrated by his more than 200 articles ininternational journals and professional volumes,as well as five books and manuals. Several of thesepapers are seminal works on sedimentology, diage-nesis, and petroleum. His research has been wellrecognized by the profession in terms of honorsand awards. While still in graduate school, he wasawarded the A.P. Green Fellowship. He receivedthree best paper awards, two from the Journal ofSedimentary Petrology and one from the GulfCoast Chapter of Society of Economic Paleontol-ogists and Mineralogists (SEPM). He was alsoawarded the Francis Pettijohn Medal from SEPMand two Houston Oil and Minerals DistinguishedFaculty Awards from the University of Texas.

Earle McBride has been of great service to theprofession. He served on numerous committeesand held numerous offices for SEPM, includingcouncilor (1967–1968), secretary-treasurer (1972–1974) and president (1979–1980). He served asvice president of the International Association ofSedimentologists from 1994 to 1998 and numer-ous functions for the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists. He was an associate editorfor Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, Journal of Sed-imentary Geology, and Journal of Scientific Explo-ration. He was also on the editorial board forGiornale di Geologia in Italy and the Egyptian Jour-nal of Petroleum Geology.

5 McKenzie, Dan P.(1942– )BritishGeophysicist

Dan McKenzie has uniquely applied techniquesof geophysics and mathematical modeling to a va-riety of geological problems. Working with SIR

EDWARD C. BULLARD, McKenzie first studied thedecay of elevated heat flow away from the mid-ocean ridges. The nature of this thermal decay is adirect reflection of the nature of the convection

McKenzie, Dan P. 161

cells in the mantle that drive the lithosphericplates. This work formed the nucleus of the manycontributions that Dan McKenzie would make togeology over the years. The first contribution wasto take the qualitative description of J. TUZO WIL-SON on the nature of transform faults and turn itinto a quantitative analysis. He showed that theslip vectors of earthquakes along the boundary be-tween the North American and Pacific plates in-tersect at a point. This became a first step inquantitative modeling of plate movement.

This initial research was expanded in severaldirections. Dan McKenzie became involved in amajor effort to model the generation of maficmagmas both at mid ocean ridges and at mantleplumes. He used both mechanical and geochemi-cal modeling to show the nature of the partialmelting of the mantle as well as the melt move-ment and extraction in these areas (see “Extrac-tion of Magma from the Crust and Mantle,” forexample). This research traces the degree of partialmelting by studying isotopes, the filtering of themagma through the partially melted rock, and thenature of the volcanoes produced in extensionalsettings as discussed in “Mantle Reservoirs andOcean Island Basalts.” His work on extension wasalso expanded to the continental crust where heattempted to devise the same sort of simple me-chanical models for rifting. He studied the me-chanics of normal faulting, the propagation of riftzones and mechanical models for the thinning ofthe crust and lithosphere (as in his “Geometry ofPropagating Rifts,” for example). Naturally, healso studied magma genesis in these areas.

In another offshoot of this work on exten-sion, McKenzie developed the basic principles ofsedimentary basin modeling. As the surface sub-sides, the resulting low will fill with sediments.There are a number of factors which control thenature of this sedimentation ranging from the rateof subsidence and active faulting, to compactionand even the heat flow and geochemical evolutionof the sediments. His paper, “The StretchingModel for Sedimentary Basins,” is a good example

of this research. The work has direct implicationsfor the generation and maturation of hydrocarbondeposits. These methods have been strongly em-ployed by the petroleum industry in explorationworldwide.

All of this modeling of the nature of theouter elastic layer of the Earth and the mantleprocesses that drive it have been applied to theouter skin of both Venus and Mars in yet anotheroffshoot of Dan McKenzie’s research. He mod-eled the dynamics of movements and magmageneration on Venus using gravity and topo-graphic information to show a very active systemsimilar to that on Earth. These are the most com-prehensive models for Venusian tectonic activity.The data for Mars has only recently been of highenough quality to perform similar analysis, buteven with the primitive data he was able to showthat some of the largest convective plumes in theMartian mantle are associated with huge dikeswarms and large canyons in many cases. In addi-tion to these extraterrestrial field areas, McKenziehas also studied many specific areas on Earth, in-cluding Iceland, Hawaii, the Aegean Sea, theSouth China Sea, South Africa, and the ZagrosMountains of Iran.

Dan McKenzie was born on February 21,1942, in London, England, where he spent hisyouth. He began his college career at WestminsterCollege in London before transferring to KingsCollege at Cambridge University, England. Heearned a bachelor of science degree in physicswith a minor in geology in 1963. He remained atCambridge University for his graduate studies andearned a Ph.D. in geophysics in 1966. McKenziewas an advisee of Sir Edward Bullard. Upon grad-uation, he accepted a position at Cambridge Uni-versity, first as assistant in research (1969–1975)and then as assistant director of research(1975–1979), reader in tectonics (1979–1984)and professor in 1984. In 1996, McKenzie wasnamed to a Royal Society research professorship atCambridge University, where he remains today.Dan McKenzie married Indira Margaret Misra in

162 McKenzie, Dan P.

1971; they have one child. McKenzie enjoys gar-dening for recreation.

Dan McKenzie’s productive career includesauthorship of some 150 scientific articles in inter-national journals and professional volumes. Sev-eral of these are seminal papers on the mechanicsof rifting, generation of mafic magmas, plate me-chanics, and sedimentary basin analysis, and ap-pear in the most prestigious of journals. Inrecognition of his many contributions to geologyand geophysics, Dan McKenzie has been honoredwith numerous honors and awards. He is a Fellowof the Royal Society of London, a member of theU.S. National Academy of Sciences, and a Fellowof the Indian National Sciences Academy. He re-ceived an honorary doctorate from the Universityof Chicago and an honorary master of arts fromCambridge University. He received the RoyalMedal from the Royal Society of London, theGold Medal from the Royal Astronomical Society,the Arthur L. Day Medal from the Geological So-ciety of America, the Geology and GeophysicsPrize from the Balzan Foundation (Switzerlandand Italy) and the Japan Prize from the Scienceand Technology Foundation of Japan.

5 McNally, Karen C.(1940– )AmericanGeophysicist

Just like a hunter stalking big game, Karen Mc-Nally hunts down earthquakes in the seismicallyactive region of western North America. She wasnamed “The Earthquake Trapper” by the Los An-geles Times for her instrumental “capture” of themajor 1978 Oaxaca, Mexico, earthquake whichhad a magnitude of 7.8 on the Richter Scale. Shereceived similar notoriety for her “capture” of the1989 Loma Prieta, California (World Series),earthquake of magnitude 7.1. In her role as thedirector of the Charles M. Richter SeismologicalObservatory at the University of California at

Santa Cruz, she serves a dual role as researcherand as monitor and adviser to the people ofsouthern California.

In addition to “capturing” earthquakes,Karen McNally performs research on the sourcemechanisms of seismic activity. She studies thefocal mechanisms of earthquakes as well as fore-shocks and aftershocks to create a full picture ofthe episodic movement on the fault that created aparticular seismic event. She also studies swarmsof microearthquakes that occur intermittentlyalong active faults. Using these data, McNallymodels the stress buildup and release within large-scale plate tectonic processes both in Californiaand Mexico as well as within the Central Ameri-can subduction zone. This work has implicationsfor plate motions in the area, the partitioning ofstrain and the constantly readjusting manner inwhich plates move. Papers by McNally on thiswork include “Non-Uniform Seismic Slip RatesAlong the Middle American Trench” and “SeismicGaps in Time and Space,” among others.

McNally evaluates the earthquake potentialof California for a number of purposes. She eval-uates predictive capabilities for large earthquakes,works to educate the public on earthquake haz-ards, and acts as an adviser and consultant forzoning and building codes. Her paper, “Terms forExpressing Earthquake Potential, Prediction andProbability,” with colleagues is an example of thiswork. In this regard, she served on the board ofdirectors for the Southern California EarthquakeCenter, as well as several other committees. Mc-Nally has also served in several capacities for theCalifornia governor’s Office of Emergency Ser-vices mainly with regard to earthquake prepared-ness. She has even been involved with NuclearTest Ban Treaty verification for the U.S.Congress, among many other groups. Indeed, byvirtue of her experience and expertise, Karen Mc-Nally is one of the top few seismologists in theevaluation of major earthquakes in California.She is among the first few to be called after anevent.

McNally, Karen C. 163

Karen McNally was born in 1940 in Clovis,California. She grew up on a ranch. She marriedyoung and had two daughters, but sought a ca-reer and was divorced in 1966. She first attendedFresno State College, but soon moved to theUniversity of California in Berkeley, where sheearned a bachelor of arts degree in geophysics in1971. She remained at the University of Califor-nia at Berkeley for graduate studies and earned amaster of arts degree in 1973 and a Ph.D. in1976, both in geophysics. Upon graduation, Mc-Nally became a research fellow and a senior research fellow at California Institute of Technol-ogy in Pasadena. During that period, she was alsoa seismologist and consultant for Woodward-Clyde Environmental Consultants until 1985. In1982, McNally joined the faculty at the Univer-sity of California at Santa Cruz, where she re-mains today.

Karen McNally is amid a productive career.She is an author of some 63 scientific articles ininternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Several of these papers areseminal reading for the seismotectonics of Cali-fornia, Mexico, and Central America, as well asstress distributions and earthquake sources atplate margins. In recognition of her contributionsto seismology, service to the public, and educa-tion, Karen McNally has received several honorsand awards. She is a member of the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. She was named anErnest C. Watson lecturer at California Instituteof Technology, a Richtmeyer lecturer by theAmerican Physical Society, and a Sunoco lecturerby the National Science Teachers Association. Shewas given the first Award of Excellence from theClovis Unified School District, California, andnamed a Cientifico Collaborator by the Universi-dad Nacional of Costa Rica.

The amount of service to the profession andpublic besides that already mentioned that KarenMcNally has performed is extensive. She servedon the board of directors for the Seismological So-ciety of America, as well as the Incorporated Re-

search Institutions for Seismology (IRIS), numer-ous committees for the National Academy of Sci-ences, NASA, the U.S. Geological Survey, and theAmerican Association for the Advancement ofSciences. She was on the evaluating committee forthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Shealso served in several editorial roles including asso-ciate editor for Reviews of Geophysics and Geophys-ical Research Letters.

5 McNutt, Marcia(1952– )AmericanGeophysicist

Marcia McNutt is one of those people who letsnothing stand in her path toward success. Whenher undergraduate adviser told her that physicswas not a good major for women, she switchedadvisers. To help her better participate in herchosen field of marine geophysical surveying andanalysis, she did not just learn on the job, shecompleted a U.S. Navy Underwater DemolitionTeam and SEAL Team training course in additionto scuba diving courses. It is with this determina-tion that McNutt has achieved a meteoric rise tooutstanding success and power in the Earth sci-ences. Her principal research interests involve theuse of marine geophysical data to study the phys-ical properties and tectonic processes of the Earthbeneath the ocean floor. Some of her more no-table studies include the history of volcanism inFrench Polynesia and how it relates to large-scaleconvection in the Earth’s mantle. Her paper,“The Superswell and Mantle Dynamics beneaththe South Pacific,” describes the surface featuresthat reflect deep mantle processes that are nototherwise explained by the plate tectonicparadigm. In this same vein, she has been reinves-tigating the relation between mantle plumes andhot spots. It appears that old ideas on the sourceregions, and therefore the processes, may requirerevising. McNutt has also conducted studies on

164 McNutt, Marcia

the mantle processes in the continental breakupin the western United States, and the uplift of theTibet plateau. This paper, “Mapping the Descentof Indian and Eurasian Plates Beneath the Ti-betan Plateau from Gravity Anomalies,” shednew light on the Himalayan collision. She hasparticipated in 14 major oceanographic expedi-tions around the world from Woods HoleOceanographic Institution, Oregon State Univer-sity, and Lamont-Doherty Geological Observa-tory and served as chief scientist on sevenexpeditions. McNutt’s research is not only fieldbased, but also theoretical.

More recently, Marcia McNutt has taken onthe role of spokesperson for ocean explorationfor the 21st century. She met with President BillClinton and has taken on leadership roles in thisinitiative. She is also president and chief execu-tive officer of the Monterey Bay Aquarium Re-search Institute, California, a research laboratorythat was created to develop and exploit newtechnology for the exploration of oceans. It isfunded by the Packard Foundation. The mainobjective of the research institute is designingand building innovative underwater vehicles andfixed position sensor packages for increasing thesampling of the ocean and the creatures that in-habit it.

Marcia McNutt was born on February 19,1952, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where shespent her youth. In 1970, she graduated highschool as valedictorian from the Northrop Colle-giate School, Minnesota (later renamed The BlakeSchool), with awards in mathematics, science, andFrench, and perfect scores on her SAT. She earneda bachelor of arts degree in physics in 1973,summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa, from Col-orado College in Colorado Springs. She studiedgeophysics only briefly while at Colorado College,but it piqued her interest enough to spur her onin that direction. She completed her graduatestudies at the Scripps Institution of Oceanographyin La Jolla, California, where she earned a Ph.D.in Earth sciences in 1978 as a National Science

Foundation Graduate Fellow. Upon graduation,McNutt accepted a position at the University ofMinnesota, Twin Cities, where she had a brief ap-pointment as a sabbatical replacement. She thenaccepted a position as geophysicist at the Tectono-physics branch in the Office of Earthquake Stud-ies of the U.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park,California, in 1979. McNutt resigned from theU.S. Geological Society to join the faculty at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam-bridge, in 1982. She spent the next 15 years atMIT and was appointed the Griswold Professor ofgeophysics in 1991. From 1995 to 1997, sheserved as the director of the Joint Program inOceanography and Applied Ocean Science andEngineering, a cooperative graduate program be-tween the Massachusetts Institute of Technologyand the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute,Massachusetts. In 1997, McNutt made the sur-prising move to become the president and chiefexecutive officer of the Monterey Bay AquariumResearch Institute in Moss Landing, California,where she remains today. McNutt was a Mary In-graham Bunting Fellow at Radcliffe College in1985 and a National Science Foundation visitingwoman professor at Lamont-Doherty GeologicalObservatory in 1989. She has been named to thefaculty at both the University of California atSanta Cruz and at Stanford University.

Marcia McNutt’s husband died suddenly inthe early 1990s, leaving her a widow with threesmall children. She has since remarried.

Marcia McNutt is amid a very productive ca-reer, having been an author of some 80 scientificarticles in international journals and professionalvolumes. Several of these papers are seminal stud-ies on mantle convection and plumes, as well asother areas of marine geophysics. In recognitionof her professional contributions, Marcia McNutthas received several honors and awards during hercareer. She received an honorary doctoral degreefrom Colorado College. She also received theMacelwane Award from the American Geophysi-cal Union, the Sanctuary Reflections Award from

McNutt, Marcia 165

the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary,two Editor’s Citations from the Journal of Geo-physical Research, the Outstanding Alumni Awardfrom The Blake School, and the MIT School ofScience Graduate Teaching Prize.

McNutt has performed an outstandingamount of service to the profession and the pub-lic. She was president of the American Geophysi-cal Union (2000–2002), chair of the President’sPanel on Ocean Exploration and a member of theNational Medal of Science Committee. In addi-tion, she has served on numerous committees andpanels for the National Science Foundation, theNational Research Council, NASA, the OceanDrilling Program, and the National Academy ofSciences.

5 McSween, Harry (Hap) Y., Jr.(1945– )AmericanPlanetary Geologist, Petrologist

One of the wildest discoveries in the past 20 yearsin all of science, much less geoscience, is that wemay have meteorites here on Earth that originatedfrom Mars. If that is not enough, they may con-tain evidence of primitive life on Mars. HarryMcSween has found himself firmly enmeshed inthis controversy. He is one of the main propo-nents of the Martian origin of the meteoritesbased upon convincing geochemical and isotopicevidence, which he helped collect. However, he isthe voice of caution in the evidence for Martianlife within a group of scientists who have beenquick to support this high-profile topic. Ironically,his reluctance has resulted in McSween being in-terviewed in newspapers and on radio and televi-sion more often than many of his colleagues.Many in the profession are comforted to have ascientist like McSween who awaits compellingdata before accepting new theories.

Harry McSween has been studying meteoritessince graduate school and is considered one of

their foremost authorities. Meteorites are leftovermaterial from the formation of the solar system sothey have profound implications for the processesof this formation as well as a starting point for itsevolution. He has received continuous NASAfunding for his research and has written some ofthe seminal works on meteorites. His interest inextraterrestrial rocks led him to an interest inMars. He was a member of many NASA teamsstudying Mars for years that culminated in his piv-otal role on the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft missionof 1997. He has continued his role on further mis-sions like the Mars Global Surveyor, which in-volved mapping the Martian surface from orbitand the Mars Odyssey spacecraft, as well as the on-going design of Mars Exploration rovers. Whenany news is released on Martian discoveries, theyare sure to have been made at least in part byHarry McSween.

If this extraterrestrial interest is not enough,McSween also conducts petrologic and geochemi-cal research on plutonic igneous rocks and meta-morphic rocks of the southeastern United States.Although not as high profile as the extraterrestrialwork, it is still well respected in the profession asbeing of impeccable quality and a contribution tothe field.

Harry “Hap” McSween was born on Septem-ber 29, 1945, in Charlotte, North Carolina. Heattended the Citadel in Charleston, South Car-olina, and earned a bachelor of science degree inchemistry in 1967 as a Daniel Scholar. He then at-tended the University of Georgia in Athens as aNASA graduate fellow and earned a master of sci-ence degree in geology in 1969. From 1969 to1974, McSween was a pilot and an officer in theUnited States Air Force in Vietnam. He earned hisPh.D. in geology from Harvard University, Mas-sachusetts, in 1977. Upon graduation, he joinedthe faculty at the University of Tennessee atKnoxville where he has remained ever since. Dur-ing that time, he served as acting associate dean forresearch and development in 1985 to 1987 andthe department head from 1987 to 1997. He was

166 McSween, Harry (Hap) Y., Jr.

named distinguished professor of science in 1998,a title which he still holds. Also during that time,he was a guest or visiting scientist at the JapaneseNational Institute of Polar Research, University ofHawaii at Manoa, and the California Institute ofTechnology. Harry McSween is married to SusanP. McSween, and they have one child.

Hap McSween has been very productivethroughout his career. He is an author of morethan 100 articles in international journals and pro-fessional volumes. More recently, he has begunwriting popular books as well. He wrote the threebooks Stardust to Planets: A Geological Tour of theSolar System, Fanfare for Earth: The Origin of ourPlanet and Life, and Meteorites and their ParentPlanets to spread his enthusiasm for science to thegeneral public. His research has been well receivedby the profession, as shown by his numerous hon-ors and awards. He received the Nininger Awardfor Meteorite Studies (1977), a National ScienceFoundation Antarctic Service Medal (1982), theBradley Prize from the Geological Society of Wash-ington (1985) and two NASA Group AchievementAwards (1983 and 1998). From the University ofTennessee, he received the Chancellor’s Award forResearch and Creative Achievement (1990) and aSenior Research Award (1998), in addition to sev-eral teaching awards. The state of South Carolinagave him several awards, including the LeConteMedallion of the South Carolina Science Council(1999), the Order of the Silver Crescent Awardfrom the governor of South Carolina (2001), andhe was inducted as the 21st member of the SouthCarolina Hall of Science and Technology (1999).

Hap McSween has performed extraordinaryservice to the profession. He served on 14 NASAteams and panels of critical importance, on severalof which he was chief. He also served on severalcommittees for the National Research Council.For the Meteoritical Society, he served as president(1995–1996), vice president (1993–1994), secre-tary, and councilor. For the Geological Society ofAmerica he was chair and vice chair of the Plane-tary Geology Division and chair and vice chair of

the southeastern section, among many other com-mittees. He was an associate editor for interna-tional journals Icarus, Meteoritics, Geochimica etCosmochimica Acta, and the Proceedings of the 10thLunar and Planetary Science Conference. He hasalso given numerous distinguished lectures andkeynote addresses.

5 Means, Winthrop D.(1933– )AmericanStructural Geologist

Structural geology was largely a descriptive sciencewith only minor quantitative aspects into the

Means, Winthrop D. 167

Hap McSween at a petrographic microscope with avideo monitor attachment showing a microscopic viewof a Martian meteorite (Courtesy of H. McSween Jr.)

168 Means, Winthrop D.

1960s. Then there was a revolution in the field toinfuse the theories and applications of engineeringand material science. This infusion of quantitativeanalysis of deformation led to a mass reexamina-tion of previously observed features within thisnew context. DAVID T. GRIGGS, JOHN G. RAMSAY,and Winthrop Means were the pioneers in thisrevolution. Means’s book, Stress and Strain: BasicConcepts of Continuum Mechanics for Geologists, isstill a classic even though it was published in 1976and never revised. This book and the theory itpresents form a unique bridge between geologyand mechanical (and civil) engineering. Severalsynchronous and succeeding papers by Means alsoaddress this bridging of the fields.

The second main interest of Win Means is thelaboratory modeling of microstructures using ananalog deformation apparatus that he and JanosUrai invented. The apparatus consists of a stan-dard compression device and a standard shear de-vice, but it is applied to a microscope slide-sizedsample of various rock analog materials, such as anorganic compound called octochlorophane. Thismaterial looks like an aggregate of mineral grainsthrough the microscope. If deformed in a com-pression vice or press or shear device, the modelrock deforms beautifully in a ductile or plasticmanner. Grains deform like putty rather thancracking and breaking. Means has simulated manyductile microstructures from real rocks in the de-vice, except they can be observed forming in realtime using this method in contrast to the before orafter pictures that are the only kind available withreal rocks. The processes observed during the simulation have confirmed, modified, and/or revo-lutionized our understanding of ductile microtex-tures as well as those from a deformingcrystal-melt mixture. His paper, “SynkinematicMicroscopy of Transparent Polycrystals,” summa-rizes this concept.

Win Means received continuous NationalScience Foundation grants since 1976 for thiswork and great interest from the geologic com-munity. He has participated in setting up the ap-

paratuses in at least 10 other universities. Heeven taught short courses on the device and ob-servations. The new Earth Science building at theSmithsonian Institution of Washington, D.C.,includes some of Means’s experimental work.

Winthrop D. Means was born on February7, 1933, in Brooklyn, New York. He attendedHarvard University and earned a bachelor of artsdegree in geology in 1955. He then moved to theUniversity of California at Berkeley where heearned a Ph.D. in structural geology in 1960. Hisfirst faculty position was at the University ofOtago, New Zealand, where he served as a lec-turer from 1960 to 1964. He was a postdoctoralfellow at the Australian National University from1964 to 1965. In 1965, Means joined the facultyat the State University of New York at Albany,where he remained until after his retirement in1998 as a professor emeritus, his current position.He served as department chairman twice duringhis tenure at Albany.

Win Means has been very productivethroughout his career. He published 46 articles intop international professional journals, 24 ofwhich are single authored. He also was an authorof two of the premier textbooks on structural ge-ology, the book mentioned above and An Outlineof Structural Geology with Bruce Hobbs and PaulWilliams, also published in 1976. They are stillconsidered required reading for all students of thefield. Means has received numerous honors andawards throughout his career, including a SeniorFulbright Fellowship, CSIRO Geomechanics, inMelbourne, Australia, in 1992. He was alsoawarded the Career Contribution Award from theStructure and Tectonics Division of the Geologi-cal Society of America in 1996. He received theExcellence in Research Award from State Univer-sity of New York at Albany in 1997, and theBruce Hobbs Medal from the Geological Societyof Australia in 1999.

Win Means served on funding panels for theNational Science Foundation in 1983 to 1986and for Gilbert Fellowships from the U.S. Geo-

logical Survey from 1991 to 1994. He was on edi-torial boards for both Tectonophysics (1980 to1999) and Journal of Structural Geology (1983 to1999). He also served on evaluation committeesfor Utrecht University, the Netherlands, in 1987and Northern Arizona University in 1990.

5 Melosh, H. J.(1947– )AmericanPlanetary Scientist

H. J. Melosh is in the rare position of havingstarted his career as a promising physicist beforesettling into Earth sciences. He studied elemen-tary particle physics and published studies onquark interactions, which contained the “MeloshTransformation.” His work was cited literallythousands of times and sparked a revolution inthe field. However, his real passion was in Earthsciences, especially planetary science. He broughthis exceptional quantitative capability to the fieldand added a new dimension to the Earth sci-ences. Most of his work centers on the mathe-matical treatment of impact cratering and on theorigin and physical interactions of celestial bod-ies. However, he has also modeled some observ-able geologic processes that have led to a newunderstanding.

His most direct contribution to observableprocesses is a phenomenon that Melosh calls“acoustic fluidization” as explained in his paper,“Acoustic Fluidization: A New Geologic Process,”among others. Basically, concentrated soundwaves can make a material act like a fluid interms of physical properties. This unified expla-nation elucidates the collapse of impact craters,the emplacement of long traveled landslides, andthe physics of earthquakes. His interest in earth-quakes in this project also allowed him to iden-tify a new phenomenon of long, slow groundmotions that occur after major earthquakes.These motions have strong implications for

global positioning system measurements. Otherterrestrial work largely involved the application offinite element modeling to subduction zones,mantle and lower lithospheric structure, and thedevelopment of normal faults. Many processesand situations are now better understood as a re-sult of these models.

However, Melosh is best known for his studyof impact craters. He is the author of the seminalbook entitled Impact Cratering. In this research,he developed new theories on the deformationcaused by meteoroid impacts called “ring tecton-ics.” He developed methods to predict howcomets and meteorites break apart in the plane-tary atmospheres. He modeled ejecta processesand distributions from impacts. He has also beeninvolved with the possibility of meteorites beinggenerated from one planet and impacting an-other: his paper “Ejection of Rock Fragmentsfrom Planetary Bodies” is an example. Becausethese are such prominent topics, Melosh hasachieved a prominent position in the field. Wellbefore it happened, he predicted the breakup ofthe Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet that struck Jupiter.He has been greatly involved in the Martian me-teorite controversy and the possibility of Martianlife being preserved in these fragments. He hasbetter defined the mechanics of the Chixulub,Mexico, impact, which is proposed to havecaused the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 millionyears ago. These topics, among many others, arenow better understood as the result of Meloshapplying his quantitative constraints to geologicalprobabilities.

H. J. Melosh was born on June 23, 1947, inPaterson, New Jersey. He attended Princeton Uni-versity, New Jersey, and graduated magna cumlaude with a bachelor of science degree in physicsin 1969. He attended the California Institute ofTechnology for graduate studies and earned aPh.D. in physics and geology in 1972. During hislast year of graduate school, he was a visiting sci-entist at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1972to 1973, he accepted a postdoctoral position of re-

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search associate at the Enrico Fermi Institute atthe University of Chicago, Illinois. He joined thefaculty at the California Institute of Technology in1973 and worked his way up from instructor toassociate professor. In 1979, he accepted a posi-tion at the State University of New York at StonyBrook, but moved to the University of Arizona inTucson in 1982, where he remains today. In2000, Melosh held the Halbouty DistinguishedVisiting Chair at Texas A & M University in Col-lege Station.

H. J. Melosh has led a very productive career.He is the author of some 139 articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. Anamazing 22 of these papers appeared in the high-profile journals Nature and Science. Many of thesepapers are benchmark studies that have been regu-larly cited in the literature. He also wrote onebook and edited two volumes. He has receivedseveral awards from the profession in recognitionof his contributions. While still in school, he was

elected a member of Phi Beta Kappa, and receiveda National Science Foundation Fellowship andthe Best Secretary Prize from the InternationalSummer School of Theoretical Physics. He re-ceived the American Geophysical Union Editor’sCitation for Excellence in Refereeing (1989), aGuggenheim Fellowship (1996–1997), the Bar-ringer Medal of the Meteoritical Society (1999),and the Gilbert Medal of the Geological Societyof America (2001).

H. J. Melosh has performed service to theprofession. He was a member of the InternationalLithosphere Program, and a scientific observer forthe European Science Foundation. He also servedon a NASA working group. He was editor for Re-views of Geophysics, associate editor for Journal ofGeophysical Research, and a member of the edito-rial board for Annual Reviews of Earth and Plane-tary Science.

5 Menard, H. William(1920–1986)AmericanOceanographer, Plate Tectonics

William Menard is one of the pioneers of theplate tectonic revolution. He and a small groupof revolutionaries from England and the UnitedStates finally put the smoking-gun evidence toALFRED WEGENER’s hypothesis of moving conti-nents. Through a series of research cruises, thisgroup proved seafloor spreading. They looked atthe bathymetry of mid-ocean ridges as well as themirroring of magnetic stripes on the ocean flooron either side of them. These data were assem-bled to conclusively show that ocean crust wasbeing produced at mid-ocean ridges only to moveaway in an opposing conveyor beltlike geometry.It was probably the most exciting time in geologyand Menard was prominent in the group. It wasMenard who recognized the fracture zones thatoffset these ridges, which would later be calledtransform faults by J. TUZO WILSON. Several

170 Menard, H. William

Jay Melosh examines a rock sample in his laboratory atthe University of Arizona (Courtesy of H. J. Melosh)

major studies by Menard on these topics include“Marine Geology of the Pacific” and “Topogra-phy of the Deep Sea Floor,” among others. ButMenard was not only interested in one aspect ofgeology. He was interested in sedimentology andworked on shallow- to deep-ocean sediment flowscalled turbidites. His ocean voyages would allowhim to have firsthand observations of them. Prac-tical application of this work would be to help lo-cate underwater cables to avoid turbidite proneareas. An example of this work is his seminalpaper, “Sediment Movement in Relation to Cur-rent Velocity.” He also discovered manganesenodules on the deep ocean floor and investigatedthe feasibility of mining them. He was involvedin geostatistics of oil drilling, concluding that agood deal of luck went into successful explo-ration. He calculated that drilling a simple gridpattern in oil-producing areas would yield aboutas much success as the standard method of pick-ing locations.

One of Menard’s real strengths was to meldscience with social science. Four of his six booksconsidered the philosophy of a scientific expedi-tion and how the thought processes worked insuch an endeavor. He showed the struggles withproblems in science as well as all of the outsidepressures on a project and how they would alterthe outcome. He also described what aspects of acareer brought on notoriety in science. Throughthese works he was considered an expert on thehistory and development of science as a profession,though the work was all accomplished indirectly.As opposed to being trained as a philosopher, hemerely described his own experiences in his re-search projects. Menard was considered a truescholar with versatility in numerous aspects of ge-ology and philosophy.

William Menard was born on December 10,1920, in Fresno, California, and attended Los An-geles High School. He attended the California In-stitute of Technology and earned a bachelor ofscience degree in geology in 1942. He enlisted inthe U.S. Navy soon after the bombing of Pearl

Harbor and served as a photointerpreter and staffintelligence officer in the South Pacific theater.He returned to Cal Tech after the war to earn amaster of science degree in geology. He marriedGifford Merrill of New York in 1946. They hadthree children. Menard earned his Ph.D. fromHarvard University, Massachusetts, in 1949,though he did his research at Woods HoleOceanographic Institution. Upon graduation heaccepted a position in the Sea Floor Studies Sec-tion of the Oceanographic Branch of the U.S.Navy Electronics Laboratory in San Diego, Cali-fornia. In 1955, Menard moved to nearby ScrippsInstitution of Oceanography of the University ofCalifornia at San Diego. He remained there untilhis death on February 9, 1986, except for twoleaves of absence. From 1965–1966, he served astechnical adviser in the Office of Science andTechnology under President Lyndon Johnson. In1978 to 1981, he served as the 10th director ofthe U.S. Geological Survey. In addition to being agreat scientist, Menard was also a history and En-glish literature buff.

William Menard published six books as wellas more than 100 articles in international jour-nals, governmental reports, and professional vol-

Menard, H. William 171

William Menard (right) in his administrative role as thechief of the U.S. Geological Survey with Dr. OskarAdam in 1979 (Courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey)

umes. Several of these papers are definitive studieson plate tectonics as well as geophysics, sedimen-tology, and geomorphology. Menard was well rec-ognized by the geologic community for hiscontributions to the science in terms of honorsand awards. He was a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, the American Academy ofArts and Sciences, and the California Academy ofSciences. He received the Penrose Medal from theGeological Society of America and the BowieMedal from the American Geophysical Union.Menard also performed significant service to theprofession as well as to government as alreadymentioned. He served on numerous committeesand panels for the Geological Society of Americaand the American Geophysical Union.

5 Miller, Kenneth G.(1956– )AmericanMicropaleontologist

There are minute organisms called foraminiferathat float or swim in the near surface waters ofour oceans in great abundance. Theseforaminifera are what many filtering marine ani-mals feed upon. The foraminifera also die in greatabundance, sink in the water, and make up a goodportion of the sediment on the ocean floor.Foraminifera are rapidly evolving animals that arevery sensitive to environmental changes especiallywith regard to climate changes. Kenneth Miller isone of the foremost experts on the evolution andbiostratigraphy of foraminifera. Clearly, becausethe foraminifera-rich sediments lie deep under theoceans, fieldwork and sampling is no trivial task.Research vessels must travel out to sea and piston-coring devices are driven into the sediment wherecontinuous cores of sample are taken. Miller hasmade many such cruises to obtain his researchmaterial. As early as 1980, he was on a deep-oceancruise aboard the R/V Knorr. He has sampled sed-iments aboard the Glomar Challenger, the Conrad,

the Atlantis II, the Maurice Ewing, and the CapeHatteras, among others.

After the cruise, the samples are analyzed inthe laboratory. The cores of sediment are pains-takingly studied to determine the type and abun-dance of foraminifera with depth, which isequivalent to time. With colleagues, he deter-mines stable isotope abundances in theforaminifera and sediment. With these data,Miller can then determine the paleoceanographyand paleoecology of the ocean basin. He inter-prets rises and falls of sea level, changes in climate,and catastrophic events like the extraterrestrial im-pact at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, amongothers, in addition to evolutionary changes in theforaminifera. Many of the larger questions regard-ing global changes involve the comparison of thecharacter of certain key strata from core to coreand even with strata that can be seen in the At-lantic Coastal Plain onshore in New Jersey. Thesecomparisons permit a more three-dimensionalview of a given succession of strata. Such a viewallows better environmental interpretations. Byperforming the same sort of detailed analysis onmany sections of the Atlantic Ocean and CoastalPlain stratigraphy, a detailed history is being con-structed. Not only will this work better define thestratigraphy in terms of sediment succession, fossilsuccession, and even isotopic and magnetic suc-cession through the participation of colleagues, itwill also lead to a much better understanding ofthe processes involved in passive margin develop-ment. Because Miller’s results are so directly re-flective of climate changes, those researcherstrying to model climate variability and response topredict future changes are especially interested inhis findings. Several of Miller’s papers on this re-search include, “Long-Term and Short-TermCenozoic Sea Level Estimates” and “Control ofNorth Atlantic Deep Water Circulation by theGreenland-Scotland Ridge.”

Kenneth Miller was born on June 28, 1956,in Camden, New Jersey. He attended RutgersUniversity in New Brunswick, New Jersey, where

172 Miller, Kenneth G.

he earned a bachelor of arts degree in geologywith highest honors and distinction in 1978. Hecompleted his graduate studies in the Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology/Woods HoleOceanographic Institution Joint Program inOceanography and earned a Ph.D. in 1982 with aPhillips Petroleum graduate fellowship. He re-mained as a postdoctoral fellow for one year. Hewas a postdoctoral research fellow and an associateresearch scientist at the Lamont-Doherty Geologi-cal Observatory of Columbia University, NewYork, from 1983 to 1988, where he was named anArco scholar. In 1988, Miller joined the faculty athis alma mater at Rutgers University in NewBrunswick, where he remains as of 2002. He wasnamed a prestigious Professor II in 2000 andserved as department chair. Kenneth Miller ismarried to Karen Clark Miller and they have fourchildren.

Kenneth Miller has been extremely produc-tive in his still young career. He is an author ofsome 97 articles in international journals, profes-sional volumes, and governmental reports. He isalso an author or editor of four books. Many ofhis articles are seminal works on the Cenozoicstratigraphy of the Atlantic Ocean and their re-flection of climate changes and controls. He isalso extremely successful at grant funding, havingobtained some $10 million in federal grants.

Miller has performed outstanding service tothe profession. He served as vice president and asa member of the board of directors of the Cush-man Foundation for Foraminiferal Research. Heserved on numerous committees and panels forthe Geological Society of America, the AmericanGeophysical Union, the Ocean Drilling Program(ODP), and the Joint Oceanographic Institute forDeep Exploration Sampling (JOIDES). His edito-rial service is also exemplary. He served as editorfor Paleoceanography and associate editor forPalaios, Journal of Sedimentary Research, Paleo-ceanography, Geological Society of America Bulletin,and Marine Micropaleontology.

5 Molnar, Peter(1943– )AmericanGeophysicist, Tectonics

The type of continent-continent collision on Earthbetween northern India and southeastern Asiabuilt not only the Himalayas, the highest moun-tain range in the world, but also the TibetanPlateau and mountain ranges to the north, amongothers. Peter Molnar is one of the foremost expertson this area. His goal has been to bring a simpleunderstanding to the dynamic processes of moun-tain building and the mechanics of the continentalcollision using this great example. In 1975, he andPaul Tapponnier showed that the active deforma-tion of Eurasia from the Himalayas to Lake Baikalin Siberia, some 1,800 miles to the north, results

Molnar, Peter 173

Portrait of Kenneth Miller (Courtesy of K. Miller)

from this collision. This work is summarized inthe paper, “Active Deformation of Asia from Kine-matics to Dynamics,” among others. The continu-ing penetration of the Indian continent into Asiaforced large areas of the Asian landmass to movelaterally out of the way of this collision. Bulkmovement of continental mass out of the way ofthe colliding plate was accommodated by literallythousands of miles of strike-slip movement. Thisnew class of strike-slip fault rivals the plate bound-ing transform faults like the San Andreas fault inCalifornia. The bulk movement is called “escape”or “extrusion” tectonics and is analogous to smash-ing a fist into a handful of clay, forcing it to squirtout of the sides. In Asia, the bulk movement wasto the east mostly along the Red River and Altyn

Tagh faults, forcing Indochina to squeeze and ro-tate into its present configuration.

This groundbreaking research is not the onlyimportant contribution to geology that PeterMolnar has made. He also studies the constraintson how high mountains can grow. With severalresearchers including Philip England (OxfordUniversity), Molnar has placed constraints oncrustal thickening in the Tibetan Plateau as the re-sult of the compression of collision. The rheologi-cal properties of the crust only allow mountains togrow to a certain height. Even in a highly com-pressional environment the mountains will col-lapse by normal faulting and crustal extension.

Since 1990, Peter Molnar has been studyingthe impact of tectonic processes on climatechange. He proposed that mantle processes be-neath the Tibetan Plateau might have triggeredrapid uplift, which in turn strengthened the In-dian monsoon approximately 8 million years ago.Mark Cane of Columbia University and Molnarhave proposed that the northward movement ofAustralia and New Guinea closed the IndonesianSeaway and cooled the waters of the IndianOcean. This cooling affected the aridification ofEast Africa at the time that humans evolved. Thisidea is reported in the paper, “Late CenozoicClosing of the Indonesian Seaway as the MissingLink between the Pacific and East African Aridi-fication.” The blockage of warm water in thewestern Pacific Ocean ended the perpetual ElNiño conditions that prevailed before the spo-radic El Niño conditions seen today. They at-tribute the onset of ice ages roughly 3 millionyears ago to a decrease in heat transport from thetropics. With MAUREEN E. RAYMO, Molnar hasbeen investigating changes in climate as the resultof the massive Himalayan mountain building.The two were featured on a well-received NOVAtelevision special.

Peter Molnar was born on August 25, 1943,in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He moved severaltimes during his childhood, attending both High-land High School, Albuquerque, New Mexico

174 Molnar, Peter

Peter Molnar at a rock exposure at the Alpine Fault inNew Zealand in 1984 (Courtesy of Peter Molnar)

(1958–60) and Summit High School, Summit,New Jersey (1960–61), where he played forwardon Summit’s champion basketball team. He at-tended Oberlin College, Ohio, from 1961 to 1965and earned a bachelor of arts degree in physics andwas cocaptain of the lacrosse team. He completedhis graduate studies at Columbia University inNew York (1965–1970) and earned a Ph.D. inseismology. From 1970 to 1971, he was a researchscientist at the Lamont-Doherty Geological Ob-servatory of Columbia University. From 1971 to1973, Molnar was an assistant research scientist atScripps Oceanographic Institute, University ofCalifornia at San Diego. He was also a NationalAcademy of the Sciences exchange scientist withthe USSR for four months in 1973–74. Peter Mol-nar joined the faculty at Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (MIT) in 1974. He served as a visitingscientist at numerous institutions during histenure at MIT, including Oxford University, En-gland, and Institut de Physique du Globe, Paris,France, among others. In 1986, he quit the facultyat MIT and switched to the research staff. In2001, he joined the faculty at the University ofColorado at Boulder where he is currently a half-time professor. Molnar has one child from his pre-vious marriage to TANYA ATWATER. Peter Molnarmarried Sara Neustadt in 1986.

Peter Molnar is an author of numerous scien-tific articles in international journals and profes-sional volumes. Many of these papers are classicstudies on the Himalayas and mountain-buildingprocesses. He has received numerous honors andawards for these contributions to the field. Mol-nar had a Higgins Fellowship in graduate schooland a Sloan Fellowship during his first four yearsat MIT. He was a Guggenheim Fellow in 1980,studying at Cambridge University, England. Hewas a Harold Jeffreys lecturer, Royal AstronomicalSociety, London, England, in 1996 and a F.A.Vening Menesz lecturer, Utrecht University,Netherlands, in 1999. Molnar also received anEditor’s Citation from American GeophysicalUnion in 2000.

5 Montanez, Isabel Patricia(1960– )AmericanSedimentologist, Geochemist

A consequence of modern industrialized society isthat the amount of the greenhouse gas carbondioxide in the atmosphere continues to increase atan alarming rate. The debate now rages as towhether or not this increase is resulting in globalwarming and erratic weather patterns and what itwill mean for the future. Isabel Montanez is a car-bonate petrologist and geochemist, a large part ofwhose research addresses these issues. By studyingancient carbonate deposits, especially duringtimes of rapid environmental change, she seeks toput our current predicament into geologic per-spective. By using stable isotope geochemistry,mainly on carbon, coupled with field study ofthese limestone and dolomite deposits, Montanezdocuments changes in the composition of seawa-ter and corresponding atmospheric gases throughtime. This research is designed to determinewhether the atmosphere-ocean system can recoverfrom our current catastrophic changes or not. If itcan recover, how long will it take for natural pro-cesses to do so? How will extinction rates of plantsand animals be affected by these changes? Bylooking at how the Earth has responded to majorchanges in atmospheric-oceanic chemistry in thepast, Isabel Montanez seeks to set a baselineagainst which our current situation may be com-pared. Then these important questions may be ad-dressed.

The other main area of research for IsabelMontanez is the basin-wide migration of pore flu-ids during burial in sedimentary basins. These flu-ids carry dissolved solids and can either depositminerals in the pore spaces of the rocks throughwhich they flow or dissolve even more material.The deposited minerals form a cement and in-hibit further fluid flow. This research has a directbearing on whether a rock unit will serve as agood hydrocarbon reservoir or a good aquifer for

Montanez, Isabel Patricia 175

groundwater or not. This research is therefore ofgreat interest to both the petroleum industry andthe environmental industry alike. Examples of pa-pers by Isabel Montanez include, “Recrystalliza-tion of Dolomite with Time” and “Evolution ofthe Strontium and Carbon Isotope Compositionof Cambrian Oceans.”

Isabel P. Montanez was born on March 17,1960, in Geneva, Switzerland. She completed herprimary education in Manchester, England, andher secondary education in Philadelphia and Al-toona, Pennsylvania. She attended Bryn MawrCollege, Pennsylvania, where she earned a bache-lor of arts degree in geology in 1981. Upon grad-uation, she worked for Everrett and Associates(environmental consultants), Rockville, Mary-

land, as a research assistant from 1981 to 1983.She also worked as a museum technician for theSmithsonian Institution, National Museum ofNatural History, from 1982 to 1983. In 1983, Is-abel entered graduate school at Virginia Polytech-nic Institute and State University where sheworked on carbonate petrology and geochemistryunder J. Fred Read. She graduated with a Ph.D.in 1990. She accepted her first faculty position atthe University of California at Riverside in 1990and remained there until 1997. She joined thefaculty of the University of California at Davis in1998 where she is currently a full professor. IsabelMontanez is married to David Osleger, anothercarbonate sedimentologist at University of Cali-fornia at Davis. They have two sons.

Although Isabel Montanez is still in the earlystages of her career, she has already made an im-pact on the profession. She has published 31 pa-pers in professional journals and volumes. She hasearned numerous honors and awards for this re-search. She received a National Science Founda-tion–Ford Foundation Dissertation Fellowshipand an American Geological Institute MinorityProgram Scholarship in 1988. She won twoawards from the University of California, a Chan-cellor’s Research Fellowship in 1993 and an Ac-knowledgment of Teaching Excellence in 1994.She was awarded a visiting professorship forwomen from the National Science Foundation in1996. She won two best paper awards from theSociety of Economic Paleontologists and Mineral-ogists in 1992 and the J. “Cam” Sproule Memo-rial Award from the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists in 1996. Also in 1996, Is-abel won the James Lee Wilson Award for Excel-lence in Sedimentary Geology.

Isabel Montanez’s service to the profession isalso outstanding. Between 1990 and 1992, Isabelserved as vice chair and chair of the National Car-bonate Research Group. She served numerous po-sitions for the Society of Economic Paleontologistsand Mineralogists including vice president of thePacific Section in 1993 and 1994, councilor for re-

176 Montanez, Isabel Patricia

Portrait of Isabel Montanez (Courtesy of I.P. Montanez)

search activities in 1996 to 1998. She served inseveral workshops and as a panelist for the Na-tional Science Foundation and she was chosen as adistinguished lecturer for the American Associa-tion of Petroleum Geologists for 2000 to 2001.Montanez is currently an associate editor for theJournal of Sedimentary Research and coeditor forSedimentology.

5 Moores, Eldridge M.(1938– )AmericanStructural Geologist, Tectonics

The general public may best know EldridgeMoores as a central character in the John McPheebook Assembling California. His work in Califor-nia, Cyprus, and as a mentor are described in de-tail in addition to some of his personal life. In theEarth science profession, Eldridge Moores isknown as the world’s foremost expert on ophio-lites. Ophiolites are chunks of ocean crust that areexposed on land. Typically, they are plucked awayfrom the ocean floor during collisional events andthen transported a great distance on major faultsuntil they wind up in the mountains. They gofrom the deepest parts of the Earth’s surface to thehighest in a single event. Traditionally, they aremade up of three parts known as Steinman’s Trin-ity: a base of ultramafic rock (peridotite), sheeteddikes cutting layered pillow lava in the middle,and layered deep-ocean sediments on top. How-ever, all of the parts are not always there. The ul-tramafic base has become the more commonelement to be studied or at least used for identifi-cation. Eldridge Moores recognized the signifi-cance of these rocks as records of lost oceanbasins. They commonly mark the suture zone be-tween two ancient tectonic plates and thereforeare significant finds for plate tectonic reconstruc-tions. Moores has studied ophiolites in Cyprus(the famous Troodos Complex), in Greece (Vouri-nos complex), Pakistan, western Nevada, and

those that formed during the Precambrian. Morerecently, he has been studying processes ofseafloor spreading as revealed through these ophi-olites. Examples of Moores’s publications on thiswork include Ophiolites and Oceanic Crust, Geo-tectonic Significance of Ultramafic Rocks, and An-cient Sutures Within Continents.

Moores is also an expert on California geol-ogy. He did research on basement rocks of theSierra Nevada, the Klamath Mountains, and thesurrounding areas. These studies include meta-morphic petrology, geochronology, structural ge-ology, and regional tectonics. He worked on theFranciscan subduction melange of the northerncoast ranges. He also studied neotectonics of thisarea as well as that of the Great Valley. He led sev-eral field conferences in these areas and publishedsome of the seminal papers and edited volumes onCalifornia geology.

Eldridge Moores was born on October 13,1938, in Phoenix, Arizona, where he grew up.He attended the California Institute of Technol-ogy, where he graduated with a bachelor of sci-ence degree in geology with honors in 1959. Heearned a master of arts degree and a Ph.D. fromPrinceton University, New Jersey, in geology in1961 and 1963, respectively. His adviser wasHARRY H. HESS, the world’s preeminent experton ultramafic rocks at the time. Eldridge Mooreswas awarded a postdoctoral fellowship at Prince-ton University for the years of 1963–66 to studythe Vourinos ophiolite complex in northernGreece. He joined the faculty at the University ofCalifornia at Davis in 1966, where he remains asof 2002. Eldridge Moores is married with threechildren and enjoys languages, music, readinghistory, and hiking.

Eldridge Moores has been one of the moreproductive and prominent members of the geo-logic community. He published some 105 papersin professional journals and volumes as well asnine books and volumes. Several of these papersare in the most prestigious scientific journals likeNature and Science. Among these books are popu-

Moores, Eldridge M. 177

lar textbooks including Structural Geology and Tec-tonics, both with colleague Robert Twiss. He alsoassembled an often-cited collection of papers onplate tectonics entitled Shaping of the Earth, Tec-tonics of the Continents and Oceans, publishedthrough Scientific American. In recognition ofthese contributions to geology, Moores has re-ceived numerous honors and awards. He receivedan honorary doctor of science from the College ofWooster (Ohio) in 1996, the Distinguished Ser-vice Award from the Geological Society of Amer-ica in 1988, and the Geological Association ofCanada Medal in 1994. He was elected a Fellowof the California Academy of Sciences in 1996.He was also elected Honorary Fellow of the Geo-logical Society of London in 1997.

His service to the profession and especially tothe Geological Society of America is stellar. El-dridge Moores served as president of that groupin 1996, vice president in 1995, council memberin 1988–91, and member and chair of numerouscommittees. He also served as editor of the high-profile journal Geology from its inception in 1981until 1988. He served as science editor for an-other Geological Society of America publication,GSA Today, from its inception in 1990 to 1995.He served on many of the most prominent tec-tonic geology projects. He served on the advisorycommittee for the Consortium for ContinentalReflection Profiling (COCORP) from 1980 to1987, the panel for the National Science Founda-tion Continental Scientific Drilling Committeefrom 1981 to 1983, and he was the chair of theOcean Drilling Project Tectonics Panel from1990 to 1993.

5 Morisawa, Marie(1919–1994)AmericanGeomorphologist

Geomorphology is a subdiscipline of geology that,like others, was historically purely descriptive butwhich has yet to be fully realized in quantitativeterms. There was a revolution in geomorphologyin the late 1950s and early 1960s to establishquantitative methods and Marie Morisawa waspart of that revolution. This work involves mea-suring the size of features like watersheds, slopes,and stream channels, and to analyze them both interms of impact on larger systems and statisticalanalysis of stability. The problem is that the num-ber of schools with that capability is small and inmany places geomorphology remains descriptive.Marie Morisawa, therefore, was free to choose anyaspect of geomorphology in which to specialize, asthere were really no saturated areas so she chosethem all. She worked on talus slopes in the RockyMountains, the geomorphology of active fault

178 Morisawa, Marie

Eldridge Moores on a field trip to the Pinnacles Desertin Western Australia (Courtesy of Eldridge Moores)

zones (Wasatch Fault, for example), geomorphol-ogy and plate tectonics, coastal geomorphology,geologic hazards (earthquakes, volcanoes, land-slides), and environmental geomorphology, ofwhich she was one of the founders. Part of thisfame was her pioneering work on the 1959 Heb-gen Lake earthquake which caused a massive land-slide that dammed a river, producing a huge lake.By 1970, this study of environmental geomor-phology had turned into enough of a movementto begin an annual symposium at her homeschool of State University of New York at Bing-hamton, which had established itself as a centerfor geomorphology. Morisawa figured promi-nently in this reputation.

Marie Morisawa is probably best known forher extensive work on her first love of river sys-tems. Her doctoral work on quantitative geomor-phology of streams in Pennsylvania was pioneeringand set a new standard for stream studies. Shestudied channel development and stability as wellas channel shifting in addition to watersheds. Anexample of this work is her paper, “Distribution ofStreamflow Direction in Drainage Systems.” Herinterest crossed from the purely scientific to theaesthetic and what might even be called spiritual.Several of her books are about streams.

Marie Morisawa was born on November 2,1919, in Toledo, Ohio. Her father was Japaneseand her mother was American. She attendedHunter College of the City University of NewYork system and earned a bachelor of science de-gree in mathematics in 1941. She then obtained amaster of arts degree in theology and held severaljobs before returning to school to switch careersto geology. She attended the University ofWyoming at Laramie, where she earned a masterof science degree in 1952. Morisawa then movedto Columbia University in New York where sheearned a Ph.D. in 1960 as an advisee of ArthurStrahler. She was part of a U.S. Office of NavalResearch project to develop methods in quantita-tive geomorphology. During her graduate career,she also served as an instructor at Bryn Mawr

College from 1955 to 1959. In 1959, Morisawajoined the faculty at the University of Montana,but moved to the U.S. Geological Survey inWashington, D.C., in 1961. In 1963, she movedback to academia by accepting a position at Anti-och College. She then moved to the State Univer-sity of New York at Binghamton in 1970, whereshe spent the rest of her career. She was a Ful-bright Scholar in India in 1987–1988 and a geol-ogist in residence at Carleton College inMinnesota in 1990. Morisawa retired in 1990 toprofessor emeritus. She was still active in the de-partment and it was on the drive from her hometo her office that she was in a single-car accidentthat claimed her life on June 10, 1994.

Marie Morisawa led a varied career. She pub-lished many scientific articles in internationaljournals, professional volumes, and governmentalreports. She is perhaps best known for her eightbooks, which include a popular 1975 textbookentitled, Our Geologic Environment as well asStreams: Their Dynamics and Morphology in 1968,and Geomorphology Laboratory Manual in 1977.She also wrote the popular book, EvaluatingRiverscapes, in 1971. In recognition of her re-search and teaching contributions to geology,Morisawa received several honors and awards. Shereceived the Distinguished Alumna Award fromUniversity of Wyoming, and the Outstanding Ed-ucator Award from the Association of WomenGeoscientists, among others.

Morisawa was of great service to the profes-sion and the public. She served on numerouscommittees and working groups, as well as coun-cilor for the Geological Society of America, theAmerican Association for the Advancement ofScience, and the American Quaternary Associa-tion. She was also chair and board member forthe Quaternary Geology and GeomorphologyDivision of the Geological Society of Americanumerous times. She also served numerous edito-rial roles including founder and editor in chief ofGeomorphology, which was begun in 1986. Mori-sawa also served in many advisory capacities for

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town planning both around Binghamton and inFire Island, New York, where she conducted re-search.

5 Morse, John W.(1946– )AmericanOceanographer

The oceans can be considered as huge chemicalsystems with a constant group or series of reac-tions taking place. These reactions chemicallyconnect the oceans with the solid particles of theEarth, be they sediments or bedrock on the onehand and the gases of the atmosphere on theother. The oceans therefore modulate the entirechemical system of the surface of the Earth. Theunderstanding of these complex chemical systemsis, therefore, the key to our understanding of ourbiosphere. John Morse is one of the foremost ex-perts of this complex system. He studies thischemistry by direct measurements, experimentalstudies in the laboratory, and theoretical thermo-dynamic studies. His original work was on car-bonates and Morse established himself as one ofthe foremost experts on their chemistry. One rea-son that carbonates are so important is that theyare directly linked to the greenhouse gas carbondioxide through the ocean water system. Theyalso control carbon cycling in the atmosphere-hy-drosphere. His work is therefore of critical con-cern to climate change modelers. Morse isespecially interested in the surface chemistry ofthese minerals because that is where the chemicalreactions take place. He studied the effect ofminor and trace elements on these reactions aswell as radioactive isotopes. He also proposed bet-ter ways to analyze carbonates and their con-stituent elements.

As his career has progressed, Morse expandedhis research interests into sulfur and sulfur com-pounds in ocean water. Although not nearly asabundant, sulfides are of major concern because

bacteria in the oceans concentrate sulfur. Sulfideminerals and their production also helps to governthe amount of oxygen in seawater. Morse studiedthe biogeochemistry of sulfides and sulfates andthe trace elements involved in their formationsimilar to the research he had done on carbonates.In both cases, the interaction of these mineralgroups and their interaction with ocean sedimentshas been a major concern. To predict cycling andcirculation the ocean modelers utilize these basicstudies. An example of a paper involving this re-search is “The Chemistry of Transuranic Elementsin Natural Waters.”

John Morse was born on November 11,1946, in Fort Dodge, Indiana. He attended theInstitute of Technology at the University of Min-nesota, Twin Cities, and earned a bachelor of sci-ence degree in geology in 1969. He completed hisgraduate studies at Yale University, Connecticut,and earned a master of philosophy and doctor ofphilosophy in geology in 1971 and 1973, respec-tively. His adviser was ROBERT BERNER. He joinedthe faculty at Florida State University in Oceanog-raphy in 1973, but moved to the Rosentiel Schoolof Marine and Atmospheric Sciences at the Uni-versity of Miami, Florida, in 1976. He served aschair of his division in 1981. Morse accepted aposition at Texas A & M University in 1981, andwas named the Louis and Elizabeth Scherck Pro-fessor of Oceanography in 1998, a position heholds today. He served as chair of the chemicaloceanography section of his department in1985–1990 and 1996–1997. He is married toSandra Morse and they have one daughter. Forrecreation, Morse enjoys playing acoustic guitarand fishing.

John Morse has led a very productive career.He is an author of some 118 articles in interna-tional scientific journals and professional volumes.Many of these articles are benchmark studies ofocean chemistry and thermodynamics. He alsowrote Geochemistry of Sedimentary Carbonates,which is regarded as the “bible” on the subject.The research projects that Morse has undertaken

180 Morse, John W.

have received considerable external funding. Hehas received several honors and awards for hiswork including a Fulbright Fellowship (1987), aSigma Xi Distinguished Scientist Award (1998),and a Distinguished Scientist Award from TexasA&M University (2000). He has performed ser-vice to the profession, as well. He served on sev-eral panels and working groups for the NationalScience Foundation and the National ResearchCouncil as well as one panel for NASA. He servedas the editor in chief for Aquatic Geochemistry(1993–present) and associate editor for MarineChemistry (1992–present).

5 Muehlberger, William R.(1923– )AmericanStructural Geologist, Tectonics

William Muehlberger is perhaps most renownedfor his work with NASA. He was principal inves-tigator for field geology for the Apollo 16 andApollo 17 lunar landings. His group was involvedin landing site selection, detailed geologic analysisof the landing site, sampling traverse design, as-tronaut training, real-time support during themissions, and post-mission data compilation andanalysis. He served this position for three years.Muehlberger was also a co-investigator for theNASA Visual Observations Experiment in Skylaband the Apollo-Soyuz missions. He was responsi-ble for global tectonics, giving lectures to astro-nauts, debriefing afterward, and offering adviceon changes during the mission. This programcontinued with the space shuttle, where he hasbeen teaching geology to newly assigned astro-nauts and to crews prior to their flight.

However, the work with NASA is just the tipof the iceberg in a long and distinguished career.Muehlberger is a regional geologist whose scale ofobservation ranges from outcrop (or even micro-scope) to satellite images. He is a structural geolo-gist by trade who has studied brittle fault zones

and fracture systems worldwide, but especially inTexas, Turkey, Israel, New Zealand, andGuatemala. He also studied basement lineamentsand correlated geophysical data with them.Muehlberger studied salt domes and the deforma-tion around them in Texas and Louisiana (for ex-ample, the paper, “Internal Structures and Modeof Uplift of Texas and Louisiana Salt Domes”). Onthe other hand, he studied glacial geomorphologyin New England. With all of his extensive observa-tions of the character of the Earth’s crust, he wasthe ideal person to help assemble large-scale mapsand to help educate NASA astronauts.

William Muehlberger was born on September26, 1923, in New York, New York, but grew up inHollywood, California. He entered college at the

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William R. Muehlberger in his office at the Universityof Texas (Courtesy of W. Muehlberger)

California Institute of Technology in 1941, butthe U.S. Marine Corps sent him to University ofCalifornia at Berkeley in civil engineering in1943. He stayed there until 1944, one semestershy of a degree. He returned to the California In-stitute of Technology in 1946 and earned hisbachelor of science degree and his master of sci-ence degree there in 1949 and his Ph.D. in 1954.William Muehlberger married Sally J. Provine in1949; they have two children. He joined the fac-ulty at the University of Texas at Austin in 1954and remained there until his retirement in 1992when he became professor emeritus. He was di-rector of the Crustal Studies Laboratory at theUniversity of Texas from 1962 to 1966. He servedas chairman of the department from 1966 to1970. Muehlberger was on leave from the univer-sity from 1970 to 1973 and employed by the U.S.Geological Survey for the NASA Apollo field ge-ology investigations for the Apollo program. Heheld numerous endowed chairs at the Universityof Texas, including the Fred M. Bullard Professor-ship for excellence in teaching (1980–82), theCharles E. Yager Professorship (1982–83), theJohn E. (‘Brick’) Elliott Centennial Endowed Pro-fessorship in Geological Sciences (1983–85), theWilliam Stamps Farish Chair in Geology(1985–89), and the Peter T. Flawn CentennialChair in Geology (1989–92).

William Muehlberger has led an extremelyproductive career publishing more than 200 arti-cles in international journals and collected vol-umes. He is perhaps better known for producingthe Basement Map of the United States, publishedby the U.S. Geological Survey in 1966, and theTectonic Map of North America in plate tectonicformat in 1992–1996 and published by theAmerican Association of Petroleum Geologists.He has received many honors and awards fromthe profession for his contributions to the sci-ence. He received the First Award from OhioState University in 1961, the George C. MattsonAward (best paper) from the American Associa-tion of Petroleum Geologists in 1965, and the

Medal for Exceptional Scientific Achievement(1973) and the Public Service Medal (1999) bothfrom NASA. He also received the 1998 BestPaper Award from the Structure/Tectonics Divi-sion of the Geological Society of America. In1978, he was given the Houston Oil and MineralCorporation Faculty Excellence Award and in1992 he received the Knebel DistinguishedTeaching Award.

William Muehlberger also performed muchservice to the profession. He served on the U.S.Geodynamics Committee, several committees forthe National Research Council, as well as forNASA. He served on many committees for Geo-logical Society of America, American Associationof Petroleum Geologists, and the American Geo-physical Union. He was an associate editor forGeological Society of America Bulletin and for Geo-physical Research Letters.

5 Mukasa, Samuel B.(1955– )AmericanIsotope Geochemist

Samuel Mukasa addresses geologic problemsusing whatever isotopic system necessary to yieldthe most definitive results. Perhaps his most fa-mous work is that on the Antarctic. By determin-ing the ages of the exposed (and unexposed)rocks there, he proved that Antarctica was an in-tegral part of the formation of the supercontinentPangea. He also helped define the tectonics of thearea since Pangea broke up. However, describingMukasa’s research in terms of a single geographicarea is impossible because he has done work allover the world in as diverse a group of rocks aspossible. He started his research career on plu-tonic rocks in coastal Peru, but branched out intoophiolites (oceanic fragments on land) from theTroodos complex in Cyprus and basalt fromBrazil. He studied volcanic rocks from the dan-gerous Taal volcano in the Philippines and man-

182 Mukasa, Samuel B.

tle fragments from the French Pyrenees and simi-lar fragments from Italy. He continued his inter-est in ophiolites from southern Chile and thePhilippines. He studied basalts from Thailandand metamorphic rocks from South Georgia Is-land. He even did research on the Great Dikefrom Zimbabwe, Africa. His work in the UnitedStates includes the study of mantle rocks fromArizona and California.

The research he performs on these rocks is anintegrated use of trace elements and Pb, Nd, Sr,Hf, and Os isotopes to model the evolution anddynamics of the Earth’s mantle. He accomplishesthis by studying materials that either come fromthe mantle, like alpine peridotite massifs andophiolites or materials that probe the mantle likemafic volcanic and plutonic rocks from conti-nents and island arcs. On the other hand, he hasalso looked at the evolution of mountain beltsand plate reconstructions especially with regardto the building and breakup of supercontinents(Pangea). This work has direct bearing on theevolution of continents.

He began his work by learning Ar/Ar ther-mochronology from John Sutter, which he ap-plied to metamorphic rocks in New England.Because the Ar/Ar system measures the age atwhich the temperature of the rocks cools througha “closure temperature,” at which point argon getslocked into the mineral structure, the system typi-cally does not measure the age of formation of therock or mineral. Instead, the age it records is acooling age, thus it is called thermochronologyrather than geochronology. But Mukasa wouldnot settle for being an expert in just one system.He continued his education with GEORGE R.TILTON where he learned uranium-lead and othersystems, which yield formational ages of rocks orgeochronology to complement his expertise inthermochronology. In addition to using these sys-tems to find the age of rocks, he also uses them astracers to understand their origin and evolution.In short, Mukasa studies rocks in diverse settingsusing diverse techniques.

Samuel Mukasa was born on September 29,1955. He attended the University of New Hamp-shire in Durham, where he earned a bachelor ofscience degree in geology and chemistry in 1977.He earned a master of science degree in geologyfrom the Ohio State University in Columbus in1980. He continued his graduate education atthe University of California at Santa Barbara,where he earned a Ph.D. in geochemistry in 1984as an advisee of George Tilton. Mukasa was apostdoctoral fellow in isotope geochemistry at theLamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of Co-lumbia University, New York, in 1984 and 1985.He joined the faculty at the University of Floridain Gainesville in 1985. In 1989, he moved to theUniversity of Michigan in Ann Arbor, where heremains today. Samuel Mukasa married ClaudiaMcQueen, M.D., in 1984 and together they haveone son.

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Sam Mukasa at the South Pole during a researchexpedition (Courtesy of Samuel Mukasa)

Sam Mukasa has had a productive career. Heis an author of 38 articles in international journalsand collected volumes. These papers are publishedin high-quality journals and many are in collabo-ration with some of the top researchers in geology.Mukasa has also been of service to the profession.He is a member of the American Association forthe Advancement of Science. He served as mem-

ber and chair of the National Science Foundationadvisory board for the Office of Polar Programs aswell as the panel for postdoctoral fellows. He wasan associate editor for the Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin from 1995 to 1998. He alsohosted a Fulbright Scholar (Ivan Haydoutov)from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in1997–1998.

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5 Nance, R. Damian(1951– )BritishStructural Geologist, Tectonics

One of the main driving forces that kept thesearch for the plate tectonic theory alive throughthe years of opposition was the fact that the conti-nents appear to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.When there was enough data to prove plate tec-tonics and reconstructions of ancient worldsbegan, it was found that indeed the plates hadonce fit together in such a manner. About 250million years ago, all of the continents were to-gether and formed a single supercontinent calledPangea surrounded by a single ocean called Pan-thalassa. As research has continued, we havelearned that there was a prior supercontinent toPangea called Rodinia about 750 million yearsago and that it broke apart and dispersed muchlike Pangea has. Damian Nance took this conceptone step further by proposing that there are cyclesof supercontinent construction and destruction.His theory is that on a regular 500-million-yearcycle, all of the continents will join togetherthrough a series of collisions to form a single su-percontinent and a single superocean. Becausehaving all of the continental mass in one place onthe Earth is gravitationally unstable, that singlecontinent will necessarily split apart and the re-

sulting continental fragments will disperse in alldirections. Since the Earth is a sphere, eventuallythey will all reassemble in another place forminganother supercontinent and the cycle beginsagain. His paper, “The Supercontinent Cycle,”summarizes this work.

Damian Nance is a classic regional tectonicgeologist and as such he utilizes all types of infor-mation to construct regional geologic interpreta-tions. These data include structural geology,stratigraphy, paleontology, Ar/Ar thermochronol-ogy, and igneous and metamorphic petrology,among others. The geographic region of expertisefor Nance is the Avalon terrane, an exotic vol-canic-continental fragment that extends fromRhode Island through coastal Massachusetts andMaine and into maritime Canada. He mostlyworked on these rocks in Nova Scotia, Canada,which resulted in the publication of many articlesand several books. A summary paper on this re-search is entitled, “Model for the Evolution of theAvalonian-Camodian Belt.” However, he has per-formed research in many areas from Greece toNorth Carolina.

Nance also was involved in a rather uniqueteaching experiment. When the North AmericanFree Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was ratified byCongress, there was a small obscure section on ed-ucation. Nance masterminded a project that in-volved comparing and contrasting orogenic belts

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from Canada to Mexico to utilize the funds avail-able in the bill. He collaborated with universitiesin Canada and Mexico as well as his own and de-signed a field course in which students from all ofthe schools would visit the orogenic belts together.It was a very successful project that received mul-tiple years of funding and reportedly was a greatbenefit to the participants.

Damian Nance was born on October 25,1951, in Saint Ives in Cornwall, United King-dom. He attended the University of Leicester,England, where he graduated with a bachelor ofscience degree in geology with honors in 1972.He completed his graduate studies at CambridgeUniversity, England, where he earned a Ph.D. ingeology in 1978. He joined the faculty at St.

Francis Xavier University in Nova Scotia, Canada,in 1976. He moved to Ohio University in Athensin 1980 and has remained there ever since. Heserved as department chairperson from 1995 to2000. He was also a senior research geologist atExxon Production Research Company (1982), aresearch consultant with Cominco American Inc.(1984), a research adviser at Argonne NationalLaboratories, and a visiting research scientist atLouisiana State University in Baton Rouge.Damian Nance also has a passion for beam en-gines and engine houses in mines and canals. Heand his wife have published some 15 professionalarticles on these topics.

Damian Nance has had a very productive ca-reer. He is an author of some 67 articles in inter-

186 Nance, R. Damian

Damian Nance on the coast in Nova Scotia, Canada (Courtesy of R. D. Nance)

national journals and professional books and vol-umes. He is an author or editor of six books andvolumes. One such book is entitled Physical Geol-ogy Today. He is an author of 21 government re-ports and of three published maps. He hasreceived several acknowledgments for his achieve-ments both in research and teaching. The AtlanticProvinces Intercollegiate Council named him Dis-tinguished Lecturer for the Sciences in 1989. Hereceived both the Distinguished Faculty Awardand the Outstanding Teacher Award from OhioUniversity in 1992. He was named the W. F.James Professor of Pure and Applied Science by St.Francis Xavier University in 1994. Nance’s serviceto the profession includes serving on the editorialboard for Geological Magazine.

5 Navrotsky, Alexandra(1943– )AmericanMineralogist, Material Scientist

The Earth sciences are largely composite sciencesthat overlap and interact with the other basic sci-ences. Even the names of the subdisciplines likegeophysics and geochemistry reflect that overlap.One of the most impressive straddlers of twofields is Alexandra Navrotsky. She is both a re-spected mineralogist and a respected material sci-entist (chemistry-chemical engineering). Herexpertise in these two fields has led her to newand exciting research discoveries that would havebeen otherwise impossible. For this reason she is atrue pioneer and one of the foremost experts onthe material science of minerals and ceramics.

Navrotsky’s research centers on relating themicroscopic and submicroscopic features ofatomic structure and bonding of minerals, ceram-ics and other complex materials to their large-scalethermodynamic behavior. She conducts experi-ments on high temperature and pressure calorime-try of these substances to determine phasechanges, thermal expansion and contraction and

the major thermodynamic quantities. These dataare then related to the atomic structures of thesubstances in the study of structure-energy-prop-erty systematics especially with regard to orderand disorder of the atoms. She has made signifi-cant contributions to the understanding of mantlemineralogy and the phase transitions that takeplace under conditions of elevating pressures andtemperatures with depth, thus expanding uponand elucidating the breakthroughs of ALFRED E.RINGWOOD. She has even found that the radicallyelevated pressures in the subduction of cold oceancrust may be quick enough to form ice in thesewet rocks. Navrotsky has also refined the thermo-dynamics of silicate melts and glass, a complexsystem of order and disorder as the atoms attemptto form crystalline structures. This order and dis-order theme has been applied to the thermody-namics of other minerals like framework silicates(quartz and feldspar), spinels, and several otheroxides. Navrotsky also applies this research tomore practical problems like ceramic processing,oxide superconductors, nitrides, and natural andsynthetic zeolite nanomaterials for a variety of im-portant industrial uses. Alexandra Navrotsky’sability to so elegantly and easily interrelate thesetwo fields makes her unique in the profession andallows her to continue to make numerous impor-tant contributions to the Earth sciences. Examplesof papers by Alexandra Navrotsky include “Possi-ble Presence of High Pressure Ice in Cold Sub-ducting Slabs” and “Thermochemistry of PureSilica Zeolites.”

Alexandra Navrotsky was born on June 20,1943, in New York, New York, where she grewup. She graduated from the Bronx High School ofScience, New York, in 1960. She attended theUniversity of Chicago, Illinois, where she earned abachelor of science degree in chemistry in 1963.Navrotsky remained at the University of Chicagofor graduate studies and earned a master of sci-ence degree in 1964 and a Ph.D. in 1967, both inphysical chemistry. Upon graduation, she ob-tained a position as research associate, first at the

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Technische Hochschule Clausthal in Germanyand the following year at Pennsylvania State Uni-versity at University Park. In 1969, Navrotskyjoined the faculty at Arizona State University, butfirst in the department of chemistry before herposition became a joint appointment betweenchemistry and geology. During this time sheserved as program director for the Chemical Ther-modynamics division of the National ScienceFoundation (1976–1977). She was also named di-rector of the Center for Solid State Sciences atArizona State University in 1984. In 1985,Navrotsky moved to Princeton University, NewJersey. She served as department chair from 1988to 1991 and was named the Albert G. Blanke Jr.Professor of Geological and Geophysical Sciencesin 1992. In 1997, she again moved to the Univer-sity of California at Davis as an interdisciplinaryprofessor of ceramic, earth and environmental sci-ences and remains there today. Over the years,Navrotsky has been a visiting scientist severaltimes including a Kreeger-Wolf visiting scholar atNorthwestern University (1999), but also at StateUniversity of New York at Stony Brook (1981),University of California at Berkeley (1976), andUniversity of Chicago (1970), among others.

Alexandra Navrotsky is an author of some200 scientific articles in international journals,professional volumes, and governmental reports.Many of these papers are seminal works on thethermodynamic properties of minerals and theirapplications as well as ceramics and appear in themost prestigious of journals. In recognition of hervast contributions to mineralogy, geochemistry,and material science, Alexandra Navrotsky has re-

ceived numerous honors and awards. She is amember of the National Academy of Sciences.She was awarded an honorary doctoral degreefrom Uppsala University in Sweden. She also re-ceived the Mineralogical Society of AmericaAward, the Ross Coffin Purdy Award from theAmerican Ceramic Society, the Alexander M.Cruickshank Award from the Gordon ResearchConference, the Hugh Huffman Memorial Awardfrom The Calorimetry Conference, and the Ce-ramic Educational Council Outstanding EducatorAward. She was also an Alfred P. Sloan Fellow.

Navrotsky’s service to the profession is equallyas impressive. In addition to serving on numerouscommittees and panels, she was the president(1992–1993), vice president (1991–1992) andcouncilor (1982–1985) of the Mineralogical Soci-ety of America. She also served on numerous pan-els, committees, and advisory boards for theNational Science Foundation, the National Re-search Council, the National Academy of Sci-ences, NASA, the Geochemical Society, and theAmerican Geophysical Union, among others. Shehas served on numerous evaluating and advisorycommittees to universities like the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, California Institute ofTechnology, Harvard University, and StanfordUniversity, and to national laboratories like San-dia and Los Alamos. Navrotsky has also done edi-torial work such as serving as editor of Journal ofMaterials Research, associate editor for AmericanMineralogist, North American editor for Physicsand Chemistry of Minerals and series editor forOxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, inaddition to several editorial boards.

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5 Oliver, Jack E.(1923– )AmericanGeophysicist

Jack Oliver is one of the true giants of Earth sci-ences. First leading the powerful group studyingthe fundamentals of plate tectonics at Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory and then leadingthe powerful group studying the architecture ofcontinents at Cornell University, Oliver has had aprofound impact on the science. In the 1950s and1960s, he was involved with earthquake seismol-ogy. With FRANK PRESS, he helped set up a world-wide seismic network installing seismographs onall of the continents, on the deep-ocean floor,down deep mine shafts, and even on the Moon.He studied seismic wave propagation and the useof seismic waves as deep probes of the Earth.With the information from these studies, he be-came involved in helping to construct the basicplate tectonic paradigm. With Bryan Isacks,Oliver proposed and documented the process ofsubduction at convergent margins, a fundamentalconcept of plate tectonics. This research involvedthe study of island arcs and deep sea trenches allover the Pacific Ocean basin. His 1968 paper,“Seismology and the new Global Tectonics” withBryan Isacks and LYNN R. SYKES is one of the trueclassics of plate tectonics. It explains why earth-

quakes recur and cluster in specific regions aroundmuch of the Earth based on plate tectonic interac-tions.

The contributions from this early work areenough for two very successful careers in geologybut not enough for Jack Oliver. His second effortwas to apply his expansive seismic prowess to thestudy of continental architecture. He established agroup including several from Lamont-Doherty toconduct deep seismic profiling of the continents.He used vibroseis, which produces syntheticearthquakes, and then images the crustal and sub-crustal structure much like a sonogram images anunborn baby. This effort produced a series of fa-mous COCORP (Consortium for ContinentalReflection Profiling) seismic lines all over theUnited States. These studies revealed huge deepfaults, buried basins, and uppermost mantle struc-tures that were previously unknown. They alsoshowed the fate of major surface features at depth,commonly with surprising results. These datahelped many geologists better interpret processesin continental development. The processes ofcrustal extension were better understood from thework on the Basin and Range Province of theSouthwest; transform margins were better under-stood from the work on the San Andreas fault ofCalifornia; and plate collisions were better under-stood from the work on the Appalachian andRocky Mountains. Many other countries followed

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his lead and established similar efforts withequally useful results. An example of this work isthe paper, “The Southern Appalachians and theGrowth of Continents.” If all of this work is notenough, Oliver even found time to consider theglobal distribution of certain fluid-related featuresin his “spots and stains” theory, which again madea contribution to the Earth sciences.

Jack Oliver was born on September 26, 1923,in Massillion, Ohio, where he spent his youth. Heplayed football on his high school national cham-pionship team, which was coached by Paul Brown.His athletic ability earned him a scholarship toColumbia University, New York, in 1941. His col-lege career was interrupted by a three-year tour ofduty in the U.S. Naval Construction Battalion inthe Pacific theater of World War II. He received abachelor of science degree in physics in 1947 and amaster of science degree in physics in 1950. He re-mained at Columbia University, where he was

among the founding members of the Lamont-Do-herty Geological Observatory with W. MAURICE

EWING in 1949. Oliver received his Ph.D. in 1953in geophysics, whereupon he became a research as-sociate. In 1955, he joined the faculty at ColumbiaUniversity and soon became the head of the seis-mology group at Lamont-Doherty Geological Ob-servatory. He was also chairman of the departmentfrom 1969 to 1971. Oliver moved to Cornell Uni-versity, New York, in 1971, where he was namedthe Irving Porter Church Professor of Engineering.In 1981, he established the Institute for the Studyof the Continents at Cornell and served as its firstdirector. He retired to professor emeritus in 1993.Jack Oliver married Gertrude van der Hoeven in1964; they would have two children and threegrandchildren.

Jack Oliver has led an extremely productivecareer. He is an author of nearly 200 articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Many of these papers aretrue landmarks in the application of geophysics toplate tectonic and regional tectonic problems. Heis also an author of two popular science books en-titled, Incomplete Guide to the Art of Discovery, andShocks and Rocks—Seismology in the Plate TectonicRevolution. These research accomplishments havebeen well received by the geologic community,which in turn has bestowed numerous honors andawards on him. He is a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences. He received an honorarydoctorate from Hamilton College, New York, in1988. He was also awarded the Walter BucherMedal from the American Geophysical Union,the Virgil Kauffman Gold Medal from the Societyof Exploration Geophysicists, the Eighth Medalfrom the Seismological Society of America, theHedberg Award from the Institute for the Studyof the Earth and Mantle, and the Woollard Medalfrom the Geological Society of America.

The impressive number of awards is exceededonly by Oliver’s outstanding service to the profes-sion and the public. In addition to numerouscommittees and panels, Oliver served as both

190 Oliver, Jack E.

Jack Oliver studying earthquake seismograms in hislaboratory at Cornell University (Courtesy of JackOliver)

president (1964–1965) and vice president(1962–1964) for the Seismological Society ofAmerica and the president (1987) and vice presi-dent (1986) for the Geological Society of Amer-ica. He served as chairman of both the U.S.Geodynamics Committee and the Office of EarthScience of the National Academy of Sciences. Hewas a member of the President’s Advisory Boardfor seismic monitoring, the U.S. Arms Controland Disarmament Agency, UNESCO earthquakeengineering committee, U.S. Air Force ScienceAdvisory Board, and numerous committees forthe National Academy of Sciences, the NationalResearch Council, and the National ScienceFoundation, among others. He also served in sev-eral editorial capacities for numerous journals.

5 Olsen, Paul E.(1953– )AmericanPaleobiologist (Climate Change)

Of growing concern in environmental sciencetoday is global warming (climate change). Scien-tists are trying to determine if the addition of mas-sive amounts of greenhouse gases to theatmosphere by humans is causing a radical rise intemperature. Most of the research involves ice cor-ing at the poles and then chemically analyzing thatice to chart the changes. However, can it be veri-fied that what happens at the poles reflects whathappens in the mid-latitudes? That is the questionthat Paul Olsen posed in his quest to establish abaseline for climate variation. After all, normal cli-mate variations must be determined before thecurrent changes can be judged abnormal. His ideawas to core the sediment in the base of a largedeep lake. The problem is that glaciers made mostlakes; they are too young or heavily altered byhuman activity to yield the fine results required insuch an analysis. Older existing large lakes thatwould meet the criteria, like Lake Tanganyika ineastern Africa, are virtually inaccessible to the type

of ship that would be needed to core sediments toan appropriate depth. Olsen came up with theunique idea of coring an ancient lake system tochart climatic variations over a long period. In amultimillion-dollar project, he drilled a continu-ous 10,000-foot core of the Mesozoic NewarkBasin in New Jersey. The Newark Basin containsthe most continuous sequence of lake bed and re-lated sediments of any in the world. It covers liter-ally 30 million years of sedimentation. By studyingthe variations in lake depths and sedimentationrates, Olsen found multiple cycles of climatechange caused by Milankovitch cycles, and otherterrestrial and extraterrestrial influences. Eventhough these sediments are more than 200 millionyears old, the controlling astronomical processesshould not have changed appreciably with time. Inthis way, he set a baseline against which all otherclimate change models must be compared.

With all of the attention to the climatechange research, it is easy to forget that PaulOlsen is a renowned paleontologist/paleobiologist.His specialty is the systematics of lower verte-brates with emphasis on intrinsic biologic innova-tions. He and his graduate students have beenstudying Mesozoic tetrapods and especially theirfootprints in the rocks of the Newark Basin forseveral years. Through the combination of thecoring (stratigraphy) and studies of animal popu-lations and their evolutionary adaptations, PaulOlsen and his team have established the NewarkBasin as the benchmark against which all othermultidisciplinary studies must be measured. Evensmall evolutionary changes can be evaluated interms of their stimuli. Several important publica-tions that reflect Paul Olsen’s research include,“Continental Coring of the Newark Rift Basin,”and “Tectonic, Climatic, and Biotic Modulationof Lacustrine Ecosystems: Examples from theNewark Supergroup of Eastern North America.”His paper, “The Terrestrial Plant and HerbivoreArms Race—A Major Control of Phanerozoic At-mospheric CO2,” connects all of Olsen’s areas ofinterest.

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Paul E. Olsen was born on August 4, 1953,in New York City. He grew up in Newark andLivingston, New Jersey. He attended Yale Univer-sity, where he earned a bachelor of arts degree ingeology in 1978. He continued his graduate stud-ies at Yale University, where he earned a master ofphilosophy and a Ph.D. in biology in 1984. Hewas a postdoctoral fellow at the Miller Institute ofBasic Research in Science at the University of Cal-ifornia at Berkeley in 1983–1984. In 1984, he ac-cepted a faculty position at the Lamont-DohertyEarth Observatory of Columbia University, wherehe is currently the Storke Memorial Professor ofGeological Sciences. He is also a research associateat both the American Museum of Natural Historyand the Virginia Natural History Museum.

His research accomplishments have attractedmuch media attention. Interviews with him haveappeared in numerous magazines and newspapersincluding, Time, Discover, National Geographic,Reader’s Digest, American Scientist, Science Digest,The New York Times, Washington Post, BostonGlobe, Philadelphia Herald, Los Angeles Times, andmany others. He has also been interviewed ontelevision and radio including, Good MorningAmerica, NBC News, and many others both na-tional and international. He also played a promi-nent role in the acclaimed PBS series Walkingwith Dinosaurs. Primarily as a result of his climatechange work, Paul has become one of the mostprominent media spokespersons for the geologicprofession.

5 O’Nions, Sir R. Keith(1944– )BritishGeochemist

In rare instances, an Earth scientist assumes a po-sition of scientific adviser in an upper level of gov-ernment. For example, FRANK PRESS was thescience adviser to President Carter. Similarly, SirKeith O’Nions achieved such a stature in the sci-

ences that he was asked to serve as chief scienceadviser for the Ministry of Defense for the UnitedKingdom. Now top government officials seek hisopinion on geologic issues like uranium resources,oil and gas exploration, but also on biomedical re-search, astronomy, materials science, and chemicalwarfare.

The geologic research that brought KeithO’Nions to such a position of distinction in-volves the large-scale evolution of the Earth fromliterally a pile of rock at the time of formation tothe complex interrelated systems of today. Hestudies this evolution using geochemical systems.He has used a variety of isotopic systems throughnovel methods of mass spectrometry. These datahave revealed some basic information on funda-mental questions like the convective circulationpatterns in the mantle as revealed by studyingbasalts from mantle plumes and mid-oceanridges. He investigated the origin and growth ofcontinents and continental crust and the con-struction of mountain ranges using neodymiumisotopes. Nd isotopes were also applied to sedi-ment systems and for ocean water mass tracing.Later, O’Nions and colleague Ron Oxburgh cor-related He isotope distributions with heat flowfrom the Earth and documented that there is aslow but constant escape of gases that weretrapped deep within the Earth at the time of for-mation. This research evolved into devising a relationship between groundwater flow and hy-drocarbon accumulation.

To address such large-scale questions,O’Nions has traveled the world to find just theright geological feature. He has collected loessfrom China, rocks and gases from Iceland, sam-ples from the Massif Central, France, and rocksfrom northwest Scotland, to name a few. He evenworked in Africa where he sampled the oldestknown gabbro at the time. The Modipe gabbro ofBotswana is about 2.5 billion years old. The studywas to measure remnant magnetism to determinethe magnetic field strength at that time. An acci-dent in a VW microbus at the edge of the Kala-

192 O’Nions, Sir R. Keith

hari almost ended O’Nions’s career prematurely.Luckily, he survived the accident.

Keith O’Nions was born on September 26,1944, in Birmingham, England, where he spenthis youth. He attended the University of Notting-ham, England, where he earned a bachelor of sci-ence degree in geology and physics in 1966. Hecrossed the Atlantic Ocean to complete his gradu-ate studies at the University of Alberta in Edmon-ton, Canada, where he earned a Ph.D. in geologyin 1969. Keith O’Nions married his grammarschool sweetheart Rita Margaret Bill in 1967; theyhave three children. He remained at the Univer-sity of Alberta as a postdoctoral fellow for oneyear before accepting a second, Unger VetlesenPostdoctoral Fellowship at Oslo University inNorway. That position was cut short whenO’Nions accepted a position at Oxford Universityin England. He advanced from demonstrator(now assistant lecturer) in petrology (1971–1972)to lecturer in geochemistry (1972–1975), but leftOxford to join the faculty at the Lamont-DohertyGeological Observatory of Columbia University,New York, in 1975. He returned to England in1979 as a Royal Society Research Professor atCambridge University, where he was also named aFellow of Clare Hall in 1980. O’Nions returnedto his alma mater at Oxford University in 1995 toassume the position of professor of physics andchemistry of minerals as well as department head,which he held until 1999. In 2000, he assumedhis current position as chief scientific adviser forthe Ministry of Defense for the United Kingdomon loan from Oxford University for three years.

Sir Keith O’Nions is amid a very productivecareer. He is an author of numerous scientific arti-cles in international journals and professional vol-umes. Many of these papers establish newbenchmarks in the geochemical evolution of theEarth and appear in high-profile journals like Na-ture. In recognition of his research contributionsto Earth sciences, O’Nions has received severalprestigious honors and awards from professionalsocieties. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of

London. He is a fellow or foreign member of theNorwegian Academy of Sciences and the IndianAcademy of Sciences. He received the MacelwaneAward from the American Geophysical Union,the Bigsby Medal and the Lyell Medal from theGeological Society of London, and the ArthurHolmes Medal from the European Union of Geo-sciences.

O’Nions has performed significant service tothe profession in addition to his obvious service tothe public. He served on numerous committeesand panels for the Natural Environment ResearchCouncil (NERC) of Great Britain. He has beeninvolved in the European Union science commit-tees as well as the Council for Science and Tech-nology of England. He is also involved with theGeological Society of London, as well as theAmerican Geophysical Union though more sowhile he was in the United States.

5 Ostrom, John H.(1928– )AmericanPaleontologist

The excitement about dinosaurs reemerged severalyears ago with the release of the motion pictureJurassic Park. Although several documentaries pro-duced by the Public Broadcasting System had her-alded a new view of dinosaurs, the idea wasbrought into the public spotlight by this film. Nolonger were dinosaurs viewed as heavy lumberingmonsters but as quick and agile animals that werepotent predators and powerful protectors thatwere similar to mammals in many ways. Laterfilms and documentaries like Walking with Di-nosaurs furthered this impression. But how didour state of knowledge advance to the point tomake this distinction? The answer is that the ideaof functional morphology was applied to theirstudy and John Ostrom is perhaps the world’sforemost expert. Instead of just adding skin tobones and pushing around models as if they were

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plastic toys, functional morphology looks at theindividual parts of an animal and how they wereused. His most famous breakthrough in this ap-plication was with the dinosaur Deinonychus (ter-rible claw). He found that the tendon scars in thelong tail made it more of a stiff rudder that wouldcounterbalance the animal in a running positionrather than a winding tail like that of a cat as waspreviously interpreted. With this development,the whole posture of Deinonychus changed toone of an agile, fast-running, fearsome predatorwith a long slashing vertical talon on each of itshind feet. As a result, the posture of all otherbipedal dinosaurs was reexamined and dulychanged. Not only did the new movies reflect thischange but museums worldwide changed their di-nosaur bone displays as well.

The other truly famous work of John Ostromwas on the dinosaur Archaeopteryx, the featheredbirdlike dinosaur. Again, he studied the functionalmorphology of the various features and proposedthat it was an active, climbing, running, and glid-ing dinosaur that acted similar to a bird. Using thisintermediate-type dinosaur, he compared featureswith modern birds as well as with the small up-right dinosaurs like Deinonychus. These similari-ties and changes were used to propose a completelineage and evolution from dinosaurs to birds assummarized in his paper “Archaeopteryx and theOrigin of Birds.” This tremendous piece ofmacroevolutionary work now appears in virtuallyevery textbook on historical geology worldwide.

These breakthroughs may be the most fa-mous of Ostrom’s work, but many others are justas important. He studied trackways of small car-nivorous dinosaurs to show their social interac-tions. He studied the eating habits of variousdinosaurs to show their diets using both func-tional morphology of their skulls as in the case ofTriceratops and Hadrosaur to contents of theirstomachs as in the case of Comsognathus. Paperson several of these topics include, “A FunctionalAnalysis of the Jaw Mechanism of Dinosaurs” and“Functional Morphology and Evolution of Cer-

atopsian Dinosaurs.” He carefully investigated thereasoning that at least the bipedal dinosaurs werelikely warm-blooded. He looked at the functionof the cranial crests on Parasaurolophus. He eventrained the outspoken dinosaur enthusiast and re-searcher, Robert Bakker, who appears in nearlyevery television documentary on dinosaurs, evenmore than Ostrom. With these achievements, itmay be said that John Ostrom has almost single-handedly pioneered the reevaluation and reemer-gence of interest in dinosaurs. He is a true giant ofpaleontology.

John Ostrom was born on February 18,1928, in New York, New York. He attendedUnion College, New York, where he earned abachelor of science degree in geology in 1951. Hecompleted his graduate studies at Columbia Uni-versity, New York, where he earned a Ph.D. in pa-leontology in 1960. While still a graduate student,he worked as a research assistant vertebrate pale-ontologist from 1951–1956. John Ostrom mar-ried Janet Hartman in 1952; they have twochildren. He accepted a position as lecturer atBrooklyn College, New York, in 1955, and joinedthe faculty at Beloit College, Wisconsin, the nextyear. In 1961, Ostrom returned to the East Coastto accept a faculty position at Yale University,Connecticut, where he spent the rest of his career,which continues today. At the time he began atYale University, he was also named the assistantcurator for vertebrate paleontology at the PeabodyMuseum, but he soon became curator in 1971.

John Ostrom is an author of numerous publi-cations in all kinds of international journals frombiological to geological as well as museum reportsand monographs. Several of these are among thebest-known papers on the modern views of di-nosaurs and the evolution of dinosaurs to birds.In recognition of his contributions to vertebratepaleontology, John Ostrom has received numer-ous honors and awards. He is a fellow of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences. He wasawarded an honorary doctoral degree from UnionCollege. Other awards include the Romer-Simp-

194 Ostrom, John H.

son Medal from the Society of Vertebrate Paleon-tology, the F.V. Hayden Memorial GeologicalMedal from the Academy of Natural Sciences inPhiladelphia, a U.S. Senior Scientist Award fromthe Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung, Germany,and a J.S. Guggenheim Fellowship.

Ostrom has performed a great amount of ser-vices to the profession. Among these, he served as

president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontol-ogy (1969–1970) as well as president of Sigma Xihonor society. He also performed several editorialroles including chief editor of American Journal ofScience and of the Bulletin of the Society of Verte-brate Paleontology.

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5 Palmer, Allison R. (Pete)(1927– )AmericanPaleontologist

Allison R. (Pete) Palmer has really had three suc-cessful careers in one: in government, inacademia, and in the premier professional societyin geology. The common thread through thesevarious positions is his interest in early Paleozoicinvertebrates and especially trilobites as well asCambrian biostratigraphy. It was on a field trip inhis junior year of college that he found his firsttrilobite fossil and he was hooked. He has been af-fectionately called “Mr. Trilobite” and “The Trilo-bite Master” because of this interest. He startedout studying Cambrian rocks in the westernUnited States where he was able to subdivide thestratigraphy based upon fossil successions. As a re-sult, the Basin and Range Province went from ob-scurity to containing the type locale foreverything from Cambrian seawater compositionsthrough sequence stratigraphy and rates of animalevolution. Naturally, he also studied the trilobites.Palmer then started a major project to identifytrilobites with Laurentian (the name for NorthAmerica during the Paleozoic) affinities on aworldwide basis. He looked at trilobites in Eu-rope, Russia, Australia, North Africa, Argentina,and China, in addition to more examples in the

eastern part of North America. This work wasdone during the time of the emergence of platetectonics. His worldwide correlations of trilobiteswere of great interest to the plate tectonic model-ers who used them to prove and disprove their re-constructions. His work on Argentinean trilobiteshas led to a major revolution in the reconstructionof the ancient supercontinent of Rodinia, which isstill being developed today. In all, he is responsi-ble for defining hundreds of new species and gen-era and has described fossils from Alaska toAntarctica, from Cambrian trilobites to Mioceneinsects. An example of a paper from this work is“Search for the Cambrian World.” As a result ofhis research career, he has been called “thequintessential American paleontologist.”

Palmer continued his studies in academia, es-pecially with regard to the importance of bios-tratigraphy, which owes much of its developmentto him. He also helped train a new generation ofpaleontologists. However, his work with the Geo-logical Society of America earned him even greaterfame. He spearheaded a mammoth task of sum-marizing the state of knowledge on all of NorthAmerican geology in a project called Decade ofNorth American Geology (DNAG). After that hebecame a spokesperson for geology. He wrote aregular column entitled “What My NeighborShould Know About Geology” in the magazineGSA Today to extol the virtues of geology and to

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show how it affects everyday life. In this role, healso appeared in a major role on the “Planet Earth”series from the Public Broadcasting System. It issafe to say that the effort and effectiveness that heput into his outreach efforts were equal in statureto his paleontological achievements. Both standout as real contributions to the science.

Pete Palmer was born on January 9, 1927, inBound Brook, New Jersey. He attended the Penn-sylvania State University in College Park, wherehe began by studying meteorology but found histrue calling and earned a bachelor of science de-gree in geology in 1949. For his graduate studies,he attended the University of Minnesota, TwinCities, and earned a Ph.D. in 1950. It was therethat he met and married Patricia Richardson in1949. They have five children. During his gradu-ate studies he worked as a science aide for theTexas Bureau of Economic Geology but his firstpermanent position was with the U.S. GeologicalSurvey, which he accepted upon graduation in1950. He was a Cambrian paleontologist andstratigrapher there until 1966 when he joined thefaculty at the State University of New York atStony Brook. He served as chair of the depart-ment from 1974 to 1977. In 1980, Palmer leftStony Brook to become the centennial scienceprogram coordinator for the Geological Society ofAmerica in Boulder, Colorado. He was also thecoordinator of educational programs from 1988to 1991. He retired from the Geological Societyof America in 1993 to become an adjunct profes-sor at the University of Colorado at Boulderwhere he remains in active research today.

Pete Palmer has led a very productive careerauthoring some 137 scientific articles in interna-tional journals, professional volumes, and govern-mental reports. He produced nine majormonographs. All totaled, he has more than 2,200printed pages to his credit. Several of these articlesare seminal works on Cambrian paleoecology,trilobite morphology, and related studies that ap-pear in top journals like Science. In recognition ofhis contributions to geology, he has received sev-

eral prestigious honors and awards. He receivedthe Charles D. Walcott Medal from the NationalAcademy of Sciences, the Distinguished ServiceMedal from the Geological Society of America,and the Paleontological Society Medal (UnitedStates).

Palmer has been very active in terms of ser-vice to the profession. He has served as presidentfor the Institute for Cambrian Studies since 1984and before that for the Cambrian Subcommitteefor the International Stratigraphic Committee(1972–1984). He was president of the Paleonto-logical Society (United States) in 1983 as well. Heserved on numerous committees for all of theseorganizations as well as the Geological Society ofAmerica.

5 Patterson, Clair (Pat) C.(1922–1995)AmericanIsotope Geochemist

Even though he was forever an Iowa farm boy,Clair Patterson made three of the greatest contri-butions to geology of all time. His first and fore-most contribution was to accurately determinethe age of the Earth and stony meteorites usingisotopic analysis. This research was started duringhis graduate career under his mentor HarrisonBrown and with his friend and colleague, GEORGE

R. TILTON, when they were studying meteorites.These radio chemists were investigating the ura-nium-lead decay series and developed radical newmethods for measuring microchemical and preciseisotopic ratios using mass spectrometry. Patter-son’s area of specialization was radiogenic lead.Using these techniques, in 1963, after years ofcareful and exhaustive research on a variety of ter-restrial and extraterrestrial materials, he deter-mined that the age of the Earth is 4.55 billionyears. Considering the technological advancementsince that time, it is surprising that age has under-gone only minor readjustment since then. This

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benchmark work ranks among the greatestachievements of all time in geochemistry.

Patterson’s second great contribution was toestablish a fundamental basis and methodology tomodel the patterns of isotope evolution of terres-trial lead. He collected groups of sediments, rocks,and water samples from the oceans and deter-mined that there were different reservoirs of com-mon lead that were distinctive in each. Byanalyzing isotopic lead ratios, distinct and com-mon patterns emerged that determined if an areaor water body was separate from outside influ-ences or it had mixed sources. This technique hasmultiple applications for determining origins. Itwas used to help define ancient plates, which hadbeen amalgamated during plate collisions. Inmany cases, each plate has a separate and distinctcommon lead reservoir. This means that even ifthe rocks look the same and there is no other wayto delineate the ancient plates, a geologist can stilltell them apart using concentrations of commonlead isotopes.

His third great contribution is perhaps themost important to humankind. He provided thefirst and still the most rigorous analysis of thehuman induced buildup of lead in our environ-ment. He did this by contrasting current leadconcentrations with the natural background. Heaccomplished this comparison by developing newmethods to cleanly extract and analyze minute,nanogram quantities of lead. He exhaustivelysampled in remote regions of the Earth, in nu-merous ocean water environments, and in an-cient archaeological sites. He showed that leadconcentrations in contemporary humans are ele-vated 1,000 times greater than that in prehistoricpeople and just three- to sixfold short of outrightpoisoning. He even showed how this biologicmagnification worked its way up the food chain.He did not just publish these results; he became aspokesperson for the elimination of environmen-tal lead and encountered a great deal of criticismas a result. Industry was especially opposed to hisfindings and even tried to discredit him. How-

ever, Patterson persevered and the elimination oflead from gasoline, pipes, and solder can be di-rectly attributed to his careful research and refusalto back down in the face of overwhelming odds.As a result, we owe some of our good health toClair Patterson.

Clair Patterson was born on June 2, 1922, inDes Moines, Iowa. He attended Grinell College,Iowa, and earned a bachelor of arts degree inchemistry in 1943. He earned a master of sciencedegree in chemistry from the University of Iowain 1944. He served in the armed forces duringWorld War II before returning to graduate schoolat the University of Chicago, Illinois, where heearned his Ph.D. in 1951 in chemistry. Between1952 and 1992, Patterson held positions of re-search fellow, senior research fellow, research asso-ciate, senior research associate and finallyprofessor of geochemistry at California Instituteof Technology. He retired to a position of profes-sor emeritus in 1993. Clair Patterson died sud-denly at his home at The Sea Ranch, California,on December 5, 1995.

Clair Patterson had a highly productive careerauthoring numerous articles in international jour-nals and professional volumes. Many of thesepublications are benchmarks in the field of geol-ogy, much less their subdiscipline. His research ac-complishments have been well recognized by thegeologic profession in terms of honors andawards. He was a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences. He received honorary doc-toral degrees from both Grinell College, Iowa, in1973 and the University of Paris, France, in 1975.Even more impressive was the 1967 dedication of“Patterson Peak” in his honor in the QueenMaude Mountains of Antarctica and the namingof Asteroid 2511 after him. In addition, he re-ceived the J. Lawrence Smith Medal from the Na-tional Academy of Sciences, the GoldschmidtMedal from the Geochemical Society, the Profes-sional Achievement Award from the University ofChicago, and the Tyler World Prize for Environ-mental Achievement.

198 Patterson, Clair (Pat) C.

5 Pettijohn, Francis J.(1904–1999)AmericanSedimentologist (Stratigraphy)

Francis Pettijohn is considered by many to be the“father of modern sedimentology.” He was one ofthe true leaders in a revolution in sedimentologythat occurred after World War II. Classical petrol-ogy had advanced to a rigorous science of chemi-cal equilibria and phase relations whereassedimentary rocks were still considered morethrough descriptive analyses. Pettijohn almost sin-gle-handedly transferred the methods of classicalpetrology to sedimentary rocks. He used the pet-rographic microscope extensively on sedimentaryrocks and especially sandstones for detailed classi-fication and to determine source areas, distance,and method of transport and lithification pro-cesses. These were newly developed methods atthe time but are now standard practices thanks tohis documentation of their usefulness. The resultsof these analyses were combined with a new morerigorous analysis of sedimentary structures, whichhe also pioneered to establish a new subdisciplineof basin analysis. Instead of considering the vari-ous aspects of sedimentary rocks separately, hecombined them with new statistical methods forpaleocurrent analysis to fully analyze the historyof sedimentary basins. These methods were im-mediately used in petroleum exploration, whichresulted in great success in locating hydrocarbonreserves.

Francis Pettijohn was a field geologist bytraining and desire. He found himself in a geol-ogy department that was quickly moving awayfrom field research into more high-tech fields.Pettijohn’s work was not being supported so hemoved to another school. Perhaps as a protestagainst this new direction, which was not uncom-mon among geology departments, Pettijohnwrote the book Memoirs of an Unrepentant FieldGeologist. This book not only expounded uponthe joys of field geology but also painted a not-so-

complimentary picture of those who were unsym-pathetic to field research. The book caused quitea stir in the profession.

Francis Pettijohn was born on June 20,1904, in Waterford, Wisconsin. He graduatedfrom high school in Indianapolis, Indiana, in1921, and entered the University of Minnesota atSt. Paul that year. He graduated with a bachelor ofarts degree in geology in 1924 and a master of artsdegree in 1925. He was an instructor at OberlinCollege, Ohio, for two years before returning tograduate school first at the University of Califor-nia at Berkeley. He later returned to the Univer-sity of Minnesota and earned a Ph.D. in geologyin 1930. In 1929, Pettijohn joined the faculty atthe University of Chicago, Illinois, first as an in-structor but later as a professor. In 1952, ERNST

CLOOS convinced him to join the faculty at theJohns Hopkins University where he spent the re-mainder of his career. He served as chair of thedepartment from 1963 to 1968 and acting chairin 1970. Pettijohn died in 1999 and was survivedby his three children. His wife predeceased himseveral years earlier.

Francis Pettijohn was the author of numer-ous articles in international journals and profes-sional volumes on sedimentary rocks, many ofwhich are seminal studies. He is perhaps bestknown for his books. His 1949 book, Sedimen-tary Rocks, was widely adopted as a textbook andlast reprinted (third edition) an amazing 26 yearslater. It is still cited in papers today. He was alsoan author of the widely read and cited books,Sandstone Petrography in 1936, Sands and Sand-stones in 1972, and Paleocurrents and Basin Analy-sis in 1963. In recognition of his researchcontributions to the profession, Pettijohn re-ceived numerous honors and awards. He was amember of the National Academy of Sciencesand a fellow of the American Academy of Artsand Sciences. He received an honorary doctoraldegree from the University of Minnesota, TwinCities. In addition, he was awarded the Twen-hofel Medal from the Society of Economic Pale-

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ontologists and Mineralogists, the WollastonMedal from the Geological Society of London,the Penrose Medal from the Geological Society ofAmerica, the Sorby Medal from the InternationalAssociation of Sedimentologists and, believe it ornot, the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal from the Soci-ety for Sedimentary Geology.

Pettijohn performed significant service to theprofession. In addition to several committees andpanels, he served as president and vice presidentof the Society of Economic Paleontologists andMineralogists. He also served in many roles forthe Geological Society of America includingcouncilor. His editorial work covered numerousroles in numerous journals, including the Geologi-cal Society of America Bulletin, and Journal of Sedi-mentary Petrology, among others.

5 Pitcher, Wallace S.(1919– )BritishPetrologist

Wallace Pitcher is likely the foremost authority onthe tectonic setting of granites as well as the me-chanics of granite pluton (body) emplacement. Hehas studied all aspects of pluton emplacementfrom the petrology to structural geology using ev-erything from geophysical techniques to paleontol-ogy. As many researchers spent great effortassigning letters (I=igneous, S=sedimentary, etc.)to granite plutons to indicate their heritage basedupon their chemistry and mineralogy, Pitcher tooka more holistic and less stringent approach. Helooked at pluton shape, fabric, deformation, andregional relations to develop an alternative system.He named his plutons by type examples, but re-lated them to a plate tectonic environment. Be-cause the composition of granites can vary sowildly within the same tectonic environment,many researchers found the Pitcher approach moreapplicable and useful. As a result, his paper “Na-ture and Origin of Granite” became a true classic.

Most of his research was in the Caledonidesof western Europe and notably at Donegal, Ire-land, but also in the Peruvian Andes of SouthAmerica. Two papers describing these two areasare especially notable, “Geology of Donegal: Astudy of Granite Emplacement and Unroofing”and “Magmatism at a Plate Edge: the PeruvianAndes.” In this research, he defined the relation-ships within zoned and composite plutons basedupon textural and chemical differences. The con-vection of the magma within the hot pluton inthe early stages of crystallization can chemicallyzone plutons, as well as imposing a flow fabric onthe rock. He also devised a system to evaluatestress within plutons, but especially within thecontact aureole. As the tail of the pluton ascendsinto the main body, it causes the pluton to “bal-loon,” which causes further deformation of coun-try rock in the contact aureole. It produces triplepoints of deformation where regional deforma-tion equals that imposed by the ballooning plu-ton. Different patterns of deformation occurdepending upon the tectonic setting. Pitchereven found that country rock units could form a“ghost stratigraphy” both textural and chemicalacross the pluton, as if the preexisting rock unitwas still there and not pushed out of the way aswould be expected. This discovery forced thereevaluation of emplacement mechanics. Plutonemplacement appears to be more of an assimila-tion-type process (eating into the existing rock)rather than a brute pushing country rock aside, atleast in some cases.

Surprisingly, Wallace Pitcher also got in-volved in researching the late Precambrianstratigraphy and sedimentology of the BritishIsles. He was the first to document that much ofthe sequence is of glacial origin and includes welldeveloped tillites. This work has been used exten-sively of late to document the popular “SnowballEarth” hypothesis championed by PAUL HOFF-MAN, which has great implications for paleocli-matology. Apparently, the Earth underwent agreat cooling event at the end of the Proterozoic.

200 Pitcher, Wallace S.

Pitcher’s work was done well before the idea waspopular.

Wallace Pitcher was born on March 3, 1919,in England. He attended Acton Technical Collegeand Chelsea College to study chemistry. He ob-tained a position as an assistant analytical chemistwith George T. Holloway and Company in chem-ical assaying in 1937. In 1939, he enlisted in theRoyal Army Medical Corps, where he served forthe duration of World War II. By the time he re-turned to Chelsea College in 1944, he had de-cided to switch his field to geology. In 1947,Pitcher moved to the Imperial College of Londonwhere he was a demonstrator until 1948 when hebecame an assistant lecturer. It was at this timethat he completed his Ph.D. in geology. WallacePitcher married Stella Ann Scutt in 1947; theywould have four children. Pitcher became a lec-turer in 1950 but moved to King’s College ofLondon as a reader in 1955. He joined the facultyat the University of Liverpool as the GeorgeHerdman Professor of Geology in 1962. He re-tired from his teaching duties to professor emeri-tus in 1981. At that time, he also became aLeverhulme Emeritus Research Fellow, a positionhe held until 1983, when he formally retired. Hecontinues to be active in research today at a slowerpace.

Wallace Pitcher led an extremely productivecareer, having been an author of numerous scien-tific articles in international journals and profes-sional journals. Several of these papers aredefinitive studies on granites and especially theiremplacement mechanics and tectonic setting. Inrecognition of his many contributions to theEarth sciences, Wallace Pitcher has received nu-merous honors and awards. He is an honorary fel-low of the Royal Society of London. He hasreceived honorary degrees from the University ofDublin, Ireland, and the University of Paris-Sud.He was also awarded the Bigsby Medal, theMurchison Medal, and the Lyell Fund from theGeological Society of London, the Silver Medalfrom the Liverpool Geological Society, the Aber-

conway Medal from the Institution of Geologists,England, and the University of Helsinki Medal,among others.

Pitcher served in numerous positions withthe Geological Society of London, including pres-ident (1976–1977). He was also section presidentof the British Association.

5 Porter, Stephen C.(1934– )AmericanQuaternary Geologist, Glacial Geologist

Mountain climbing in his youth sparked StephenPorter’s interest in alpine glaciation, the study ofmountain glaciers during the Earth’s ice ages.However, he did not just study mountain glaciersin his home state of California; he studied themall over the world and established himself as oneof the foremost authorities on alpine glaciationand the Quaternary glacial ages (the last 2 millionyears of Earth history). He has studied mountainglaciers in Alaska, the Cascade Range of thenorthwestern United States, the Argentine andChilean Andes, the Himalayan and Hindu Kushregion, the western Italian Alps, New Zealand,Siberia, the Tibetan Plateau, and Hawaii. Most ofthese investigations concentrated on the sequenceand chronology of glacier advances and retreats asdetermined by studying the depositional and ero-sional features of glaciated landscapes. The vary-ing extent, through time, of glaciers on mountainslopes and in adjacent valleys is a measure of localand regional climatic change. Through these stud-ies, glacial and interglacial times can be identifiedand dated, providing important information forscientists involved in modeling climate change.

Porter also has studied other records of cli-mate change, including investigations of loess de-posits in China. Loess is an accumulation of finewindblown dust, representing times of cold, dustyclimate. Some of the world’s important loess de-

Porter, Stephen C. 201

posits contain a long and unique geologic recordof environmental and climatic change. Porter hascarried out his wide-ranging field studies withChinese colleagues of the National Key Labora-tory of Loess and Quaternary Geology in Xi’an.Their research has led them across inner Mongo-lia, central China, and onto the northeastern Ti-betan Plateau. From these deposits, a detailedhistory of China’s monsoon climate can be tracedback at least 8 million years. Many of their stud-ies, however, have been concerned with environ-mental and climatic changes from the last ice ageto present, including the interval when the earliesthuman cultures were succeeded by the early dy-nastic period of Chinese civilization. An exampleof this research is the paper, “Correlation betweenClimate Events in the North Atlantic and ChinaDuring the Last Glaciation.”

Stephen Porter was born on April 18, 1934,in Santa Barbara, California. He attended YaleUniversity in Connecticut and earned a bachelorof science degree in geology in 1955. He thenserved as an officer in the U.S. Naval Reservefrom 1955 to 1957, during which he spent twoyears aboard a destroyer with the Pacific Fleet. Hissubsequent graduate studies, also at Yale Univer-

sity, earned him a master of science degree in1958 and a Ph.D. in geology in 1962. In his finalyear as a graduate student, he won the BenjaminSilliman Prize from Yale for excellence in defenseof his dissertation. While in graduate school, hemarried Anne M. Higgins, a graduate student inanthropology, in 1959. They had three children,who accompanied their father and mother onfield projects. Porter joined the faculty at the Uni-versity of Washington in Seattle in 1962, and re-mained there for his entire career. He served asdirector of the university’s Quaternary ResearchCenter from 1982 to 1998. Porter was awarded aFulbright-Hays Fellowship to the University ofCanterbury in New Zealand in 1973–1974 andwas a visiting scholar at the Scott Polar ResearchInstitute of the University of Cambridge, En-gland, in 1980–1981.

Stephen Porter is an author of more than 100articles published in international journals andprofessional monographs. He also cowrote eightpopular introductory textbooks. Several of thesetextbooks include, The Blue Planet, An Introduc-tion to Earth Systems Science, The Dynamic Earth,Environmental Geology, and An Introduction toPhysical Geology. He has been a guest professor inthe Chinese Academy of Sciences since 1987.

Porter has served on numerous national andinternational professional committees. He waselected president of the American Quaternary As-sociation, and vice president (1991–1995) andpresident (1995–1999) of the InternationalUnion for Quaternary Research. He served on theboard of Earth sciences of the National Academyof Sciences/National Research Council and onseveral panels of the National Science Foundation.He has also held several editorial positions. Hewas editor of the interdisciplinary journal Quater-nary Research from 1976 to 2001, has been an as-sociate editor of Radiocarbon (1977–1989) and ofthe American Journal of Science (1997–2005). Hehas served on the editorial board of QuaternaryScience Reviews (1983–present) and QuaternaryInternational (1989–present). He also was a sci-

202 Porter, Stephen C.

Stephen Porter on a field trip to the Bolshoi AnnechagRange in northeastern Siberia (Courtesy of S.C. Porter)

ence adviser for the PBS-TV series “The MiraclePlanet” and its accompanying book.

5 Press, Frank(1924– )AmericanGeophysicist

Frank Press is one of the top five most influentialEarth scientists of the 20th century. His researcharea is seismology both in terms of generation(earthquakes) and wave travel but also in terms ofthe structure of the Earth that it reveals. He wasthe first to investigate long-period surface wavesand free oscillations (two types of seismic waves)as deep probes of the Earth’s architecture. Duringthe time he worked with BENO GUTENBERG, hedeveloped new more sensitive instrumentationand recording devices for better resolution of thewave arrivals. The data he collected using thesenew instruments allowed Press to better define thelayers within the Earth from the crust to the deepmantle. He produced detailed profiles that showhow seismic velocity changes with depth in theEarth. The basic layers were subdivided and theircharacter better defined at accurate depths. Thisnew level of scientific research defined the begin-ning of modern geophysics. It also contributedsignificantly to the understanding of plate tecton-ics. The new instrumentation allowed him torecord events not only on the Earth but also onthe Moon and other planets. Through these stud-ies he was able to define the architecture of theseextraterrestrial bodies as well.

Not only did his pioneering advances in seis-mology aid the science of geology, Frank Press wasalso of great public service. He is especially wellknown for his international coordination of theexploration of the ocean basins and the continentof Antarctica. The new instrumentation was ofgreat use in monitoring earthquakes. He led sev-eral international projects to better monitor earth-quakes on a worldwide basis and to formulate

plans for better earthquake prediction. This newworldwide network with his new more sensitiveinstrumentation allowed Press to better monitornuclear testing on a worldwide basis. He wascalled into service to help interpret any test thattook place. Frank Press was called to the highestlevel of public service with membership on thescience advisory panel to several presidents of theUnited States and participating sensitive negotia-tions on nuclear test bans and monitoring. Thesehigh-profile positions led Press to be named the“California Scientist of the Year” in 1960 andlater as one of the top 100 most important peopleunder the age of 40 in the United States by Lifemagazine in 1962.

Frank Press was born on December 4, 1924,in Brooklyn, New York, where he grew up. He at-tended the City College of New York and earneda bachelor of science degree in physics in 1944.He completed his graduate studies at ColumbiaUniversity, New York, where he earned a masterof arts in 1946 and a Ph.D. in 1949, both in geo-

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Frank Press in his office in Washington, D.C. (Courtesyof Frank Press)

physics. Frank Press married Billie Kallick in1946; they have two children. He joined the fac-ulty at Columbia University upon graduationwhere he worked with W. MAURICE EWING. In1955, he accepted a position at the California In-stitute of Technology in Pasadena where he be-came director of the Seismological Laboratory in1957. In 1965, Press moved again to the Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge,where he assumed the responsibility of depart-ment chairman. During this time, Press served asa member of the science advisory committee toboth President Kennedy and President Johnson.In 1977, Frank Press was called to Washington,D.C., to serve as science adviser to PresidentJimmy Carter, as the director of the Office of Sci-ence and Technology Policy. He was also the pres-ident of the National Academy of the Sciences, aposition he held until 1994. He returned to serveas chairman of the department at MassachusettsInstitute of Technology from 1980–1982. In1994, Press became the Cecil and Ida Green Se-nior Fellow at the Carnegie Institution of Wash-ington, D.C. In 1996, he became a partner in theWashington Advisory Group. In addition to beinga great scientist and advocate, Frank Press is askilled sailor and an authority on baseball andNew Orleans-style jazz.

In spite of all of his effort devoted to advisorywork, Frank Press has led a very productive scien-tific career. He is an author of more than 170 arti-cles in international journals and professionalvolumes. Many of these are benchmark studiesthat are published in the most prestigious of jour-nals. He is also an author of numerous books in-cluding Earth, probably the most completetextbook on physical geology, and UnderstandingEarth, probably one of the most popular text-books on physical geology. The honors andawards that Frank Press has received for both hisscientific contributions and advisory work are toonumerous to list completely here. He received theNational Medal of Science from President Clin-ton in 1994. He also received the Decorated

Cross of Merit from Germany and the Legion ofHonor from France. He was awarded numeroushonorary doctoral degrees and numerous societyawards, including the Arthur L. Day Medal fromthe Geological Society of America, the BowieMedal from the American Geophysical Union,the Ewing Medal from the Society of ExplorationGeophysicists, the Gold Medal from the RoyalAstronomical Society of England, and public ser-vice awards from both NASA and the U.S. De-partment of the Interior. He even had Mt. Pressin Antarctica named after him.

The service that Frank Press has performed tothe profession and the public is even more aston-ishing than his awards. In addition to that de-scribed above, he served as an adviser to the U.S.Navy, U.S. Geological Survey, NASA, U.S. De-partment of Defense, U.S. Arms Control and Dis-armament Agency, and the governor of the stateof California. He served on the U.S. Nuclear TestBan Delegation, the UNESCO Technical Assis-tance Mission, and the U.N. Conference on Sci-ence and Technology for UnderdevelopedNations. He served as president of the AmericanGeophysical Union (1974–1976) and president(1962) and vice president (1959–1961) of theSeismological Society of America, among numer-ous other committees and panels.

5 Price, Raymond A.(1933– )CanadianStructural Geologist

The Canadian Rockies are famous both for theirscenery and because they provide what is proba-bly the best example in the world of a forelandthrust and fold system. They are characterized byconspicuous linear mountain ranges that areformed by overlapping, thick, westward-tiltedslabs of sedimentary strata; and they form theeastern side of the North American Cordillerabetween the Northwest Territories and central

204 Price, Raymond A.

Montana. The sedimentary strata were scrapedoff the western margin of the North Americancontinent and thrust northeastward in front of a“collage” of overriding oceanic volcanic archi-pelagos with which North America “collided” asit drifted away from Africa and Europe duringthe opening of the Atlantic Ocean basin. As thesedimentary strata were slowly shoved northeast-ward along large, gently inclined thrust faultsjust like a rug on a floor, they were tilted, folded,and sliced by thrust faults. The resulting struc-tures beautifully illustrate the processes involvedin the development of a foreland thrust and foldsystem. The weight of the resulting giganticnortheastward-tapering wedge of thrust slabscaused the continental lithosphere (the strongouter layer of the solid Earth) of western NorthAmerica to flex downward, which produced adeeply subsiding sedimentary basin in front ofthe advancing wedge. Most of the petroleum andcoal deposits of western Canada were formed assediment that was eroded from the advancingwedge of thrust slabs accumulated to a depth ofmany kilometers in the subsiding basin. Al-though many geologists have studied this area,Raymond Price has emerged as the foremost ex-pert. He prepared geological maps and cross sec-tions of large areas of this rugged terrain, and hedeveloped models for the movement of the largethrust slabs, the processes of thrusting and fold-ing, and the origin of the foreland basin. He alsowas the leader of a small group of structural geol-ogists who developed quantitative methods tocritically evaluate the evolution of foreland foldand thrust belts. These methods, which are calledpalinspastic reconstruction, involve the carefulanalysis of the three-dimensional relationshipsbetween the thrust faults and the deformedstrata, and the sequential restoration of the stratato their initial undeformed state. One compo-nent of the process is the preparation of “retrode-formable” balanced cross-sections. In a “balancedcross section,” the configuration of the faultedand folded strata makes it possible to reconstruct

the initial configuration and location of the un-deformed strata without any gaps, overlaps, orother illogical consequences. These procedureshave been of great interest to oil companies be-cause the Canadian Rocky Mountains, like theUnited States Rockies and most other forelandfold and thrust belts worldwide, contain signifi-cant petroleum resources.

Raymond Price was born on March 25,1933, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, where hegrew up. He attended the University of Manitoba,Canada, where he earned a bachelor of science de-gree in geology with honors and the UniversityGold Medal in Science in 1955. In 1956, Ray-mond Price married Mina Geurds; they havethree children. He did his graduate studies atPrinceton University, New Jersey, and earned a

Price, Raymond A. 205

Portrait of Ray Price (Courtesy of R. Price)

master of arts degree in 1957 and a Ph.D. in1958. From 1958 to 1968, he worked as a geolo-gist within the petroleum geology section of theGeological Survey of Canada, where he worked inthe southern Canadian Rocky Mountains andYukon. He then joined the faculty of Queen’sUniversity, Canada, and served as the head of thedepartment from 1972 to 1977 and a Killam Re-search Fellow from 1978 to 1980. He moved backto the Geological Survey of Canada in 1981, andserved as the director-general from 1982 to 1987and as the assistant deputy minister for the Divi-sion of Energy, Mines and Resources of Canada in1987–1988. He returned to Queens University asa visiting professor in 1988–1990. Upon his re-tirement from the Geological Survey of Canada in1990, he accepted a full-time permanent positionat Queens University. Raymond Price retired to aprofessor emeritus position in 1998.

Raymond Price has led a highly productivecareer. He is an author of some 175 articles in in-ternational journals, chapters in professionalbooks and volumes, and geological maps. Severalof these articles are seminal works in the analysisof thrust belts. He was also an author of a popu-lar textbook, Analysis of Geologic Structures. He re-ceived numerous honors and awards inrecognition of his contributions to geology. He isa Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and aforeign associate for the U.S. National Academyof Sciences. He received honorary doctoral de-grees from Memorial University of Newfound-land, Canada, and Carleton University ofOttawa, Canada. He received the Sir William

Logan Medal from the Geological Association ofCanada, the Major Edward D’Ewes FitzgeraldCoke Medal from the Geological Society of Lon-don, England, the Leopold von Buch Medal fromthe Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft, theMichael T. Halbouty Award from the AmericanAssociation of Petroleum Geologists, the R.J.W.Douglas Medal from the Canadian Society ofPetroleum Geologists, and the Gold Medal inSciences from the University of Manitoba. Hewas named an Officier de l’Ordre des PalmesAcadémiques, France, in addition to serving nu-merous named distinguished lectureships fromcolleges worldwide.

The service that Raymond Price has given tothe profession is as impressive as his awards. Hehas served as member and chair of society andgovernmental committees and panels too numer-ous to list more than just the highlights. Heserved as president of the Geological Society ofAmerica in 1989–1990, where he served on nu-merous committees. He was also president of theInter-Union Commission on the Lithosphere in1980–1985. Several other organizations in whichhe served are the Royal Society of Canada, Cana-dian Institute for Advanced Research, OceanDrilling Program, U.S. National Research Coun-cil and the International Geosphere-BiosphereProgram. His input was sought for issues like en-ergy, nuclear waste disposal, seismic hazards, pureresearch directions, and others. He has served ineditorial roles too numerous to list, but they in-clude such prestigious journals as Journal of Struc-tural Geology and Tectonics.

206 Price, Raymond A.

5 Ramberg, Hans(1917–1998)NorwegianStructural Geologist, Tectonics

While most experimental structural and tectonicgeologists were building ever more powerful vicesand presses to compress and extend rock samples,Hans Ramberg took a different approach. Heplaced soft ductile materials in a centrifuge andspun them to pressures up to 2,000 times theforce of gravity to model deformational processesunder metamorphic conditions in the deep crust.These beautiful analogue models illustrated therole of gravity tectonics in deep crustal settings aswell as salt tectonics and other ductile substancesin shallower settings. The models simulatedcrustal structures in minutes that would have oth-erwise required millions of years to form throughnatural processes. These experiments led to newunderstanding of the formation and emplacementof diapirs as well as the formation of mantledgneiss domes. These models formed a bit of a rev-olution in geology when they were first released asmany regional geologists attempted to reinterprettheir field areas using Ramberg’s findings. Hecontinued by constructing scaled models depict-ing crustal isotasy, rift valleys opening to oceansand growth of continents, and mantle convection.Other models were structures of glaciers and grav-

ity gliding of nappes (large horizontally translatedsheets or folds of rock) as well as structural pat-terns observed in orogens and sedimentary basinsof all ages worldwide with special emphasis on theAlps of Europe. His book, Gravity, Deformationand the Earth’s Crust (Academic Press, London,1967), depicts hundreds of Ramberg’s greatestmodels. On the other hand, there were otherswho found the whole notion controversial and re-ferred to Ramberg’s laboratory as a “baker’s shop.”In time, his techniques were widely adopted bothin academia and in the petroleum industry.

Hans Ramberg began his career and researchdealing with the structural and metamorphic ge-ology of real rocks in the Norwegian Caledonidesand western Greenland. His main effort involvedthe chemistry of rocks and minerals and led to hisfirst book entitled, The Origin of Metamorphicand Metasomatic Rocks. He then shifted his effortto modeling of processes. He worked first on theformation of pegmatites. Ramberg also used engi-neering theory to attribute natural and experi-mental boudinage (regularly spaced bulbousshapes formed in the drawing apart of sheets ofrock) with various styles attributed to extensionalong the thin sheets caused by compressionacross them. Ramberg’s next research project con-sisted of using fluid dynamics to explain the ratiosof wavelength to thickness in ptygmatic folds interms of buckling of thin sheets.

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Toward the end of his career, Ramberg movedinto computer modeling of structural and tectonicprocesses. He developed numerical models for hisanalogue findings. Later, he modeled simple shearsystems (faults).

Hans Ramberg was born on March 15,1917, in the town of Trondheim, Norway. He at-tended Oslo University in Norway, receiving hisbachelor of science degree in 1943 in chemistryand physics. He continued with his graduatestudies at Oslo University and completed aPh.D. in geology in 1946. He worked as an ex-pedition leader to Greenland during the sum-mers of 1947 to 1951. This part-time positionoverlapped with his faculty position at the Uni-versity of Chicago, Illinois, which he obtained in1948. He took a leave of absence from 1952 to1955 to be a research associate at the geophysicallaboratory at the Carnegie Institution of Wash-ington, D.C. He was also a visiting professor inBrazil in 1959 and 1960. In 1961, Ramberg re-turned to Scandinavia to join the faculty at Upp-sala University, Sweden. It was there that heestablished the Hans Ramberg Tectonic Labora-tory. Between 1970 and 1975, he again took aleave of absence to be a special university profes-sor at the University of Connecticut in Storrs.He retired to professor emeritus in 1982, butcontinued to be active in research for many yearsto come. Hans Ramberg succumbed to cancer inMay of 1998. His wife Marie Louise (Lillemor)survived him. They had been married since hewas an undergraduate in 1942.

Hans Ramberg was an author of more than100 scientific articles in international journals andprofessional volumes. He also wrote two highlyregarded technical books. Many of his papers areseminal works on analog models of structural andtectonic processes, the thermodynamics of meta-morphic rocks, and computer modeling of struc-tural models. In recognition of his manycontributions of geology, several honors andawards were bestowed upon him. He received theArthur L. Day Medal and the Career Contribu-

tion Award from the Geological Society of Amer-ica, the Asar Haddings Prize, the Celcius Prizeand the Bjorkenske Prize from Sweden, the HansReusch Medal from Norway, the Arthur HolmesMedal from the European Union of Geoscientists,the Wollaston Medal from the Geological Societyof London and the Swedish Royal Academy ofSciences Prize.

5 Ramsay, John G.(1931– )BritishStructural Geologist

John Ramsay is unquestionably the “father ofmodern structural geology.” Although there wereseveral researchers who attempted to integratequantitative analysis into their studies, structuralgeology was largely a descriptive discipline intothe 1960s. It concentrated on the shapes and as-sociations of folds, faults, and cleavage and de-vised classifications on these bases. Ramsayassembled all of the quantitative techniques thathad been devised by the few structural geologistswho had even attempted such exercises. His realcontribution, however, was to take the science astep forward. He integrated these studies that at-tempted to provide a quantitative basis for strainand explained them in terms of continuum me-chanics. He also integrated his own studies ofdeformed passive markers which show the defor-mation of a rock but which are not formed inthe process. These passive markers include fea-tures like fossils of all types, certain sedimentarystructures (mud cracks, oolites, pebbles in con-glomerate, etc.), certain volcanic structures (vesi-cles, etc.), xenoliths in plutons and others. Byknowing the original shape of the feature andcomparing it to the deformed state, an equationof strain can be written based upon the geomet-rical changes. Although these changes are math-ematically complex, requiring a tensor solutionusing matrix algebra, by making certain assump-

208 Ramsay, John G.

tions and issuing certain requirements to the fea-tures, a relatively simple solution can be used inmany cases. Ramsay devised a series of trigono-metric and statistical solutions to these de-formed features that he summarized in alandmark 1967 textbook entitled Folding andFracturing of Rocks.

These new methods, now readily availablein a single textbook, sparked a revolution instructural geology that had fallen well behindmany of the other subdisciplines of geology interms of quantitative analysis. Structural geologywould go on to utilize many other principles ofengineering and material science. Most of Ram-say’s work involved the best examples of de-formed features rather than field studies. Thosefield studies that he performed were on singleoutcrop examples and largely in Great Britain orthe Swiss Alps. One of his regional topics of in-terest was the study of large shear zones espe-cially with regard to their passage from basementto cover rocks. Ramsay was always noted for hisability to find the most beautiful examples ofdeformed rocks to analyze. Late in his career, heproduced a two-volume manual entitled TheTechniques of Modern Structural Geology withsome of the most outstanding photographs ofdeformed rocks. These volumes also have be-come classics.

John Ramsay was born on June 17, 1931,in England. He received his primary educationat the Edmonton County Grammar School inEngland before attending Imperial College inLondon. He earned a bachelor of science degreein geology in 1952. That year he married SylviaHiorns but the marriage ended in divorce in1957. He remained at Imperial College for hisgraduate studies and earned a Ph.D. in geologyin 1955. He then performed military servicewith the Royal Corps of Engineers until 1957,and he also played in the military band. In 1957,he returned to Imperial College as part of theacademic staff and remained until 1973. JohnRamsay married Christine Marden in 1960, but

that marriage ended in divorce in 1987. Theyhad four children but one daughter died in heryouth. In 1973, Ramsay moved to the Universityof Leeds, England, where he served as depart-ment chair. He joined the faculty at the SwissFederal Institute (ETH) in Zurich in 1977 andspent the rest of his career there. John Ramsaymarried Dorothee Dietrich in 1990 and remainsmarried today. He retired to professor emeritusin 1992. Upon retirement he moved to Francewhere he continues to enjoy playing the cello(concert quality) and writing poetry, but devotesless interest to Earth sciences.

John Ramsay led a very productive careerhaving authored numerous scientific articles andreports in international journals and professionalvolumes. Many of them are groundbreaking stud-ies of the application of continuum mechanics torocks. He also wrote three textbooks that are re-garded by many as the “bibles” of modern struc-tural geology. In recognition of these outstandingcontributions to geology, John Ramsay has re-ceived numerous honors and awards. He is a Fel-low of the Royal Society of London and amember of the U.S. National Academy of Sci-ences. He received an honorary doctor of sciencedegree from Imperial College. He received both aBest Paper Award and the Career ContributionAward from the Structure and Tectonics Divisionof the Geological Society of America in additionto the Prestwich Medal from the Geological Soci-ety of France. He received most of the awards of-fered by the Geological Society of Londonincluding the Wollaston Award, the most presti-gious award.

John Ramsay also performed extensive ser-vice to the Earth science profession. He estab-lished the first tectonics studies group in theworld within the Geological Society of London.He was also the vice president of the GeologicalSociety of France, among other functions. Heserved on several committees and panels for theNational Environmental Research Council(NERC) in England.

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5 Rast, Nicholas(1927–2001)IranianTectonics

Although he began his career as a process-orientedstructural geologist and stratigrapher, NicholasRast became known for being able to utilize anyand all geologic information to construct tectonicsolutions. He became one of the key researchers inunraveling the complexities of the Caledonian-Appalachian orogen during the period whenmountain systems were first being explained interms of plate tectonics. Because of the extremelycomplex nature of the mountain system withmultiple plate collisions and embedded exoticfragments with complex relations, more geologistsperformed research here than any other place in

the world. This orogen was in the geologic spot-light for many years. With all of the geologistsperforming research and all of the literature beingreleased on the Caledonian-Appalachian orogen itbecame very difficult to distinguish oneself in theprofession. Yet Nicholas Rast did just that.

One of the main reasons for his insight intoregional problems and relations is that Rastworked in so many areas along the orogen. Heperformed detailed field research in England andScotland, maritime Canada, New England, andthe central and southern Appalachians in the vari-ous academic positions he held. This breadth ofexperience allowed him to recognize regionalstratigraphic correlations that few others are capa-ble of. It also allowed him to apply solutions to re-gional problems that appear sound in one area toother areas. His good memory for stratigraphic re-

210 Rast, Nicholas

Nicholas Rast (center) flanked by his former student Brian Sturt (left) and colleague James Skehan, S.J. (right) on afield trip to northern Newfoundland, Canada (Courtesy of N. Rast)

lations, his keen insight, and his ability to synthe-size multiple sources of information also con-tributed to his reputation.

Because Nick Rast was willing to address anyaspect of geology in his research, he also partici-pated in process-oriented studies. Early in his ca-reer, he studied the mechanics of boudinage, adistinctive structure that forms from the stretch-ing and pulling apart of rock layers into a chain ofblocks. Later, he studied the mechanisms involvedin the intrusion of magma into preexisting rocklayers. He even edited a prominent volume on thetopic entitled Mechanism of Igneous Intrusion.There are many other examples of his versatilityon a worldwide basis. Finally, Rast was a greatgeological diplomat with his ability to conversewith people from any culture reinforced by his airof sophistication.

Nicholas Rast was born on June 20, 1927, inTehran, Iran, to European parents. He completedhis primary education in Nemasi, Iran, and hissecondary education was in Shahpour, Shiraz,where he graduated in 1946. He received his tech-nical education at the Technical Institute, Abadan,Iran, where he earned a diploma in industrialchemistry in 1948. He enrolled in University Col-lege in London, England, and earned a bachelorof science degree in geology with honors in 1952.Rast completed his Ph.D. at the University ofGlasgow, Scotland, in geology in 1956. His firstacademic position was at University of Wales,England, as a lecturer in 1955. He then accepteda position at University of Liverpool, England, in1959. In 1971, Rast joined the faculty at the Uni-versity of New Brunswick, Canada, where heserved as chairperson. In 1979, he accepted a po-sition at the University of Kentucky in Lexingtonas the Hudnall Professor of Geology. He served aschairperson from 1981 to 1989. Rast retired toprofessor emeritus in 2001. He succumbed tocancer in late August of 2001. Rast was marriedtwice and had two children by the first marriageand three by the second. Rast was multilingual(including Russian).

Nicholas Rast had a very successful career. Heis an author of some 110 articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes. Many of theseare seminal works on the Caledonian-Appalachianorogen. He was probably best known for hisedited volumes, including Assembly and Dispersalof Supercontinents and Profiles of Orogenic Belts, inaddition to his translated volumes like Geology ofthe U.S.S.R. In recognition of this research, he re-ceived several honors and awards. He was a Lyell’sFund recipient from the Geological Society ofLondon in 1962, the Geological Society of Liver-pool Medal recipient in 1963 and a Royal SocietyVisiting Professor in the National University ofMexico in 1970. Rast served as editor for Journalof Geodynamics and Geologica Revista Mexicana aswell as on the editorial staff for Tectonophysics,Earth Science Reviews, and Canadian Journal ofEarth Sciences. He also served on numerous com-mittees and panels for the Geological Society ofAmerica, the Geological Association of Canada,the Geological Society of Mexico and the Geolog-ical Society of London.

5 Raup, David M.(1933– )AmericanInvertebrate Paleontologist

A revolution occurred in the field of paleontologyin the mid-1960s. It went from a purely descrip-tive science to a modern integrative science thatutilized mathematical analysis and techniquesfrom other sciences. One of the true leaders ofthis revolution was David Raup. His main interestwas in echinoids. He determined the orientationsthat the minerals grow to form the shell using ad-vanced optical techniques. He later quantitativelyanalyzed the coiling geometry of snails. He usedcomputer programs to define a logarithmic spiralfor a snail shell and analyze it in three dimensionsand in many directions long before anyone elseeven dreamed of using computers for such appli-

Raup, David M. 211

cations. The paper, “Theoretical Morphology ofthe Coiled Shell,” is an example of such work. Helater developed a computer program to grow anechinoid in a step-by-step progression. Even if thiscomputer model was not exactly the way the echi-noid grew, the process forced paleontologists toconsider more closely the evolutionary develop-ment of animals. For the first time, paleontologywas at the same, if not a more powerful, level thanevolutionary biology, in sharp contrast to the oldsystem in which a paleontologist became expertby looking at a lot of fossils.

Raup and his students voraciously evaluatedthe theoretical and functional morphology ofevery animal from ammonites to brachiopods. Heused clever mathematical techniques that he de-vised or adapted from principles of population bi-ology to uncover patterns of evolution andextinction. This research involves statistical stud-ies of large numbers of fossils to document evensmall changes and the environmental reasons forthem. Some of the biological techniques includesurvivorship analysis, cohort analysis, and rarefac-tion. The really perplexing thing about Raup isthat he does not know much formal mathematicsnor did he attend many such classes in college. Hesimply has great mathematical insight and readilyunderstands how to apply existing methods to de-mography and ultimately paleontology withouthaving studied those methods for any length oftime. Raup almost single-handedly turned the ta-bles on the evolution biologists who had hereto-fore claimed evolution as the realm of biology.Now biologists were forced to follow the lead ofpaleontologists who could evaluate evolution on amacroscopic scale and over long time spans withthe same tools as the biologists.

David Raup was born on April 24, 1933, inBoston, Massachusetts. He attended the Universityof Chicago, Illinois, where he earned a bachelor ofscience degree in geology in 1953. He completedhis graduate studies at Harvard University, Mas-sachusetts, where he earned a master of arts degreein geology in 1955 and a Ph.D. in 1957. In 1956,

Raup was an instructor at the California Instituteof Technology in Pasadena before obtaining a per-manent faculty position at the Johns HopkinsUniversity in Maryland in 1957. He moved to theUniversity of Rochester, New York, in 1966 andserved as department chair from 1969 to 1971. In1978, Raup moved to his alma mater at the Uni-versity of Chicago where he was a research associ-ate for two years before becoming a member of thefaculty in three programs: geophysical sciences,conceptual foundations of science, and evolution-ary biology. He served as department chair from1982 to 1985, dean of the College of Science from1980 to 1982, and he was named the Sewell L.Avery distinguished service professor in 1984. Heretired to professor emeritus in 1994. Raup was avisiting professor several times during his career atthe University of Tübingen, Germany, Universityof Chicago, and Morgan State College. DavidRaup was married twice; he has one child.

David Raup led a very productive career. Heis an author of numerous articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes. Many of thesepapers are benchmarks in applying mathematicaland other rigorous scientific solutions to paleon-tological problems. He is also the primary authorof the widely adopted textbook Principles of Pale-ontology with STEVEN M. STANLEY. Raup receivednumerous honors and awards in recognition of hiscontributions to geology. He is a member of theNational Academy of Science and a fellow of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences. He re-ceived both the Charles Schuchert Award and thePaleontological Society Medal from the Paleonto-logical Society (United States).

Raup performed significant service to theprofession and the public. In addition to numer-ous committees, he served as president of the Pa-leontological Society in 1976–1977. He was alsovice president of the American Society of Natural-ists in 1983. Raup served on several panels andcommittees for the National Research Council,National Academy of Sciences, the National Sci-ence Foundation, NASA, American Association of

212 Raup, David M.

Petroleum Geologists, and the American Chemi-cal Society. He was on evaluation committees forHarvard University and the University of Col-orado, among others.

5 Raymo, Maureen E.(1959– )AmericanClimate Modeling

The question of why there have been so many iceages in recent geologic history has plagued geolo-gists for many years. Maureen Raymo uncovereda novel possibility that caused scientists to reex-amine their ideas. This new “Raymo-ChamberlinHypothesis” states that the recent cooling of cli-mate was caused in part by enhanced chemicalweathering and consumption of atmosphericCO2 in the mountainous regions of the worldand particularly in the Himalayas. This ideameans that the growth of the Himalayan Moun-tains may have caused the onset of ice ages. Aswith any novel idea, there arose a great interest insupporting or disproving it in a vigorous collec-tion of new data. This interest also includes thepopular media, which greatly enhanced Raymo’svisibility worldwide. Examples of papers on thisresearch include, “Influence of Late CenozoicMountain Building on Ocean Geochemical Cy-cles” and “The Himalayas, Organic Carbon,Burial and Climate in the Miocene.”

In her regular research career, MaureenRaymo examines biogeochemical processes withregard to climate cyclicity. She is especially inter-ested in the Earth’s carbon cycle which she studiesusing carbon isotopes. Much of her work involvesstudying changes in deep sea cores for geochemi-cal and sedimentological evidence, and fossils andtheir linkages to ocean water chemistry. Much ofthis research is conducted in the North AtlanticOcean. These multidisciplinary approaches to cli-mate modeling show fine scale relations to discerndifferent scales of cyclicity, whether by astronomi-

cal Milankovitch-type controls or not. They alsoset up a series of checks and balances to betterconstrain the results. An example of this work isthe paper, “Late Cenozoic Evolution of GlobalClimate.”

Maureen Raymo was born on December 27,1959, in Los Angeles, California. Her father was aphysics professor who later wrote popular books.Maureen attended Brown University in Provi-dence, Rhode Island, and graduated in 1982 witha bachelor of science degree in geology. She at-tended graduate school at Lamont-Doherty EarthObservatory of Columbia University, New York,where she earned a master of arts degree in geol-ogy in 1985, a master of philosophy degree in1988, and a Ph.D. in 1989. She accepted simulta-neous positions at the University of Melbourne inAustralia as visiting research fellow in the meteo-rology department and associate scientist in thegeology department in 1989–1990. In 1991, sheaccepted a position as assistant professor at theUniversity of California at Berkeley, but departedin 1992 to accept a position at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology. She remained there until

Raymo, Maureen E. 213

Maureen Raymo on a field trip to Tibet (Courtesy of M. Raymo)

2000, when she accepted a position at BostonUniversity as a research associate professor.

Although still early in her career, MaureenRaymo has already made an impressive impact onthe field of Earth science. She has published threebooks and volumes and some 47 articles in profes-sional journals and collected volumes. She pub-lished a popular geology book with her fatherentitled, Written in Stone—A Geologic History ofthe Northeast United States. It is in its third print-ing and was greatly revised in 2001. Several of herresearch papers have appeared in the highly presti-gious journals Science and Nature, in addition tothe high-profile journal Geology.

Maureen Raymo’s work has been well recog-nized in the field as shown by the number of hon-ors and awards she has received. She received aPresidential Young Investigator Award from theNational Science Foundation in 1992. In 1993,she was awarded a Cecil and Ida Green CareerDevelopment Chair at Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology. The Joint Oceanographic Institu-tions/USSAC in 1994–1995 and the MountainResearch Center in 1996 named her a Distin-guished Lecturer at Montana State University. Shegave the keynote address at the Chapman Confer-ence on Tectonics and Topography in 1992 andthe inaugural lecture at the WISE Public LectureSeries at Syracuse University in 1999. She hasbeen invited to speak at several of the most presti-gious international topical conferences worldwidein addition to those at regular geological andoceanographic society conventions. She has alsopresented 58 departmental seminars over the past11 years.

Maureen Raymo is probably best known bythe public for her science film features. She andher work on climate change and climate model-ing with regard to why we have ice ages were fea-tured in four films with general distribution. In1995, she appeared in the BBC Horizon Series ina film entitled, Tibet: The Ice Mother. That sameyear she appeared in the DSR (German PublicTelevision) film entitled, Abenteuer Wissenschaft:

Tibet Teil 1 und 2 (Adventure Science: Tibet part1 and 2). In 1996, she appeared in a NOVA se-ries production through WGBH public televi-sion entitled, Cracking the Ice Age with anappearance by Massachusetts Institute of Tech-nology colleague PETER MOLNAR. In 1998, shewas featured in the BBC production Earth Story:Winds of Change.

5 Revelle, Roger(1909–1991)AmericanOceanographer, Science Advocacy

The New York Times described Roger Revelle as“one of the world’s most articulate spokesman forscience” and “an early predictor for global warm-ing.” Others have described him as the “grandfa-ther of the greenhouse effect.” In any event, RogerRevelle was one of the true giants of Earth scienceand one of the most influential modern scientists.He is best known for his work on atmosphericcarbon dioxide. In 1957, he and HANS E. SUESS

were the first to demonstrate that carbon dioxidelevels had increased as a result of the burning offossil fuels. This research led Revelle into his othercareer as a science adviser. He was named to Presi-dent Lyndon Johnson’s Science Advisory Com-mittee Panel on Environmental Pollution in 1965.This committee published the first U.S. govern-mental acknowledgment that carbon dioxide fromfossil fuels was a problem. In 1977, Revelle servedas chair of a National Academy of Sciences Panelon Energy and Climate. They concluded that 40percent of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide hasremained in the atmosphere, two-thirds of whichis from fossil fuel and one-third from the clearingof forests. In 1982, Revelle published a widelyread article in the magazine Scientific Americanentitled, “Carbon Dioxide and World Climate”that addressed all of the related issues of thegreenhouse effect including the rise in global sealevel and the relative role played by the melting of

214 Revelle, Roger

glaciers and ice sheets versus the thermal expan-sion of the warming surface waters.

Carbon dioxide may have provided RogerRevelle with his popular fame but he is just as wellknown in the Earth sciences for his oceanographicresearch. He designed and led the famous MidPacExpedition in 1950 in which they mapped themid-ocean ridges, the 40,000-mile-long, 60-mile-wide seafloor mountain ranges that would laterrevolutionize the plate tectonic paradigm. TheCapricorn Expedition of 1952 involved thedredging of the Tonga Trench in the South Pacificin which the basic ideas for the process of subduc-tion were initiated. These and later expeditionslike TransPac (1953), NorPac (1955), Downwind(1957) and NAGA (1959) resulted in importantdiscoveries like the thinness of deep sea sediments,the high heat flow in ocean crust, the young ageof sea mounts and the existence of enormousfault-fracture zones, now called transform faults,among others. He even worked with HARRY H.HESS on the Mohole project to drill to the mantleunder ocean crust which was never completed butwhich resulted in the successful Ocean DrillingProgram (ODP). These bathymetric, magnetic,and other data collected by Revelle served as theempirical basis for the conception of seafloorspreading and plate tectonic theory.

This pioneering research, however, was nothis second career. It was public policy whereRoger Revelle was equally effective. In 1961,President Kennedy asked Revelle to becomeAmerica’s first scientific adviser to the secretaryof the interior. He was a member for the U.S.National Committee for UNESCO. He waschair of the White House Interior Panel on Wa-terlogging and Salinity in West Pakistan. He wasa member of the International Science Panel ofthe president’s Science Advisory Committee andof the Naval Research Advisory Committee,among many others. This work moved Revelleinto population studies and resources versus pol-lution. He was equally active in that field, work-ing principally in India, Pakistan, and Nepal on

water quality and supply as well as food supplyand distribution.

Roger Revelle was born on March 7, 1909, inSeattle, Washington, but his family moved toPasadena, California, in 1917. He was a gifted stu-dent if not a prodigy and entered Pomona College,California, in 1925 at the age of 16. He graduatedin 1929 with a bachelor of arts degree in geologyafter switching his major from journalism. He metEllen Virginia Clark in 1928, who was attendingneighboring Scripps College. She was the grand-niece of Ellen Browning Scripps, who was afounder and patron of Scripps College. Roger Rev-elle and Ellen Clark were married in 1931; theyhad four children. Revelle began his graduate stud-ies at Pomona College but after one year trans-ferred to the University of California at Berkeley.In 1931, he received a research assistantship at theScripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla,California. He graduated with a Ph.D. in 1936and was immediately appointed as an instructor atScripps Institution. However, Revelle spent a yearin postdoctoral study at the Geophysical Institutein Norway before beginning his academic career.In 1941, he was called for training duty as a sonarofficer five months before being called for activeduty at the U.S. Navy Radio and Sound Labora-tory in San Diego, California. He was called toWashington, D.C., where he was the commanderof the Oceanographic Section of the Bureau ofShips for the duration of World War II. He was in-timately involved in the planning of the invasionof Japan. In 1946, he was named to head the geo-physics branch for the U.S. Navy. Revelle returnedto Scripps Institution in 1948 as associate directorand served as director from 1951 to 1963. In1958, he was named the director of the Institute ofTechnology and Engineering and in 1960, he be-came the dean of the School of Science and Engi-neering and chief administrative officer of theUniversity of California in San Diego, which hehelped to establish and which had assumed ScrippsInstitution. In 1964, Revelle completely changedcareers from oceanography to public policy. He

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founded the Center for Population Studies at Har-vard University, Massachusetts, where he wasnamed the Richard Saltonstall Professor of Popula-tion Policy. In 1976, he returned to the Universityof California at San Diego as a professor of scienceand public policy. Roger Revelle died on July 15,1991, from heart disease.

In recognition of his contributions tooceanography and public policy, Roger Revelle re-ceived numerous honors and awards. Amongthese, he received the Tyler Ecology Energy Prize,the Balzan Foundation Prize (similar to the NobelPrize), and the National Medal of Honor fromPresident George H. W. Bush in 1990. He has aresearch ship named after him at Scripps Institu-tion and a building named after his wife and himat Harvard University. He was a member of theNational Academy of Sciences and received 14honorary degrees from schools like Harvard Uni-versity, Dartmouth University, Williams College,Pomona College, and Carleton College, amongothers. Other honors and awards include theAgassiz Medal from the National Academy of Sci-ences, the Bowie Medal from the American Geo-physical Union, the Albatross Medal from theSwedish Royal Society of Science and Letters, theOrder of Sitara-I-Imtaz from the government ofPakistan, the Climate Institute Award, and theVannevar Bush Award from the National ScienceBoard, among many others.

5 Richter, Charles F.(1900–1985)AmericanGeophysicist

The name of Charles Richter is one of the bestknown in the Earth sciences by virtue of hisRichter scale, used to rank earthquake magni-tudes. It is now the scale of choice for reportingby the popular media as well as most of the labo-ratories. There were other scales for ranking earth-quakes as early as the late 19th century. The most

popular of these was the 10-point scale ofFrançois-Alphonse Forel and Michele Stefano deRossi. In 1902, Giuseppe Mercalli created a 12-point scale that replaced all of the earlier scales. Itmeasures the intensity of shaking during an earth-quake based upon inspection of damage and in-terviews with survivors. Therefore, the Mercallinumber varies with location by proximity to theepicenter as well as the materials through whichthe earthquake waves pass and even populationdensity. With the advent of more modern ad-vanced seismographs that continuously monitoredseismic activity, the Mercalli scale had becomeoutdated. By the 1930s, Richter was recordingsome 200 earthquakes per year in southern Cali-fornia. He found the Mercalli system so inade-quate and misleading when it came to briefing thenews organizations that he began investigating al-ternatives. In 1935, Richter developed a new loga-rithmic scale that measures the amplitude of theseismic waves from seismograph records and ac-counts for the material through which they pass.The Richter magnitude determines the amount ofenergy released by the earthquake rather than thelocal damage. It relies on measuring the strengthof an earthquake at three or more points so thatthe point of origin can be determined. By com-paring the distance with the recorded strength,the strength of the earthquake at the epicenter canbe estimated.

Charles Richter and BENO GUTENBERG ap-plied this new system to earthquakes on a world-wide basis. This began a great collaboration forthe next decade or so that produced a series ofseminal papers with the title “On Seismic Waves.”These papers explained how to interpret the seis-mic wave arrivals that are drawn on a seismogramby the seismograph. These papers provided thebasis for modern deep-Earth seismology.

Charles Richter was born on April 26,1900, on a farm near Hamilton, Ohio. His par-ents soon divorced and his mother resumed useof her maiden name of Richter as did Charles. In1909, the family moved to Los Angeles, Califor-

216 Richter, Charles F.

nia, where he spent his later youth. CharlesRichter was something of a prodigy and enteredthe University of California at Los Angeles at 16years of age. After one year, he transferred toStanford University, California, where he earneda bachelor of science degree in physics in 1920.he completed his graduate studies at the Califor-nia Institute of Technology in Pasadena andearned a Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 1928.Richter had planned on a career in astronomybut in 1927 he was invited to become a researchassistant at the seismological laboratory of theCarnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., whichwas also located in Pasadena, California. CharlesRichter married his lifelong companion, LilianBrand, in 1928. The seismological laboratory be-came part of California Institute of Technologyin 1936 and Richter joined the faculty in 1937.He remained a faculty member until his retire-ment to professor emeritus in 1970. The onlytime he was absent from Cal Tech was in1959–1960 when he was a visiting scientist inJapan. Richter remained active after his retire-ment helping to found the consulting firm ofLindvall, Richter and Associates, which per-formed seismic evaluations of buildings andother structures. Charles Richter died on April30, 1985, in Altadena, California.

Charles Richter was an author of more than200 scientific articles in international journals,professional volumes, and governmental reports.Many of these are true classics on earthquakeseismology, seismic wave travel, and the scaling ofearthquakes. He was also the author of a widelyadopted textbook, Elementary Seismology andcoauthor of Seismology of the Earth with BenoGutenberg, which was also well received. Inrecognition of his contributions to geophysics,Charles Richter received a number of honors andawards. He was a fellow of the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He received anhonorary doctorate from California LutheranCollege and the Medal of the Seismological Soci-ety of America. The Charles F. Richter Seismo-

logical Laboratory at the University of Californiaat Santa Cruz was named in his honor. Richteralso served as president of the Seismological Soci-ety of America.

5 Ringwood, Alfred E. (Ted)(1930–1993)AustralianGeochemist

Alfred (Ted) Ringwood is one of the true giants ofgeology for many reasons. He is best known forhis solution of a fundamental problem in geology,the transition between the upper and lower man-tle. Seismologists had known for many years thatseismic velocities in the mantle increase rapidlybetween 400- and 900-km depth. This transitionzone was speculated to be the result of the crush-ing down of mineral structures (phase transforma-tions) as the result of the extreme pressure. Suchreconfiguring of atoms would be similar to thetransformation of graphite to diamond with pres-sure. The problem was that no laboratory in theworld could replicate those conditions. Ringwoodovercame that problem by synthesizing an olivinestructured mineral (olivine is the common min-eral in that part of the mantle) except he used theelement germanium instead of silicon (the ele-ment in natural olivine) in the structure. Becausegermanium has a smaller atomic radius than sili-con but otherwise fits all of the other require-ments, it would transform to the new structure atlow enough pressures to be within the experimen-tal range at the time. His experiments showed thatthe olivine structure would convert to a spinelstructure and predicted by extrapolation that itshould occur in natural olivine at 400-km depth.Later seismic studies found that indeed there is aseismic discontinuity at 400 km and later experi-mental work with more sophisticated equipmentshowed that Ringwood was correct. Continuedresearch by Ringwood showed that pyroxene, theother major mantle mineral, converted to garnet

Ringwood, Alfred E. 217

structure between 400 and 650 km and that thespinel structure converted to a “perovskite” struc-ture at still greater depths using his experimentalmodels. Papers on this work include “Phase Trans-formations in the Mantle,” and several other simi-lar titles.

Ringwood then attacked the problem of howbasaltic magma was generated in the mantle at themid-ocean ridge. He bucked traditional wisdomand proposed that there was a strange composi-tion substance in the mantle called “pyrolite”from which basalt was derived. He wrote a classicpaper on the topic entitled “The Genesis ofBasaltic Magmas” in 1967. The pyrolite modelwas subsequently disproved but the idea that dif-ferent compositions of basalt are generated at dif-ferent depths, which was also incorporated in themodel, is still unquestioned and considered amajor contribution to the science.

In addition to these gargantuan issues, Ring-wood also had several other areas of interest. Hegave new insights to the composition of the core ofthe Earth which are still accepted. He proposedmodels for the chemical evolution of the Earth,other planets, and meteorites. He proposed modelsfor the composition and origin of the Moon whileworking on the Apollo lunar missions with NASA.He championed the idea that the Moon may havebeen spiralled off of the early Earth as the result ofa giant impact. Finally, he applied his geochemicalexpertise to nuclear waste disposal. To each ofthese highly varied topics he made contributionsto the science which still set the standards today.

In recognition of his accomplishments, Ring-wood received the Antonio Feltrinelli Prize in1991 from the Academia Lincei in Rome, the old-est scientific society in the world. Galileo was thehead of the society in its early years. The FeltrinelliPrize is similar to the Nobel Prize but awards onlyone prize per year in all fields. It has been awardedto the likes of Thomas Mann, Igor Stravinsky, Al-bert Sabin, and Georges Braque. The previous ge-ologist to receive the prize was HARRY H. HESS in1966, another giant of geology.

Ted Ringwood was born in Kew, near Mel-bourne, Australia, on April 19, 1930. He at-tended Hawthorn West State School, GeelongGrammar School, and Melbourne High Schoolas a youth in Melbourne. He enrolled in the University of Melbourne with a Trinity CollegeResident Scholarship and a CommonwealthGovernment Scholarship. He graduated with abachelor of science degree in geology with hon-ors in 1951 and a master of science degree withhonors in 1953. He continued at the Universityof Melbourne to earn a Ph.D. in 1956 at 26years of age. He became a research fellow at Har-vard University in 1957. During this time hemade several visits to Sweden to study meteoritesand met Gun Carlson, whom he married in1960. They had two children. He returned tojoin the faculty at the Australian National Uni-versity in 1959, where he remained for the rest ofhis life. He served as director of the ResearchSchool of Earth Sciences from 1978 to 1983.Ringwood died of lymphoma on November 12,1993, at the age of 63.

Ted Ringwood led an extremely productivecareer. He was an author of more than 300 pub-lications, including articles in international jour-nals and professional volumes as well as books.Many of these papers are benchmark studies onprocesses, properties, and compositions of rocksin the interior of the Earth. Many appear in pres-tigious journals like Science and Nature. He alsowrote two widely acclaimed books, Compositionand Petrology of the Earth’s Interior and Origin ofthe Earth and Moon, and even had several patentsfor high-level nuclear waste disposal. Ringwoodreceived honors and awards too numerous to listcompletely. He was a fellow of the U.S. NationalAcademy of Sciences and the AustralianAcademy of Sciences. He received an honorarydoctorate from the University of Göttingen, Ger-many. He received the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica Award, the Werner Medaille from theGerman Mineralogical Society, the Arthur L.Day Medal from the Geological Society of Amer-

218 Ringwood, Alfred E.

ica, the Bowie Medal and the Harry H. HessMedal from the American Geophysical Union,the Arthur Holmes Medal from the EuropeanUnion of Geosciences, the Wollaston Medalfrom the Geological Society of London, theGoldschmidt Award from the Geochemical Soci-ety, the Inaugural Rosentiel Award from theAmerican Association for the Advancement ofScience, and the Matthew Flinders Lecture andMedal and the J.C. Jaeger Medal from the Aus-tralian Academy of Science, among many others.He served numerous endowed lectureships fromthe most prestigious organizations. He also per-formed service to the profession like serving asthe vice president for the Australian Academy ofScience, for example, but it is also too extensiveto list here.

5 Rizzoli, Paola Malanotte(1946– )ItalianOceanographer

The circulation of the water in an ocean basin ishighly complex. It depends upon the shape ofthe basin, temperatures of the air and the water, prevailing winds and storms, in addition to therotation of the Earth. These processes and inter-actions of ocean and atmosphere lead to large-scale phenomena like El Niño and NorthAtlantic oscillations, which in turn can havemajor effects on our climate. Paola Rizzoli is oneof the premier scientists to model such circula-tion. She applies a strong physics and mathbackground to understand and ultimately to pre-dict these catastrophic changes in ocean circula-tion. Her first interest was to model the regularand dangerous flooding under varying meteoro-logical conditions in Venice in her native Italy.She expanded these studies to investigate the dy-namics of strong oceanographic and meteorolog-ical flow structures with long lives, likehurricanes, and their effects on general ocean cir-

culation. These features violate the principles ofchaos, the intrinsic unpredictability of ocean andmeteorological flow structures. This research wasmotivated by the work of Edward Lorenz, thedeveloper of chaos theory who helped bring Riz-zoli to the Massachusetts Institute of Technologyin 1981.

Paola Rizzoli’s research then expanded tomodel general ocean circulation from the globalscale to the ocean basin scale. For example, shehas been modeling circulation in the AtlanticOcean, which is a crucial component for model-ing the climate system of the Earth. Her researchfirst focused on the Gulf Stream, but more re-cently it has concentrated on the tropical-subtrop-ical interactions affecting the equatorial Atlantic.She also models marginal seas like the Mediter-ranean Sea and the Black Sea as a subcomponentof these general circulation models. These localcirculation models have major implications forthe development of local ecosystems and the floraand fauna that inhabit them. To collect these data,Rizzoli served as chief scientist during oceano-graphic campaigns in the Adriatic Sea on the re-search vessels Adriatic I, II, and III of the ItalianNational Research Council. Finally, she does re-search in data collection and assimilation of allavailable observations for “model data synthesis”for numerical circulation models.

Paola Rizzoli was born on April 18, 1946, inLonigo, Italy. She attended Lyceum Benedetti inVenice, Italy, where she earned a bachelor of sci-ence degree in physics and mathematics with high-est honors in 1963. She attended graduate schoolat the University of Padua, Italy, where she earneda Ph.D. in physics, summa cum laude, in 1968.She completed a one-year postdoctoral fellowshipat the University of Padua in 1969 before joiningthe Istituto Dinamica Grandi Masse, which wascreated by the Italian National Research Councilthe next year. She achieved the rank of senior sci-entist by 1976. In 1971, she became a regularcommuter to the Scripps Institution of Oceanog-raphy at the University of California at San Diego.

Rizzoli, Paola Malanotte 219

She was a visiting scientist in 1971–1974 beforeentering the Ph.D. program. Rizzoli earned a sec-ond Ph.D. in oceanography in 1978 and acceptedthe position of Cecil and Ida Green Scholar at theInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics atthe University of California at San Diego while onleave from the Istituto Dinamica Grandi Masse. In1981, she joined the faculty at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology in Cambridge, where sheremains today. Since 1997, Rizzoli has served asdirector of the Joint Program in Oceanographyand Ocean Engineering between the Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology and WoodsHole Oceanographic Institution. Paola Rizzolimarried Peter Stone in 1987.

Paola Rizzoli is an author of 97 articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. She is also an editor of nineprofessional volumes. Many of these papers areseminal works on the modeling of ocean circula-tion. She received nine honors and fellowships,including the 1998 Masi Prize from the ItalianMinistry of Culture and Education.

Rizzoli has performed significant service tothe profession. She served as president (1999–2003) and deputy secretary (1995–1999) for theInternational Association for the Physical Sci-ences of the Ocean (IAPSO), in addition tomany other committees and panels. She was alsopresident of the Committee on PhysicalOceanography of the CIESM (International Ex-ploration of the Mediterranean Sea) 1984–1988)and president of the Italian Commission to As-sign University Chairs in the Physics of theEarth (1991–1992). She also served on numer-ous committees and panels for the NationalCenter for Atmospheric Research, the AmericanMeteorological Society, Institute of NavalOceanography, National Centers for Environ-mental Prediction, Goddard Space Flight Center,UNESCO, and the National Science Founda-tion. She also served as an editor for the Journalof Geophysical Research, among other editorialpositions.

5 Rodgers, John(1914– )AmericanField-Regional Geologist

John Rodgers collects mountain ranges. Thismeans that he reads the literature, talks to the geol-ogists working in the area, and takes extensive fieldtrips through the mountains. There are very few, ifany, mountains that he has not visited. He can beconsidered the “grandfather of regional tectonics”for this reason. Although he considers himself asynthesizer of information rather than an innova-tor, few would agree with that evaluation. His ex-perience gives him the unique ability to evaluatethe comparative anatomy of mountain belts. Hecan visit any field area and put those rocks into theperspective of many other similar or contrastingareas. This vision has guided many researchers tobetter solutions of their work. His work has eluci-dated the commonalities and variations in themountain building process especially with regardto fold and thrust belts. Thus there is a baselinefrom which other observations may be compared.Two of his more recent papers include, “Fold andThrust Belts in Sedimentary Rocks Part 1: TypicalExamples” and “Fold and Thrust Belts in Sedimen-tary Rocks Part 2: Other Examples, EspeciallyVariants.”

John Rodgers’s first and primary interest hasbeen the Appalachian Mountains of easternNorth America, especially those in New England.He has mostly concentrated on the stratigraphyand structure of the sedimentary rocks, but he isquite comfortable in the metamorphic rocks aswell. He wrote a seminal work on the Taconicorogen early in his career but considered thewhole Appalachian orogen in his book, The Tec-tonics of the Appalachians. It was at that time thathe was in an open controversy over whether thecrystalline rocks of the continental basementwere involved in the deformation of the sedimen-tary cover sequence. Rodgers maintained that thebasement was not involved, supporting a “thin-

220 Rodgers, John

skinned” model. He prevailed in the controversyand was proven correct as more and more datawere presented. Even through the many years andnumerous mountain belts, Rodgers has main-tained a strong interest in the building of the Appalachians.

John Rodgers was born on July 11, 1914, inAlbany, New York. After graduating cum laudeand valedictorian of his class at Albany Academy,New York, he attended Cornell University, NewYork, where he earned a bachelor of arts degreeand a master of science degree in geology in 1936and 1937, respectively. He earned his doctoral de-gree from Yale University in 1944 in geology. Hisgraduate studies were interrupted from 1939 to1946, when he worked for the U.S. GeologicalSurvey as a scientific consultant to the U.S. ArmyCorps of Engineers during World War II. Hehelped plan the invasion of Okinawa, Japan, usinghis geologic knowledge of beaches. In addition, hewas instrumental in evaluating the natural re-sources of Japan. He joined the faculty at YaleUniversity in 1946 and remained there for the restof his career. He became the Benjamin SillimanProfessor of Geology in 1962 and retired to anemeritus professor position in 1985. John Rodgersis an accomplished pianist and an aficionado ofclassical music. He also enjoys the study of foreignlanguages and history.

John Rodgers is one of the most influentialand respected geologists of all time. Many of thepapers and books that he has written are trueclassics that are studied worldwide. He has alsomentored some of the leading structural and tec-tonic geologists in the world, further extendinghis influence. This productivity has been wellrecognized in the profession in terms of honorsand awards. He was awarded the Medal of Free-dom by the U.S. Army in 1947 for his contribu-tions to the war effort. He is a member of theNational Academy of Sciences and the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. The GeologicalSociety of America recognized his achievementsby awarding him the Penrose Medal in 1981 and

the Structural Geology and Tectonics DivisionCareer Contribution Award in 1989. He wasawarded the Gaudry Prize from the GeologicalSociety of France in 1987 and the FourmanierMedal from the Royal Academy of Science, FineArts and Letters of Belgium in 1987. He was aGuggenheim Fellow in 1973–1974 and a Na-tional Academy of the Sciences Exchange Scholarwith the USSR in 1967.

John Rodgers has performed more service tothe profession than can be listed here. He was thepresident of the Geological Society of America in1970 after having served on many committees.He was the secretary of the Commission onStratigraphy for the International GeologicalCongress from 1952 to 1960, and the vice presi-dent for the Société Géologique de France in1960. He was an associate editor for the Ameri-can Journal of Science in 1948 to 1954 at whichtime he became editor, which he has been eversince.

Rodgers, John 221

John Rodgers (third from left) on a field trip for theInternational Geological Correlation Project (IGCP) inthe northern Appalachians in 1979 (Courtesy of JamesSkehan, S.J.)

5 Roedder, Edwin W.(1919– )AmericanGeochemist

When a mineral crystallizes, it can trap a smallbubble of fluid and/or vapor that is present in thecrystallization process. This completely encapsu-lated bubble is called a fluid inclusion. The fluidwithin it tells geologists the composition of thefluid that accompanied the crystallization of apluton or the metamorphism of a rock or terrane,or the mineralization of a vein among otherthings. By heating or cooling the inclusion untilall of the liquids and gases (and even solids) com-bine on a stage attached to a microscope (to ob-serve the transformation), an experimentallydetermined “isochore” may be used to determinethe pressure and temperature of formation. BeforeEdwin Roedder did his pioneering research to es-tablish this great use of fluid inclusions, they weremerely curiosities to be viewed under a micro-scope. They were indeed very curious. The fluidin some of the little bubbles would vibrate furi-ously. It was assumed that this vibrating was anexample of “Brownian Motion” and the result ofpent-up energy. Roedder showed that the motionwas in fact the result of minute thermal gradientsacross the inclusions. He even patented an inge-nious device to sense tiny thermal gradients basedupon this observation entitled “Device for Sens-ing Thermal Gradients.” No combination of ther-mocouples or thermometers has the same delicatesensitivity, nor can they match the speed of re-sponse of his device. Edwin Roedder is the true“father of fluid inclusion research,” which is nowa standard technique for petrologic and ore min-eralization research among others. His papers in-clude “Ancient Fluids in Crystals” and “FluidInclusions as samples of the Ore Fluids.”

Edwin Roedder had another major researchdirection. He was an experimental petrologiststarting at the Geophysical Laboratory of theCarnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., as a

graduate student. He found that by adding ironto a relatively common system, two liquidsemerged that were immiscible just like oil andwater, as reported in the paper “Silicate LiquidImmiscibility in Magmas.” The importance ofthis finding was not fully appreciated until thelunar samples were returned to Earth by theApollo astronauts. Scientists discovered glass glob-ules in the igneous rocks. When they determinedthe composition of this glass, they found that itwas exactly the same as Roedder found in his ex-periments. This discovery caused Roedder torenew his work and ultimately to propose that liq-uid immiscibility is a major process in magmaticdifferentiation, planetary evolution, and the for-mation of mineral deposits. As if his fluid inclu-sion work was not enough of a contribution tothe science, this work on immiscibility caused an-other great impact on the profession.

Edwin Roedder was born on July 30, 1919,in Monsey, New York, but he spent his youth inPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. He attended Lehigh

222 Roedder, Edwin W.

Edwin Roedder performing research on rockcompositions on a phase diagram in his laboratory atthe U.S. Geological Survey in 1958 (Courtesy of theU.S. Geological Survey, E.F. Patterson Collection)

University, Pennsylvania, where he earned a bach-elor of arts degree in geology in 1941. He workedas a research engineer at Bethlehem Steel Corpo-ration from 1941 to 1946. Roedder conducted hisgraduate studies at Columbia University, NewYork, where he earned a master of arts degree ingeology in 1947 and a Ph.D. in 1950. He joinedthe faculty at the University of Utah upon gradua-tion. He then moved to the U.S. Geological Sur-vey in 1955 as chief of the Solid State Group ofthe Geochemical and Petrological Branch, but healso held positions of staff geologist and geologist.He remained at the U.S. Geological Survey untilhis retirement in 1987, whereupon he became anassociate of the department at Harvard University,Massachusetts.

Edwin Roedder has led a very productive ca-reer with authorship on numerous articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. He also edited and wroteseveral books and volumes. Several of these pa-pers are benchmark works on fluid inclusions(including the definitive book simply entitled,Fluid Inclusions) and magma immiscibility. Inrecognition of his research contributions to theprofession of geology, he has received severalhonors and awards. He is a member of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences. He was awarded anhonorary doctorate from Lehigh University. Healso received the Exceptional Scientific Achieve-ment Medal from NASA, the Werner Medalfrom the German Mineralogical Association, theRoebling Medal from the Mineralogical Societyof America, the Penrose Medal from the Societyof Economic Geologists and the H.C. SorbyMedal.

Roedder also performed significant service tothe geological profession. He served as president(1982–1983) and vice president (1981–1982) ofthe Mineralogical Society of America, in additionto numerous panel and committee positions. Healso served as president of the Geochemical Soci-ety in 1976–1977 as well as committee work.Roedder served on numerous panels and commit-

tees for the National Research Council, NationalScience Foundation, and several governmental ad-visory committees, especially with regard to nu-clear waste disposal.

5 Romanowicz, Barbara(1950– )FrenchGeophysicist

How do scientists know what the deeper parts ofEarth look like if it cannot be seen? The answer isthat seismic waves generated by earthquakes pene-trate all of Earth and are received by seismographsworldwide. By analyzing small variations in thesewaves, seismologists can image the interior partsof the Earth much like a sonogram images a fetus.Barbara Romanowicz is one of the premier expertson imaging the Earth’s interior. Her research cov-ers all levels, but some of her most exciting re-search has been on the core and deep mantle. Shefound that the inner solid core, rather than simplya solid massive ball as previously considered, has alayering or anisotropy to it. Romanowicz inter-preted this anisotropy to reflect convection as re-ported in her paper “Anisotropy in the Center ofthe Inner Core,” among others. She also per-formed fine detailed imaging of the lowermostmantle above the outer core. Again, previous as-sumptions of a uniform character were disprovedwhen she found that there are topographical anddensity anomalies there. This work is summarizedin the paper “Anisotropic Structures at the Base ofthe Mantle.”

Romanowicz also produces seismic tomogra-phy images, essentially CAT scans of the uppermantle and lower crust (e.g., “Seismic Tomogra-phy of the Earth’s Mantle”). She compared thistomography to plate motions, both current andpast, and found good correlations. Basically, hotand cold regions develop based upon whetherthere is mantle upwelling (hot) like at divergentboundaries, or subduction zones where it is cooler

Romanowicz, Barbara 223

because cooler crust is being driven into the as-thenosphere. She modeled the deep structure be-neath the Tibetan Plateau, the continental UnitedStates, and the Atlantic Ocean.

A third area of interest for Romanowicz isearthquake processes. She looks at the release ofenergy, focal mechanisms, and sources of majorearthquakes. This work includes the scaling ofevents and real-time estimation of earthquake pa-rameters. She also studies the attenuation (loss ofenergy) of seismic waves as they travel through theEarth. Some of the earthquakes that she has stud-ied include 1999 Izmit, Turkey; 1989 Loma Pri-eta, California; 1988 Spitak, Armenia; 1985Chile; 1986 Romania; 1989 Macquarie Ridge,Australia; and earthquakes in Sudan and Syria.This expertise has prompted several earthquakehazard reduction groups in California to solicither opinion and aid.

Barbara Romanowicz was born on April 5,1950, in Suresnes, France. She attended the Uni-versity of Paris, France, where she earned a bache-lor of science degree in mathematics with honorsin 1974. She attended Harvard University, Mas-sachusetts, for graduate studies and earned a mas-ter of science in applied physics in 1975. Shereturned to the University of Paris and completeddoctoral degrees in both astronomy and geophysicsin 1975 and 1979, respectively. Romanowiczserved as a research associate at the Institute for thePhysics of the Earth in Paris, France, in1978–1979 before becoming a postdoctoral re-search associate at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology from 1979 to 1981. Romanowicz re-turned to the Institute for the Physics of the Earthto assume the position of director of research andthe director of the geoscope program in 1981. In1991, she joined the faculty at the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley where she remains today.She is also director of the Berkeley SeismologicalLaboratory. Barbara Romanowicz married MarkJonikas in 1979; they have two children.

Barbara Romanowicz is in the midst of a veryproductive career. She is an author of more than

110 articles in international journals, professionalvolumes, and governmental reports. Many ofthese papers are benchmark studies on the deeparchitecture of the Earth as well as earthquakeprocesses. Several appear in the high-profile jour-nal Science. The contributions to geology and geo-physics by Romanowicz have been recognized bythe profession as evidenced by her honors andawards. She received the French Academy of Sci-ences Prize, the Silver Medal from the French Na-tional Academy of Sciences, and the WegenerMedal from the European Union of Geosciences.

Romanowicz has also performed significantservice to the profession. Among much commit-tee and panel work, she was president of the Seis-mological Section of the American GeophysicalUnion. She also served as vice president of theFederation of Digital Seismic Networks and theseismological section of the International Unionof Geodesy and Geophysics (France). She servedon numerous committees and panels for the Na-tional Science Foundation, the National ResearchCouncil, and the Seismological Society of Amer-ica, and on several evaluation committees for de-partments at Harvard University and Universityof California at Los Angeles, among others. Hereditorial work is also extensive, including servingas the European editor for Geophysical ResearchLetters and editor for Physics of Earth and Plane-tary Interiors.

5 Rosendahl, Bruce R.(1946– )AmericanReflection Seismologist (Tectonics)

Bruce Rosendahl is an Indiana Jones type in thegeological community. In a feature article describ-ing his exploits in East Africa, Esquire magazinecalled him “Bwana Boom.” The name was as-cribed to him by the Turkana tribe of northernKenya after Bruce blasted a channel into remoteLake Turkana (Lake Rudolf ) to launch his re-

224 Rosendahl, Bruce R.

search vessel NYANJA. Tossing pelican guanohundreds of feet into the air was just one of manyadventures that Rosendahl endured as his ProjectPROBE team conducted the first-ever advancedseismic surveys (like a sonogram of the subsur-face) of the African Great Lakes. His work washighlighted in a PBS television documentary in1986. Facing fierce storms, hurricane-force winds,and the occasional rebel boat over a span of eightyears, Rosendahl and his team managed to deci-pher the faults, folds, and processes of formationfor Lakes Tanganyika, Malawi, Victoria, andTurkana. This work led to the realization thatcontinental rift zones are compartmentalizedalong their lengths into fault-bounded basins(half-grabens), in which the bounding faults tendto alternate on either side of the basins. Theseflip-flop faults are inclined toward each other.Rosendahl found that the switch of the faultsfrom one side to another form distinct “accom-modation zones” marked by characteristic folds,faults, and depositional patterns. The resultingmodels of linkage of the basins, and their applica-bility to hydrocarbon exploration, have become astandard in unraveling rift tectonics around theworld. The work has also spurred several interna-tional research efforts on the African lakes.

Rosendahl also began the PROBE programwhich uses ultra-deep, multichannel seismic tech-niques to image the Earth’s crust and upper man-tle to depths of 40 kilometers along the WestAfrican continental margin. The PROBE studyresulted in some of the clearest acoustic profilesyet obtained beneath the thick sedimentary sec-tions, which blanket passive oceanic margins. Anexample is the paper “Nature of the Transitionfrom Continental to Oceanic Crust and theMeaning of Reflection Moho.” These images re-veal the segmented nature of how continentsbreak up and how the equatorial South AtlanticOcean was created. Rosendahl is currently extend-ing his work to the matching (conjugate) Brazil-ian side of the Atlantic to determine thearchitecture of originally paired margins.

Bruce Rosendahl was born December 28,1946, in Jamestown, New York. He grew up in asmall village on the shores of Lake Chautauqua inthe western part of the state. He learned to boat,fish, and dive about the time he learned to walk.He undoubtedly became an oceanographer beforehe could spell the word. Rosendahl earned hisbachelor of science degree in geology and his mas-ter of science degree in geophysics from the Uni-versity of Hawaii in 1970 and 1972, respectively.He continued his studies at the Scripps Institu-tion of Oceanography, University of California atSan Diego, and earned a doctoral degree in Earthsciences in 1976. His Ph.D. dissertation involvedthe use of seismic methodology to image a zonebeneath the East Pacific Rise. Bruce Rosendahlhas been married to Susan E. Rosendahl since1978. She also has a doctoral degree and is an ad-ministrator at the Keys School in Annapolis,Maryland. They have two children.

Rosendahl, Bruce R. 225

Bruce Rosendahl aboard a research vessel inFlorida (Courtesy of B. Rosendahl)

After a short postdoctoral research positionat Scripps Institution, Rosendahl joined the fac-ulty at Duke University, Tennessee, in 1976.During this period he formulated and directedthe PROBE project. Bruce moved to the Univer-sity of Miami, Florida, in 1989 to become deanof the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmo-spheric Science, a position he held until 1995.He also was awarded the Lewis Weeks EndowedChair in marine geophysics, which he retainstoday.

Bruce Rosendahl is the author or coauthor ofseveral books, two seismic atlases, and more than65 papers in scientific journals. His volumeAfrican Rifting is a classic in the field. He has writ-ten numerous articles for technical publications,popular science magazines, trade publications, andnewspapers. Bruce’s editorial roles have included

membership on the board of contributors for theMiami Herald newspaper, technical editor of SeaFrontiers magazine, and adviser to Time-Life Books,PBS’s NOVA series, and National Geographic mag-azine. His professional service has included mem-bership on the Joint Oceanographic Institution’sboard of governors, executive committee ofJOIDES, Southern Association of Marine Labora-tories, Council on Ocean Affairs, University Cor-poration for Atmospheric Research, InterunionCommission on the Lithosphere, Marine GeologyCommittee of the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists, and International Litho-sphere Program. Rosendahl has been a trustee forthe Miami Museum of Science and has served onthe board of directors for the Miami MarineCouncil and the Maritime and Science Technol-ogy Academy.

226 Rosendahl, Bruce R.

5 Sagan, Carl E.(1934–1996)AmericanAstronomer, Planetary Scientist

Carl Sagan is among the best-known scientists ofthe 20th century. He was trained as an as-tronomer and performed much outstanding re-search in astronomy. However, relatively early inhis career, he turned his efforts to planetary sci-ence and contributed greatly in that regard aswell. His first planetary research was to study thegreenhouse effect on Venus. He showed that thethick caustic clouds that engulf the planet pre-vented solar radiation from escaping and pre-dicted excessive surface temperatures that werelater confirmed by space probes. He studied theatmosphere on Mars, predicting it to be a desertand explaining observed seasonal changes to be aresult of windblown dust storms. He completedstudies of Saturn’s moon Titan, on which he iden-tified organic aerosols in the atmosphere. Becauseof his expertise on planets and planetary evolu-tion, Sagan was invited to participate on NASA’sApollo missions. He was also one of the leaders ineach of the teams for the unmanned Mariner,Viking, Voyager, and Galileo missions to otherplanets of the solar system.

Carl Sagan later became interested in the ori-gin of life on Earth. He studied the conditions

and constraints on how life started but also how itevolved. With his background in these constraintscoupled with knowledge of planetary evolution,he helped pioneer a new field of “exobiology”which predicts the form of extraterrestrial lifeunder a typical scenario of development. Saganwas also very interested in mass extinctions, espe-cially involving extraterrestrial impacts. He usedthe interpreted effects of such impacts to warnagainst nuclear proliferation to the public as wellas in hearings before the U.S. Congress. He askedif such a “nuclear winter” could wipe out the di-nosaurs, what could it do to humans?

No description of Carl Sagan would be com-plete without mentioning his work on populariz-ing science. Sagan has been called the “world’sgreatest popularizer of science.” His book, Cos-mos, which accompanied the Emmy Award- andPeabody Award-winning Public BroadcastingStation series, was the best-selling science bookever published in English. It was on the NewYork Times best-seller list for 70 weeks. He hashad seven other books on that list. His book,The Dragons of Eden, won him a Pulitzer Prize.His novel, Contact, was made into a 1997Warner Brothers movie which Sagan and his wifewere coproducing at the time of his death. All ofhis books are vehicles to share his scientificknowledge with the public. Carl Sagan is a truegiant of science.

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S

Carl Edward Sagan was born on November9, 1934, in Brooklyn, New York. He attended theUniversity of Chicago, Illinois, where he earned abachelor of arts degree with honors in 1954, abachelor of science degree in 1955, and a masterof science degree in 1956, all of which were inphysics. His doctoral degree was in astronomyand astrophysics, which he received in 1960, alsofrom the University of Chicago. He was a MillerResearch Fellow at the University of California atBerkeley from 1960 to 1962 before joining thefaculty at Harvard University, Massachusetts. In1968, he moved to Cornell University, New York,where he was director of the Laboratory for Plane-tary Studies, in addition to his faculty position.Sagan also served as associate director of the Cen-ter for Radio Physics and Space Research from1972 to 1981. In 1976, he was named a DavidDuncan Professor of Astronomy. He was alsopresident of Carl Sagan Productions beginning in1977. Carl Sagan’s last marriage was to AnnDruyan, who collaborated with him on many ofhis projects. He was father to five children fromprevious marriages. Carl Sagan was diagnosedwith mylodysplasia, a bone marrow cancer, in1994 and died of pneumonia resulting from it onDecember 20, 1996, in Seattle, Washington. Hisremains were released in space on a subsequentspace shuttle mission.

There are not many more productive careersthan that led by Carl Sagan. He is an author ofmore than 600 scientific papers and popular arti-cles in a variety of technical and nontechnicalpublications. He is also an author or editor ofsome 20 books and professional volumes. Thehonors and awards that Sagan received for hiscontributions both to science and bringing sci-ence to the public are equally astounding and toonumerous to list here completely. He was a mem-ber of the National Academy of Sciences and theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences. He re-ceived some 22 honorary degrees from Americancolleges and universities including such schools asRensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Whittier College,

and the University of Wyoming, among others.He was the recipient of the Public Welfare Medal,the highest award from the National Academy ofSciences. NASA awarded him the Medal for Ex-ceptional Scientific Achievement, the ApolloAchievement Award, and two Distinguished Pub-lic Service Awards. He also received the John F.Kennedy Award and the Masursky Award fromthe American Astronautical Society, the Kon-stantin Tsiolkovsky Medal of the Soviet Cosmo-nauts Federation, the Smith Prize from HarvardUniversity, and the Explorers Club 75th Anniver-sary Award, among at least eight others both sci-entific and literary. He was named to more than20 prestigious honorary lectureships at numerousuniversities and societies.

Sagan was also a great contributor of his timeto professional service. He was a cofounder of thePlanetary Society, which now boasts more than100,000 members. He was president of the plane-tology section of the American Geophysical Union,and chair of the Division of Planetary Sciences ofthe American Astronomical Society, and the chairof the astronomy section of the American Associa-tion for the Advancement of Science, among nu-merous other committees for these organizations,as well as NASA, National Academy of Sciences,the National Research Council, and the Interna-tional Society for the Origin of Life, among others.He was also a member of the U.S. Committee forEast-West Accord. Sagan served as editor of theplanetary journal Icarus for more than 12 years.

5 Selverstone, Jane(1956– )AmericanMetamorphic Petrologist, Tectonics

Jane Selverstone wears two hats in terms of re-search. She has done theoretical thermodynamicresearch with FRANK S. SPEAR, among others, aswell as field metamorphic–tectonic research. Shehas done significant research on the rocks of the

228 Selverstone, Jane

Tauern Window of the eastern Alps. This workinvolved applying much of the earlier theoreticalresearch to real rocks. She also related deforma-tional processes to metamorphic processes interms of bulk chemical, isotopic, trace element,and mineralogical changes. The control on theseprocesses largely involves interaction with meta-morphic fluids that migrate along deep-seatedfaults during deformation. The early research con-centrated on thrust fault systems, but later workapplied these same techniques to normal faultsboth in the Alps and detachment surfaces inmetamorphic core complexes of the WhippleMountains, California. Fluid inclusions withinthese fault rocks places pressure-temperature con-straints in addition to those from the metamor-phic mineral assemblages. This multifaceted,high-quality approach to field metamorphic prob-lems yields intricacies to the processes that are notcommonly revealed in the more cursory studiesthat are commonly performed on such rocks.Selverstone’s excellent understanding of the de-tailed thermodynamics, field metamorphism, anddeformational processes also allow her to interre-late these observations in an effective manner. Herability to form collaborations with the best re-searchers in each particular discipline also con-tributes to the quality of her research. Examples ofher papers include, “Quantitative Pressure-Tem-perature Paths from Zoned Minerals: Theory andTectonic Applications” and “Trace Element Zon-ing in Metamorphic Garnet.”

Jane Selverstone has also taken on a tectonicproject to determine the Proterozoic assembly ofthe crust in the northern Colorado Front Ranges.This project is designed to unravel a complex se-ries of plate collisions that took place about 1.4billion to 1.7 billion years ago that helped tobuild the North American continent in the south-western United States.

Jane Selverstone was born on July 6, 1956, inCambridge, Massachusetts. She attended Prince-ton University, New Jersey, where she earned abachelor of arts degree in geology in 1978 and

completed a senior thesis, which she publishedwith her adviser, L. Hollister. She earned a masterof science degree in geology at the University ofColorado in Boulder in 1981 with C. R. Stern andJ. Munoz as advisers. She moved to MassachusettsInstitute of Technology for her doctoral degree,which she earned in 1985 under the advisement ofFrank Spear. After a year as an adjunct professor atthe University of Colorado in Boulder, her firstfaculty position was at Harvard University, Mas-sachusetts. From 1990 to 1992, Selverstone wasnamed as a John L. Loeb Associate Professor ofNatural Sciences at Harvard. In 1992, she re-turned to the University of Colorado as a researchassociate professor. In 1995, she accepted a posi-tion at the University of New Mexico in Albu-querque, where she remains as of 2002. She wasnamed regents’ lecturer from 1998 to 2001. JaneSelverstone is married to David Gutzler, a profes-sor of climatology, and they have two children.

Selverstone, Jane 229

Jane Selverstone doing fieldwork in the easternAlps (Courtesy of Gerhard Franz)

Jane Selverstone has been very productivethroughout these early stages of her career. She isan author of 49 articles in top international jour-nals. Her articles are well received, well cited, andher coauthors are among the top professionals inthe field. She has already been recognized for herwork with numerous honors and awards. As a stu-dent she received the Buddington Award atPrinceton University in 1978, the Waldrop Awardat University of Colorado in 1981, a National Sci-ence Foundation Graduate Fellowship in 1980 to1983, and a Shell Dissertation Fellowship in 1983to 1985. As a professional she received a presti-gious National Science Foundation PresidentialYoung Investigator Award from 1987 to 1992.She was named a Mineralogical Society of Amer-ica Distinguished Lecturer in 1992 to 1993 andawarded an Editor’s Citation for Excellence inRefereeing in Tectonics in 1993.

Selverstone has also been of service to theprofession. She served on the editorial board forGeology from 1989 to 1994 and Journal of Meta-morphic Geology from 1997 to the present, whereshe also served as coeditor in 1993 to 1997. Sheserved as both vice chair (1998–1999) and chair(2000) for the Structural Geology and TectonicsDivision of the Geological Society of America,where she has served on other committees. Shealso served on committees and panels for theMineralogical Society of America and the Na-tional Science Foundation.

5 Sengor, A. M. Çelal(1955– )TurkishPlate Tectonics

After the plate tectonic paradigm was accepted,there came a group of equally noteworthy Earthscientists to elucidate the details of this coarsemodel. Premier among that group is Çelal Sen-gor. One of the reasons for his unparalleled suc-cess is his ability to move around the world to

find the perfect example of a feature he wishes tostudy unfettered by differences in language andculture in addition to finding the best possiblecollaborators. His research covers a large varietyof topics; the one he is best known for is the dis-appearance of ocean basins. When two continentscollide, the ocean basin between them is de-stroyed. The only records of once huge bodies ofwater are the rocks around the suture zone be-tween the two old continents, which now appearas one. His paper “Classical Theory of Orogene-sis,” exemplifies this work. Sengor has been espe-cially interested in the destruction of the TethysOcean, which included the most spectacular con-tinental collisions of the late Mesozoic to Ceno-zoic, including the Alps, the Himalayas, and theZagros of northern Iraq and Iran. Not only dothe remnants of this ocean basin contain signifi-cant economic deposits, but also the continuedconvergence is responsible for many of the mostdestructive earthquakes in history includingmany in Sengor’s home of Turkey. This work con-stitutes Sengor’s regional research.

Çelal Sengor has also performed research onmany theoretical aspects of plate tectonics. Hediscovered that many extensional basins form incontinental collision zones at high angles to thesuture zones and helped name them “impacto-gens” as a variation of aulocogens, which arebasins, formed in extensional settings. He studiedthese aulocogens as formed in triple junctions inthe initial stages of divergent margins worldwide.He also studied “tectonic escape” of landmasseslaterally along strike-slip faults away from conti-nental collision zones. This idea had been previ-ously proposed for the Himalayas but Sengorextended the concept worldwide. He even defineda new type of continental collision he named“Turkic-type orogeny” as described in his paper“Turkic-type Orogeny and its Role in the Makingof Continental Crust.” Other topics of interestmostly center around plate collisions and the evo-lution of continental crust. To document theseprocesses, Sengor worked in a phenomenal num-

230 Sengor, A. M., Çelal

ber of areas from China to the Alps to theCaribbean but mostly in his beloved Turkey.

Çelal Sengor was born on March 24, 1955,in Istanbul, Turkey. Both of his parents’ familieswere immigrants from the Balkan provinces of theOttoman Empire, which had been ravaged bywars. Both families are among the richest inTurkey. As a result, Sengor grew up in splendorand a highly educated household where he be-came multilingual. In 1969, he transferred intothe Robert Academy in Istanbul, which is report-edly one of the 50 best high schools in the world.He gained his love for geology there and gradu-ated in 1973. Upon graduation, Sengor traveledto Germany for one year where he enrolled in theGoethe Institute in Munich and Berlin. In 1974,he enrolled in the University of Houston, Texas,but transferred to the State University of NewYork at Albany in 1976. He spent his entire col-lege career there earning a bachelor of science de-gree in geology, summa cum laude, in 1978, amaster of science degree in geology in 1979, and aPh.D. in geology in 1982. He was an advisee ofboth JOHN DEWEY and KEVIN BURKE. Upongraduation, Sengor joined the faculty at the Istan-bul Technical University in Turkey, where hepassed from lecturer to professor over the nextseveral years and where he remains today. He iscurrently the head of the department and hasbeen since 1998. During this period, Sengor was avisiting scientist at the University of Oxford, En-gland, and the Lunar and Planetary Institute inTexas. Çelal Sengor married Oya Maltepe in1986; they have one son.

Çelal Sengor is in the midst of an extremelyproductive career. He is an author of some 165 ar-ticles in international journals, professional vol-umes, and governmental reports. Many of thesepapers are benchmarks in modern plate tectonicswith some of the premier geologists. He is also anauthor of five books, one of which has been trans-lated into Russian, German, and Chinese. Exam-ples of his books include Orogeny, and volumesinclude The Cimmeride Orogenic System and the

Tectonics of Eurasia and Tectonic Evolution of theTethyan Region. In recognition of his many contri-butions to geology, Sengor has received numeroushonors and awards. He is a foreign associate of theU.S. National Academy of Sciences and the Rus-sian Academy of Natural Sciences. He is one of 10founding members of the Turkish Academy ofSciences (youngest ever) and the first Turkishmember of the Academia Europaea (youngestmember ever). He received an honorary doctorate

Sengor, A. M., Çelal 231

Çelal Sengor at the front of the Mont Blanc basement inthe Swiss Alps (Courtesy of C. Sengor)

from the Université de Neuchatel. He was alsoawarded the Bigsby Medal and the President’sAward from the Geological Society of London,the Medaille du College de France, the Parlar Sci-ence, Service and Honor Award from the MiddleEast Technical University, the Lutaud Prize(Grand Prize) from the French Academy of Sci-ences, the Director’s Plaque from the Turkish Ge-ological Survey, the Rammal Medal from theFrench Society of Physics, the Social-democratPopulist Party of Turkey Plaque of Recognitionand the Science Award from the Turkiye Bilimselve Teknik Arasterma Kumuru. He has even hadtwo fossils named after him.

Sengor has also performed outstanding ser-vice to the profession and the public. He hasserved on virtually every major scientific board inTurkey, including serving as the science and tech-nology adviser to the president of Turkey. He rep-resented Turkey in international programs,including the International Lithosphere Project,the Ocean Drilling Program, and even in theNATO Scientific Affairs Division. He has alsoserved numerous editorial roles including associ-ate editor of Tectonics and of Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin, as well as a member of the edito-rial board for Journal of Structural Geology,Tectonophysics, Earth Evolution Sciences, Bulletin ofthe Turkish Association of Petroleum Geologists,Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, Earth SciencesHistory, Geologica Balanica, Terra, GeologischeRundschau, Asian Journal of Earth Sciences, Inter-national Geology Review, and Eclogae GeologicaeHelvetiae.

5 Shackleton, Sir Nicholas J.(1937– )BritishClimate Modeler

Sir Nicholas Shackleton is one of the true pioneersof climate modeling. He developed a new tech-nique for measuring oxygen isotope concentra-

tions in small samples in the late 1960s. With hisnew methods, he was able to analyze marine sedi-ments taken from deep sea drilling projects atmuch higher resolution than was previously possi-ble. These isotopic data provided detailed recordsshowing the history of ice sheet advances and re-treats during the Quaternary period. The fluctua-tions in the size of the polar ice sheets were shownto be much more numerous than was previouslythought. These fluctuations were found to be peri-odic and the periodicity could be modeled. Withcolleagues JOHN IMBRIE and JOHN M. HAYES, itwas shown for the first time that the Earth’s orbitwas the governing factor in these drastic climatechanges and the “Milankovitch Hypothesis” hasvalidity. Examples of his papers on this topic are“Cretaceous Climates and Extraterrestrial Events”and “Constraints on Astronomical Parametersfrom the Geologic Record for the Last 25 myr.”More recently, Shackleton found that these orbitalvariations actually forced a change in the concen-tration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Theadvance and retreat of glacial ice was and is con-trolled by the carbon dioxide and therefore lags be-hind the changes in orbital position. Thisdiscovery is based upon the detailed study of a400,000-year-long ice core taken from the Antarc-tic ice sheet by Soviet drillers at the Vostock sta-tion. A summary paper on this work is “ClimateChanges Across the Hemispheres.”

This original groundbreaking research hasbeen expanded over the years. Shackleton refinedthe resolution of these climate changes using car-bon and oxygen isotopes, sedimentation rates, fos-sil populations, and magnetic susceptibility of thesediments in deep sea drill cores. His paper, “HighResolution Stable Isotope Stratigraphy from BulkSediment,” summarizes this work. He found some20 oscillations between colder and warmer peri-ods over the past 2.5 billion years. Using thesedata, he developed a new astronomically basedtimescale for geological sequences for the Quater-nary as reported in the paper “Astronomical (Mi-lankovitch) Calibration of the Geologic Time

232 Shackleton, Sir Nicholas J.

Scale.” This new high-resolution timescale hashelped to clarify many of the ocean processes likedissolution rates of minerals and flux of sedimentsfrom continents in addition to the behavior of theclimate system as a whole. In a recent drillingproject on the Ceara Rise in the western equato-rial Atlantic Ocean, Shackleton supervised the re-covery of a core containing a continuous record ofthe last 40 million years. This core shows the fluc-tuations of the sedimentary input of the AmazonRiver. The flux of sediment directly reflectschanges in climate in addition to the isotopic andfossil data. Therefore, this astronomical timescaleis being extended back 40 million years as the re-sult of this research.

Nicholas Shackleton was born on June 23,1937, in London, England. His father is ProfessorEmeritus Robert Shackleton from the Universityof Leeds, a prominent exploration geologist whospecialized in African and South Pacific geology.Nicholas Shackleton attended the CranbrookSchool before attending Clare College of Cam-bridge University, where he earned a bachelor ofscience degree in geology and a Ph.D. in 1965 ingeophysics. He remained at Cambridge University,where he advanced from senior assistant in re-search (1965–1972) to assistant director of re-search (1972–1987) to reader (1987–1991) toprofessor (1991–present). Shackleton was a re-search fellow at Clare Hall at Cambridge Univer-sity from 1974 to 1980 and has been an officialfellow ever since. He is also the director of theGoodwin Institute for Quaternary Research(1995–present). He was a visiting scientist at La-mont-Doherty Geological Observatory, New York,in 1974–1975. Nicholas Shackleton has been mar-ried to Vivien Anne Law since 1986. He is an ac-complished musician, specializing in the clarinet.He is also an expert on the history of the clarinet,about which he has published several articles.

Nicholas Shackleton is amid a very produc-tive career. He is an author of some 250 articlesand reports in international journals, professionalvolumes, and governmental publications. Many

of these publications are benchmarks in climatechange and marine response to climate change.Many of the articles appear in the high-profilejournals Nature and Science. In addition to hav-ing been knighted by Queen Elizabeth in 1998for his contributions to the Earth sciences,Nicholas Shackleton has received numerous otherhonors and awards. He is a foreign member ofthe U.S. National Academy of Sciences and a Fel-low of the Royal Society of England. He has re-ceived honorary doctorates from DalhousieUniversity, Canada, and the University of Stock-holm, Sweden. He was awarded the Lyell Medaland the Wollaston Medal from the GeologicalSociety of London, the Sheppard Medal from theSociety of Economic Paleontologists and Miner-alogists, the Huntsman Award from the BedfordInstitute of Oceanography, Canada, the CrafoordPrize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sci-ences, the Milankovitch Medal from the Euro-pean Geophysical Society, and the Carus Medalfrom the Deutsche Akademie der NaturforscherLeopoldina.

Shackleton has performed outstanding serviceto the profession. He worked extensively with theOcean Drilling Program in numerous leadershipcapacities. He was a founding member ofAcademia Europaea and the chair of the 15thINQUA (Quaternary Research) Congress Pro-gram Committee and is currently president ofINQUA. He has also served in numerous capaci-ties for the Geological Society of London.

5 Shoemaker, Eugene M. (1928–1997)AmericanAstrogeologist

In 1994, the proponents of potential extraterres-trial impacts with the Earth having caused massdestruction and many of the great extinctionevents were given a great piece of support whenthe Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet was observed break-

Shoemaker, Eugene M. 233

ing up and crashing to the surface of Jupiter. Thedamage was obviously intense and visible scars re-main today. That event also made the name ofShoemaker world famous. Eugene Shoemaker, hiswife Carolyn Shoemaker, and David Levy hadbeen involved in a decade-long study to identifyEarth-crossing asteroids and comets when theymade the discovery. Although it came a year afterhis retirement, the discovery and fame served as aculmination of a 45-year career with the U.S. Ge-ological Survey in which he founded a newbranch with the title of astrogeology.

Eugene Merle Shoemaker was born in 1928in Los Angeles, California. The family soonmoved to Buffalo, New York, where he was

quickly recognized as a prodigy. He skippedgrades and attended extracurricular classes. He be-came interested in geology at the Buffalo Museumof Science. The family returned to Los Angeles,where Shoemaker entered California Institute ofTechnology at 16. He received a B.S. degree in1947 and an M.S. in 1948. He joined the U.S.Geological Survey as a research assistant that year.

Although he did not start out his career in ex-traterrestrial studies but rather field mapping andsearching for uranium deposits in the ColoradoPlateau, he soon became interested in crateringaround nuclear explosions. This work led him toquestion the origin of Meteor Crater in Arizona.In that classic work, he defined the structures andfeatures that would be observable in any impactcrater. He earned his Ph.D. from Princeton Uni-versity, New Jersey, in geology in 1960 based onthis work. It also began Shoemaker’s fascinationwith impact craters which drove the rest of his ca-reer. This enthusiasm and some prodding con-vinced NASA to sponsor a lunar geology programthat he directed. In this program Shoemakerdemonstrated that the surface of a planet could bedated by counting the number of craters and as-suming a certain level of influx. This work wascarried out using telescopes but in truth, Shoe-maker wanted to be an astronaut. Unfortunately,he was diagnosed with Addison’s disease in 1962and was unable to achieve this dream. He had tobe satisfied serving as acting director of NASA’sManned Space Sciences Division and helping todesign missions and train astronauts.

Shoemaker worked extensively on the Apollo11, 12, and 13 missions and became quite acelebrity. Any expert information about lunar geol-ogy on television usually came from him. He wasworld famous then as well. However, the high-pro-file public lifestyle was physically and emotionallytaxing and as a result he turned toward teaching.He taught part-time at California Institute ofTechnology from 1962 to 1985 and even served aschair for the Division of Geological and PlanetarySciences from 1969 to 1972. He also worked on

234 Shoemaker, Eugene M.

Eugene Shoemaker leads a field trip to Meteor Crater,Arizona, in 1967 (Courtesy of the U.S. GeologicalSurvey)

Project Voyager with Larry Soderblom. In 1982,Shoemaker began a 15-year period of work at theU.S. Geological Survey, Flagstaff office, where hemade regular excursions to the Palomar Observa-tory and occasional trips to Australia to observecomets and asteroids that could collide with Earth.The 1997 National Geographic special, “Asteroids’Deadly Impact,” prominently featured his work.He was famous yet again.

On one such comet and asteroid observationtrip to Australia, Gene Shoemaker was killed in anautomobile accident on July 18, 1997. Gene hada wish granted posthumously when on January 6,1998, a small capsule containing one ounce of hiscremated remains was transported to the Moonaboard NASA’s Lunar Prospector spacecraft. He finally made it to the Moon.

Gene received a number of prestigious awardsthroughout his distinguished career, including theNASA Medal for Scientific Achievement in 1967,membership in the National Academy of the Sci-ences in 1980, Geological Society of America’sArthur L. Day Medal in 1982, and Geological So-ciety of America’s G. K. Gilbert Award in 1983, aswell as being elected a Fellow of the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. His great-est tribute, however, was being awarded theUnited States National Medal of Science in 1992.It is the highest scientific honor and is bestowedby the president of the United States.

5 Sibson, Richard H.(1945– )New ZealanderStructural Geologist

Richard Sibson has looked at faults and earth-quake generation in a way that is a bit differentfrom the standard approach. Normally, scientistsstudy the earthquake waves, surface featurescaused by faults or ancient inactive faults. Sibsonconsiders the actual processes of faulting at thepoint where the earthquake is generated. This in-

volves a more holistic approach that requires anintegration of all of the standard studies to con-sider the single moment that the earthquake oc-curs as well as speculation of all of thecomponents that are no longer observable. Thiswork bridges the gap between structural geologyand seismology.

Sibson looked at the interaction between ir-regularities on fault surfaces during earthquakes.If they create gaps, he termed them dilational andif they pressed together, he called them antidila-tional. Next, he considered how the fluid wouldbehave in the system. He found that in dilationalareas, the fault wall rock would implode into anopen gap forming a fragmental rock called brec-cia. The dilation areas would also draw all fluidsinto them at once, driving the brecciation pro-cesses, while the antidilational areas would drive

Sibson, Richard H. 235

Richard Sibson in his office in New Zealand (Courtesyof R. Sibson)

out the fluids under pressure. These mineral-richfluids, upon filling an area of relatively very lowpressure, would precipitate out their containedminerals due to the drop in solubility. Therefore,this process also explains the genesis of ores withinfault zones. Fluids will be drawn and forced fromone spot to another through a process called seis-mic pumping as the fault evolves. In this model,mineralization is induced by pressure gradients aseasily as chemical buffering. Sibson is especiallyinterested in gold deposits. The system works likeany hydraulic system with certain rock fracturesacting like valves. Examples of his papers on thistopic are “Crustal Stress, Faulting and Fluid Flow”and “Stopping of Earthquake Ruptures at Dila-tional Jogs.”

Another interest that Sibson pursues is thefrictional aspects of faulting. Friction can generatesignificant heat along fault planes during earth-quakes at relatively shallow levels in the crust. Theheat can be so intense that it actually melts therock along the fault walls. The resulting liquid(magma) moves along the fault and freezes into aglass called “pseudotachylite” which looks as if itcould be magmatic. Fluids play a role in this melt-ing process. The stresses build up, and releases infaults are directly related to the amount of frictionin a system, thus explaining the regularity andseverity of earthquakes. Again, higher fluid pres-sures release the built-up stress at lower levelscausing less severe earthquakes. His paper, “Gen-eration of Pseudotachylite by Ancient SeismicFaulting,” is an example of this work.

Richard Sibson was born on November 28,1945, in New Zealand. He attended the Univer-sity of Auckland, New Zealand, where he earned abachelor of science degree (first class) in geologywith honors in 1968. He completed his graduatestudies at the Imperial College of the Universityof London, England, where he earned a master ofscience degree and a Ph.D. in 1970 and 1977, re-spectively. He was a lecturer in structural geologyat Imperial College from 1973 to 1981 before ac-cepting a position as a visiting scientist at the U.S.

Geological Survey Office of Earthquake Studies inMenlo Park, California, in 1981. He joined thefaculty at the University of California at SantaBarbara in 1982. In 1990, he moved to NewZealand to the University of Otago, where he re-mains today. He served as department head from1990 to 1996. Richard Sibson married FrancescaGhisetti in 1999. She is a professor of structuralgeology at the University of Catania in Italy.

Richard Sibson is leading a very productivecareer. He is the author of some 74 articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. He has also written onebook on structural geology. Many of his papersare often-cited seminal studies on active fault pro-cesses. He has received several awards in recogni-tion of his work, including the Bertram MemorialPrize at the University of Aukland, the RoyalCommission for the Exhibition of 1851 OverseasScholarship, and the Wollaston Fund from theUniversity of London. He has performed serviceto the profession including convening several con-ferences and hosting numerous short courses. Hehas also served editorial positions including asso-ciate editor of the Geological Society of AmericaBulletin, and editorial advisory board for Journalof Structural Geology and Geofluids.

5 Simpson, Carol(1947– )BritishStructural Geologist

As faults move, they break rocks in a brittle man-ner like breaking glass if the rocks are near thesurface. Each of these events results in an earth-quake. This seismic behavior most commonly oc-curs at depths shallower than 10 to 15 km forquartz-feldspar-rich rocks. The fault rocks arecalled gouge if the broken pieces are large and cat-aclasite for finely ground-up rock. Beneath thisdepth, rocks stretch like putty and form finely re-crystallized, well-layered rocks called mylonite. To

236 Simpson, Carol

tell which way the fault moved, geologists studymicroscopic to macroscopic features of the my-lonite called “kinematic indicators.” Carol Simp-son is considered the world’s foremost expert onkinematic indicators. Her paper with StefanSchmid in 1983 entitled, “An Evaluation of Crite-ria to Deduce the Sense of Movement in ShearedRock,” is the seminal work in the field. It hasbeen cited hundreds of times in geologic literatureand won her a coveted Best Paper Award from theStructure and Tectonics Division of the Geologi-cal Society of America. She spread the word onkinematic indicators to all levels and aspects of theprofession, and a respectable furor resulted, withthe new terminology finding its way onto fieldtrips worldwide. Simpson further refined andconstrained the processes in the development ofthese features both practically and theoretically bycollaborating with experts with complimentaryexpertise, as in the paper “Porphyroclast Systemsas Kinematic Indicators” with Cees Paschier. Thiswork also includes constraining the metamorphicand mineralogical conditions under which kine-matic indicators form, mechanics of strain, andAr/Ar systematics of mylonite systems. Lately, sheand her husband, Declan DePoar, another notablestructural geologist, have pioneered a new por-phyroclast hyperbolic distribution (PHD) tech-nique to study the kinematic history of majormylonite zones. The paper, “Practical Analysis ofthe Generation of Shear Zones using the Porphy-roclast in Hyperbolic Distribution Method: AnExample from the Scandinavian Caledonides,” isan example of this method. She has applied herstudies to mylonite zones worldwide but espe-cially those in the southern Appalachians, Col-orado Rockies, Swedish Caledonides, Californiaand Sierra Pampeanas of Argentina.

Carol Simpson was born on September 27,1947, in Kirkham, England, where she grew up.After experimenting with a career in industrialchemistry, she settled into geology at the Univer-sity of Wales at Swansea, where she earned a bach-elor of science in 1975. She did her senior thesis

under the mentorship of Dr. Rod Graham. Shedid her graduate studies at the University of Wit-watersrand, South Africa, where she received hermaster of science in geology in 1977. She contin-ued graduate studies under JOHN G. RAMSAY atthe prestigious Swiss Federal Institute (ETH) inZurich, Switzerland, where she received her Ph.D.in 1981. She was a visiting assistant professor atBrown University, Rhode Island, and at Okla-homa State University, before starting her firsttenure-track faculty position at Virginia Polytech-nic Institute and State University. She taughtcourses in structural geology at the graduate andundergraduate levels and advised graduate stu-dents. She soon left for a position of director ofthe Structure and Tectonics Division of Earth Sci-ences at the National Science Foundation, as wellas an associate professorship at the Johns HopkinsUniversity, Maryland. Carol Simpson is currentlyat Boston University, Massachusetts, where from1995 to 2000 she served as chair of the Depart-ment of Earth Sciences. She is now associateprovost for research and education.

Carol Simpson is amid a very productive ca-reer, serving as an author of more than 50 scien-

Simpson, Carol 237

Carol Simpson with her husband, Declan DePoar, on afield trip (Courtesy of C. Simpson)

tific articles in international journals and profes-sional volumes. Many of these are seminal paperson mylonite zones and kinematic indicators.Simpson has performed extensive service to theprofession. She was elected to the Council of theGeological Society of America in 1998. She ischair of the International Union of GeologicalSciences Commission on Tectonics—Subcommis-sion on Rheological Behavior of Rocks, she serveson the Solar Observatory Council of the NationalSolar Observatory, and she has also held variouspositions with the American Geophysical Union.She has served as editor for Geology and associateeditor for Journal of Structural Geology and she iscurrently on the editorial boards of GeologischeRundschau and the Journal of Structural Geology.

5 Skinner, Brian J.(1928– )AustralianEconomic Geologist, Geochemist

Most miners just want to get their ore out of theground and the public just wants the ore or prod-ucts made from it. However, there is a whole sci-ence of economic geology to study ore genesis andBrian Skinner is one of the true pioneers. Whereasmany of the geochemists, petrologists, and mineral-ogists study the major and accessory rock-formingminerals and their relations, Skinner applied thelatest in theories and experimental and analyticaltechniques to genesis of ore and surroundinggangue minerals. He first worked on volume prop-erties of minerals but also added new informationto the science on the behavior of rocks at high tem-peratures. One of his main interests, however, issulfide minerals of which he is among the foremostexperts. Using innovative experimental techniques,he determined the relations of assemblages of sev-eral mineral groups that are common to certain oredeposits. He researched platinum group minerals,copper-silver sulfides, antimony-arsenic minerals,zinc sulfides, and the sulfosalt minerals in general.

He identified, named, and described five new min-erals. He was the first to recognize the role of or-ganic sulfur in the formation of low temperatureore deposits. Skinner researched sulfides precipitat-ing from warm brines in the Salton Sea, which pro-vided valuable information about the transport anddeposition of metals at low temperature. He inves-tigated the precipitation of sulfides from basalticlava lakes in Hawaii at high temperature. This workled to a better understanding of sulfide solubility insilicate melts. One such publication on this work isentitled “Mineral Resources of North America.”

Later in his career, Skinner’s interests began toinclude more than ore deposits. He evaluated min-eral resources and mineral supplies as well as agri-cultural resources. These interests were directedtoward the writing of professional volumes andtextbooks, in addition to papers on scientific advo-cacy and especially resource management. This ap-plication of Skinner’s extensive scientific knowledgeto public issues provided and continues to providea great benefit to humankind. His book, Resourcesof the Earth, and his paper “Toward a New IronAge? Quantitative Model of Resource Exhaustion”are examples of this work.

Brian J. Skinner was born in Wallaroo, SouthAustralia, on December 15, 1928. His father was abank manager and he moved the family from onecounty town to another. At age 14, Skinner went toAdelaide, the capital of South Australia, where hecompleted high school at Prince Alfred College. Heattended University of Adelaide and earned a bach-elor’s degree in chemistry and geology and a minorin physics in 1949. After graduation, he workedbriefly as a mine geologist for the Aberfoyle TinMine in Tasmania. He attended graduate school atHarvard University, Massachusetts, and earned adoctorate in geology in 1954. During graduateschool, Skinner worked for the InternationalNickel Company in Canada and the ReynoldsMetals Company in Colorado, New Mexico, andArizona. He also married fellow geologist H.Catherine Wild at that time. They returned to Aus-tralia where Skinner taught at his alma mater, the

238 Skinner, Brian J.

University of Adelaide, while his wife completedher doctoral degree. In 1958, he accepted a re-search position with the U.S. Geological Survey inWashington, D.C. By 1961, he had risen to chiefof the branch of experimental mineralogy and geo-chemistry. In 1966, he joined the faculty at YaleUniversity, where he remained for the rest of his ca-reer, achieving the position of Eugene Higgins Pro-fessor of geology and geophysics in 1972. Heserved as chair of the department from 1967 to1973. In his leisure time, he plays tennis andwatches birds.

Brian Skinner has been extremely productivethroughout his career. In addition to having beenan author of more than 80 articles in internationaljournals and professional volumes, he is an authoror editor of some 17 books and professional vol-umes. These books include two books on eco-

nomic geology and resources and five introduc-tory textbooks. These textbooks include physical,introductory, and environmental geology and aresome of the most successful of their kind. Severalof these textbooks include The Blue Planet, An In-troduction to Earth Systems Science, The DynamicEarth, Environmental Geology, and An Introductionto Physical Geology. Literally thousands of studentslearned all they know about geology from Skin-ner’s books. He has received numerous honorsand awards for his research from professional soci-eties, including the first-ever Silver Medal fromthe Society of Economic Geologists, the Geologi-cal Association of Canada Medal, the Neil MinerAward from the National Association of GeologyTeachers and the Distinguished ContributionsAward from the Association of Earth Science Edi-tors, as well as honorary doctoral degrees fromColorado School of Mines and University ofToronto, Canada. He was also a distinguished lec-turer on numerous occasions.

Brian Skinner has performed outstanding ser-vice to the profession. He served as president ofthe Geochemical Society in 1973, the GeologicalSociety of America in 1985 (vice president in1984), and the Society of Economic Geologists in1995. He served as chairman of the U.S. NationalCommittee for Geology in 1987 to 1992 and theboard of Earth sciences of the National ResearchCouncil in 1987 and 1988, among many otherpositions. Skinner was also coeditor and editor ofEconomic Geology, as well as president of the Eco-nomic Geology Publishing Co. He was coeditorof International Geology Review and consulting ed-itor for Oxford University Press, among others.

5 Sloss, Laurence L.(1913–1996)AmericanStratigrapher

Today the continents are primarily land and theocean water covers the ocean crust. During the

Sloss, Laurence L. 239

Brian Skinner at work in his office in the Department ofGeology and Geophysics at Yale University (Courtesyof B. J. Skinner)

Paleozoic, however, much of the continental inte-rior of North America was covered by a largeshallow sea. Therefore marine sediments of thisage span the entire continent. However, the sedi-mentation reflects several major regressions thatexposed most of the continent followed by majortransgressions that covered it with ocean again.This periodic rise and fall of sea level had a pro-found effect on the evolution of life and is thebasis for our subdivision of the Paleozoic periods.The main architect of this now classic scheme isLaurence Sloss. He studied the Paleozoic stratig-raphy of the United States from coast to coast ina new way. Normally, rock units are subdividedsimply on the basis of rock type or lithology.Sloss was the leader in a new way to view sedi-mentary rocks in packages. Rock units weregrouped with their neighbors into sequences torepresent related depositional periods. This con-cept, called “sequence stratigraphy,” is nowwidely accepted and applied. Sloss used this con-cept to subdivide the sedimentary rocks of NorthAmerica, which culminated in a landmark 1963publication entitled Sequences in the Cratonic In-terior of North America. Each one of these regres-sive-transgressive cycles was named based uponits best exposure, such as Tippecanoe, Kaskaskia,and others. Considering that most of life onEarth was in the oceans during this time, thisdraining of the continents, which served as largeshelves, resulted in massive extinctions. Newgroups of animals would dominate during thenext transgression, only to be decimated duringthe subsequent regression. The results of this re-search now appear in every historical geologytextbook in the world.

The natural extension of this revolutionaryresearch was to determine the causes and applica-tions of these cycles. Sloss attempted to correlatethe sequences with the plate tectonic events of thecontinental margins and the entire Earth. Afterall, to raise and lower sea level to such a degree re-quired a radical change. Certainly the plate colli-sions with North America had an effect but the

likely culprit appears to be inflation and deflationof the mid-ocean ridges, which displaced thewater from the ocean basins onto the land. Theseinflations and deflations likely reflected the rate ofspreading. The application of this work was in oilexploration. Sloss is the author of a classic 1962paper, “Stratigraphic Models in Exploration,” inwhich these concepts are applied to petroleum de-posits. Sloss even performed seminal research onevaporites. Laurence Sloss is one of the true pio-neers of stratigraphy.

Laurence Sloss was born on August 26,1913, in Mountain View, California, on a farmwhere he spent his youth. He attended StanfordUniversity, California, and earned a bachelor ofscience degree in geology in 1934. He completedhis graduate studies at the University of Chicago,Illinois, where he earned a Ph.D. in 1937. Hisfirst professional position was split between theMontana School of Mines in Butte, where hetaught paleontology and historical geology, andthe Montana State Bureau of Mines and Geology.He remained in Montana until 1947, when hejoined the faculty at Northwestern University inEvanston, Illinois. He remained at NorthwesternUniversity until his retirement in 1981. Sloss wasnamed the William Deering Professor of geologyin 1971, a title he held until his retirement. Lau-rence Sloss died on November 2, 1996. His wife,whom he married in 1937, predeceased him; theyare survived by two sons.

Laurence Sloss led a very productive career.He is an author of numerous scientific articles ininternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Many of these papers arebenchmarks of sequence stratigraphy and the Pa-leozoic stratigraphy of North America. He is alsoan author of a highly regarded and widelyadopted textbook entitled, Stratigraphy and Sedi-mentation, with William Krumbein. Sloss receivedseveral prestigious honors and awards for his re-search contributions to geology. He received theWilliam H. Twenhofel Medal from the Society ofEconomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, the

240 Sloss, Laurence L.

Penrose Medal from the Geological Society ofAmerica, and the President’s Award from theAmerican Association of Petroleum Geologists,among others. In honor of his work, there is nowa Laurence L. Sloss Award in stratigraphy issuedby the Geological Society of America on an an-nual basis.

Sloss was also of great service to the profes-sion. He served numerous functions for the Geo-logical Society of America including president andvice president. The same holds true for the Societyof Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogistsand the American Geological Institute, where hewas also very active and served as president andvice president in each. He served on numerouspanels and committees for the National ResearchCouncil and the National Science Foundation. Heserved in various editorial roles for the GeologicalSociety of America Bulletin, the American Associa-tion of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, and the Jour-nal of Sedimentary Petrology.

5 Smith, Joseph V.(1928– )BritishMineralogist

There is pure research on minerals to determinetheir atomic structures, phase relations, composi-tions, and other properties for scholarly reasons,and applied research to study metallic and indus-trial minerals. The techniques and much of theoutcome are the same, but with industrial miner-als, the goal of the mineralogist is to determine anapplication of a mineral to an industrial process.Joseph Smith has been very successful with bothof these directions. Most of his industrial workhas been on zeolite minerals. These minerals areformed under the lowest grades of metamor-phism. Their atomic structures are therefore veryopen (loose packing of atoms) in comparison withmost minerals, and yet they are solid. They areused in a variety of applications as molecular

sieves for both fluid and gas, for anything from re-ducing pollutants to making the air smell better.Zeolites are also used as catalysts for cracking longhydrocarbon chains to produce the various prod-ucts in petroleum refining. This research involvesthe use of both X-ray and neutron diffraction toanalyze the materials, in order to model theirstructures using mathematical analysis of theshape of the atomic framework. This research hasbeen important to the development of many in-dustrial processes that affect our everyday life.

Within the academic realm of geology, JosephSmith is best known for his multivolume set,Feldspar Minerals. This book is the “bible” on themost common mineral group in the Earth’s crust.It summarizes his and all other research onfeldspars, including that of his close collaborator,JULIAN R. GOLDSMITH. This research continuestoday, mostly regarding weathering and replace-ment mechanisms for various feldspar minerals.Smith is also known for his work as a principal in-vestigator on the Apollo program during the late1960s and early 1970s. He was the first to de-scribe the differentiation of a large body or oceanof magma on the Moon to create the highlandsand lowlands. Initially, his conclusions met withskepticism, but it is now the accepted model ap-pearing in all introductory geology textbooks.Smith has also investigated upper mantle pro-cesses in the development of certain odd igneousrocks, including carbonitites and kimberlites.

To perform this research involves the use ofhigh-energy analytical equipment. Now the hard-ware and procedures to obtain quality results arestandard. When Joseph Smith began his researchthey were not. He devoted a large amount of timein the development of the electron microprobe,which is now the accepted technique to analyzemineral compositions thanks to his efforts. He hasmade similar efforts on other even higher-energyanalytical techniques, like the synchotron. Smithhas therefore not only added to Earth science withhis research results, but also to developing themeans to carry it out.

Smith, Joseph V. 241

Joseph Smith was born on July 20, 1928, inDerbyshire, England, where he spent his youth ona farm. He attended Cambridge University, En-gland, where he earned a bachelor of arts degreein 1948 and master of science and doctoral de-grees in physics in 1951. Upon graduation he wasnamed to a fellowship at the Geophysical Labora-tory at the Carnegie Institution of Washington,D.C. Joseph Smith also married his wife, Brenda,in 1951. They have two children. In 1954, he ac-cepted a position of demonstrator at his almamater of Cambridge University. Smith joined thefaculty at Pennsylvania State University at Univer-sity Park in 1956, and remained until 1960 whenhe moved to the University of Chicago, Illinois,where he remained for the rest of his career. Hewas named the Louis Block Professor of PhysicalSciences in 1976, a title he retains. In addition tohis faculty position, Joseph Smith also held posi-tions of executive director (1989–1993) and coor-dinator of the science program (1989–1992) forthe Consortium for Advanced Radiation Sourcesas well as a consultant for the Union CarbideCorporation (1956–1987).

Joseph Smith has led a phenomenally produc-tive career with well over 450 scientific articles ininternational journals and professional volumes tohis credit. Many of these papers are benchmarksin the crystallography of feldspars and zeolites(“Topochemistry of Zeolites and Related Miner-als,” for example), the application of industrialminerals and even the petrology of lunar samples.In recognition of his contributions to geology,Joseph Smith has had numerous honors andawards bestowed upon him. He is a member ofthe U.S. National Academy of Sciences and theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences and aFellow of the Royal Society of London. He re-ceived the Murchison Medal from the GeologicalSociety of London and both the Roebling Medaland the Mineralogical Society of America Awardfrom the society of the same name.

Smith performed service to many societiesthroughout his career, most notably to the Miner-

alogical Society of America, where he served aspresident in 1972–1973, in addition to manyother positions. He also served on several commit-tees and panels for NASA during his work withthe Apollo program. Smith was the editor of thehuge X-Ray Powder Data File of the American So-ciety of Testing and Materials (ASTM) for about adecade.

5 Spear, Frank S.(1949– )AmericanMetamorphic Petrologist

Frank Spear is one of the world’s premier meta-morphic petrologists/geochemists. He was one ofthe leaders in a revolution in metamorphicpetrology that occurred in the late 1970s andearly 1980s. His first paper was perhaps the mostcited and important in metamorphic geochem-istry. With John Ferry, he did an experimentalcalibration for the geothermometry of metamor-phic rocks containing coexisting garnet and bi-otite. The two minerals exchange Fe and Mgdepending upon the temperature. As a result ofthis work, by analyzing the Fe and Mg contentsof these common minerals in any rock, tempera-tures of formation can be accurately determined.Nearly everyone who was working in a metamor-phic terrane containing aluminous rocks almostimmediately determined the geothermometryusing these techniques. The impact on the field,which could now determine actual paleotempera-tures where previously they had just been esti-mated, was astounding. That paper heralded awhole series of experimentally and theoreticallydetermined geothermometers and geobarometersbased on assemblages of common metamorphicminerals.

Although Spear did some outstanding workon the occurrence and quantitative geochemistryof amphiboles and amphibole-bearing assem-blages, his next study that made a big impact on

242 Spear, Frank S.

the field was on methods to quantitatively analyzepressure-temperature paths from zoned minerals.The paper, “Quantitative Pressure-TemperaturePaths from Zoned Minerals: Theory and TectonicApplications,” was done with his graduate studentJANE SELVERSTONE. These analyses allowed re-searchers to calculate the P-T history of a rockrather than just its final conditions. Based on theshape and position of the calculated path on agraph of pressure versus temperature, regional tec-tonic models could be interpreted. Zoned mineralsacted as recording tape for tectono-metamorphichistories. Characteristic P-T loops of early highpressure followed by high temperature and finallyretrogression were found to be common. Spearand his coworkers examined rocks from severalareas to perform these analyses, including theTauern Window, eastern Alps, the ScandinavianCaledonides, and western New England. Spear de-veloped computer programs to perform thesecomplex but exciting analyses and took the un-precedented step of making them openly availableto all geologists. Prior to this, quantitative meta-morphic geochemistry was somewhat akin tomagic.

The next step in this progression was to adda timing component to the path. Frank Spearcollaborated with T. MARK HARRISON to analyzeAr/Ar in the metamorphic rocks that were ana-lyzed for P-T paths. The result is an even morepowerful Pressure-Temperature-time (P-T-t)path, which he described in his book, Metamor-phic Pressure-Temperature-Time Paths. Now, notonly could geologists tell if the rocks being stud-ied were loaded beneath a thrust nappe, theycould tell how fast they were loaded and for howlong. It was as if aluminous metamorphic rockskept a journal of their history. This method wasapplied to rocks in western New England and theCordillera of Tierra del Fuego, South America,but it required a lot of cooperation and eventhen many of the results were questioned and themethod was not as vigorously pursued as previ-ous ventures.

Frank Spear then became interested in diffu-sion in minerals and especially garnet. With theseopen systems of exchanging elements, how muchwas really being recorded and under what condi-tions? He looked at trace element zoning in gar-nets and developed a new method for performing3-D imaging of garnets for different elements incontrast to the standard 2-D analysis as describedin the paper, “Three Dimensional Patterns ofGarnet Nucleation and Growth.” The method in-volved performing a series of 2-D elemental scansat a series of parallel slices through the garnet andthen computer stacking the results to form a 3-Dimage. Mineral zonation analysis was taken to anew level through this method.

Frank S. Spear was born in Connecticut onMarch 9, 1949. He earned a bachelor of arts de-gree from Amherst College, Massachusetts, in1971 with a major in geology. He earned his doc-

Spear, Frank S. 243

Neither rain nor snow stops Frank Spear from visitingrock exposures, as he does here in NewHampshire (Courtesy of F. Spear)

torate from University of California at Los Ange-les in 1976, also in geology. He was awarded apostdoctoral fellowship at the Geophysical Labo-ratory at the Carnegie Institute of Washington,D.C., from 1976 to 1978. In 1978, he joined thefaculty at Massachusetts Institute of Technology,where he remained until 1985. He then moved toRensselaer Polytechnic Institute, New York, wherehe became a full professor in 1988 and chair ofthe department in 1999. Frank Spear has twochildren.

Frank Spear is an author of 79 papers in in-ternational journals and professional volumes. Heis also an author of two books. He was a Schlum-berger Professor at Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology and a Weeks Visiting Professor atUniversity of Wisconsin at Madison. He wasawarded the N.L. Bowen Award from AmericanGeophysical Union. He served as editor for Geo-logical Materials Research and associate editor forAmerican Mineralogist and Journal of MetamorphicPetrology. He has served on countless committeesfor the American Geophysical Union, the Miner-alogical Society of America, and the GeologicalSociety of America. He also presented severalshort courses worldwide on his P-T-t techniques.

5 Stanley, Steven M.(1941– )AmericanPaleontologist

Evolution is a concept that is still controversialwell over a century after Charles Darwin docu-mented it. Even now, school boards in certainareas hold heated debates about whether it will betaught, and sometimes it is voted down in favorof creationism. Typically, evolution is consideredas part of biology rather than geology. However,one of the true scientific leaders on placing theprocesses of evolution into full and proper con-text is the geologist Steven Stanley. The reasonthat he has been so effective in his work is that he

addresses evolution using a holistic approach.Rather than simply considering how an organismor family of organisms is changing over the gener-ations, he considers the stimuli and interactionsas well. By understanding the pressures and op-portunities that an organism faces, he more fullyunderstands the way in which it adapts. Usingthis approach, he performed a highly originalanalysis of how animals go extinct, he clarifiedthe role of species in large-scale (macro) evolutionand he analyzed functional shape changes of ani-mals in adaptive evolution.

In his study of extinction, Stanley found thatregional climatic cooling during the Plio-Pleis-tocene ice age caused the disappearance of manyspecies of western Atlantic marine fauna. This andother related work led him to first propose thatclimate change, whether terrestrial or extraterres-trial, is the main cause of mass extinctions, whichhe published in a book entitled Extinction. Mostgeologists now accept this idea. He further con-sidered the role of plate tectonics in evolution andextinction in a very successful historical geologytextbook entitled Evolution of Earth and LifeThrough Time. This interest in the complex inter-play of climate, plate tectonics, and evolutioncaused him to further consider the dramatic im-pact of ice ages on human evolution in his popu-lar book Children of the Ice Age: How a GlobalCatastrophe Allowed Humans to Evolve. He contin-ued exploring this complex interplay with JohnsHopkins University colleague Lawrence Hardie.They considered activity of reef-building organ-isms, seawater chemistry, spreading rates on mid-ocean ridges, and climate changes to modelanimal and whole-Earth evolution. Such “bio-complexity” is now the direction that most bio-logic, climatic, and paleontologic research hasfollowed.

Steven M. Stanley was born on November 2,1941, near Cleveland, Ohio, where he spent hischildhood years. He attended Princeton Univer-sity, New Jersey, and earned a bachelor of arts de-gree in geology in 1963, graduating summa cum

244 Stanley, Steven M.

laude. He did a senior thesis on the paleoecologyof the Key Largo Limestone, Florida. After oneyear at the University of Texas at Austin, he en-tered a doctoral program at Yale University, Con-necticut. There he earned a Ph.D. in paleontologyin 1968. Before completing his doctorate, he ac-cepted a position at the University of Rochester,New York, in 1967, but only remained until1969. He joined the faculty at the Johns HopkinsUniversity in 1969, and remains there today. Heserved as chair of the department in 1987 and1988 and chair of the Environmental Earth Sci-ences and Policy Master’s Program from 1993 topresent. Stanley also spent 1990 to 1991 as chairof the department at Case Western Reserve Uni-versity, Ohio.

Steven Stanley has been productive through-out his career. He is an author of 57 articles ininternational journals and professional volumes,many of which are very prestigious including sev-eral in the high-profile journal Science. However,his real fame in publication lies in his books. Hewrote eight books and edited two professionalvolumes. Several of these books are popular,high-quality textbooks whereas others are schol-arly books and more popular science books. Histextbooks, Principles of Paleontology, with DAVID

M. RAUP and his Earth and Life Through Timeand successors Exploring Earth and Life ThroughTime and Earth System History are standard read-ing for courses in paleontology and Earth historyrespectively.

Stanley has been well recognized in the pro-fession for his research. He received the Best PaperAward from the Journal of Paleontology in 1972.He was awarded the Allan C. Davis Medal fromthe Maryland Academy of Science in 1973 andthe Schuchert Award of the Paleontological Soci-ety in 1977. He received a Guggenheim Fellow-ship in 1980–1981 and an American Book AwardNomination in 1981 for his book, The New Evo-lutionary Timetable. He was elected to the Ameri-can Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1988 andthe National Academy of Sciences in 1994. He re-

ceived the J.A. Brownocker Medal from the OhioState University in 1998.

Steven Stanley has also performed significantservice to the profession. He was a member of sev-eral editorial boards including American Journal ofScience (1975 to present), Paleobiology (1975–1982), and the Proceedings of the National Academyof Sciences (1999–2000). He served several posi-tions in the Paleontological Society includingcouncilor (1976–1977, 1991–1993) and president(1993–1994), among others. He was president ofthe American Geological Institute in 2000–2001.He served on the National Research Council,board of Earth sciences, for which he was vicechair in 1987–1988. He also served on severalmajor committees for Geological Society of Amer-ica, among other societies.

5 Stock, Joann M.(1959– )AmericanPlate Tectonics, Structural Geologist

After the giants of plate tectonics were finisheddefining the major plate interactions, the nextphase of the science was to refine those processes.Now those previously overlooked fine and not-so-fine details and unresolved problems required ex-plaining. Thus began the second phase of theplate tectonic revolution, which continues today.Joann Stock has established herself as one of theup-and-coming leaders in this group. Eventhough she is still early in her career, she hasworked with many of the initial group of pioneerslike TANYA ATWATER and PETER MOLNAR, amongothers, and has already made an impact in herown right.

Joann Stock had an initial interest in majorplate motions and especially in quantifying theuncertainties in their positions in recent geologichistory. She has been especially interested in thepositional problems of Antarctica and Australiaand the tectonics of the southern oceans. To these

Stock, Joann M. 245

ends, she studies the geometry and processes ofthe Pacific-Antarctic Ridge in the southern PacificOcean basin, among other areas. More recently,she has been interested in the position and move-ment of the Malvinas Plate of southwest Africa.An example of this research is the paper “The Ro-tation Group in Plate Tectonics and the Represen-tation of Uncertainties in Plate Reconstructions.”In addition to these plate scale projects, she hasalso studied the state of stress and earthquake po-tential as well as extensional processes in manyother areas. These studies have taken her toGreece, southern Peru, and Yucca Mountain ofNevada, among many other locations.

Stock’s primary focus of research, however,has centered on the relations between the Pa-cific–North American plate boundary deforma-tion (the San Andreas fault system and relateddeformation in California) and the opening ofthe Gulf of California in Mexico. See, for exam-ple, the paper “Rapid Localization of Pacific–North American Plate Motion in the Gulf ofCalifornia.” The Gulf of California is activelyopening in a rather complex divergent boundarywhereas the San Andreas fault is a major trans-form margin. The transition between them occursnear the United States-Mexico border and ismarked by rapidly changing and complexly over-lapping structural styles. There is opening andclosing of basins and rigid rotation of fault-bounded blocks. There is also volcanism that oc-curs in the transition zone that she has studied.This research includes compositional work as wellas documenting the timing, frequency and extentof eruptions, especially in relation to the tectonicdevelopment. This research not only has applica-tions to structural geology and plate tectonics butalso to earthquake study. Stock has served thepublic on advisory committees to apply her re-search to earthquake hazards and prediction.

Joann Stock was born on October 9, 1959,in Boston, Massachusetts. She attended the Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge,where she earned both bachelor of science and

master of science degrees in geophysics in 1981,Phi Beta Kappa, as well as a Ph.D. in geology in1988. She received a Fannie and John HertzFoundation Fellowship for her graduate studies.Upon graduation in 1988, she joined the facultyat Harvard University, Massachusetts. She movedto the California Institute of Technology inPasadena in 1992, and remains there today. Dur-ing the time between completing her master’s anddoctoral degrees, she worked concurrently as ageophysicist at the U.S. Geological Survey inMenlo Park, California, from 1982 to 1984. Since1995, she has been an adjunct investigator withthe Centro de Investigacion Cientifica y Educa-cion Superior de Ensenada, Mexico.

Joann Stock is in the middle of a very pro-ductive career. She is an author of some 60 articlesin international journals, professional volumes,and governmental reports. Many of these papersare benchmark studies on the new refinement ofthe plate tectonic paradigm and appear in high-profile journals like Nature and Science. In recog-nition of her research potential, Stock received thePresidential Young Investigator Award from 1990to 1995.

Stock has performed significant service to theprofession. She has served on several panels andcommittees for Geological Society of America, Na-tional Science Foundation, American GeophysicalUnion, Ocean Drilling Program, and the NationalEarthquake Prediction Evaluation Council, amongothers. She organized numerous conferences onplate tectonics. She also served several editorialroles including on the editorial board for Geologyand Geological Society of America Bulletin.

5 Stolper, Edward M.(1952– )AmericanPetrologist, Geochemist

When a volcano erupts, a huge amount of gas isreleased into the atmosphere in addition to the

246 Stolper, Edward M.

lava and ash. The gas is dominantly water butalso carbon dioxide, certain sulfur compounds,and other minor gases. Before the eruption, thisgas was contained within the liquid magma simi-lar to carbon dioxide being held in soda. How dothese gases interact with the floating uncon-nected atoms intent on bonding together to formminerals? How do they interact with the newlyformed minerals? These are two of the complexquestions that Edward Stolper uniquely addressesin his experimental and theoretical research. Insimple terms, he provides an unconventional yetbrilliant view of the interaction of fluids, melts,and solids in petrogenesis (the making of rock).The experimental results model the processes in amagma chamber and allow him to develop tech-niques to predict the content and participationof these gases in the crystallization of mineralseven after the rock has hardened and all of thegases have escaped. This research allows him tounderstand the radical geologic processes thatoccur when a volcano erupts and the complex re-lations of the solid and liquid components up tothat point. Stolper also investigates how differentisotopes of elements are divided among the crys-tallizing minerals and melt in a magma chamber.These experimental and theoretical studies arethen applied to real areas for testing. He has in-vestigated magmatic systems in the Marianas,western Pacific, several mid-ocean ridges, CraterLake in Oregon, Mono Craters in California,and Kilauea in Hawaii. Several of his papers in-clude, “The Speciation of Water in SilicateMelts,” and “Theoretical Petrology.”

Stolper has also had a long-standing interestin meteorites and lunar samples. He has shownhow the different types of achondritic meteoritesare formed and even proposed some new types ofmeteorites. Because meteorites represent the mostprimitive type of planetary material, Stolper builtmodels for the development of planets with mete-orites as a starting point. He developed a chemicalmodel for the differentiation of the Earth into itsshells. Not only is there gravitational control on

the layering that appears purely based upon den-sity, but also chemical control. This evolving un-orthodox model is guided by his experimentalresearch and provides a new look at the chemicalevolution of the planet.

Edward Stolper was born on December 16,1952, in Boston, Massachusetts. He attendedHarvard University, Massachusetts, and graduatedwith a bachelor of arts degree in geological sci-ences, summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa, in1974. He was married in 1973 and would havetwo children. He earned a master of philosophydegree from the University of Edinburgh, Scot-land, in geology in 1976 before returning to Har-vard University for the remainder of his graduatecareer. He earned a Ph.D. in geological sciences in1979. Stolper joined the faculty at California In-stitute of Technology in 1979 and remains thereas of 2002. He has been the William E. LeonhardProfessor of geology since 1990 and the chair ofthe department since 1994. During this time, hewas a Bateman Visiting Scholar at Yale University,Connecticut (1988), and a Miller Visiting Re-search Professor at the University of California atBerkeley (1990).

Edward Stolper has published some 133 arti-cles in international journals and professionalvolumes. The truly impressive part of this pro-ductivity is the benchmark nature of the articlesand the quality of the journals in which they ap-pear. An amazing 13 papers appear in the presti-gious journals Science and Nature. Hiscollaborators are the top researchers in the worldin their respective disciplines. Stolper’s researchhas been well recognized by the profession asdemonstrated by his numerous honors andawards. He is a member of the National Academyof Sciences and a Fellow of the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He received aMarshall Scholarship and a Nininger MeteoriteAward while still in graduate school. He wasawarded the Newcomb Cleveland Prize by theAmerican Association for the Advancement ofScience in 1984, the F.W. Clarke Medal by the

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Geochemical Society in 1985, the James B.Macelwane Award by the American GeophysicalUnion and the Arthur Holmes Medal by the Eu-ropean Union of Geosciences 1997. He was alsonamed a Geochemistry Fellow by the Geochemi-cal Society and the European Association forGeochemistry in 1997.

Edward Stolper has performed significant ser-vice to the profession in too great abundance tolist here.

5 Stose, Anna I. Jonas(1881–1974)AmericanField Geologist

Anna Jonas Stose was a geological pioneer whoperformed some absolutely incredible geologicalfeats. She was a field geologist who mapped hugeareas of the central to southern Appalachian Pied-mont during a time when there were few womenin the profession much less doing physically tax-ing work in the field. Most of her fieldwork wasdone on a reconnaissance rather than a detailedbasis, which is intended to produce larger scale re-gional maps rather than the 5-by-6-mile quadran-gle maps. Stose was one of the first to apply thethen-advancing petrographic and structural tech-niques to the Appalachians. She began her map-ping in southeastern Pennsylvania and adjacentMaryland with Eleanora Knopf. She continuedher mapping southwestward into the crystallinerocks of Virginia throughout the Piedmont andBlue Ridge Provinces with some help fromGeorge Stose. She even mapped into North Car-olina. Through this work she was a major contrib-utor to both the Geologic Map of Virginia (1928)and the Geologic Map of the United States (1932),in addition to her numerous state and U.S. Geo-logical Survey reports.

Stose defined many of the major rock units’geologic structures in the central and southernAppalachians and the names are still used today.

Even her interpretations, which have gone in andout of acceptance over the years, are still essen-tially correct. Considering the adversity that sheencountered in the lack of roads, encumberingclothing, and available transportation, in addi-tion to prejudices against women performingsuch work, these accomplishments become al-most unbelievable. She named the Brevard zone,a major structure of North Carolina, and inter-preted it as a thrust fault. Unfortunately, she didnot live long enough to see the magnitude of thisstructure as it was imaged on the COCORP seis-mic reflection profile across the southern Ap-palachians. It is estimated that this fault mayhave experienced hundreds of kilometers ofthrust and strike-slip movement. She andEleanora Knopf defined the Martic Line and pro-posed it to be a major thrust fault. Since then itwas interpreted as a major strike-slip fault and amajor plate boundary though the thrust fault in-terpretation has never been abandoned. Stose in-terpreted the Reading Prong of Pennsylvania tobe a series of disconnected thrust fault boundedklippe, an idea that still remains accepted today.Not all of her ideas are still accepted but a sur-prising number are.

Stose’s naming and correlations of rock unitsfrom area to area are also surprisingly relevant.She traced the crystalline rocks of the PiedmontProvince from Pennsylvania to Georgia and estab-lished the fundamental boundaries that still standtoday. Many other boundaries were defined sincethis time but most of them are still debatable. Sheand Knopf defined and named the ConestogaLimestone a major unit of Pennsylvania. Stosenamed the major units of the Blue RidgeProvince and many of the granite plutons boththere and in the Piedmont. She also identifiedand named the enigmatic but important MountRogers volcanic sequence in southern Virginia.These units still retain their names and signifi-cance some 60 to 80 years after their identifica-tion by Stose. It is rare for interpretations ingeology to remain for so long. This longevity is a

248 Stose, Anna I. Jonas

tribute to the quality of her work. Two of the pa-pers on this research include “Geologic Recon-naissance in the Piedmont of Virginia” and“Stratigraphy of the Crystalline Schists of Penn-sylvania and Maryland.”

Anna I. Jonas was born on August 17, 1881,in Bridgeton, New Jersey. She was a descendantof one of the pilgrims who came to America onthe Mayflower. Jonas grew up in Cape May, NewJersey, and attended the Friends Central Schoolof Philadelphia. She received her college educa-tion at Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania, earn-ing a bachelor of arts degree in 1904, a master ofarts degree in 1905, and a Ph.D. in 1912. Hermentor was FLORENCE BASCOM, the grandedame of American geology. The friendship ofJonas and two of her classmates, Eleanora Knopfand Julia Gardner, is legendary. They were pio-neers for women in geology. Jonas was an assis-tant curator at the Bryn Mawr Geology Museumin 1908 and 1909. Jonas worked at the AmericanMuseum of Natural History in 1916 and 1917and as a geologist for the Maryland and Pennsyl-vania Geological Surveys from 1919 to 1937. Shealso worked as a contract geologist for the Vir-ginia Geological Survey from 1926 to 1945.Jonas was a geologist with the U.S. GeologicalSurvey from 1930 until her retirement in 1954.Anna Jonas married fellow geologist George Stosein September 1938 and took the name AnnaJonas Stose. George Stose died in 1960. AnnaJonas Stose died on October 27, 1974, of astroke.

5 Suess, Hans E.(1909–1993)AustrianChemistry, Geochemistry

The truly profound research contributions thatHans Suess made to science spanned the range be-tween chemistry and geochemistry. Although hisresearch covered numerous topics, there are four

true benchmark contributions. The first was madewhile Suess was still in Germany. In 1948 and1949, Suess worked on the nuclear shell model forthe architecture of atoms with Hans Jensen andcoauthored a study which would later earn Jensena Nobel Prize. While at the University of Chicago,Illinois, in 1950 and 1951, Suess collaboratedwith Nobel Prize laureate Harold Urey. Suess hadproposed that the relative abundance of eachchemical element in the solar system depends in afairly regular way on the elemental mass. The pat-tern of abundance is caused by a combination ofnuclear properties and the process by which theheavy elements are created in stars. Harold Ureywas the founder of modern planetary science andan expert on meteorites. Together they produced abenchmark study on abundances of elements inthe solar system based upon meteorite geochemi-cal data. The documentation of this theory wasthe basis for NASA’s Genesis mission. A book bySuess on this topic is entitled Chemistry of theSolar System and an example of a paper is “TheCosmic Abundances of the Elements.”

These two breakthroughs, however, are noteven related to the true reasons for which Suess isfamous in the Earth sciences. The first of thesereasons is Suess’s development and later refine-ment of the carbon-14 (radiocarbon) method ofisotopic dating. He determined experimentallythat the relative concentrations of carbon-14 andnitrogen-14 could determine the absolute age oforganic matter within the past 5,000 years or so.This method is now used extensively in archaeol-ogy as well as recent geologic features and pro-cesses. Papers on this research include,“Radiocarbon in Tree Rings,” among others. Suessalso collaborated with ROGER REVELLE to docu-ment the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmo-sphere and the greenhouse effect. The way thatSuess determined the amount of added industrialcarbon was by using isotopes. Because industry re-lies so heavily on fossil fuels, the carbon intro-duced into the atmosphere comes from oldsources (oil, gas, and coal) rather than wood. Old

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carbon has no radioactive isotopes because it hasall decayed away. Therefore the component of ra-dioactive carbon in the atmosphere is continuallydiluted by the addition of nonradioactive carbon.Wood from 1890 is used as the standard againstwhich the atmospheric carbon is compared. Thisdilution is referred to as the “industrial effect” orthe “Suess effect.” This and other work on ra-dioactive elements are included in the paper “Ra-dioactivity of the Atmosphere and Hydrosphere.”

Hans Suess was born on December 16,1909, in Vienna, Austria. He was the son of FranzSuess, a former professor of geology at the Univer-sity of Vienna, Austria, and the grandson of Ed-uard Suess, who wrote the book, The Face of theEarth, an early work on geochemistry. Eventhough he had geology in his blood, Hans Suessstudied chemistry and physics at the University ofVienna through graduate school. He graduatedwith a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1935. He was apostdoctoral fellow at the Institute of ChemicalTechnology in Zurich and the First ChemicalUniversity Laboratory in Vienna. In 1938, Suessjoined the faculty at the University of Hamburg,Germany, in physical chemistry. He married RuthViola Teutenberg in 1940; they would have twochildren. During World War II, Suess was enlistedinto a group of German scientists who werecharged with developing atomic weapons. He wasalso a scientific adviser to the heavy water plant inVermok, Norway. In 1950, Suess was coaxed toimmigrate to the United States where he spenttime at the University of Chicago, Illinois, as a re-search associate working with Nobel laureateHarold Urey. He obtained a position as a physicalchemist with the U.S. Geological Survey in 1951but accepted an offer from Roger Revelle to jointhe Scripps Institution of Oceanography in LaJolla, California, in 1955. He became one of thefirst four professors appointed to the faculty at theUniversity of California at San Diego when it wasestablished in 1958 by Roger Revelle. He retiredto professor emeritus in 1977, but remained ac-tive through the rest of his life including as a visit-

ing scientist at the Geophysical Laboratory at theCarnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. HansSuess died on September 20, 1993.

Hans Suess was very productive during hiscareer, having been an author of more than 150scientific articles. Until 1950, nearly all articleswere in German and even after that some were.Several of these papers are benchmarks in scienceon radiocarbon dating, the greenhouse effect, thenuclear shell model, and the origin and synthesisof the elements. Suess was recognized for his con-tributions to science with several prestigious hon-ors and awards. He was a member of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, the American Academy ofArts and Science, the Heidelberg Academy of Sci-ence, and the Austrian Academy of Science. Hewas awarded an honorary doctoral degree fromQueens University in Belfast, Ireland, in 1980.He received the V.M. Goldschmidt Medal fromthe Geochemical Society, the Leonard Medal fromthe International Meteoritical Society, the Alexan-der von Humboldt Prize from the Humboldt So-ciety, and a Guggenheim Fellowship.

5 Suppe, John E.(1942– )AmericanStructural Geologist

John Suppe is among the top few active structuralgeologists in the world. Although he is bestknown for his work on foreland fold and thrustbelts, his interests and expertise are vast. One ofthe concepts that he is known for is fault-bendfolding introduced in the paper “Geometry andKinematics of Fault Bend Folds.” They are awhole class of folds that are formed as a result ofmovement on faults. Strata are bent into folds be-cause they are forced to rotate as they movearound a bend in a fault. These folds are generallybroad and extensive but small fault bend folds arepossible also. Fault bend folds are an integral pro-cess in the formation of foreland fold and thrust

250 Suppe, John E.

belts. They are also important in evaluating seis-mic hazards because the folds indicate a nearbyfault.

The second major concept for which Suppe isrecognized is critical taper wedge as introduced inthe paper “Mechanics of Fold and Thrust Beltsand Accretionary Wedges.” Working in the Tai-wan subduction complex led Suppe with col-leagues Dan Davis and Anthony Dahlen toproduce a dynamic analog model of the process.They found that foreland fold and thrust beltsform similar to the plowing of snow. A wedge ofsnow develops in front of the plow that has con-sistent slope from the plow downward to the un-affected snow in front. To increase the height ofthe wedge of snow, the length of the wedge will beproportionately increased to maintain the same

slope. The same critical taper (slope) is main-tained in subduction wedges and foreland foldand thrust belts. In order to increase the height ofthe mountains in a foreland fold and thrust belt,it must be widened. A best paper award was re-ceived by the three researchers for this study.Other areas of foreland fold and thrust belts thatSuppe studied and mastered include new methodsfor balancing cross sections. The theory of cross-section balancing or retrodeformation involves thepulling apart of these highly deformed strata tomodel what they looked like prior to deforma-tion. Although he did not invent the method, heis now one of the foremost experts.

If there is active sedimentation taking placeduring faulting, there is thickening of the strata asa direct result. In curved faults, the sedimentary

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John Suppe on a field trip to the Himalayas (Courtesy of J. Suppe)

layers form wedges which are folded in fault-bendfolds. Suppe and associates Chou and Hookfound that the rates of folding and faulting couldbe determined by studying these relations. Thefolds are called rollover in normal faulted areasand can contain significant amounts ofpetroleum. A paper on this topic is entitled, “Ori-gin of Rollover.”

Suppe was also involved in measuring thestate of stress across the San Andreas Fault of Cal-ifornia. Because it is a strike-slip fault, the ex-pected orientation of the maximum stress (force)direction is about 45° from the fault, accordingto the theory. However, when the stresses were re-solved, it was found that the maximum stress di-rection was perpendicular to the fault. Thisdiscovery caused an uproar in the seismic hazardscommunity and a reevaluation of previous theory.This work placed Suppe into the middle of theefforts to evaluate and predict earthquakes inCalifornia.

Suppe also became a major contributor to ourunderstanding of the tectonics of Venus. Using re-mote sensing data (SAR) from the NASA Magel-lan mission, he applied his knowledge of Earthprocesses to the development of deformationalfeatures on the Venusian surface. He evaluated theage of the features on Venus by using impactcrater density assuming a constant fallout rate.This work appears in his paper, “Mean Age ofRifting and Volcanism on Venus Deduced fromImpact Crater Densities.” This work was a majorcontribution to how Venus is studied.

John E. Suppe was born on November 30,1942, in Los Angeles, California. He grew up inSouth Gate, California, and found an interest inthe outdoors and especially mountaineering fromtrips with the YMCA summer camp and theSierra Club. He attended University of Californiaat Riverside and earned a bachelor of arts degreein geology with honors in 1965. He met his wife,Barbara, in college and they were married soonafter graduation. He attended Yale University forgraduate school and earned a Ph.D. in 1969 in

structural geology. His adviser was JOHN

RODGERS. He was a National Science Foundationpostdoctoral fellow at the University of Californiaat Los Angeles from 1969 to 1971. He joined thefaculty at Princeton University, New Jersey, in1971, and has remained there ever since. Suppeserved as department chair from 1991 to 1994and was named Blair Professor of geology in1998, a title he still holds. During his time atPrinceton, Suppe was a visiting professor at Na-tional Taiwan University, California Institute ofTechnology, University of Barcelona, Spain, andNanjing University, China.

John Suppe has had a very productive career.He has been an author of 74 articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. Many ofthese papers are true classics of structural geology.He is an author or editor of five books and profes-sional volumes. One of these books is a very suc-cessful textbook entitled, Principles of StructuralGeology. Suppe’s work has been recognized by theprofession through numerous honors and awards.He is a member of the National Academy of Sci-ences. He received an unprecedented two BestPaper Awards from the Structural Geology andTectonics Division of Geological Society of Amer-ica. He was a Guggenheim Fellow and a Guest In-vestigator for the NASA Magellan mission toVenus.

5 Sykes, Lynn R.(1937– )AmericanGeophysicist

Lynn Sykes has had two major interests in his ca-reer and he has established himself as one of thetrue leaders in each. His major area of research isearthquake seismology both in terms of seismicsources and wave travel. Sykes is a pioneer interms of explaining earthquakes in terms of platetectonics. His 1968 paper “Seismology and thenew Global Tectonics” with Bryan Isacks and

252 Sykes, Lynn R.

JACK E. OLIVER is one of the true classics of platetectonics. This work demonstrated why earth-quakes are concentrated in certain geographic re-gions because they are at plate margins. Heproved the importance of transform faults thatoffset mid-ocean ridges in accommodating platemotion on a spherical Earth. His research laid thegroundwork for deciphering plate motions fromthe focal mechanisms of earthquakes as well as theprecise locating of earthquake epicenters at mid-ocean ridges, transform faults and deep-seatrenches. The research that the team from La-mont-Doherty conducted showing that earth-quake foci get progressively deeper from a trenchto beneath an island arc proved the geometry of asubduction zone, where ocean crust is consumedin the mantle. The earthquake foci form a BenioffZone that images the top of the ocean crust as it isdriven progressively deeper into the Earth. Muchof this research was carried out on the Fiji-Tongaregion but Sykes also studied earthquakes inAlaska, the Puerto Rican-Virgin Islands region aswell as earthquakes produced by extension in Ice-land and Nevada. Other classic studies on thiswork include Earthquake Swarms and Sea FloorSpreading and Seismicity and the Deep Structure ofIsland Arcs.

With this new understanding of the controlof earthquakes, Sykes applied his knowledge tosocietal needs. He spent a good deal of his careerinvestigating earthquake prediction and preven-tion. The paper, “Earthquake Prediction: A Phys-ical Basis,” is an example of this work. Inaddition to participating in projects in theUnited States, mainly in New York and Califor-nia, he was also a leading participant in severalinternational efforts. He worked collaborativelywith the former Soviet Union as well as the Peo-ple’s Republic of China, among others. This workinvolved establishing a worldwide network tomonitor earthquakes but it also served as a moni-tor for nuclear testing. As a result, Sykes becameone of the scientific leaders in the establishing ofthresholds for nuclear testing and later for the

banning of underground nuclear testing. He tes-tified six times before the U.S. Congress as an ex-pert witness on nuclear test verification andserved on the presidential advisory board for thesame reason. He is still consulted by the press onissues of nuclear test monitoring and the relax-ation of treaties.

Lynn Sykes was born on April 16, 1937, inPittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He attended the Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridgeand earned both bachelor of science and master ofscience degrees in geophysics in 1960 on a Procterand Gamble scholarship. He attended ColumbiaUniversity, New York, where he earned a Ph.D. ingeophysics in 1964 as an advisee of Jack Oliverand on an Edward John Noble Leadership Award.He remained at Lamont-Doherty Geological Ob-servatory of Columbia University as a research as-sociate before becoming a member of the facultyin 1968. In 1972, Sykes was appointed as thehead of the seismology group. In 1978, he waschosen as the Higgins Professor of geology. He re-tired to professor emeritus in 1998. Sykes was avisiting professor several times including theEarthquake Research Institute at the University ofTokyo, Japan, in 1974. Lynn Sykes marriedKatherine Flanz in 1986.

Lynn Sykes has led a very productive career.He is an author of more than 100 articles in inter-national journals, professional volumes, and gov-ernmental reports. Several of these papersestablish new benchmarks for the science of geol-ogy. Sykes’s research contributions have been wellreceived by the profession and recognized in termsof honors and awards. He is a member of both theNational Academy of Sciences and the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He was awardedan honorary doctorate from State University ofNew York at Potsdam in 1988. He has held bothSloan and Guggenheim Fellowships. He receivedthe Macelwane Award and Walter H. BucherMedal from the American Geophysical Union,the Medal of the Seismological Society of Amer-ica, the Public Service Award from the Federation

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of American Scientists, the H.O. Wood Awardfrom the Carnegie Institution of Washington,D.C., and the Vetlesen Medal from the VetlesenFoundation.

Sykes has also performed outstanding serviceboth to the profession and the public. He waspresident of the American Geophysical Unionand the Geological Section of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences. He served on numerouspanels and committees for National Academy ofSciences, National Research Council, NationalScience Foundation, American GeophysicalUnion, Geological Society of America, U.S. Geo-logical Survey, Seismological Society of America,NASA, and the New York State Geological Sur-vey. In addition to the public service already de-scribed, Sykes served as a consultant to the U.S.Air Force, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commis-sion, and the State of New York. Sykes alsoserved numerous editorial roles including associ-ate editor of Journal of Geophysical Research.

5 Sylvester, Arthur G.(1938– )AmericanStructural Geologist

Arthur Sylvester has two main areas of interest inresearch, deformation associated with pluton em-placement and strike-slip deformation. When amagma intrudes preexisting rock units, it imposesa complex deformation sequence on them. Gran-ite and granitic plutons best display these se-quences. The magma intrudes in an elongateinverted teardrop shape that rises through thecrust to a level where its buoyancy is balanced bythe pressure of the surrounding rock. At thatpoint, the bulbous top of the tear drop stops mov-ing but the tail continues to rise and adds its vol-ume to the bulbous part causing it to balloon.The initial intrusion causes some deformation,and the ballooning adds more deformation locally.All of this deformation of the surrounding rock

happens while it is being quickly heated to greattemperatures. The result is a unique series of com-bined deformation-metamorphic features.Sylvester has studied such features in granitic plu-tons in eastern California and Norway, establish-ing himself as one of the foremost experts in thefield.

As a Californian, Sylvester has experiencedfirsthand the effects of one of the most famousstrike-slip faults on Earth, the San Andreas Fault.A whole slew of geologists both from Californiaand elsewhere have conducted extensive researchon the San Andreas Fault. Even with all of this re-search activity by many prominent geologists,Sylvester managed to distinguish himself as one ofthe premier experts on the deformation associatedwith it. He was the first to show that significantvertical movements and associated deformationcould be synchronous with the dominantly lateralmovements of the fault. His identification of“keystone structures” led the way to the identifica-tion of a new type of deformation called trans-

254 Sylvester, Arthur G.

Arthur Sylvester sitting in a field of flowers inCalifornia (Courtesy of Arthur Sylvester)

pression. His paper on this work is entitled “Tec-tonic Transpression and Basement Controlled De-formation in the San Andreas Fault Zone, SaltonTrough, California.” Because of his contributionsto the study, Sylvester agreed to write an elegantsummary paper entitled “Strike-Slip Faults” forthe centennial volume of Geological Society ofAmerica, which is now standard reading in struc-tural geology classes.

In addition to his research accomplishments,Arthur Sylvester is an inspired teacher. He usesthe field as his classroom to convey the processesof deformation as well as regional geology. Heruns summer field camps for undergraduate andgraduate students as well as field structure coursesfor a number of petroleum companies, geologicalsocieties, geologic surveys, and other universities.He has established a reputation for his prowess inthe field as well as his ability to convey complexideas in an understandable manner.

Arthur Sylvester was born on February 16,1938, in Altadena, California. He attendedPomona College in Claremont, California, andearned a bachelor of arts degree in liberal arts andgeology in 1959. He attended graduate school atUniversity of California at Los Angeles and earneda master of arts degree in 1963 and a Ph.D. in1966. During this time, he was a Fulbrightscholar at Oslo University in Norway in 1961 and1962. Arthur Sylvester was married in 1961 andhas two children. He worked as a research geolo-gist for Shell Development Company in Califor-nia from 1966 to 1968. He joined the faculty ofthe University of California at Santa Barbara in1968 and has remained there throughout his ca-reer. From 1972 to 1974, he served as associatedirector of the overseas program at University of

Bergen, Norway. He served as department chairfrom 1980 to 1986 and directed the departmentfield camp numerous times. He returned to OsloUniversity, Norway, as a Fulbright scholar in1995–1996 and he was a visiting professor atUniversity of Svalbard, Norway, in 2001. Sylvesteris fluent in Norwegian, German, and Italian.

Arthur Sylvester has led a very productive ca-reer both as a researcher and a teacher-mentor.He is the author of numerous articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. Manyof these articles are often-cited research papersand review articles. He has been well recognizedin the profession both for his research and teach-ing. He was named a Fellow of the NorwegianResearch Council in 1996. He received the Dis-tinguished Service Award from the GeologicalSociety of America in 1995. For his teaching andmentoring, he received the Distinguished Teach-ing Award (1996–97) and the President’s Awardfor Mentoring (1994) from the University of Cal-ifornia and the Distinguished Teaching Awardfrom the Pacific Section of the American Associa-tion of Petroleum Geologists in 1994. He hasalso been named a distinguished lecturer by sev-eral organizations.

Sylvester has performed much service to theprofession. He served on numerous committeesfor the American Association of Petroleum Geolo-gists including serving as the director of the Struc-tural Geology School in 1984–1986. He wasassociate editor of American Association ofPetroleum Geologists Bulletin in 1984 to 1988. Heserved on numerous committees for the Geologi-cal Society of America and was the chief editor forthe Geological Society of America Bulletin from1989 to 1994.

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5 Talwani, Manik(1933– )IndianGeophysicist

There are two parts to the measured gravitationalfield, the main field of the Earth and the anoma-lous field. The anomalous field reflects any bodyof rock in the crust that does not have a density of2.65 gm/ml, the average density. Before ManikTalwani, the anomalous field was separated fromthe main field and geometrically evaluated to esti-mate the type of body that might be producingthe anomaly. Talwani developed mathematicalmethods to model the shape and density of thesubsurface body or structure that produced theanomaly. He first developed methods to model itin two dimensions but later methods modeledbodies in three dimensions, both using integralcalculus. He later extended the same methods tomagnetic data. These elegant methods sparked arevolution in field geophysics. Much old datawere reevaluated with the new methods and as-tonishing new structures and bodies were re-vealed. The methods were quickly adopted by thepetroleum industry greatly increasing their explo-ration success and allowing them to find new tar-gets that previously were not even imagined. Themethods were written as interactive computerprograms that are in use today in both research

labs and classrooms with virtually no alteration tothe now more than 35-year-old equations. Thepapers introducing these breakthroughs are“Rapid Computation of Gravitational Attractionof Three-Dimensional Bodies of Arbitrary Shape”and “Computation with the Help of a DigitalComputer of Magnetic Anomalies Caused byBodies of Arbitrary Shape.”

Manik Talwani applied most of his geophysi-cal ability to studies of the oceans. To accuratelymeasure gravity on the research ships, he inventeda cross-coupling computer to compensate for theroll of the waves. He went aboard submarines tomake highly accurate pendulum measurementsunderwater. With these tools in hand, Talwanitraveled the four corners of the world to do geo-physical surveys over every type of plate tectonicmargin in as many different variations as possible.He was even on a ship (R/V Vema) that took himto 81 degrees north latitude. Most of his effortswere to study the gravity of the various featuresbut later in his career, he became interested in seis-mic reflection profiling of margins. Through thefamous EDGE project, Talwani studied the U.S.East Coast, the conjugate South Atlantic marginsoff of Brazil, and Namibia, as well as the southwestmargin off of India. A book resulting from thiswork is entitled Atlantic Rifts and ContinentalMargins. Much of his later research was tied topetroleum exploration during and after he was em-

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ployed in the petroleum industry. In these studies,he uses both 3-D seismic reflection processingtechniques and a new highly sensitive techniquecalled gravity gradiometry.

Manik Talwani even designed and oversawthe “Traverse Gravimeter” experiment on theMoon. This project, which involved instrumenta-tion design as well as surveying, resulted in theonly gravity measurements ever to have beenmade on the Moon.

Manik Talwani was born on August 22,1933, in India. He attended University of Delhi,India, and earned a bachelor of science degree in1951 and a master of science degree in 1953. Heearned his Ph.D. in geophysics at Lamont-Do-herty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,New York, in 1959. He accepted a research posi-tion at Lamont-Doherty in 1957 and a facultyposition in 1970. He was the director of the La-mont-Doherty Geological Observatory from1973 to 1981. He moved to Gulf Research andDevelopment Company in 1981 as director ofthe Center for Crustal Studies and he becamechief scientist in 1983. In 1985, he joined thefaculty at Rice University, Houston, Texas, as theSchlumberger Professor of geophysics and the di-rector of the Geotechnology Research Institute ofthe Houston Advanced Research Center. Talwaniwas a Sackler Distinguished Lecturer at the Uni-versity of Tel Aviv, Israel, in 1988. Manik Talwanimarried Anni Fittler in 1958 and they have threechildren.

Manik Talwani has had an extremely produc-tive career authoring some 150 articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. Many ofhis papers set benchmarks for geophysics that stillstand today. He also edited five volumes. His re-search has been well recognized in the professionthrough numerous honors and awards. He is amember of the Norwegian Academy of Arts andSciences, and a foreign member of the RussianAcademy of Natural Sciences. He was awarded anhonorary doctoral degree from the University ofOslo in Norway. He received the First Krishnan

Medal from the Indian Geophysical Union in1965, the James B. Macelwane Award from theAmerican Geophysical Union in 1967, and theNASA Exceptional Scientific Achievement Awardin 1973. He was given the George P. WoollardAward by the Geological Society of America in1983, the UNESCO Toklen Award by the Na-tional Institute of Oceanography of India in1990, and the Alfred Wegener Medal by the Eu-ropean Union of Geosciences in 1993. Talwaniwas a Hays-Fulbright Fellow in 1973 and aGuggenheim Fellow in 1974.

Talwani has performed service to the profes-sion that is too extensive to report here individu-ally. He served as a member or an official ofvirtually every committee involving ocean stud-ies, and geophysics for that matter, including theJoint Oceanographic Institute for Deep OceanSampling (JOIDES), the Joint OceanographicInstitute, and several committees in the NationalResearch Council and the National Academy ofSciences. He also served on several committeesfor the American Geophysical Union and the Ge-ological Society of America. He was even calledupon to help resolve a boundary dispute betweenIceland and Norway because he had intimateknowledge of the Norwegian Sea. In anothercase, he helped negotiate the first UnitedStates–China cooperative scientific project sinceWorld War II.

5 Taylor, Hugh P., Jr.(1932– )AmericanIsotope Geochemist

In addition to the more commonly known ra-dioactive isotopes, there are also stable isotopes,which do not decay. These isotopes act as tracersfor geologic processes that involve fluids or melts.There are characteristic signatures of stable iso-tope ratios that depend upon the source of thefluid or melt. The reason for the variation in the

Taylor, Hugh P., Jr. 257

ratios is because the different isotopes will tend toenrich or partition by different geologic processes.Hugh Taylor is likely the foremost expert on sta-ble isotopes with special interest in oxygen, hydro-gen, carbon, and silicon. He has analyzed stableisotopes on rocks and soils from all over the Earthand the Moon as well as meteorites. He analyzedthe lunar rock and soil samples retrieved duringthe Apollo missions and produced the definitiveworks on stable isotopes on the Moon (for exam-ple, the paper, “Oxygen and Silicon Stable IsotopeRatios of the Luna 20 Soil”). He also did somegroundbreaking work on stable isotopes in tektites(meteorites) and impact generated glass.

Taylor’s most notable research, however, is onterrestrial geology, which is much more varied be-cause the systems are more complex. His researchis primarily on plutonic rocks, both granitoid and

layered mafic intrusions, but he has also donework on volcanic rocks and metamorphic rocks.The two geographic areas where he has concen-trated his work on granitoid plutonic rocks are inwestern North America where he studies Meso-zoic and Cenozoic plutonism, and western Eu-rope where he studies late Paleozoic Hercynianplutonism. This research involves the determina-tion of the source of the magma that formed theplutons as well as the interaction of the fluids ex-pelled during the crystallization of the magmawith the country rock. Examples of publicationsinclude The Oxygen Isotope Geochemistry of IgneousRocks and Stable Isotope Geochemistry. This aspectof his research has shed light on the processes ofcontact metamorphism around these plutons aswell as the hydrothermal activity generated by de-watering plutons. This activity has produced sig-nificant deposits of ore minerals, an example ofwhich is the Comstock Lode, Nevada, which Tay-lor studied. An example of this work is the paper“Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotope Ratios in Miner-als from Porphyry Copper Deposits.”

His interest in ultramafic rocks and layeredmafic intrusions has taken Taylor all over theworld. He studied layered intrusions from Africa(Skaergaard) to Alaska and ophiolites from Oman(Samail) to Cyprus (Troodos) to California, in ad-dition to mantle fragments (xenoliths), komatiitesfrom Australia and ocean fragments. This researchhas focused on both the alteration of these bodiesafter they were emplaced, and also their origins.The mantle processes involved in their generationis further elucidated in studies of volcanic rocks.An example of this work is the paper “Stable Iso-tope Studies of Ultramafic Rocks and Meteorites.”He studied potassic volcanic rocks from all overthe world including Australia, East Africa, Antarc-tica, Italy, and the central United States. Thiswork led Taylor to propose that there are evenfluid-rock interactions in the upper mantle. Taylorhas shown through stable isotopes that this inter-action of fluids and solid rock, with or withoutmelt as a chemical system, explains many of the

258 Taylor, Hugh P., Jr.

Hugh Taylor on a field trip in California (Courtesy ofArthur Sylvester)

features and processes we see in plutons, volcanoesand ore deposits.

Hugh Taylor was born on December 27,1932, in Holbrook, Arizona. He attended theCalifornia Institute of Technology in Pasadena,where he earned a bachelor of science degree ingeochemistry in 1954. He entered Harvard Uni-versity, Massachusetts, for graduate studies andearned a master of arts degree in geology in 1955.Upon graduation he accepted a position as chiefscientist aboard a cruise vessel for the U.S. SteelCorporation, where he explored for iron ore insoutheast Alaska in 1955 and 1956. He returnedto graduate school at California Institute of Tech-nology and earned a Ph.D. in geochemistry in1959. Taylor was also married that year. He thenjoined the faculty at California Institute of Tech-nology, where he remains today. He was a mem-ber of the faculty at the Pennsylvania StateUniversity at University Park in 1961–1962, a vis-iting professor at Stanford University, California,in 1981–1982, a Crosby Visiting Professor atMassachusetts Institute of Technology and a geol-ogist for the U.S. Geological Survey in Saudi Ara-bia in 1980–1981. Taylor was named Robert P.Sharp Professor of geology in 1981, a title whichhe still holds. He was also the executive officer forgeology at Cal Tech from 1987 to 1995.

Hugh Taylor has led an extremely productivecareer. He is an author of 159 articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. Many ofthese papers are the often-cited definitive studieson stable isotopes and appear in the top journalsin the profession. Taylor has received several hon-ors and awards for his contributions to the sci-ence. He is a member of the National Academy ofSciences and a Fellow of the American Academyof Arts and Sciences. He was awarded the UreyMedal by the European Association of Geochem-istry and the Arthur C. Day Medal by the Geo-logical Society of America. He received a BestPaper Award from the U.S. Geological Survey. Hehas been named to several prestigious endowedlectureships including a Cloos Memorial Scholar

at the Johns Hopkins University, a Turner Lec-turer at University of Michigan, the First Hoff-man Lecturer at Harvard University, the 30thWilliam Smith Lecturer for the Geological Societyof London, and an Invited Lecturer at the ItalianAcademy of Sciences.

Taylor has also performed service to the geo-logical profession. He has served on numerouscommittees and panels and even held offices forthe Geological Society of America, the Geochemi-cal Society, and the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica. He has also served in editorial positions,including editor for Chemical Geology and associ-ate editor for Geochimica et Cosmochimica Actaand Geological Society of America Bulletin.

5 Teichert, Curt(1905–1996)GermanPaleontologist

Curt Teichert is an example of the quintessentialinternational geologist. He held faculty positionswith seven universities on three continents andgovernmental positions in Denmark, Australia,and the United States. His expertise was in thestudy of cephalopods but he extended his areas ofinterest into biostratigraphy, plate tectonics, andeven energy and mining. To these ends, he liter-ally traveled the world (every continent exceptAntarctica) to conduct research.

His early work on the morphology and evo-lution of cephalopods was done in conjunctionwith research on biostratigraphy and paleoenvi-ronmental analysis of the rocks in which the fos-sils were found. His paper, “Main Features ofCephalopod Evolution,” is a summary of his pa-leontologic work. This research was done in suchdiverse areas (Canada, Greenland, Australia, etc.)that it began to have implications for plate corre-lations. His publication, Stratigraphy of WesternAustralia, exemplifies his long-distance strati-graphic correlations. Of course, his early work

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was before plate tectonics and he was instrumen-tal in the geosynclinal theory. However, his careerspanned the acceptance of the plate tectonicparadigm and he contributed there as well. Te-ichert’s vast travels and observations made himinvaluable to regional stratigraphic projects,many of which were through his efforts. Perhapsthe best known of these efforts was through aproject sponsored by the U.S. Agency for Inter-national Development and carried out by theU.S. Geological Survey in Quetta, Pakistan. Hetrained numerous Pakistani geologists in stratig-raphy, helped establish a National StratigraphicCommittee and helped establish a program ofstratigraphic correlation among Pakistan, Iran,and Turkey as part of the Central Treaty Organi-zation (CENTO). He contributed directly to thiseffort by performing an inch-by-inch analysis ofthe Permian-Triassic sequence in the Salt Range,a fundamental boundary in Earth history byvirtue of the greatest extinction event ever.

Even this description of his varied historydoes not fully portray his vast experiences. For ex-ample, he studied the Great Barrier Reef in Aus-tralia and other coral reefs in the Indian Ocean asdescribed in his paper, “Cold and Deep-WaterCoral Banks.” He studied the fauna across theCambrian-Ordovician boundary in NorthernChina. He studied the Devonian stratigraphy andbiostratigraphy of Arizona. He studied the Cam-brian to Holocene stratigraphy of Australia. Eventhese research experiences do not cover his workon fuels and energy. It is through this vast experi-ence that Teichert was able to help guide some ofthe fundamental theories on evolution, Earth his-tory, and plate reconstructions.

Curt Teichert was born on May 8, 1905, inKonigsberg, East Prussia (Germany). He studiedat universities in Munich, Freiburg, and Konigs-berg, ultimately receiving a Ph.D. degree from Al-bertus University in Konigsberg in 1928. Thatyear, he married Gertrud Kaufman, the daughterof a physics professor at Konigsberg. He accepteda postdoctoral fellowship at the University of

Freiburg. In 1930, he received a RockefellerFoundation award for paleontologic studies inWashington, D.C., New York City, and Albany,New York. This international exposure led to aposition as geologist on a Danish expedition toGreenland in 1931–1932. When Teichert re-turned to Germany, he found that the politicalconditions had so deteriorated that he moved toCopenhagen, Denmark, where he received a smallstipend as a research paleontologist at the univer-sity there. By 1937, the situation in Europe wasfar worse. Teichert applied for and received agrant from the Carnegie Foundation that made itpossible for him to obtain a position as researchlecturer at the University of Western Australia inPerth. In 1945, he accepted a position as assistantchief geologist in the Department of Mines forVictoria, Australia, but moved to the University ofMelbourne as a senior lecturer in 1947. In 1952,Teichert began his North American career as aprofessor at the New Mexico School of Mines inSocorro. By 1954, he moved yet again to the U.S.Geological Survey in Denver, Colorado, to orga-nize and direct a Fuels Geology Laboratory. Te-ichert left the U.S. Geological Survey in 1964 toreturn to academia as a Regents DistinguishedProfessor at the University of Kansas, where he re-mained until his retirement in 1977. He thenmoved to New York where he was an adjunct pro-fessor at the University of Rochester, where he re-mained until 1995. His wife Gertrude died in1993. Teichert moved to Arlington, Virginia, in1995 and died on May 10, 1996.

Curt Teichert led a very productive career. Hewas an author of some 325 scientific articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Several of these are seminalpapers on cephalopods and biostratigraphy. Hewas also an editor of 13 professional volumes, in-cluding seven volumes of the Treatise on Inverte-brate Paleontology, symposium volumes for theInternational Geological Congress and a Geologi-cal Society of America volume on the paleontol-ogy of China. In recognition of his research

260 Teichert, Curt

contributions to geology, Teichert received severalhonors and awards. He received the David SymePrize from the University of Melbourne, the Ray-mond C. Moore Medal from the Society of Eco-nomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, and thePaleontological Society Medal.

Teichert performed excellent service to theprofession and the public. In addition to numer-ous committees, he served as president of the Pa-leontological Society (1971–1972). He served onmany committees and as president of the Interna-tional Paleontologic Association (1976–1980). Heserved on numerous committees and panels forthe Geological Society of America and the Inter-national Geological Congress. He was also afounder of the Geological Society of Australia. Heserved in numerous editorial roles with the Geo-logical Society of America Bulletin and the Journalof Paleontology, among others.

5 Thompson, James B., Jr.(1921– )AmericanMetamorphic Petrologist, Field Geologist

Soon after World War II, there was a revolution inpetrology and geochemistry to better formulategeologic problems by classical thermodynamicmethods. This heralded a major change in meta-morphic petrology from classic mostly descriptiveefforts to a modern geochemical approach. JamesB. Thompson can be considered the “father ofmodern metamorphic petrology” because heemerged as the leader in this revolution. It was hiswork in developing a physical framework thatguided experimental petrologists to choose criticalpetrologic systems in which to conduct their ex-periments. This physical framework was based onobservations of rocks in the field or through a mi-croscope. Throughout his theoretical research, hewas always sure to return to the real rock systemsto make sure that he remained solidly based. His

famous statement exemplifies this attitude: “Itwould be embarrassing indeed if we were to con-struct an internally consistent geology, chemicallyand physically sound, perfect in fact but for oneflaw—the lack of a planet to fit it.”

Thompson’s research dealt with the thermo-dynamics of individual minerals as part of largerchemical (metamorphic) systems. He employedthe Gibbs method in new ways to explain meta-morphic facies (conditions). Standard triangulardiagrams used in plotting the minerals found inaluminous metamorphic rocks (schist to gneiss)are referred to as “Thompson Diagrams.” Famouspapers on this work are “The Graphical Analysisof Mineral Assemblages in Pelitic Schists” and “AModel System for Mineral Facies in PeliticRocks.” He later wrote a treatise on a new idea of“reaction space,” a kind of thermodynamic virtualspace in which metamorphic reactions could bedisplayed. The major publication on this work isentitled Reaction Space: An Algebraic and Geomet-ric Approach. Finally, he also worked on the prop-erties of certain mineral systems includingamphiboles, white mica, and feldspars. He evenhas minerals named after him, jimthompsoniteand clinojimthompsonite.

Jim Thompson was able to base his thermo-dynamic work on real rocks so well because hewas also a talented field geologist. Much of thestratigraphy and structural geology of New En-gland, and especially that of Vermont, is under-stood as the result of his work. He mapped fromlow-grade to high-grade metamorphic rocks andlooked at the characteristic structures of NewEngland like domes and large flat folds callednappes. The astounding discovery of fossils inhigh grade metamorphic rocks, where they shouldhave been destroyed, allowed Thompson to con-nect the stratigraphy of the crystalline part ofNew England to the sedimentary part. This aloneis a major contribution to the understanding ofthe geology of New England.

James B. Thompson Jr. was born on Novem-ber 20, 1921, in Calais, Maine. He attended

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Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, and earneda bachelor of arts degree in geology in 1942 andserved as an instructor that same year. He enteredthe U.S. Army Air Force in 1942 and served as afirst lieutenant for the duration of World War II.After his discharge, he entered Massachusetts In-stitute of Technology and earned a doctorate ingeology in 1950. He joined the faculty at HarvardUniversity, Massachusetts, in 1950 and remainedthere for the rest of his career. He was named theSturgis Hooper Professor of Geology in 1977 andretired as an emeritus professor in 1992. Duringhis tenure at Harvard he was a visiting professor atUniversity of Bern, Switzerland (1963), Dart-mouth College (1988–1992, part-time) and Ari-zona State University (1991), a distinguishedvisitor at University of Cincinnati, Ohio (1974), aguest professor at Swiss Federal Institute of Tech-nology (1977–1978) and a visiting research geolo-gist for the U.S. Geological Survey (1985–1986),among several others. James Thompson marriedEleonora Mairs in 1957; they have one child.

James Thompson has had a very productivecareer. He was an author of some 41 articles in in-ternational journals and professional volumes aswell as 12 field guides and four geologic maps. Hewas coeditor of one professional volume. The ab-solute numbers may not be as impressive as othersin this book but publishing was much less conve-nient and emphasized in the 1950s and 1960sthan it is today. In addition, many of his papersset new benchmarks in petrology and geochem-istry. Thompson has been well recognized by thegeologic profession for his contributions in termsof honors and awards. He is a member of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences, and the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He received theArthur L. Day Medal from the Geological Societyof America (1964), the Roebling Medal from theMineralogical Society of America (1977), and theVictor M. Goldschmidt Medal from the Geo-chemical Society (1985). He received a Ford Fac-ulty Fellowship (1952–1953), a GuggenheimFellowship (1963), and he was an Ernst Cloos

Memorial Scholar at the Johns Hopkins Univer-sity (1983) and a Fairchild Distinguished Scholarat California Institute of Technology (1976),among numerous distinguished lectureships.

Thompson has also performed significant ser-vice to the profession serving on numerous com-mittees and panels for the National ScienceFoundation, National Research Council, the Geo-chemical Society, Geological Society of America,and the Mineralogical Society of America. He waspresident of the Mineralogical Society of Americain 1967 and 1968, as well as the Geochemical So-ciety in 1968 and 1969.

5 Tilton, George R.(1923– )AmericanIsotope Geochemist

Geologists now determine the ages of rocks usingisotope geochemistry on a routine basis. But it wasnot that long ago that such determinations wereimpossible. It was only after World War II that theunderstanding and capability to analyze radioac-tive isotopes became available. Probably the mostimportant system to determine formational ages ofrocks was and still is that of the decay of parenturanium to daughter lead. One of the true pio-neers in applying U-Pb isotopic methods to rocksis George Tilton. With colleague CLAIR C. PATTER-SON, Tilton developed new techniques to estimatethe age of granites and granitic rocks using the ac-cessory mineral zircon. The first rock ever to beanalyzed for absolute age was a 1-billion-year-oldgranite from the Canadian Shield. From that start-ing point, Tilton joined a group of pioneering sci-entists who were charged with refining themethods and applications for all isotopic systems.Tilton was to lead the research on U-Pb and deviseand confirm the basic procedures for analysis,which are still in practice today. His paper “Ura-nium-Lead Ages” is a classic. He is most certainlythe “father of uranium-lead geochronology” for

262 Tilton, George R.

both granitic rocks and others. Zircon still pro-vides the most reliable ages and it is still the min-eral of choice for isotopic analysis.

After establishing these techniques, Tiltonstill determined the age of rocks but his main re-search efforts moved in other directions. He de-vised methods to use isotopes to gain informationon the sources of volcanic magmas. The informa-tion he gathered allowed him to better understandthe geochemical processes in the Earth’s mantle.By looking at the isotope ratios of given wholevolcanic rocks rather than of single minerals,Tilton could predict the character of the sourceregion in the mantle for these volcanic rocks. Hecould tell whether the source material for magmawas recycled (melted) crustal material or directlyfrom the mantle. By more detailed studies, hecould even glean some information on the mantlefrom which the magma was derived. He could tellif there were other melting episodes from thatmantle or if the magma studied was the first. Sev-eral papers on this work include “Evolution ofDepleted Mantle: The Lead Perspective” and “Iso-topic Evidence for Crust-Mantle Evolution withEmphasis on the Canadian Shield.” With all ofthis research under his belt, Tilton is still workingon a timescale for the production of continentalcrust. He is attempting to determine when thefirst granitic crustal rocks appeared and what theirrate of production has been throughout geologictime.

George Tilton was born on June 3, 1923, incentral Illinois, where he spent his youth. He be-came interested in chemistry in high school andcontinued that interest in Blackburn College, asmall two-year school near Saint Louis, Missouri.After three and one-half semesters, he was draftedinto the army in February 1943 to serve in WorldWar II. In September 1945, he was dischargedand resumed his college career at the University ofIllinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he gradu-ated with a bachelor of science degree with highhonors in chemistry in 1948. There he met a col-league, Elizabeth Foster, whom he later married.

They would have four children. He enrolled atthe University of Chicago, Illinois, for graduatestudies intent on radiochemistry. He graduated in1951 with a Ph.D. degree in geochemistry and ac-cepted a position as a geochemist at the Geophysi-cal Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution ofWashington, D.C. In 1965, Tilton joined the fac-ulty at the University of California at Santa Bar-bara, where he remained for the rest of his career.He retired to a professor emeritus position in1991, but he still remains active in research.

George Tilton has had a very productive ca-reer. He is an author of more than 100 articles ininternational journals and professional volumes.Many of these papers are landmark studies in thefield of isotope geochemistry both in terms oftechniques and applications. His work has beenwell received by the geologic profession as evi-denced by his numerous honors and awards. He isa member of the National Academy of Sciences.He was awarded an honorary doctor of sciencedegree from the Swiss Federal Institute of Tech-nology (ETH) in Zurich in 1984. He received the

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George Tilton with his solid source mass spectrometer atthe University of California at Santa Barbara (Courtesyof G. R. Tilton)

Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Senior Sci-entist Award in 1989 and the Alumni Achieve-ment Award from Blackburn College, Illinois, in1978.

Tilton was also very active in service to theprofession, serving on numerous committees andpanels for both government and society functions.He was the president of the Geochemical Societyin 1980. He also served in editorial positions forseveral prominent journals.

5 Tullis, Julia A. (Jan)(1943– )AmericanStructural Geologist (Rock Mechanics)

Under shallow crustal to surface conditions, rockscrack and break in a brittle manner when stressedto their breaking point. This cracking releases en-ergy as earthquakes. The fault rocks under theseconditions crush into rocks called breccias andcataclasites. Deeper in the crust, the temperatureand pressure are elevated and the rocks flow likegum in plastic or ductile behavior when stressedto their breaking point. Few if any earthquakesare produced under these conditions. The rocksproduced are called mylonites. Jan Tullis conductsexperiments to determine the conditions underwhich this transition from brittle to plastic behav-ior occurs. These experiments involve squeezingor compressing rocks in a press capable of exertingmany tons of force under any temperature condi-tion until the rock cracks or flows. She then stud-ies the deformed rock both with an opticalmicroscope and a transmission electron micro-scope (TEM) to determine the processes of fail-ure. Because she has determined this transition forthe most common minerals, quartz and feldspar,her work is commonly used as the constraints forstructural studies on faults and fault processes. Re-searchers of natural fault zones in deformed oro-gens have physical constraints for interpreting thethermo-mechanical history from preserved fea-

tures in the rocks, thanks to Tullis’s research. Twoexamples of this work are papers entitled “Experi-mental Faults at High Temperature and Pressure”and “High Temperature Deformation of Rocksand Minerals.”

Tullis determined that the transition frombrittle to plastic behavior for quartz occurs atabout 250°C and for feldspar it occurs at about450°C. These temperatures correspond to depthsin the Earth of about 10 km and 15 km, respec-tively, assuming a normal geothermal gradient. Pa-pers on this work include “ExperimentalDeformation of Dry Westerly Granite” and “Dy-namic Recrystallization of Feldspar: A Mechanismfor Ductile Shear Zone Formation.” Plastic defor-mation involves the sequential breaking, shifting,and reattaching of the chemical bonds betweenatoms in contrast to brittle deformation, whichbreaks the rock like glass. Tullis discovered a transi-tion state between the two types of behavior,which appears to be plastic under a microscopebut using a transmission electron microscope(TEM), it is clearly brittle, just at a much smallerscale. It appears that the scale of breakage progres-sively decreases at the transition. Further experi-mentation involves the evaluation of other factorsin this transition including presence and amountof water, melted rock (magma) as well as grainsize.Water in the rock weakens it significantly so that itdeforms under much lower pressures as describedin “Pressure Dependence of Rock Strength: Impli-cations for Hydrolytic Weakening.” Fine-grainedaggregates of minerals tend to slip on each other toabsorb much of the deformation.

Jan Tullis is also interested in the mechanismsthat produce layering or preferred orientations indeformed rocks. These mechanisms operate onthe submicroscopic scale and involve the move-ment of chemical species, irregular chemicalbonds, and holes in the mineral structures whereatoms are missing. The movement induces shapechanges in the minerals and ultimately recrystal-lizes them into shapes that are better suited to thehigh strain environment. This shape is relatively

264 Tullis, Julia A.

flattened and even the chemical bonds becomealigned through this process. It is what producesthe highly strained and flattened mylonites indeep fault zones.

Julia Ann Tullis was born in Swedesboro,New Jersey, on February 21, 1943. She attendedCarleton College, Minnesota, and earned a bache-lor of arts degree in 1965. She attended graduateschool at the University of California at Los Ange-les, and earned a Ph.D. in structural geology androck mechanics in 1971. Her advisers were DAVID

T. GRIGGS and J. Christie. Tullis accepted a posi-tion as research associate at Brown University,Rhode Island, in 1970 and became a research pro-fessor the following year. She became a full mem-ber of the faculty in 1979 and has remained eversince. Jan Tullis was married to Terry Tullis, a fel-low structural geologist and Brown University ge-ology professor, in 1965.

Jan Tullis is in the middle of a very produc-tive career. She is an author of more than 50 arti-cles in international journals and professionalvolumes. Several of these papers are definitivestudies on the mechanical response of minerals tostress under various pressure-temperature condi-tions. They are very commonly cited in geologicalliterature. Tullis has received several honors inrecognition of her contributions to the science inboth teaching and research including the PhilBray Award for Teaching Excellence from BrownUniversity and the Woodford-Eckis DistinguishedLecturer at Pomona College, California.

Tullis has also performed service to the profes-sion. She served on several committees and panelsfor the National Research Council, the AmericanGeophysical Union, the National Science Founda-tion, the U.S. Geological Survey, the AmericanGeological Institute (for which she helped foundthe Women Geoscientists Committee), and theGeological Society of America. She was on theevaluation committee for Massachusetts Instituteof Technology and Carleton College. Tullis alsoserved on the editorial boards for Tectonophysicsand Journal of Structural Geology.

5 Turcotte, Donald L.(1932– )AmericanGeophysicist (Fluid Dynamics)

Donald Turcotte has truly led two successful careers. He began as an aerospace engineer suc-cessfully studying combustion, magnetohydrody-namics, plasma physics, and lasers. He was aNational Science Foundation postdoctoral fellowin 1965 at Oxford University in England when helearned about plate tectonic processes and had areawakening. He proceeded to apply his consider-able expertise in engineering to geology in a thor-oughly unique manner. He developed a newdirection in geology by constructing sophisticatedmathematical models of the processes especiallywith regard to plate motions. In one citation, acolleague said, “It is fair to say that if it moves,Don will model it.” Turcotte proposed a bound-ary-layer theory of convection for the circulationof the mantle. This modeling has been designedto address the question of how the plates aredriven around the Earth. This extensive work cul-minated in a book entitled Geodynamics: Applica-tion of Continuum Mechanics to GeologicalProblems and really defined a new field. He ap-plied this modeling to the development and na-ture of other planetary interiors. His “membranetheory” accounts for the correlation of gravity andtopography on the Moon and Mars. However,Turcotte’s modeling did not end there. He workedon such diverse topics as sediment compactionand lithification, petroleum maturation, the ther-mal evolution of basins, hydrothermal flow pat-terns around heat sources, strain accumulationand release in earthquakes on the San Andreasfault and even on the geometrical forms of volca-noes. He also modeled global geochemical cycles(oxygen, carbon, and so forth) to better under-stand the distribution of major elements, trace el-ements and isotopes of elements.

More recently, Turcotte became a pioneer inapplying fractal and chaos solutions to geological

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problems. Fractals are basically a mathematicalanalysis that shows how small-scale relations re-flect the larger-scale relations in what is describedas a self-similar manner. Field geologists havequalitatively used fractals for years, studying out-crop scale structures to help with interpreting themap scale structures but it was never quantified.Turcotte applied fractals to the topography ofArizona, to seismic hazard assessment, crustal de-formation and mineral deposits among manyothers and again began a new method to analyzegeological features. This research is summarizedin his publication Fractals in Geology and Geo-physics. He applied chaos theory to mantle con-vection as well as stress distributions aroundfaults, also setting new standards for geologicalanalysis. This pioneering research of Donald Tur-cotte has truly opened a whole new aspect to theEarth sciences.

Donald L. Turcotte was born on April 22,1932, in Bellingham, Washington. He attendedthe California Institute of Technology and grad-uated with a bachelor of science degree in me-chanical engineering in 1954. He earned amaster of science degree in aeronautical engi-neering from Cornell University, New York, in1955. He then returned to California Instituteof Technology to complete a Ph.D. in aeronauti-cal engineering in 1958. In 1958–1959, he was aresearch engineer at the Jet Propulsion Labora-tory in Pasadena, California, and an assistantprofessor at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate Schoolin Monterey, California, before joining the fac-ulty at Cornell University where he has remainedever since. He began his tenure at Cornell Uni-versity in the Graduate School of Aerospace En-gineering before moving to the Department ofGeological Sciences in 1973. He served as chairof the department from 1981 to 1990. His cur-rent title is the Maxwell M. Upson Professor ofengineering, which he has held since 1985. Dur-ing his years at Cornell University, he has been avisiting professor at such schools as Oxford Uni-versity and he has consulted for such firms as

TRW, Monsanto Inc., Corning Glass Inc., andthe U.S. Department of Defense. Donald Tur-cotte has been married since 1957 and is the fa-ther of two children.

Donald Turcotte has led an impressively pro-ductive career with hundreds of articles publishedin international journals, professional volumes,and governmental reports in both aeronautical en-gineering and geology. The papers in geology areseminal works on unique mathematical treat-ments of a whole range of geological problemslike mantle convection. These contributions tothe science have been well received and recognizedby the profession as shown in the numerous hon-ors and awards that he received. Turcotte is amember of the National Academy of Sciences. Hewas awarded the Arthur L. Day Medal from theGeological Society of America, the Regents Medalof Excellence from the State of New York, the Al-fred Wegener Medal from the European Union ofGeosciences, and the Charles A. Whitten Medalfrom the American Geophysical Union. He wasalso the recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowshipand named a William Smith Lecturer at the Geo-logical Society of London.

Turcotte was president of the TectonophysicsSection of the American Geophysical Union forwhich he served on numerous committees andpanels. He also served on committees for the In-ternational Union of Geodesy and Geophysics,the Seismological Society of America, and theAmerican Physical Society among others.

5 Turekian, Karl K.(1927– )AmericanGeochemist, Atmospheric Scientist

There is a complex exchange of chemicals amongrock, ocean, and air. If the transmission of chemi-cals from rocks to air and water occurs duringweathering, imagine the complexity of the inter-action of the swirling mass of liquid in the oceans

266 Turekian, Karl K.

with the swirling mass of gas in the atmosphere.These interactions and cycling of elements that re-sults is the mainstay of the climate change move-ment. Karl Turekian began his interest in thesecomplex interactions well before it was fashion-able. He was involved in the initial research to de-termine the fundamental distribution of chemicalproperties of the ocean in the early 1960s. Oncethis distribution was determined, the next stepwas to determine the static and dynamic processesthat control it, and Karl Turekian was the leaderin this research.

Because estuaries serve as the chemical reac-tors that control the passage of elements fromland to sea, that is where Turekian focused his ef-forts. In his work, he turned Long Island Soundinto the world model for coastal studies. He usedshort-lived radioactive elements (isotopes) as trac-ers to track ocean circulation and processes.Movement of water masses, zones of ascending ordescending ocean currents, and chemical interac-tions could also be studied using these tracers.The tracking of isotopes additionally helped de-termine scavenging, sediment accumulation rates,bioturbation, residence times, and atmosphericdeposition. An example of this work is “The Os-mium Isotopic Composition Change of CenozoicSea Water.” Turekian even looked at extraterres-trial input into the ocean. Because the ocean di-rectly exchanges elements with the atmosphere, itconstrains the chemistry. Turekian also studies theatmosphere in terms of residence times of certainelements and origin of ozone in the troposphereas well as interaction with rocks. His results ledhim to consider the origin and evolution of theoceans and atmosphere.

Karl Turekian was born in New York, NewYork, on October 25, 1927. He attendedWheaton College, Illinois, and earned a bachelorof arts degree in chemistry in 1949. He alsoserved in the U.S. Navy as an aviation electronictechnician’s mate third class. He completed hisgraduate studies at Columbia University, NewYork, where he earned a master of arts and a

Ph.D. in geochemistry in 1951 and 1955 respec-tively. He was a research associate at the newly established Lamont-Doherty Geological Observa-tory in 1954 to 1956. He joined the faculty atYale University, Connecticut, in 1956, and re-mained there for the rest of his career. Turekianwas named a Henry Barnard Davis Professor ofgeology and geophysics from 1972 to 1985. Hewas then named the Benjamin Silliman Professorof geology and geophysics in 1985, and he retainsthat title today. He served as department chairfrom 1982 to 1988. He is also currently directorof the Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies.Turekian married Roxanne Hagopian in 1962 andthey have two children. His son, Vaughan, fol-lowed in his father’s footsteps and the two recentlypublished several articles together on atmo-spheric-oceanic interactions.

Karl Turekian has enjoyed an extremely pro-ductive career. He is an author of more than 210articles in international journals and professionalvolumes. He also published several books. Thesearticles appear in some of the best journals in theprofession and many set new benchmarks for thescience. His popular textbook is entitled GlobalEnvironmental Change: Past, Present, and Future.He has been richly recognized for his contribu-tions to the science in terms of honors andawards. He is a member of the National Academyof Sciences and a fellow of the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences. He received hon-orary doctoral degrees from Yale University andState University of New York at Stony Brook. Hewas awarded the V. M. Goldschmidt Medal fromthe Geochemical Society (1989) and the MauriceEwing Medal from the American GeophysicalUnion (1987). He was a Guggenheim Fellow atCambridge University (1962–1963) and a Sher-man Fairchild Distinguished Scholar at Califor-nia Institute of Technology (1988).

Turekian has performed exemplary service tothe profession. He served on the U.S. NationalCommittee on Geochemistry (1970–1973), theClimate Research Board (1977–1980), the Ocean

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Science Board (1979–1982), the U.N. Councilon the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution, andseveral committees and panels for the NationalAcademy of Sciences, the National ResearchCouncil, and the National Science Foundation.He was president of the Geochemical Society in1975 and 1976 and served on many committeesfor that society as well as the Geological Society ofAmerica and American Geophysical Union.Turekian served as editor for some of the top jour-nals including Journal of Geophysical Research,Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Earth and Plan-etary Science Letters and Global Biogeochemical Cy-cles, in addition to the Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences.

5 Tuttle, O. Frank(1916–1983)AmericanGeochemist, Petrologist

Frank Tuttle was one of the greatest experimentalpetrologists to grace the field. He invented the“Tuttle press” and the “Tuttle bomb,” which al-lowed him for the first time to adjust the temper-ature and pressure of his experiments at will tosimulate virtually any conditions in the Earth’scrust. These inventions revolutionized the entirefield of experimental petrology. The currentequipment for experimental studies is really just amodified version of that which he invented in thelate 1940s. Not only did he perform his own ex-periments, the data from which has withstood thetest of time, but he also set the foundations for allwork to follow. His experiments centered on mul-tivariate chemical systems in the felsic range ofcompositions. Most of this work was done withhis close colleague NORMAN L. BOWEN. They didexperimental studies on quartz, defining the sta-bility fields for its many polymorphs, feldspars,and feldspathoids. They conducted experimentson synthetic systems of MgO-SiO2-H2O andK2O-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O and would provide the

basis for standard petrogenetic grids. In addition,they conducted melting relations in natural andsynthetic granite and defined the entire granitesystem. Tuttle visited many locations worldwideto collect samples of classic and odd granites forthis work. He sampled the Harker Collection atCambridge University in England and visited theFrench Pyrénées, the Isle of Skye, Scotland, Fin-land, and Norway among others. His publication“Origin of Granite in the Light of ExperimentalStudies in the System NaAlSi3O8-KAlSi3O8-SiO2-H2O” with N. L. Bowen in 1958 is stillconsidered a classic work on granites. Other pub-lications include “Chemistry of the IgneousRocks: I. Differentiation Index” and “The GraniteProblem: Evidence from the Quartz and Feldsparof a Tertiary Granite.”

Tuttle investigated other systems as well. No-tably, he and PETER J. WYLLIE investigated the sys-tem CaO-CO2-H2O and defined the origin andprocesses in the genesis of the odd carbonititemagmas. This work resulted in a book entitledCarbonatites. They also investigated the hy-drothermal melting of shales in a publication ofthe same name and the effect of volatile compo-nents with sulfur, phosphorus, lithium, and chlo-rine on granite magma. He worked with RICHARD

H. JAHNS on pegmatites, among others. Each ofthese projects established a new benchmark inpetrology.

Frank Tuttle was born on June 25, 1916, inOlean, New York. He grew up in Smethport,Pennsylvania, and graduated from SmethportHigh School in 1933. He worked in the Brad-ford, Pennsylvania, oil fields for several years andenrolled in the Bradford Campus of the Pennsyl-vania State University on a part-time basis. Heenrolled at the main campus in State College in1936, and earned a bachelor of science degree ingeology in 1939 and a master of science degreein 1940. He enrolled at Massachusetts Instituteof Technology and completed his coursework by1942 before his graduate work was put on holdbecause of World War II. He and his lifelong

268 Tuttle, O. Frank

partner, Dawn Hardes, were married in 1941.They had two daughters. Tuttle’s war effort was in research and it took him from Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology to the Geo-physical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institutionin Washington, D.C., to the U.S. Naval Re-search Laboratory in Maryland. He was involvedin the synthesis and characterization of crystalsfor defense applications. It was during this timethat he met N. L. Bowen. Before even complet-ing his Ph.D. in 1948, Tuttle joined Bowen atthe Geophysical Laboratory in 1947. He joinedthe faculty at Pennsylvania State University atState College in 1953, and served as dean of theCollege of Mineral Industries in 1959 and 1960.In 1960, he was diagnosed with Parkinson’s dis-ease and resigned his position as dean. Thesymptoms would recur throughout the remain-der of his life. In 1965, Tuttle moved to StanfordUniversity in California, where he spent the re-mainder of his career. In 1967, he requested amedical leave from Stanford University as a re-sult of his declining health and tendered a for-mal resignation in 1971. In 1977, he wasdiagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease and moved toa nursing home. He died on December 13,1983, one year after his wife. Tuttle was an avidgolfer.

Frank Tuttle had a very productive career de-spite his health problems. He was an author ofnumerous articles in international journals andprofessional volumes in collaboration with severalof the top geologists ever. These papers are trueclassic works on experimental geochemistry andpetrology especially with regard to granite andhave been cited in other articles countless times.His contributions to geology were well received bythe profession as evidenced in his numerous hon-ors and awards. Tuttle was a member of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences. He received the firstever Mineralogical Society of America Award(1952). He also received the Roebling Medal fromthe Mineralogical Society of America (1975) aswell as the Arthur L. Day Medal from the Geo-

logical Society of America (1967). He receivedother honors too numerous to fully list here.

5 Twenhofel, William H.(1875–1957)AmericanSedimentologist

William Twenhofel has been called the “patriarchof sedimentary geology.” He was originally trainedas a paleontologist and he practiced paleontology,but he soon observed that the sediments in whichthey occurred were a key element to the interpre-tation of the paleoecology. He slowly became oneof the true pioneers in the up and coming field ofsedimentology. For his graduate research, Twen-hofel studied the fossils of the Ordovician-Silurianboundary on Anticosti Island, Quebec, under thegreat paleontologist Charles Schuchert. Hewalked some 700 miles around the island andeven though it was “ram-jammed full of beautifulfossils,” it was the sedimentary sequences that in-duced him to return to the depositional sequencein that or nearby areas during numerous field sea-sons. He studied Ordovician and Silurian strata inNewfoundland, Nova Scotia, other areas of Que-bec, Maine, and even the Baltic Provinces of Europe. Twenhofel achieved international recog-nition as an authority on the Ordovician to Sil-urian transition in northeastern North America,which he showed to be gradual.

While in the Midwest, William Twenhofel es-tablished a vigorous research program on localstrata. He became embroiled in a controversyabout the position of the Mazomanie glauconiticsands within the Upper Cambrian stratigraphy ofthe Upper Mississippi Valley. He argued for and fi-nally proved the lateral equivalence of the unit tothe Franconia Formation and set the stage for thedevelopment of the facies concept in sedimentarygeology. He also did research on heavy minerals insedimentary rocks, and a number of pioneeringstudies on lacustrine deposits in several of the lakes

Twenhofel, William H. 269

in Wisconsin. He studied such topics as marineconglomerates and unconformities, deep-sea sedi-ments, and corals and coral reefs, among others.Several of these studies established the basis for fu-ture expansion that would form new and impor-tant directions in sedimentology. The ideas arenow standard concepts that appear in introductorytextbooks worldwide. It is this pioneering spiritthat earned Twenhofel his reputation.

William H. Twenhofel was born in Coving-ton, Kentucky, on April 16, 1875. He grew upon a farm in Covington and attended publicschool for his primary education but was forcedto attend a private school for his secondary educa-tion. Being of modest means, Twenhofel had towork for six years as a teacher and a railway con-ductor to earn enough money to attend college.William Twenhofel married his childhood sweet-heart, Virgie Mae Stevens, in 1899. They hadthree children. He attended the National NormalSchool in Lebanon, Ohio, where he received abachelor of arts degree in 1904. Upon graduation,he accepted a position teaching mathematics atthe East Texas Normal College in Commerce,Texas. By 1907 at age 32, he had saved enoughmoney to attend Yale University, Connecticut. Heearned a second bachelor of arts degree in 1908, amaster of arts degree in 1910, and a Ph.D. in1912, all of which were in geology. He completedhis dissertation work under the advisement of pa-leontologist Charles Schuchert. Twenhofel joinedthe faculty at the University of Kansas inLawrence in 1910 and became the state geologistof Kansas in 1915. In 1916, he accepted a posi-tion at the University of Wisconsin in Madison,

where he remained throughout the rest of his ca-reer. He retired to professor emeritus in 1945 butremained in active research for many years.William Twenhofel died on January 4, 1957.

William Twenhofel contributed greatly to thegeologic profession in terms of literature. He isan author of more than 75 scientific publicationsincluding articles in international journals, gov-ernmental reports, and textbooks. He is probablybest known for these textbooks, which werewidely adopted and include Invertebrate Paleon-tology with Robert Schrock in 1935, Principles ofSedimentation in 1939, Methods of Study of Sedi-ments in 1941, and Principles of Invertebrate Pale-ontology in 1953. Perhaps the most prestigious ofthe awards that Twenhofel received was the cre-ation of the Twenhofel Medal as the highestaward of the Society of Economic Paleontologistsand Mineralogists.

Perhaps the main reason that Twenhofel wasso effective in charting the direction of sedimen-tary geology was his effectiveness in service to theprofession. He served as president of the Paleon-tological Society (United States) in 1931 as wellas on numerous committees. However, his workfor the National Research Council is legendary.He served as chair of the Committee on Sedi-mentation from 1923 to 1931 and was active onit from 1919 to 1949. He also served as directorof the Division of Geology and Geophysics(1934–1937), the chair of the Committee on Pa-leoecology, and he helped organize the Commit-tee on Stratigraphy. Twenhofel was a cofoundingeditor of the Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, andserved as editor from 1933 to 1946.

270 Twenhofel, William H.

5 Vail, Peter R.(1930– )AmericanStratigrapher

Although mean sea level is used as a point of refer-ence for all elevation data, it does not remain thesame. At times, the sea level rises significantly as itis doing now in a worldwide transgression and atother times it can fall several hundred feet in aworldwide regression. These major changes can befurther compounded by local changes in theheight of the continents. Peter Vail studied thesechanges and produced a spectacular series of sea-level curves to show the relative height of theoceans at any given time. One of the best places tochart such changes is the interior of North Amer-ica during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. Sea levelwas so high at the time that it flooded the interiorof the continent, forming a huge, shallow epicon-tinental sea. Because it was so shallow, even a smallchange in sea level resulted in a huge shift in theposition of the shoreline oceanward in a regressionor inland in a transgression. By studying the posi-tions of the shorelines over time, Vail produced avery sensitive curve. Because the stratigraphicrecord is so complete in this area over such a longperiod of time, Vail was able to model the cyclicityof sea level changes. Many of the large changescould be shown to be the result of major plate tec-

tonic changes primarily as the result of inflationand deflation of mid-ocean ridges, thus displacingmore or less space in the ocean basins. Other veryregular cycles, however, were discovered to be as-tronomical in nature, resulting from the regularshifts in the distance between Earth and the Suncalled, Milankovitch Cycles. This change in dis-tance produces a regular change in average temper-ature and thus climate. It not only varies sea levelbut also sediment character as a result.

Peter Vail also considered sea-level changes atother times by studying the stratigraphy of thecontinental shelves that are also relatively flat andthus quite sensitive to change. These regularchanges in sea level produce distinct packages ofsedimentary successions. Not only can these pack-ages be seen in outcrop and in geophysical logsfrom petroleum exploration wells, but they alsocan even be seen in seismic reflection profiles thatare used in oil exploration. Seismic reflection pro-files are like sonograms of the Earth that show thecharacter of the layering of sediments. Their studyis called seismic stratigraphy, which can be quiteintricate, given good data. Vail is likely the fore-most authority in this field. Vail’s paper “SeismicStratigraphy and the Global Change of Sea Level,Part IV Global Cycles of Relative Changes of SeaLevel” combines both of his areas of expertise.This grouping of sedimentary layers into repeat-ing packages has been called sequence stratigra-

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phy, of which Vail is one of the chief proponents.By such grouping of rocks, sometimes the big pic-ture of the depositional systems become apparentthat is otherwise lost in the typical viewing ofeach layer on a standard individual basis.

Peter Vail was born on January 13, 1930, inNew York, New York, where he spent his youth.He attended Dartmouth College, New Hamp-shire, where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in1952. He earned both his master of science andPh.D. degrees from Northwestern University, Illi-nois, in 1956. Vail spent most of his career as a re-search geologist with Exxon (Esso at the time)beginning in 1956 with an affiliate companycalled Carter Oil Company in Tulsa, Oklahoma.It was at this time that he married his wife, Car-olyn. They have three children. In 1965, Exxonconsolidated its research activities into the ExxonProduction Research Company in Houston,Texas, and Vail and his family relocated there. Heremained with Exxon until 1986, when he joinedthe faculty at Rice University in Houston, Texas.He was named the W. Maurice Ewing Professor ofoceanography, a position he holds today. Vail wasa visiting scientist at the Woods Hole Oceano-graphic Institution, Massachusetts, in 1976 and aGallagher Visiting Scientist at the University ofCalgary, Canada, in 1980.

Because Peter Vail worked in industry formost of his career, by necessity, he has fewer pro-fessional publications than some of the other sci-entists in this book. Much of his work wasproprietary for Exxon and released as internal re-ports. However, the internationally published arti-cles on which he is an author are still quitenumerous. Many are benchmarks in sea levelchanges that have spawned a whole new field ofresearch with direct impact on climate changestudies. Vail has received numerous honors andawards for his contributions to geology. He re-ceived the Virgil Kaufman Gold Medal from theSociety of Exploration Geophysicists, the WilliamSmith Medal from the Geological Society of Lon-don, and the Individual Achievement Award from

the Offshore Technology Conference. From theAmerican Association of Petroleum Geologists(AAPG), he received the President’s Award for theBest Published Paper and the Matson Award forthe best conference presentation. Vail was alsonamed a distinguished lecturer twice by AAPGand a William Smith Lecturer by the GeologicalSociety of London.

Vail has performed significant service to thegeological profession. He served on several impor-tant boards for the National Academy of Sciences,as well as the U.S. Department of Energy. He alsoserved on numerous committees as well as per-forming editorial work for AAPG, the Society ofEconomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, andthe Geological Society of America.

5 Valley, John W.(1948– )AmericanMetamorphic Petrologist, Geochemist

There are radioactive isotopes that decay withtime and there are stable isotopes that do not.However, geologic, atmospheric and hydrosphericprocesses will concentrate certain stable isotopes.John Valley is an expert on stable isotope geo-chemistry and perhaps the foremost expert on sta-ble isotopes in Precambrian rocks of highmetamorphic grade. He studies stable isotopes(mostly oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur),within individual minerals as well as whole rocksystems, to help determine the processes involvedin their formation. Isotopes are especially goodmonitors of fluid of thermal history and fluid in-teractions. They are useful for studying the genesisof igneous and metamorphic rocks at high tem-peratures or for paleoclimate and sedimentation atlow temperatures. Valley’s book, Stable Isotopes inHigh Temperature Geologic Processes, summarizesthe igneous and metamorphic work.

Over the years Valley branched out. As a re-sult, he has also been involved with a wide range

272 Valley, John W.

of isotope studies under other conditions includ-ing: individual minerals, in sedimentary rocksduring burial, in overthrust sheets in the Ap-palachians, in volcanic rocks from ocean islandsand Yellowstone National Park, granites from theSierra Nevada Mountains, and even Martian me-teorites. He was even involved in analyzing iso-topes from the fossilized teeth of herbivores todetermine paleo diets. In each case, the stable iso-topes provide a key piece of information to deter-mine the process of formation or alteration of apreexisting rock. They are typically used as atracer in many of these processes. The ratio of iso-topes can be used as a fingerprint for the specificorigin of fluids in many cases.

Even with all of this diversification, Valley’sfirst interest is in the Precambrian rocks of theNorth American shield, and he periodically re-turns to projects there. Many projects are in theGrenville Province of Canada and the Adiron-dack Mountains of New York. He has been involved in experimental geochemistry, metamor-phic petrology, the origin of anorthosite intrusivecomplexes, bulk and trace-element mineralchemistry, and geothermometry (temperatures offormation). This extensive work has establishedValley as one of the foremost experts on thepetrology and geochemistry of the North Ameri-can shield, if not shield provinces in general. Inone of his most recent studies, he documents evi-dence for the existence of continental crust andoceans on the Earth some 4.4 billion years agofrom these complex rocks of the North Americanshield. This is a radical idea considering that theEarth is 4.6 billion years old and has been tradi-tionally considered to still have been a relativelyundifferentiated mass at 4.4 billion. Several ex-amples of Valley’s papers on these ancient rocksinclude, “Metamorphic Fluids in the Deep Crust:Evidence from the Adirondack Mountains, NewYork” and “Granulites: Melts and Fluids in theDeep Crust.”

John Valley was born in Winchester, Mas-sachusetts, on February 28, 1948. He enrolled in

Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, and earneda bachelor of arts degree in geology in 1970. Heearned master of science and Ph.D. degrees in ge-ology from the University of Michigan in 1977and 1980, respectively. John Valley married An-drée Taylor in 1972; they have two children. Hejoined the faculty at Rice University in Houston,Texas, in 1980. In 1983, he accepted a position atthe University of Wisconsin at Madison where heis currently a professor. He served as chair of thedepartment from 1996 to 1999.

John Valley has had a very productive career.He is an author of some 145 articles in interna-tional journals and professional volumes. He alsoedited one professional volume and wrote another.Although he has collaborated with some of the toppetrologists and geochemists in the profession, hisability to motivate his students to publish theirwork in top journals is even more impressive. Theprofession has recognized John Valley for his con-tributions in terms of honors and awards. Heearned a William Hobbs Fellowship and a HoraceH. Rackham Fellowship while still in graduateschool. He received the ARCO prize in 1985, theVilas Associate Award in 1999–2001 and the Kel-

Valley, John W. 273

John Valley conducts research on an ion microprobe inEdinburgh, Scotland (Courtesy of J. Valley)

lett Award at the University of Wisconsin in 2001.He was also a Romnes Fellow at the University ofWisconsin in 1989–1994 and a Fulbright Scholarat the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, in1989–1990.

John Valley has performed extensive serviceto the profession. He served as associate editorfor Journal of Geophysical Research (1992), Ameri-can Journal of Science (1996–present), and Geo-logical Society of America Bulletin (1985–1991).He served as member and chair of numerouscommittees for the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica, Geological Society of America, Ameri-can Geophysical Union, and the GeochemicalSociety. He served on the review panels for boththe National Science Foundation and U.S. De-partment of Energy.

5 Van der Voo, Rob(1940– )DutchPaleomagnetist

If a magnet is heated above its Curie temperature,it becomes nonmagnetic. If cooled back down itwill again be magnetized but its north and southpoles will be oriented parallel to the Earth’s mag-netic field regardless of its orientation prior toheating. When an igneous rock cools through theCurie temperature for magnetite (578°C), thepoles in the magnetite grains will align with theEarth’s field. If magnetite grains are carried in sus-pension in water, they will spin like a compassneedle and align with the Earth’s field as they settle to the ocean floor. These records of the posi-tion of the Earth’s magnetic field are paleomag-netics and are measured by a paleomagnetist orpaleomagician as some geologists fondly callthem. Rob Van der Voo is undoubtedly theworld’s foremost authority on paleomagnetics. Heestablished himself in this position during themost important time for paleomagnetics: the platetectonic revolution; and his papers “Paleomagnet-

ics, Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics” and“Paleomagnetism in Orogenic Belts” are classics.

By measuring the orientations of the magneticfield through a sequence of rock with known ages,Van der Voo charted changing field orientationswith time, yielding apparent polar wanderingpaths. However, it was not the pole that was wan-dering but rather the continent that was wander-ing within the magnetic field as described in hispaper, “A Method for the Separation of Polar Wan-der and Continental Drift.” The technique is verysensitive to latitude positions but insensitive tochanges in longitude. By correlating the paleomag-netism with paleoenvironmental analysis of thesedimentary rocks, paleoecological analysis of thefossils and any other pertinent information, Vander Voo, along with colleagues Scotese, Ziegler,and Bambach, was able to construct full anima-tions of plate movements and interactionsthroughout the Paleozoic. This mammoth projectwas a giant step in plate tectonics, and results oftheir work now appear in every historical geologytextbook. This reconstruction continues to be re-vised on a yearly basis as new data are received.Several studies on this work include Paleozoic BaseMaps and A Paleomagnetic Reevaluation of PangeaReconstructions.

Van der Voo is not only involved in such large-scale projects. He also addresses local problemsusing paleomagnetics and continues to add localinformation to the large database on plate move-ments with these regional projects. These projectschart deformation and bending or rotation of areasthat either support geological studies or identifyprocesses that would not otherwise be recognizedwithout paleomagnetics. He also discovered howeasily some types of rock become remagnetizedthrough burial processes, which he continues tostudy. Finally, he is involved in establishing paleo-magnetics as a method of geochronology.

Rob Van der Voo was born on August 4,1940, in Zeist, the Netherlands. He attendedUniversity of Utrecht, the Netherlands, where heearned a bachelor of science degree in geology in

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1961, a master of science degree in geology in1965, a master of science degree in geophysics in1969, and a doctorate in geology and geophysicsin 1969. He began his career at the University ofMichigan in Ann Arbor in 1970, and remainsthere today. He served as department chair in1981 to 1988 and in 1991 to 1995 and directorof the honors program in 1998 to the present.He was the Arthur F. Thurnau Professor of geol-ogy in 1994 to 1997. During his residence atUniversity of Michigan, he was a visiting scholarat many programs, including Lamont-DohertyObservatory of Columbia University, New York(1976), University of Rennes, France (1977),University of Kuwait (1979), University of Texasat Arlington (1984), Greenland Geological Sur-vey (1985), Instituto Jaume Almera, Barcelona,Spain (1990–1991), and Universities of Utrechtand Delft, the Netherlands (1997–1998). RobVan der Voo married Tatiana M. C. Graafland in1966 and they have two children. He is fluent inEnglish, French, Dutch, Spanish, and German.

Van der Voo is an author of an impressive225 articles in international journals and profes-sional volumes. Many of these are the seminalstudies on paleomagnetism and plate tectonic re-constructions. He also edited one professional vol-

ume and wrote one book. He has received manyhonors and awards in recognition of his contribu-tion to the field. He was elected to both the RoyalAcademy of Sciences of the Netherlands (1979)and the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences andLetters (1995). He received the G.P. WoollardAward from the Geological Society of America in1992 and was named an A.V. Cox Lecturer by theAmerican Geophysical Union in 1997. From Uni-versity of Michigan he received the Henry RusselAward (1976), the Distinguished Faculty Achieve-ment Award (1990), three Excellence in Educa-tion Awards (1991, 1992, 1993), and he wasnamed a Distinguished Faculty Lecturer in 1998.In 2001, he received the Benjamin FranklinMedal in Earth Sciences from the Franklin Insti-tute in Philadelphia.

Van der Voo’s service to the profession is re-markable. The committees upon which he hasserved are too numerous to list here but betweenGeological Society of America and AmericanGeophysical Union, they number in the 20s. Heserved as president of the Geomagnetism and Pa-leomagnetism Section of American GeophysicalUnion in 1988 to 1992. He has served as editorfor Geophysical Research Letters, and Earth andPlanetary Science Letters and associate editor ofTectonics, Geology, Tectonophysics, Geological Societyof America Bulletin, and several others. He waspart of several National Research Council and Na-tional Science Foundation committees and panelsas well as a subcommittee for the NationalAcademy of Sciences. He was on the evaluationcommittee for geoscience departments at eightuniversities.

5 Veblen, David R.(1947– )AmericanMineralogist

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is thetechnique that yields the highest magnification. It

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Rob Van der Voo at a forum at the University ofMichigan (Courtesy of R. Van der Voo)

yields images rather than the direct observationsof an optical microscope but it can magnify fea-tures to thousands of times their size, right downto the atoms. TEM with lower energy (typically90,000 volts) yields less penetrating power and isused for observational biological applications. An-alytical TEM operates on a higher power (typi-cally 120,000 volts) for higher penetration andquantitative and observational use in material sci-ence and geology. David Veblen has establishedhimself as one of the foremost experts of TEM togeology. The applications clearly must involveminerals or glass simply because of the scale.TEM can image the relations among the atomswithin these materials whether it be the ordering,observations of reactions at the atomic scale, ordefects in the structures.

David Veblen is a mineralogist who first es-tablished his reputation looking at a confusinggroup of minerals called pyroboles and biopy-roboles. These minerals are a strange combinationof amphiboles and pyroxene that are interlayeredon the atomic level. It took TEM to determinethe structure of these complex minerals. Two ofhis books and volumes on these minerals are Am-phiboles: Petrology and Experimental Phase Rela-tions and Amphiboles and Other Hydrous Pyroboles.Once established Veblen branched out and ap-plied TEM along with X-ray techniques and crys-tal chemistry to many different minerals andmaterials. The materials he worked with includevolcanic glass (obsidian) in which there is noatomic structure (ordering of atoms) because it isa supercooled liquid. This work has implicationsfor high level nuclear waste because it is typicallyencased in glass before being buried. Even moreexciting was his work on the non-geological sub-stances, superconductors. With numerous re-searchers, many from the Carnegie Institution ofWashington, D.C., Veblen helped determine thestructure of synthetic superconducting materials.In fact they helped to establish multiple new hightemperature superconductors. This work is re-ported in the paper “Crystallography, Chemistry

and Structural Disorder in the New High-Tc Bi-Ca-Sr-Cu-O Superconductor.”

The list of minerals that David Veblen hasworked on alone and with colleagues is long. Hebranched out from pyroboles to pyroxene andamphibole. Other areas of study include as-bestos, both amphibole and serpentine, micasand especially reactions between biotite andchlorite, and clay minerals. The work on clayminerals is not only to unravel their complexstructures but also to help define weathering pro-cesses. Veblen’s paper “High-Resolution Trans-mission Electron Microscopy Applied to ClayMinerals,” is a summary of that work. The reac-tions from one mineral to another can be tracedon the atomic level in this process that has strongimplications for environmental geology. The re-lease or uptake of certain chemical species is gov-erned by these reactions. Many prominentmineralogists and petrologists have performed re-search with Veblen on minerals and mineral reac-tions, too numerous to list here. In addition toall of this mineral research, Veblen also findstime to refine and develop new techniques formineralogical TEM both in terms of analyticalprocedures and software routines for reducingdata. David Veblen defines the cutting edge ofTEM research in geology.

David R. Veblen was born on April 27,1947, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. As a toddler,he collected minerals, rocks, and fossils, and bythe time he reached the age of five, he had de-cided to pursue a career in mineralogy and geol-ogy. He attended Harvard University and earnedall three of his degrees in geology there. He earneda bachelor of arts degree in 1969 with highesthonors, magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa.He earned a master of arts and a Ph.D. in 1974and 1976, respectively. He spent his next threeyears as a postdoctoral research fellow at ArizonaState University. He then accepted a position onthe faculty at Arizona State University. Veblenjoined the faculty at the Johns Hopkins Universityin 1981 as a joint appointment in earth and plan-

276 Veblen, David R.

etary sciences and materials science and engineer-ing and has remained ever since. He was named aMorton K. Blaustein Professor of Earth and Plan-etary Sciences in 1998. He was a visiting professorat California Institute of Technology in 1990 anda Tage Erlander Guest Professor in Sweden. DavidVeblen has two children.

He is an author of some 130 articles in inter-national journals and professional volumes. Manyof these studies set the standard for the profes-sion. He is editor of two volumes. He has re-ceived approximately $6.7 million in grant

funding, mostly from the National Science Foun-dation. In recognition of his contributions to theprofession, Veblen received the Mineralogical So-ciety of America Award in 1983, among others.

Veblen has performed extensive service to theprofession. He served as vice president (1995–1996) and president (1996–1997) of the Miner-alogical Society of America, among numerous com-mittees. He also served as councilor for the ClayMinerals Society. He was the associate editor forThe American Mineralogist (1982–1985) and servedon the editorial board for Phase Transitions.

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5 Walcott, Charles D.(1850–1927)AmericanPaleontologist

The story of Charles D. Walcott is straight out ofa Horatio Alger novel. This self-educated highschool dropout from modest beginnings workedhis way up to become one of the best known andmost influential geologists ever in the UnitedStates. His accomplishments went way beyondgeology to the founding and administration ofsome of the most prestigious scholarly and gov-ernmental institutions in the United States today.In terms of paleotology, he was responsible fordetermining that trilobites were arthropodsthrough careful study of the limbs of fossils. Hewrote a major volume on Paleozoic fossils and re-solved the stratigraphic problems of the positionof the Taconic system. This work led him to con-firm trilobite zone sequences in the Cambrian,and as a result, he summarized the stratigraphy ofthe Cambrian System of North America.

The research that Walcott conducted duringhis famous tenure at the U.S. Geological Surveycontinued his efforts on Cambrian life with thepublication of research papers on trilobites andjellyfish from China. He also researched data forMonograph 51, Cambrian Brachiopoda, with thevolume of plates equaling the size of the volume

of text. Later, while with the Smithsonian Institu-tion, he made his most famous discovery, the leg-endary Burgess Shale in the Canadian RockyMountains. This spectacularly rich and well-pre-served fossil location was made famous inSTEPHEN JAY GOULD’s modern popular book,Wonderful Life, and SIMON CONWAY MORRIS’Sbook, Cauldron of Life. Walcott’s areas of studywere concentrated in Alberta and BritishColumbia, Canada, during his later researchyears.

Charles D. Walcott was born on March 31,1850, in New York Mills, New York. His familywas in the business of cotton milling. He receivedhis formal education at the Utica Free Academyuntil the age of 18. Due to the lack of formal sci-ence training at the academy and encouragementat home, Walcott’s interest in science was not ac-tively pursued. During this time, Colonel Jewett,a retired New York State Museum curator, hadmoved to Utica and began to interest young Wal-cott in fossils. At age 12, Walcott was workingsummers in Trenton Falls, New York, on a farmduring the Civil War. Trenton Falls is a haven forOrdovician fossils. It cannot be confirmedwhether Walcott graduated from high school be-cause the records were lost, but it is suspected thathe did not. With no future in sight, he went towork first in a hardware store and then on a farmowned by a local farmer named William Rust.

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Rust also had a keen interest in collecting fossils.During this time they amassed such an abundantcollection of unique and well preserved fossils,they earned close to $150,000 by 1995 standards.

Walcott sold his collection to the most fa-mous naturalist of the time, Professor LouisAgassiz. As a condition of the sale, Walcott wasrequired to ship the fossils to Agassiz’s laboratoryin the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har-vard University, Massachusetts, during the sum-mer of 1873. During this time, Agassiz expressedthe importance of studying trilobite appendages.Even though Walcott had never attended college,he often consulted with Professor Agassiz whenhe needed guidance during his fossil research.Walcott heeded Agassiz’s advice regarding trilo-bite appendages and began cutting rocks withfossils into thin sections (rocks ground thinenough to see through) in order to study trilo-bites even closer (using a microscope). At thetime, trilobite legs had never been found or stud-ied. Through Walcott’s persistence and makinghundreds of thin sections, he proved that trilo-bites had jointed appendages and were thereforearthropods.

In late 1876, Walcott took a position as spe-cial assistant to James Hall, the state paleontolo-gist of New York. He spent countless hoursstudying Hall’s large collection of fossils and hislibrary. During this time, Walcott also lobbied forHall in the state legislature. In July 1879, with aletter of support from Hall and Hall’s former as-sistant, R. P. Whitfield, Walcott was hired as oneof the original members of the United States Geological Survey as an assistant geologist. Hisconcentrations were focused on biostratigraphy(determining the age of sedimentary rocks bystudying fossils). This was a change from hisusual research efforts in paleobiology.

In 1894, Walcott was appointed the third di-rector of the U.S. Geological Survey, succeedingJohn Wesley Powell, and kept this position for thenext 13 years. He was responsible for expandingthe research efforts into water resources, more to-

pographic mapping, and studying national forests.During this time, Walcott was also responsible forestablishing the Carnegie Institution of Washing-ton and the contained Geophysical Laboratory.After his tenure with the U.S. Geological Survey,he became the fourth secretary of the SmithsonianInstitution in 1907. As Walcott conducted his re-search and oversaw the Smithsonian Institution,he also served first as vice president of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences for 10 years and thenpresident from 1916–1922. In recognition of thisservice and his vast contributions to the field, amedal for paleontology has been named there inhis honor. In 1915, Walcott founded the NationalAdvisory Committee for Aeronautics and was ul-timately responsible for the construction of theFreer Art Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution.Charles D. Walcott died on February 9, 1927, inWashington, D.C.

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Charles Walcott (left) with John Wesley Powell (center)and Archibald Geike in 1897 (Courtesy of the U.S.Geological Survey, J.S. Diller Collection)

5 Walter, Lynn M.(1953– )AmericanAqueous Geochemist

Some people think that research that benefits en-vironmental conditions is diametrically opposedto that which benefits the petroleum industry, andyet the research that Lynn Walter performs seemsto span the gap. Lynn Walter is one of the fore-most experts on aqueous geochemistry of sedi-ments and soils under surface to shallowsubsurface conditions. She achieves this researchby performing detailed analyses on samples takenin the field as well as performing experimentalwork under laboratory conditions. She hasworked carefully on precipitation and dissolutionkinetics of carbonates. These carbonates can formcements in hydrocarbon reservoir rocks, reducingoil flow rates, and thus this research is of interestto petroleum companies. However, because car-bonates also readily interact with surface watersand air, the research also has implications for envi-ronmental processes. Walter’s paper, “Dissolution

and Recrystallization in Modern Shelf Carbon-ates: Evidence from Pore Water and Solid PhaseChemistry,” is an example of her main body ofwork.

Most of Lynn Walter’s research involves theinteractions of soils and rocks with the pore fluidsthat they contain. This work involves detailedgeochemistry and isotope geochemistry of the flu-ids, coupled with detailed observations on the soiland rock using an analytical electron microscope.Coupling these two data sets yields powerful pre-dictive capabilities for diagenetic (burial and lithi-fication of sediments) processes and groundwaterchemistry. This work can be done on a regionalbasis to evaluate the oil and gas potential of a spe-cific rock unit or of a basin. An example of thiswork is the paper, “Fluid Migration, Hydrogeo-chemical Evolution and Hydrocarbon Occur-rence: Eugene Island Block, Gulf of MexicoBasin.” However, each sample is analyzed inpainstaking detail to make these prognoses. Be-cause soils and modern sediments interact withthe contained fauna and flora, there is also a com-ponent of biogeochemistry to this work. For ex-ample, the paper, “Carbon Exchange Dynamicsand Mineral Weathering in a Temperate ForestedWatershed (Northern Michigan): Links BetweenForested Ecosystems and Groundwaters,” illus-trates this research.

Lynn Walter was born on April 18, 1953, inChicago, Illinois. She attended Washington Uni-versity in Saint Louis, Missouri, where sheearned a bachelor of arts degree in geology in1975. She did graduate work at Louisiana StateUniversity in Baton Rouge and earned a masterof science degree in geology in 1978. She studiedthe hydrogeochemistry of Saint Croix for herthesis. She earned her doctoral degree at the Uni-versity of Miami, Florida, in marine geology in1983. Her dissertation was on phosphate inter-action with carbonate sediments. She received apostdoctoral fellowship at the University ofMiami in 1982–83 before becoming a researchassistant professor in 1983. Her postdoctoral re-

280 Walter, Lynn M.

Lynn Walter in her office at the University ofMichigan (Courtesy of L. Walter)

search was an experimental study of the growthrate of carbonate cement. Lynn Walter joined thefaculty at her alma mater at Washington Univer-sity, Saint Louis, in 1984. She accepted a po-sition at the University of Michigan in AnnArbor in 1989, where she remains today as a fullprofessor.

Lynn Walter has been very productive. Shehas published more than 50 papers in professionaljournals and volumes. Her first paper was in theprestigious journal Science, and all of the othersare in the top international journals, includingone in the equally prestigious journal Nature andseveral in the high-profile journal Geology. She hasbeen extremely successful with research funding,obtaining approximately $3.6 million from theNational Science Foundation, Gas Research Insti-tute, oil companies, foundations, and the Envi-ronmental Protection Agency.

Lynn Walter has received many awards andhonors. She has been Phi Beta Kappa since 1975at Washington University. She was awarded bothChevron and Pennzoil scholarships at LouisianaState University. She was awarded the Koczy Fel-lowship and the F.G. Walton Smith Prize at Uni-versity of Miami. In 1987, she received thePresidential Young Investigator Award from theNational Science Foundation, and she receivedthe Distinguished Service Award from the Geo-logical Society of America in 1999.

Lynn’s professional service is also exemplary.She served as editor for the Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin from 1995 to 1999. She servedas associate editor for many top professional jour-nals, including Journal of Sedimentary Petrologyfrom 1989 to 1992, Geological Society of AmericaBulletin from 1990 to 1995, Geology from 1991to 1996, and Geochimica et Cosmochimica Actafrom 1999 to the present. She served as a memberof several important panels, including two for theNational Research Council, one for the NationalScience Foundation, one for the EnvironmentalProtection Agency, and one for the AmericanGeophysical Union.

5 Watson, E. Bruce(1950– )AmericanExperimental Geochemist

How are Earth’s deepest properties and processesknown if they cannot be seen? The answer is toestablish a high-temperature, high-pressure exper-imental research facility to simulate those condi-tions. One such facility from which haveoriginated some of the best research, cutting-edgeideas, and elegant solutions is that of Bruce Wat-son at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, NewYork. Watson’s research can be described as “ma-terials science of the Earth” because he studies thephysicochemical processes of Earth materialsunder extreme conditions. His laboratory consistsof solid-media, piston-cylinder apparatuses thatcan generate conditions up to 4 GigaPascals and2,000°C, as well as internally and externallyheated gas–medium pressure vessels that generateconditions up to 300 MegaPascals and 1,300°C.With these pieces of equipment, Watson and hisgroup seek to understand the processes that dis-tribute and redistribute chemical elements andisotopes in the solid deep Earth at scales rangingfrom micrometers to kilometers at depths up to150 km. The results help to form a clearer pictureof deep-Earth systems and the evolution of themantle and lower crust.

The specific processes that Bruce Watson re-searches can be divided into three categories.The first is the movement (diffusion) of ele-ments in melts and fluids and the permeabilityof rocks to those melts and fluids at high pres-sures and temperatures. The second is the parti-tioning or preferential concentration of certaintrace elements (very low concentrations) amongminerals, melts and fluids under lower crustaland upper mantle conditions. Finally, the behav-ior of minor minerals that concentrate trace ele-ments are studied.

Bruce Watson was born on October 16,1950, in Nashua, New Hampshire. He attended

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Williams College, Massachusetts, in 1968 and1969, but transferred to the University of NewHampshire, and earned his bachelor of arts degreein geology in 1972. He then entered Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology as a graduatestudent and earned his Ph.D. in geochemistry in1976. He was awarded a postdoctoral fellowshipto the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C.,for 1976 and 1977 before accepting a faculty po-sition at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy,New York, in 1977. He was chairman of the de-partment from 1990 to 1995 and since 1995, hehas been an institute professor of science. Duringhis time at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute he hasbeen a visiting scientist at Macquarie Universityin Australia in 1981 and at the Max-Planck Insti-tut für Chemie in Mainz, Germany, in 1984, aswell as a participating guest at the Lawrence Liv-ermore National Laboratory, California, in 1999.

Watson has published some 105 articles in in-ternational journals and professional volumes.Many of these papers set new benchmarks in theunderstanding of lower crustal and mantle geo-chemistry. He received recognition for his researchthrough numerous honors and awards from theprofession. He became a fellow of the American

Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1996 and a mem-ber of the National Academy of Sciences in 1997.He received the Early Career Award from Rensse-laer Polytechnic Institute in 1982 and the F. W.Clarke Medal of the Geochemical Society in 1983.He was awarded the Presidential Young Investiga-tor Award from the National Science Foundationfrom 1984 to 1989. He was designated an R. A.Daly Lecturer by the American Geophysical Unionin 1999 and was awarded the Arthur L. Day Medalby the Geological Society of America in 1998.

Bruce Watson has performed outstanding ser-vice to the profession throughout his career. Hewas the president of the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica in 1998 after having served on numerouscommittees in prior years. He was a councilor forthe Geochemical Society in 1991 to 1994 andserved on several other committees as well. Healso served on several committees for the Ameri-can Geophysical Union. He served as editor forChemical Geology from 1991 to 1995 and forNeues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie from 1988 to1996. He was associate editor for Geochimica etCosmochimica Acta from 1985 to 1988 and servedon the editorial board from 1997 to 1999. He wasalso on evaluation committees for McGill Univer-sity of Canada (1991), the Carnegie Institution ofWashington, D.C. (1992 and 2000), Brown Uni-versity, Rhode Island (1993), Harvard University,Massachusetts (1994 to present), Rice University,Texas (2000). He has also served on numerouspanels for the National Science Foundation, U.S.Department of Energy, and the National ResearchCouncil.

5 Weeks, Alice M. D.(1909–1988)AmericanMineralogist

Alice M. D. Weeks is one of the top pioneeringwomen of geology. She achieved positions of re-sponsibility and respect for her work in geology

282 Weeks, Alice M. D.

Bruce Watson in his high-pressure research laboratoryat Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (Courtesy of B. Watson)

at a time when women were scarce in the profes-sion. The road was not an easy one, but hertenacity carried her to success in the end. Sheworked in many positions below her ability, suchas a draftsperson, as well as an instructor andteacher in many capacities to earn her wings ingeology. In the end, she broke through this socialbarrier and established herself as one of the ex-perts on uranium mineralogy in the years whenuranium exploration was one of the most impor-tant fields in geology, thanks to the cold war.Most of this research involved the defining ofmany new uranium minerals and their occur-rence as well as compounds with other radioac-tive elements. This work includes the processesinvolved in concentrating the ore, as well. Sheconsidered many of these processes both underhigh temperature hydrothermal conditions aswell as at near surface conditions related to claymineralogy. Much of this research was conductedin the southwestern United States (Utah, Col-orado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas), amongothers. Several important papers resulting fromthis research include “Mineralogy and Oxidationof the Colorado Plateau Uranium Ores” and“Coconninoite a New Uranium Mineral fromUtah and Arizona.”

Even after she achieved her well-earned posi-tion of authority, Alice Weeks was forced to dressas a man to gain access to many of the uraniummines to obtain samples. There were superstitionsagainst allowing women into mines in thosetimes. It is a wonder that Weeks achieved an illus-trious career in the face of such adversity.

Alice Mary Dowse and her twin sister, Eu-nice, were born on August 26, 1909, in Sher-born, Massachusetts. After being home schooledin her early years, Alice received diplomas fromSawin Academy and Dowse High School in Sher-born in 1926. She attended Tufts University, Mas-sachusetts, and earned a bachelor of science degreein mathematics and science, cum laude, in 1930.Upon graduation, she taught at the LancasterSchool for girls in Massachusetts for 21–2 years be-

fore returning to Tufts University to attend severalgeology courses. Alice Dowse did her graduatestudies at Harvard University, Massachusetts, andearned a master of science degree in 1934, butwas financially unable to continue toward herdoctorate. It is reported that she was not permit-ted to attend certain classes because she was fe-male and was forced to sit in the hall outside ofthe classroom to take notes. She accepted a re-search fellowship at Bryn Mawr College, Pennsyl-vania, in 1934 for one year and remained asecond year as a laboratory instructor. She re-turned to Harvard University in 1936 to work to-ward her doctorate. She also began teaching atWellesley College, Massachusetts, first as an in-structor and later as a member of the faculty. Be-tween the time constraints and rationing duringWorld War II, it took until 1949 before she wasfinally awarded her doctoral degree. She mappedtwo 71–2 -minute quadrangles in Massachusettsunder the supervision of MARLAND P. BILLINGS.

In May of 1950, Alice Dowse married Dr. Al-bert Weeks, a petroleum geologist. In 1949, she

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Alice Weeks conducts research using a reflectingpetrographic microscope in 1958 (Courtesy of the U.S.Geological Survey, E. F. Patterson Collection)

took a leave from Wellesley College to work forthe U.S. Geological Survey. It became a career po-sition in 1951 when Weeks became a projectleader in uranium mineralogy through the TraceElements Lab. Most of this work was done in thearea of the Colorado Plateau. In 1962, she left theU.S. Geological Survey to build a geology pro-gram at Temple University in Philadelphia, Penn-sylvania. When she retired to professor emeritusin 1976, the department had seven full-time fac-ulty and 14 full-time graduate students to hercredit. Alice Weeks died of complications relatedto Alzheimer’s disease on August 29, 1988.

Alice Weeks led a very productive career. Sheis an author of numerous articles and reports ininternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports. Her research on uraniummineralogy is published in seminal papers in sev-eral top-quality journals. In recognition of hercontributions, the uranium mineral “weeksite”was named in her honor. Weeks performed signif-icant service to the profession. She was a chartermember of the Women Geoscientists Committeeof the American Geological Institute. She was aFellow of the American Association for the Ad-vancement of Science and to all other societies ofwhich she belonged. She served on numerouscommittees for the Geological Society of Americaand the Mineralogical Society of America.

5 Wegener, Alfred(1880–1930)GermanyMeteorologist (Plate Tectonics)

Although trained as an astronomer and employedas a meteorologist, Alfred Wegener is recognizedas the “father of plate tectonics.” But he pro-posed his theory so far in advance of its accep-tance that he was viewed essentially as a heretic.He made his first presentations on this idea in1912 and published them in 1915 in a book en-titled The Origin of Continents and Oceans. Be-

cause of World War I, the book went largely un-noticed outside of Germany until its third print-ing in 1922 when it was translated into English,French, Russian, Spanish, and Swedish. We-gener’s theory rejected the popular idea that landbridges had once connected the continents buthad sunk into the sea as the Earth cooled. In-stead, he likened the continents to icebergs float-ing in the ocean, drawing from his Arcticexperience. He argued that the continents aremade of less dense granitic rock, whereas oceanicrocks are dense volcanic rocks. He developed thestill accepted theory of isostasy, which is the bal-ance of the height of crust based upon densityand thickness, like wood, ice, or other materialsof varying density floating in a swimming pool.He cited the glacial rebound (rising) of landsince the last ice age and removal of the mile-thick ice sheet in the northern hemisphere.Mountain ranges were to have formed like wrin-kles on a shriveling apple at that time but We-gener proposed that they formed as the result ofcollisions of existing continents as they driftedaround the Earth. He even proposed that all con-tinents had once formed a supercontinent that henamed Pangea. This proposal was based not onlyon the shapes and inferred paths but also on fos-sils and paleoclimatic evidence. Enigmatic glacialdeposits clustered at the South Pole when Pangeawas reconstructed, among others.

In 1926, he was invited to an internationalsymposium in New York to discuss his theory.Phrases like “Utter, damned rot!” and “Anyonewho valued his reputation for scientific sanitywould never dare to support such a theory” andother such criticisms were abundant at the meet-ing. Stoically, Wegener listened to his critics andmurmured, “Nevertheless, it moves!” just asGalileo did as he was forced to recant his supportof Copernicus’s theory of the Earth movingaround the Sun. Wegener, however, admitted thathe had not come up with a satisfactory mecha-nism to drive the massive plates around the Earth.That would remain a mystery until the late 1950s

284 Wegener, Alfred

and 1960s when the rest of the plate tectonicparadigm was derived.

Alfred Wegener was born on November 1,1880, in Berlin, Germany, where he grew up. Hestudied natural sciences at the University ofBerlin, where he earned all of his degrees includ-ing a Ph.D. in astronomy in 1904. In 1905, heobtained a position with the Royal Prussian Aero-nautical Observatory near Berlin, where he stud-ied the upper atmosphere using weather balloonsand kites. He also flew hot-air balloons and set aworld endurance record for staying aloft with hisbrother Kurt Wegener for 52 hours in 1906. Be-cause of his balloon experience he was invited toparticipate in a 1906 Danish expedition to Green-land’s unmapped northeast coast. He performedresearch on the polar atmosphere while there.When he returned to Germany, his success on theArctic expedition was rewarded with a faculty po-sition at the small University of Marburg, Ger-many. He led a second expedition to Greenland in1912 and narrowly escaped death when a glacierhis team was climbing suddenly calved. They werethe first research team ever to overwinter on theice cap. In 1924, Wegener joined the faculty at theUniversity of Graz in Austria as a professor of me-teorology and geophysics. Wegener returned toGreenland in 1930 to lead a team of 21 scientistson a systematic study of the great ice cap and itsclimate. The ambitious study wound up 38 daysbehind schedule because the harbor was iced in.On July 15, a small party headed inland to estab-lish the mid-ice camp at Eismitte on July 30. Be-cause of bad weather, the team got stranded. Arescue team that included Wegener was sent onSeptember 21 to save the first team. The four thatmade the rescue braved temperatures of -58°F butthe group at Eismitte were fine. On November 1,Wegener and a young Greenlander set out for thecoast to establish the second camp. They werenever heard from again. The next April, a searchparty was sent out. On May 12, 1931, Wegener’sbody was found buried in his sleeping bag. It ap-pears that he died in his tent, likely of a heart at-

tack from the extreme exertion in driving throughthe snow. The theory could not be verified be-cause Wegener’s young companion was neverfound. The remaining team built an ice-blockmausoleum marked with a 20-foot iron cross. Ithas since disappeared into the snow to becomepart of the great glacier.

5 Wenk, Hans-Rudolf(1941– )SwissMineralogist (Textural Analysis)

The Earth has a very strong magnetic field com-pared with the other terrestrial planets. The rea-son given has always been that the interaction ofthe solid and liquid core produces a self-excitingdynamo created by the spinning of the Earth. Thedetails of this interaction, however, have never re-ally been explained. One piece of evidence thatadds to this investigation is the stark difference inseismic wave velocity depending upon the direc-tion that they pass through the solid core. Theytravel much faster parallel to the poles thanthrough the equator. New research by Hans-Rudolf Wenk and his associates appears to bequickly leading to a solution to this fundamentalquestion. Wenk has done experimental work oniron at high pressures and temperatures, whichforms hexagonal crystals. These crystals appear tohave aligned parallel to the poles through pro-cesses of dynamic recrystallization. An example ofthis work is Wenk’s paper “Plastic Deformation ofIron in the Earth’s Core.”

This work on the core is a natural progressionof the research of Wenk on convection in theEarth’s mantle. The upper mantle undergoes ther-mally induced convective circulation. However,the upper mantle is primarily solid with onlysmall pockets of liquid at the plate margins. Thecirculation is therefore accomplished dominantlythrough dynamic recrystallization processes orcrystal plasticity. The movement of structural de-

Wenk, Hans-Rudolf 285

fects on the atomic level throughout the mineralcrystal lattice causes shape changes and the align-ment of crystals to produce a preferred orienta-tion. Seismic waves travel at different speedsdepending upon which direction they travelthrough the crystal. Seismic waves in the uppermantle travel 10 percent faster perpendicular tomid-ocean ridges than parallel to them as a resultof this alignment. Seismologists can map the fab-ric of the upper mantle using seismic velocitiesotherwise known as teleseismic imaging.

The scale difference between these Earthscale processes and the minute sizes of the sam-ples that Hans-Rudolf Wenk typically analyzesmakes it almost incredible that they could haveany bearing on each other. Wenk studies the crys-tallographic alignment of minerals and other ma-terials and the atomic scale processes thatproduce them. His true expertise is therefore bet-ter called textural analysis and he is arguably theforemost expert. He has studied these alignmentprocesses in minerals such as calcite, dolomite,mica, staurolite, and olivine, in rocks such asquartzite, mylonite, eclogite, and opal in chert,and even in mollusk shells, ice, bones, and calci-fied tendons, and wires, nickel plating, andhexagonal metals. It requires the most sophisti-cated of analytical equipment to attempt such re-search. Wenk utilizes a variety of equipment inthis analysis including pulsed neutron sources,high-resolution transmission electron microscopy(HRTEM), three-dimensional transmission elec-tron microscopy (3DTEM), synchotron X-raydiffraction, X-ray goniometry, neutron diffrac-tion, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM),among others. Modeling of the processes in-volved in these alignments involves sophisticatedprocesses and typically supercomputers. Wenkhas produced a software package for this applica-tion called BEARTEX. He has also written severalbooks on this work including Texture andAnisotropy. Preferred Orientation in Polycrystalsand their Effect on Material Properties and An In-troduction to Modern Textural Analysis.

Hans-Rudolf Wenk was born on October25, 1941, in Zurich, Switzerland, where he spenthis youth. He attended the University of Basel,Switzerland, where he earned a bachelor of artsdegree in geology in 1963. He completed hisgraduate studies at the University of Zurich,Switzerland, where he earned his Ph.D. in crys-tallography in 1965. In 1966–1967, Wenk was aresearch geophysicist at the University of Califor-nia at Los Angeles under DAVID T. GRIGGS. In1967, he joined the faculty at the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley, where he remains today.Hans-Rudolf Wenk married Julia Wehhausen in1970. He has been a visiting researcher or profes-sor 17 times at such schools as the Universities ofFrankfurt, Hamburg, and Kiel in Germany; theUniversities of Grenoble, Lyon, and Metz, inFrance; Nanjing University, China; University ofHiroshima, Japan; and University of Perugia,Italy, among others. Wenk is a seasoned moun-taineer and technical mountain climber in hisspare time.

Hans-Rudolf Wenk is amid a very productivecareer having been an author of more than 300papers in international journals, professional vol-umes, and governmental reports. Many of thesepapers set new benchmarks in the study of textu-ral analysis of rocks as well as Earth mantle andcore processes. He is also an author or editor of four books and volumes and of an AmericanGeophysical Union-sponsored videotape onanisotropic mantle convection entitled Texturingof Rocks in the Earth’s Mantle. A Convection ModelBased on Polycrystal Plasticity. His book ElectronMicroscopy in Mineralogy is quite popular. Inrecognition of his contributions to geology, Hans-Rudolf Wenk has received several honors andawards. He has received two Alexander von Hum-boldt Senior Research Awards and a HumboldtResearch Fellowship from the Humboldt Society,and the Berndt Mathias Scholarship from LosAlamos National Laboratory.

Most of the service that Wenk has performedhas been with the American Geophysical Union

286 Wenk, Hans-Rudolf

and societies involved in material science. He hasalso served on committees for the MineralogicalSociety of America.

5 Whittington, Harry B.(1916– )BritishInvertebrate Paleontologist

Harry Whittington has been called the “dean oftrilobites” and the “vice chancellor of the lowerPaleozoic” in recognition of the profound contri-butions to geology that he has made in both ofthese areas. Beginning in Wales, Whittingtonpainstakingly studied the morphology and rela-tions of trilobite fossils. This work was quickly ex-panded to a worldwide basis, especially in Europe,North America, and China. Theses studies ontrilobites spanned taxonomy, stratigraphic usesand distribution, limb structure, silicified trilo-bites, functional morphology, and evolution, toname a few. He masterminded the now famous1959 volume entitled Treatise on Invertebrate Pale-ontology, which includes trilobites and relatedforms. In 1966, he assembled a master synthesisshowing the global distribution of Ordoviciantrilobite faunas in terms of the former positions ofcontinents and oceans at that time. This work wasquickly used to help constrain plate tectonic his-tory and processes and began a new plate tectonicreconstruction method that blossomed in the1970s.

Beginning in the early 1960s, Whittingtonbegan to study the trilobites that CHARLES D.WALCOTT discovered and collected from theBurgess Shale in British Columbia, Canada. Hewas quite perplexed because these “trilobites” didnot contain the usual features, and he decidedthat they were really not trilobites. In 1966 and1967, Whittington joined the Geological Surveyof Canada in a field expedition to reexamine theBurgess Shale over 7,000 feet up the slopes of theRocky Mountains. He brought two of his now fa-

mous graduate students, SIMON CONWAY MORRIS

and Derek Briggs. This research resulted in thediscovery of dozens of new species unrelated tothose of the early Paleozoic or any other fauna.The account of this research is recorded in thebook Wonderful Life by STEPHEN JAY GOULD,which popularized the story of the Burgess Shale.Beginning in 1971, Whittington and his studentswrote the real scientific contributions that re-sulted from this research. This work indicates atrue explosion of life during the Cambrian withmany complex species that are still not fully un-derstood followed by a contraction of the groupsas competition culled the less well adapted. Thesefindings added greatly to our understanding ofPaleozoic evolution and evolutionary processes ingeneral.

Harry Whittington was born on March 24,1916, in Handsworth in Yorkshire, England. Heattended Handsworth Grammar School and laterBirmingham University, England, where heearned bachelor of science and Ph.D. degrees ingeology in 1937 and 1940, respectively. Duringhis final two years in graduate school(1938–1940) he was at the U.S. National Mu-seum and a Commonwealth Fund Fellow at YaleUniversity, Connecticut. Harry Whittingtonmarried Dorothy Arnold in 1940. That year heaccepted a position as lecturer in geology at Jud-son College in Rangoon, Burma. In 1943, he be-came a professor of geography at GinlingCollege in Chengtu, western China. In 1945, hereturned to his alma mater at Birmingham Uni-versity to become a lecturer in geology. Whit-tington left England again to join the faculty atHarvard University, Massachusetts, beginning asa visiting lecturer, but quickly moving throughthe ranks. He was also the curator of invertebratepaleontology at the Agassiz Museum of Compar-ative Zoology at Harvard. In 1966, he movedback to England to join the faculty at Cam-bridge University, where he was named theWoodwardian professor of geology. Whittingtonretired to professor emeritus in 1983 at which

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288 Williams, Harold

point he was named an Uppingham Scholaruntil 1991.

Harry Whittington led a very productive ca-reer. He was not only an author of numerous arti-cles in international journals and professionalvolumes, he also wrote several famous mono-graphs on trilobites. Many of his studies are semi-nal reading on trilobites, the Burgess Shale, andthe early Paleozoic. He is the author of twosemipopular and widely read books entitled TheBurgess Shale and Trilobites. For his research con-tributions to paleontology and geology, Whitting-ton has received numerous honors and awards.He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Londonand received an honorary degree from HarvardUniversity. He received the Paleontological Soci-ety Medal (U.S.), both the Lyell Medal and theWollaston Medal from the Geological Society ofLondon, the Mary Clark Thompson Medal fromthe U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the Lap-worth Medal from the Paleontological Association(U.K.), and the Geological Society of CanadaMedal.

Whittington has performed significant ser-vice to the profession. He has served in numerouspositions for the Geological Society of London,the Paleontological Association (U.K.), and theGeological Society of America. He is also a trusteeof the British Museum (Natural History).

5 Williams, Harold(1934– )CanadianRegional Tectonics

Harold Williams is one of the premier field map-pers in the history of geology. His career over-lapped the plate tectonic revolution and he keenlywatched its development. After the basicparadigm had been established for the currentplate configuration and interactions, the nextgroup of geologists began applying those processesto observations of ancient rocks. Harold Williams

was prominent in the group that was attemptingto reconstruct the Appalachians. He interpretedand reinterpreted his vast geologic mapping inthis context and established himself as the fore-most expert on the tectonics of Newfoundlandand indeed, the entire Canadian Appalachians.He then performed the unimaginable at the time.He produced a tectonic map of the entire Ap-palachian Orogen both in Canada and the UnitedStates entitled Tectonic-Lithofacies Map of the Ap-palachian Orogen. This project involved the com-pilation of existing maps and reinterpretation ofthem into a tectonic context, which was a feat initself. Because he was respected and well liked, hewas able to obtain the assistance of numerousother regional geologists orogen wide. Consider-ing the territorial nature of regional geologists,this feat borders on the miraculous. The result wasan internally consistent map with the general con-sent of the geologic community both Canadianand American. Within one or two years of publi-cation, this map was hanging on the wall in mostgeology departments throughout the Appalachi-ans as well as many other departments throughoutthe United States, Canada, and western Europe.He later produced geophysical maps that coverthe same area (Magnetic Anomaly Map of the Ap-palachian Orogen and Bouguer Gravity AnomalyMap of the Appalachian Orogen).

The main reason that Williams became sucha leader in regional tectonics is the rich tectonicgeology of Newfoundland. It is doubtful thatthere is another area in the entire Appalachian-Caledonian chain with more or better preservedplate tectonic elements. They record several platecollision events. Beautiful subduction zone com-plexes are marked by the Dunnage, Cold Spring,Teakettle, and Carmanville Melanges. There arewell-preserved fragments of ancient oceanic crustin the Bay of Islands ophiolite complex and Fleurde Lys Supergroup. There are large sheets of rockthat were slid in atop existing rock during platecollisions including the Humber Arm Allochthon,Hare Bay Allochthon, and Coney Head Complex.

There is even a back-arc-basin complex (NogginCove Formation) and several plate suture zones.These are just of few of the many elements thatWilliams has studied. Papers on this work include“Acadian Orogeny in Newfoundland” and “Ap-palachian Suspect Terranes,” among many others.

Harold (Hank) Williams was born on March14, 1934, in Saint John’s, Newfoundland,Canada. He attended Memorial University ofNewfoundland and earned both a diploma in en-gineering and a bachelor of science degree in geol-ogy in 1956. He earned a master of science degreein geology in 1958 on a Dominion Commandscholarship. Williams earned a Ph.D. from Uni-versity of Toronto, Canada, in 1961. He joinedthe faculty at Memorial University of Newfound-land that year and remained there for the rest ofhis career. In 1984, he was named university re-search professor, one of the first two at Memorial

University. He was also the Alexander Murrayprofessor from 1990 to 1995. Williams retired toprofessor emeritus in 1997. Harold Williams is anavid folk musician and is known for his gregariousnature.

Harold Williams has had a very productivecareer. He is an author of numerous articles ininternational journals and professional volumesand he is an editor of six professional volumes.He is also an author of some 15 maps. Several ofthese are among the most-cited works on re-gional geology ever (highest number of citationsof any Canadian geologist in 1984). Many ofthese works set new benchmarks in the under-standing of the Appalachian orogen. For his re-search contributions to geology, Williams hasreceived numerous honors and awards. From theGeological Association of Canada, he receivedboth the Past President’s Medal (1976) and the

Williams, Harold 289

Harold Williams (third from left in open jacket), flanked by John Dewey (left) and James Skehan, S.J. (right), on afield conference in 1994 (Courtesy of J. Skehan, S.J.)

Logan Medal (1988), as well as being named aDistinguished Fellow in 1996. He was the firstrecipient of the Douglas Medal from the Cana-dian Society of Petroleum Geologists in 1981.He received the Miller Medal from the Royal So-ciety of Canada in 1987. From Memorial Uni-versity, he received the Governor General’s Medal(1956), the Dominion Command Scholarship(1956 and 1957), and the Issak Walton KillamMemorial Scholarship (1976 to 1979), in addi-tion to those already listed. He was also namedthe James Chair Professor at Saint Francis XavierUniversity, Nova Scotia, Canada, in 1989.Williams also performed significant service to theprofession to the Geological Association ofCanada where he served as president, in additionto numerous committees, and to the GeologicalSociety of America, where he was an associate ed-itor for the Geological Society of America Bulletin,among others.

5 Wilson, J. (John) Tuzo(1908–1993)CanadianGeophysicist, Plate Tectonics

J. Tuzo Wilson was one of the true powerhousesof the earth sciences and a giant of plate tectonics.His statement, “I enjoy, and always have enjoyed,disturbing scientists,” served as a kind of a mottofor him as he splashed his way through the profes-sion. Surprisingly, he was an outspoken opponentof plate tectonics for a good part of his career.Through the late 1940s and 1950s, Wilson ar-gued vehemently for the mountain building the-ory of Sir Harold Jeffreys of a contracting Earth.Even then he was considered somewhat of a mav-erick and a brazen promoter of ideas that mademany uncomfortable. Most of his research at thistime was on the Canadian Shield where he cou-pled basic geologic relations with early geo-chronology to interpret the growth of continentson a worldwide basis. However, even in his out-

spoken support, privately he admitted that muchof the theory was inadequate.

It was a true reflection of his mettle when hewas able to switch directions and embrace the con-tinental drift concept still in its infancy after beingone of its strongest critics. At 50 years old, he be-came one of the strongest supporters and contrib-utors to the development of the theory. His firstcontribution was to interpret the Hawaiian Is-lands. By looking at the current volcanic activity,the ages of the islands, and the extension into theHawaiian and Emperor seamounts, he interpretedthem to represent a stationary plume of magmafrom the mantle over which the Pacific platemoves. The train of islands tracks past movementsof the Pacific plate. His paper “A Possible Originof the Hawaiian Islands” summarizes this work.His second contribution was to interpret the hugefracture systems that offset mid-ocean ridges as anew class of plate boundary called transformboundaries. These huge strike-slip faults occur allalong mid-ocean ridges throughout the Earth ascompensation features to the spreading that takesplace on the ridges as described in the paper “ANew Class of Faults and their Bearing on Conti-nental Drift.” LYNN R. SYKES proved Wilson’s the-ory, by analyzing earthquakes from these features,that they are indeed strike-slip (of lateral motion)and currently active all over. His third most fa-mous contribution was to propose that the At-lantic Ocean closed and then reopened virtuallyalong the same line (i.e.: “Did the Atlantic Closeand Then Re-Open?”). With an enormousamount of additional research, it was shown thatindeed an early ocean basin called Tethys wasclosed during the building of the supercontinentPangea during the Paleozoic. The Atlantic thenopened nearly along the old suture zone of thisclosure. This idea of zones of weakness in theEarth’s crust that would be repeatedly reactivatedhas subsequently been shown to be a very com-mon phenomenon. These are three fundamentalpieces of plate tectonics that have withstood thetest of time, and they are only a sampling of the

290 Wilson, J. (John) Tuzo

outstanding body of work produced by Wilsonduring his career.

J. Tuzo Wilson was born on October 24,1908, in Ottawa, Canada, where he spent hisyouth. His mother was a famous mountaineer forwhom Mount Tuzo in western Canada was named.At age 17, Wilson became a field assistant of the fa-mous Mount Everest mountaineer Noell Odell,who showed him the wonders of field geology. Wil-son enrolled at the University of Toronto, Canada,where he earned a bachelor of science with majorsin both physics and geology in 1930. He consid-ered himself to be Canada’s first ever graduate ingeophysics. He earned a scholarship for graduatestudies at Cambridge University, England, underSir Harold Jeffreys, but there was no real programin geophysics and he wound up earning anotherbachelor of arts degree in geology in 1932. He re-turned to Canada to work at the Geological Surveyof Canada, but the director urged him to completehis education instead. He enrolled at PrincetonUniversity, New Jersey, with classmates HARRY H.HESS and W. MAURICE EWING and graduated in1936 with a Ph.D. in geology/geophysics. He re-turned to the Geological Survey of Canada untilthe outbreak of World War II, when he joined theCanadian army as an engineer and spent threeyears overseas. When he returned to Canada as acolonel, he remained in the army for an additionalfour years. As director of operational research, heorganized and carried out Exercise Musk Ox, thefirst ever motorized expedition—some 3,400miles—to cross the Canadian Arctic.

J. Tuzo Wilson married Isabel Dickson in1938. He joined the faculty at his alma mater atthe University of Toronto in 1946. In 1968, Wil-son left his position at the main campus at Uni-versity of Toronto to serve as principal of the newErindale College of the University of Toronto. Hewas forced to retire from his academic position in1974 to become the director of the Ontario Sci-ence Center, the largest of its kind thanks to hisefforts. Wilson died on April 15, 1993, of a heartattack.

J. Tuzo Wilson was a dynamo, relentlesslycarrying all of his projects to success. His scientificpublications were no exception, numbering wellover 100 in international journals and profes-sional volumes. Several of these are benchmarks inthe plate tectonic paradigm and appear in presti-gious journals like Nature. In recognition of theseresearch contributions, Wilson received numeroushonors and awards. He was a fellow of the RoyalSociety of England and the Royal Society ofCanada. He received the Penrose Medal from theGeological Society of America, the Walter H.Bucher Medal from the American GeophysicalUnion, the John J. Carty Medal from the U.S.National Academy of Sciences, the Vetlesen Prizefrom the Vetlesen Foundation, the WollastonMedal from the Geological Society of London,the Huntsman Award from the Bedford Instituteof Oceanography, and the Maurice Ewing Medalfrom the Society of Exploration Geophysicists.

5 Wise, Donald U.(1931– )AmericanStructural Geologist

Most geologists have one or two areas of special-ization at which they excel. This is not true forDon Wise. He dabbles in many different aspectsof geology, generally related to structural geology,and yet he never fails to make an impact in each.His apparent motto is “Variety is the spice of ge-ology.” His regional geology studies have concen-trated on the Pennsylvania Piedmont of theAppalachian orogen and the Beartooth Mountainsin Wyoming and Montana in the middle RockyMountains. He studies small details on the scaleof an outcrop, including cleavages, fractures, andfolds for both of these areas and publishes theseresults.

Wise is well known for his work on planetarygeology. His first foray into this field was a wildhypothesis that the Moon may have been derived

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from the Earth by splitting away during the for-mation of the Earth’s core, as summarized in hispaper, “Origin of the Moon from the Earth, SomeNew Mechanisms and Comparisons.” At least itwas wild at the time. Now it appears as a possiblemode of formation in many introductory text-books. He studied cratering on the Moon as wellas its planetary architecture. Wise then moved onto study Mars. He and colleague GerhartNeukum devised a method of extending lunarcratering densities to obtain the time scale forMars in the paper “Mars: A Standard CraterCurve and Possible New Time Scale.” Based uponthese dates and photo interpretation of images ob-tained from Martian orbiters, he proposed amodel for the gross tectonics of Mars. This modelinvolves an early convection cell that ingested thecrust from the northern lowland third of theplanet to produce the great Tharsis Bulge and itsgiant volcanoes. It was also controversial.

Wise may be best known for his work onfractures and lineaments. He developed methodsfor the statistical evaluation of fractures and linea-ments on the outcrop, on maps, on aerial pho-tographs and on satellite images. His paper“Topographic Lineament Swarms: Clues to theirOrigin from Domain Analysis of Italy” includesmuch of this work. He even developed inversiontechniques to determine the stress field that pro-duced fracture sets. This work was done on severalareas in New England as well as Kentucky,Wyoming, Italy, and other planets. Wise alsoworked regional problems in Italy and NewZealand. More recently he has taken on creation-ism and even written a paper called “Creationism’sGeologic Time Scale.”

Don Wise was born on April 21, 1931, inReading, Pennsylvania. He spent his youth in thePennsylvania Dutch country. He attendedFranklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Penn-sylvania, where he graduated Phi Beta Kappa witha bachelor of science degree in geology in 1953.He earned a master of science degree from theCalifornia Institute of Technology, Pasadena, in

geology in 1955. Wise then moved back to theEast Coast to continue his graduate studies atPrinceton University, New Jersey, where he earneda Ph.D. in geology in 1957. Upon graduation, hejoined the faculty at his alma mater, Franklin andMarshall College. Don Wise was married in 1965;he and his wife have two children. In 1968, he be-came the chief scientist and deputy director of thelunar exploration office of NASA in Washington,D.C., where he served through the first lunarlanding. In 1969, Wise joined the faculty at theUniversity of Massachusetts at Amherst, where heremained until his retirement in 1993. He servedas department head from 1984 to 1988. Wise wasa visiting scientist at the Max Planck Institute inHeidelberg, Germany, in 1975, at the Universityof Rome, Italy, in 1976, and at Canterbury Uni-versity in Christchurch, New Zealand, in1988–1989. In addition to being professor emeri-tus at the University of Massachusetts, Wise isalso currently a research associate at Franklin andMarshall College.

Donald Wise has led a productive career. Heis an author of more than 50 articles in interna-tional journals, professional volumes, and govern-mental reports. Several of these papers areseminal studies on multiple folding terminology,fracture systems, the regional geology ofWyoming-Montana, Mesozoic basins of NewEngland, regional tectonics of the PennsylvaniaPiedmont, and planetary geology of the Moonand Mars. In recognition of his contributions togeology, Wise was awarded the Career Contribu-tion Award from the structure and tectonics divi-sion of the Geological Society of America in2001.

Wise has also performed significant serviceto the profession. He was the founding chair ofthe structure and tectonics division of the Geo-logical Society of America, as well as the chair ofthe planetary geology division. He was a consul-tant for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commis-sion, and various geotechnical, oil, and powercompanies.

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5 Withjack, Martha O.(1951– )AmericanStructural Geologist, Petroleum Geologist

There are several types of subsurface “traps” inwhich oil and gas can accumulate. The old adagein the oil and gas industry is that one “drills struc-ture” which means that traps based in structuralgeology give better chance for success. It is there-fore no surprise that structural geologists are indemand in the petroleum industry. Martha With-jack is one of the premier structural geologists tograce the petroleum industry, although she re-cently switched to academia. Using geophysicaldata, both taken within drilled wells called welllogs as well as seismic reflection profiles, which area kind of sonogram of the shapes of the rock lay-ers deep underground, Withjack studies the struc-tural features within sedimentary basins. Shemodels both the sedimentation patterns, in amethod called “seismic stratigraphy,” as well as thefaulting and folding that has been imposed uponthese sedimentary rocks. Typically, these two as-pects are tightly associated because the sedimenta-tion patterns respond to the active faulting andare distributed accordingly.

Martha Withjack is an expert on extensionaltectonics and associated basin development. Shehas investigated the geometry of normal faultsand the relationship of associated structures with avariety of sedimentary sequences. This researchinvolved both modeling of existing basins as wellas experimental structural models, typically usingclay and sand layers in a moveable vise. Shelooked at the development of different types offolds in this process (forced and rollover) as wellas the fault patterns. An example is her paper “Ex-perimental Models of Extensional Forced Folds.”She looked at patterns with the two sides of a basin pulling directly away from each other,as well as when they slide sideways (strike-slipmovement) while pulling apart, a process called

“oblique rifting,” which produces a far differentstructural pattern shown in a paper entitled “De-formation Produced by Oblique Rifting.” Asym-metric extension also involves differences on eachside of the extending crust but vertically ratherthan horizontally. She also investigated an oddbut common phenomenon in which faults maystart out as normal faults but abruptly switch intoreverse faults, or vice versa, in a process called“tectonic inversion” as discussed in her paper “Es-timating Inversion—Results from Clay-ModelStudies.” This abrupt switch causes the sedimen-tation patterns and folds to also change abruptlyand form a characteristic geometrical relationship.With the resources of major oil companies, herfield areas of study are worldwide and include

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Martha Withjack takes a rest on a field trip in theAppalachians (Courtesy of M. Withjack)

eastern India, the Gulf of California, the Gulf ofAden, the Gulf of Suez, offshore Norway, theChukchi Sea, Alaska, offshore Vietnam, theCaspian Sea, and offshore Newfoundland, amongothers.

Martha Withjack was born on January 10,1951, in Orange, New Jersey. She attended Rut-gers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey,where she earned a bachelor of arts degree, PhiBeta Kappa in mathematics, in 1973. She did hergraduate studies at Brown University, Rhode Is-land, where she earned a master of science degreein 1975 and a Ph.D. in 1977, both in geology.Upon graduation Withjack accepted a position asresearch geologist with Cities Service Companyin Tulsa, Oklahoma, but moved to ARCO oil andgas company in Plano, Texas, in 1983. In 1988,she accepted a position as senior research geolo-gist with Mobil Technology Corporation in Dal-las, Texas. In 2000, Withjack joined the faculty ather alma mater, Rutgers University in NewBrunswick, where she remains.

Martha Withjack is leading a very productivecareer, but because of her extensive industry expe-rience it is a bit different from those with purelyacademic experience. She is an author of 25 arti-cles in international journals and professional vol-umes, but also of 28 major internal technicalreports for petroleum companies. Many of theseare seminal papers on extensional tectonics andappear in top journals. Withjack has received sev-eral honors and awards in recognition of her re-search contributions to geology. She received twoBest Paper Awards from the American Associationof Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), including theGeorge C. Matson Award in 1999 and the CamSproule Memorial Award in 1986. She was alsochosen as a distinguished lecturer by both thePetroleum Exploration Society of Australia andAAPG.

Withjack has performed service to the profes-sion. She served on several committees for boththe Geological Society of America and AAPG. Shealso served in several editorial positions including

associate editor of both the Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin and the American Association ofPetroleum Geologists Bulletin. She has taught nu-merous short courses both in industry andthrough professional societies.

5 Wones, David R.(1932–1984)AmericanMineralogist, Petrologist

It requires solid laboratory experimentation onrocks and minerals to provide the physical con-straints of formation (pressure-temperature, etc.)on what is observed in their natural setting in thefield. Experimental geochemists and petrologiststypically spend most of their careers in the labo-ratory with rare excursions into the field to ob-serve a phenomenon or to touch base with thereality of the chemical systems that they are mod-eling. In contrast, field geologists might use ana-lytical equipment in the laboratory to aid in theirfield interpretations but they typically do nothave the patience or perhaps the interest to con-duct experiments to model their observations.David Wones was an exception to this apparentexclusivity. His experimental research was mostlyon micas and assemblages of minerals in whichmica is a major component. This outstanding re-search established him as the leading authority onmicas. He even had a newly discovered micanamed after him, wonesite, in recognition of hiscontributions.

On the other hand, Wones was an outstand-ing field petrologist. Most of his research was ongranite plutons but he dabbled with other rocks aswell. He conducted extensive field research on theSierra Nevadas in California, as well as the graniteplutons of New England, and especially Maine. Infact, as with micas, he was the leading authorityon the plutons of New England and among thetop few in the world on the processes of graniteemplacement and crystallization.

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Even with all of his research prowess, one ofDavid Wones’s greatest traits was his ability tomentor and to inspire camaraderie. He took ahighly fractured department at Virginia Tech andinspired an astonishing period of cooperation andmutual respect almost immediately. He inspiredhis students and colleagues alike with his unbri-dled passion for geology of all types while main-taining his genuine concern and respect for them.His tragic death at an early age left a void in thelives of many who knew him.

David Wones was born on July 13, 1932, inSan Francisco, California. His father was a colonelin the U.S. Army and as a result he lived in vari-ous places as the assignments changed. He gradu-ated from Thomas Jefferson High School in SanAntonio, Texas, in 1950. He attended Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) andearned a bachelor of science degree in geology in

1954. He also did his graduate studies at MIT butearned a Vannevar Bush Fellowship and did hisdissertation research at the Geophysical Labora-tory at the Carnegie Institution of Washington,D.C., from 1957 to 1959. He earned his doctor-ate in 1960. He joined the U.S. Geological Surveyin 1959 as an experimental petrologist, but healso did field research in California and NewMexico. In 1967, Wones joined the faculty atMIT. He returned to the U.S. Geological Surveyin 1971 as chief of the Branch of ExperimentalGeochemistry and Mineralogy. He then accepteda position at Virginia Polytechnic Institute andState University in 1977 and served as departmentchair from 1980 to 1984. David Wones marriedConstance Gilman in 1958 and they had fourchildren. David Wones was killed in 1984 in anautomobile accident while going to pick up a lec-turer from the airport for a departmental seminar.

David Wones led a highly productive career,publishing numerous articles in internationaljournals and collected volumes. Many of these areseminal works on micas as well as granite petrol-ogy and emplacement. David Wones performedextensive service to the profession. He was presi-dent of Geological Society of America in1978–1979 as well as of the Mineralogical Societyof America. He played a major role in the Interna-tional Geological Correlation Project of the Inter-national Geological Congress, including therunning of a major convention.

5 Wyllie, Peter J.(1930– )BritishExperimental Petrologist

Considering that the Earth’s crust and mantle arecomposed of solid rock, the very existence ofmagma and lava is anomalous. Yet there are activevolcanoes all over the Earth and magma beingcontinuously emplaced into the crust. It is thisfirst order problem of the Earth that Peter Wyllie

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David Wones on a field trip into the Boulder Batholith,Montana (Courtesy of Arthur Sylvester)

first addressed and the impetus for his 1967 vol-ume Ultramafic and Related Rocks.

Peter Wyllie began to conduct innovative ex-perimental determinations of mineral and meltchemical phase relations at high pressures andtemperatures with his mentor O. FRANK TUTTLE.The experiments reproduced conditions deepwithin the Earth and were designed to determinethe processes in the upper mantle and crust wheremelting occurs. This experimental work was doneusing both complex real rock systems and relatedsimple synthetic systems. His initial focus was ontwo problems, the origin of granitic magma, bothplutons and volcanics and the origin of carbon-atites. Carbonatites are rare calcite-rich plutonicrocks. Wyllie’s discovery of conditions for the pre-cipitation of calcite from melts at moderate tem-peratures confirm their origin.

In his later experiments, Peter Wyllie pursuedprogressively more complex silicate-carbonate sys-tems. One project involves the metamorphismand melting of ocean crust as it is progressivelyheated in a subduction zone. The melting of thewet ocean crust has applications for the origin ofwater-charged andesites that form explosive volca-

noes in island arcs as well as introduction of waterand carbon dioxide in the mantle. This researchhas applications to the origin of kimberlites (ori-gin of diamonds) and carbonatites. More recently,Wyllie has been studying the origin of granites,tonalities and trondheimites from the Archean agegray gneiss of the continental interiors. It involvesa backwards approach to determine the composi-tion of the source rock by the composition of themelt that came out of it at elevated temperatureand pressure. This work gives us a new under-standing of the processes in the early crust.

Wyllie has often incorporated these applica-tions into broader reviews involving plate tecton-ics and global processes. His two textbookscaptured the spirit and the history of the plate tec-tonics revolution. The first, The Dynamic Earth,was written for graduate students and the second,The Way the Earth Works, was written for non-sci-ence majors.

Peter Wyllie was born on February 8, 1930,in London, England. He joined the British RoyalAir Force in 1948 where he was an aircraftsmanfirst class (radiotelephony operator). He receivedthe Best Recruit Award in basic training for theRoyal Air Force at Padgate in 1948 and he wasthe heavyweight boxing champion for the RoyalAir Force in Scotland in 1949. He attended theUniversity of Saint Andrews, Scotland, after hisdischarge in 1949 and earned a bachelor of sci-ence degree in physics and geology in 1952 withthe Miller Prize for outstanding achievement.Wyllie was a geologist with the British NorthGreenland Expedition from 1952 to 1954 beforereturning to the University of Saint Andrews. Heearned a second bachelor of science degree withfirst class honors in geology in 1955 and a Ph.D.in geology in 1958. In 1956, Peter Wyllie marriedRomy Blair and they would have three children.The same year, he accepted a position as a re-search assistant at Pennsylvania State University atUniversity Park before becoming an assistant pro-fessor in 1958. Wyllie was a lecturer at Leeds Uni-versity in England in 1959 to 1961 before

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Peter Wyllie lecturing on a high-pressure experiment.He is holding a cold-seal “test-tube” high-pressurevessel (Courtesy of P. Wyllie)

returning to Pennsylvania State University in1961. In 1965, he joined the faculty at the Uni-versity of Chicago, Illinois. He served as associatedean in 1972–1973 and department chair from1979 to 1982. He was also the Homer J. Liv-ingston professor of geology from 1978 to 1983.In 1983, Wyllie moved to the California Instituteof Technology in Pasadena, where he remainstoday. There he served as chair from 1983 to 1987and academic officer from 1994 to 1999 when heretired and became professor emeritus. He was aLouis Murray Visiting Fellow at the University ofCape Town, South Africa, in 1987, and he wasappointed an honorary professor at the ChinaUniversity of Geosciences at Beijing in 1996.

Peter Wyllie has led an extremely productivecareer. He is an author of some 310 articles ininternational journals and professional volumes.He is also the editor or author of four books andvolumes. Many of these publications are defini-tive studies of experimental petrology and man-tle processes. His research has been wellrecognized by the profession as is evident in hisnumerous honors and awards. He is a member ofthe U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the Rus-sian National Academy of Sciences, the IndianNational Academy of Sciences, the Indian Sci-ence Academy, and the Chinese Academy of Sci-ences. He is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of

London. He received an honorary doctoratefrom the University of Saint Andrew. He re-ceived the Polar Medal from Queen Elizabeth II,the Mineralogical Society of America Award, theQuantrell Teaching Award from the University ofChicago, the Wollaston Medal from the Geologi-cal Society of London, the Leopold von BuchMedal of the German Geological Society, theRoebling Medal from the American Mineralogi-cal Society, and the Abraham-Gottlob-WernerMedaille from the German Mineralogical Society.

Wyllie has performed significant service tothe profession. He was president and vice presi-dent of the Mineralogical Society of America(1977–1978 and 1976–1977, respectively), theInternational Mineralogical Association (1986–1990 and 1978–1986), and the InternationalUnion of Geodesy and Geophysics (1995–1999and 1991–1995, respectively). He has served onnumerous committees and panels for these soci-eties as well as the National Science Foundation,National Research Council, International Coun-cil of Scientific Unions, American GeophysicalUnion, among others. He was the chief editorfor the Journal of Geology from 1967 to 1983and the Springer-Verlag monograph series Rocksand Minerals (22 volumes) from 1967–1999, aswell as serving on the editorial boards of 12other journals.

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5 Yoder, Hatten S., Jr.(1921– )AmericanPetrologist, Geochemist

There are a few Earth scientists whose accom-plishments are so numerous that they are difficultto fit in the allocated space of this book and Hat-ten Yoder is one. He is among the most influentialexperimental mineralogists-petrologists in the his-tory of the science. His early research involved thedesign and construction of an innovative high-pressure experimental apparatus that was un-matched in the world. He conducted experimentson metamorphic rocks and minerals that estab-lished whole new stability fields of metamorphismand quantified them. Indeed, through his experi-mental studies, he was able to quantify for thefirst time, the pressures and temperatures of vari-ous metamorphic isograds and grades. This workwas far ahead of its time. Yoder’s book Geochemi-cal Transport and Kinetics and his paper “Thermo-dynamic Problems in Petrology” summarize muchof this work.

Yoder’s other major area of interest is the ori-gin of basalts. He produced the first quantitativestudy of the crystallization of basaltic magma byapplying his experimental results. He also con-ducted experimental research on the origin ofbasaltic magma and developed elegant models

that now appear in every textbook on physical ge-ology not to mention igneous petrology. A bookentitled Generation of Basaltic Magma is a result ofthis research. He developed a new model for thegeneration of contemporaneous bimodal volcan-ism in extensional plate tectonic settings. Evenphysical properties like viscosity of lavas were de-termined in Yoder’s lab. He edited the volumeThe Evolution of Igneous Rocks: Fiftieth AnniversaryPerspectives (on NORMAN L. BOWEN’s book) whichitself was an instant classic.

There are many other areas of geology thatHatten Yoder has influenced, whether it is the de-velopment of the early atmosphere, experimentalconstraints on minerals leading to a mineral beingnamed after him (yoderite), the formation of oredeposits or advising the U.S. Congress on naturalresources and the environment. Each of these is astory in itself. However, one of Yoder’s main areasof interest is the history of geology. He has takenon the task to preserve the record of the historicaldevelopment of Earth sciences through societywork and publication. Many of the publicationsare biographies of people who worked with Yoder.Other publications preserve the history of classicgeologists but there are also discussions on intel-lectual development of modern geology.

Hatten Yoder Jr. was born on March 20,1921, in Cleveland, Ohio. He attended the Uni-versity of Chicago, Illinois, where he earned an as-

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sociate of arts degree in 1940, a bachelor of sci-ence in geology in 1941, and a certificate of profi-ciency in meteorology in 1942. He joined theU.S. Navy in 1942 and saw active duty duringWorld War II until 1946, including the MOKOexpedition to Siberia as a meteorological officer.He retired as a decorated lieutenant commanderfrom the U.S. Naval Reserves after 16 years of ser-vice. He attended graduate school at the Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology and earned aPh.D. in 1948. He accepted a position as a petrol-ogist at the Geophysical Laboratory of theCarnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., in1948 and remained there for the rest of his career.

He served as director of the Geophysical Lab from1971 until his retirement in 1986. He remains adirector emeritus today. During his career, he wasa visiting professor at California Institute of Tech-nology, University of Texas, University of Col-orado, and the University of Cape Town. Yodermarried Elizabeth Bruffey in 1959 and they hadtwo children. Mrs. Yoder passed away in 2001.

Hatten Yoder has had a very productive ca-reer. He is an author of some 103 articles in in-ternational journals, professional volumes, andgovernmental reports, as well as book reviews,forewords, and encyclopedia entries. Many ofthese articles are benchmarks in mineralogy,

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Hatten Yoder at work in his laboratory in the Geophysical Laboratory at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C.(Courtesy of H. Yoder Jr.)

petrology, and geochemistry. He is also the au-thor of some 25 biographies of prominent geolo-gists, which appear in books and journals. Hisresearch as well as his interest in the history ofgeology have earned Yoder several importanthonors and awards from the profession. He is amember of the National Academy of Sciencesand a fellow of the American Academy of Artsand Sciences. He was awarded honorary degreesfrom the University of Paris VI in 1981 and theColorado School of Mines in 1995. He receivedboth the Mineralogical Society of AmericaAward and the Columbia University Bicenten-nial Medal in 1954. He received the Arthur L.Day Medal and the History of Geology Awardfrom the Geological Society of America, theArthur L. Day Prize and Lectureship from theNational Academy of Sciences, the A.G. WernerMedal from the German Mineralogical Society,the Wollaston Medal from the Geological Soci-ety of London, and the Roebling Medal from theMineralogical Society of America, among others.

He was also named International Scientist of theYear for 2001.

Yoder has also performed service to the geo-logic profession too extensive to completely de-scribe here. He served as president (1971–1972),vice president (1970–1971) and numerous panelsand committees for the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica. He served as section president(1961–1964) and numerous positions for theAmerican Geophysical Union. He served on nu-merous U.S. National Committees (geology, geo-chemistry, history of geology), and on committeesand panels for the National Research Council,Geological Society of America, and GeochemicalSociety (organizing and founding member). Heserved on review committees for numerous uni-versities including Harvard University, Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology, and Institut dePhysique du Globe de Paris, France, among oth-ers. Yoder served in editorial positions for Ameri-can Journal of Science, Journal of Petrology andGeochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, among others.

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5 Zen, E-An(1928– )ChineseField Geologist, Petrologist

Many researchers have the reputation for beingthorough in their work, but few are more thor-ough than E-An Zen. He is highly focused andtenacious in his projects. His geological career hasconcentrated on three areas of interest, mineralogyand petrology of marine sediments, granite petrol-ogy, and geological advocacy. Zen’s interest in ma-rine sediments started with his dissertation on theTaconic sequence of sedimentary rocks in westernVermont and easternmost New York (see “TaconicStratigraphic Names: Definitions and Syn-onymies” and “Time and Space Relationships ofthe Taconic Allochthon and Autochthon,” for ex-ample). This work could have been simply a map-ping exercise as was common at the time. It mayhave then led to a career of regional Appalachiangeology. However, Zen was not satisfied with thestatus quo. He studied modern marine sedimentsthat were recovered from the Peru-Chile trench tobetter understand those comparable sedimentaryrocks in the Taconics as described in “Mineralogyand Petrology of Marine Bottom Sediment Sam-ples off the Coast of Peru and Chile.” His geo-chemical work on these rocks also led him to aninterest in the thermodynamics of clay minerals.

His position with the U.S. Geological Surveyled Zen to work in the Pioneer Mountains ofsouthwestern Montana and introduced him to hissecond main area of interest, granite magma, andgranite batholiths. He studied granitic plutonsfrom there all the way to southern Alaska, devis-ing methods to determine depths of emplacementthrough mineral chemistry. These data in turn al-lowed him to evaluate the uplift and erosion ratesfor the entire western United States. This interestalso led Zen to help organize and run parts of twoHutton international conferences on granite em-placement. His papers “Using Granite to Imagethe Thermal State of the Source Terrane” and“Plumbing the Depths of Batholiths” are twosummaries of this work. He is still working to de-termine thermal budgets for granite emplacement.

His third area of interest is public advocacyfor the science of geology, which he began later inhis career. Once again he attacked the projectwith the same zest that he had for his researchprojects. Primarily using the forum of GSA Today,Zen attempted to educate the educators aboutglobal sustainability and recipes for how to live inharmony with our planet. In collaboration withALLISON R. PALMER, Zen wrote a series of articlesentitled “Engaging ‘my neighbor’ in the Issue ofSustainability,” Parts II, V, IX, X, and XII. Onceagain his commitment and doggedness propelledhim to the forefront of the movement and he was

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named to several very important committees atthe National Academy of Science and NationalResearch Council.

E-An Zen was born on May 31, 1928, inPeking, China. He immigrated to the UnitedStates as a teenager soon after World War II. Heattended Cornell University, New York, andearned a bachelor of arts degree in geology in1951. He entered Harvard University as a gradu-ate student the same year and earned a master ofarts and a Ph.D. in 1951 and 1955, respectively.His dissertation was on the petrology and stratig-raphy of the Taconic Allochthon in western Ver-mont. He was a research fellow and associate atthe Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution from1955 through 1958, where he studied the miner-

alogy of modern marine sediments recovered fromthe Peru-Chile trench. Zen was a visiting assistantprofessor at the University of North Carolina atChapel Hill in 1958–1959 before becoming a ge-ologist and research geologist with the U.S. Geo-logical Survey from 1959 to 1990. During thattime he held a visiting professorship at CaliforniaInstitute of Technology, 1962–1963, a Crosby vis-iting professorship at Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology in 1972, a Harry Hess visiting fellow-ship at Princeton University in 1981, and a visit-ing fellowship at the Australian NationalUniversity in 1991. In 1990, Zen became a scien-tist emeritus at the U.S. Geological Survey and anadjunct professor at the University of Maryland,positions he still holds today.

E-An Zen has published 115 articles to datein international journals, professional volumes,and U.S. Geological Survey reports and maps. Healso published some 23 articles on geology and so-ciety. Zen was also an editor of an important vol-ume entitled Studies of Appalachian Geology,Northern and Maritime. He has received numer-ous honors and awards for his research. He is amember of the National Academy of Science(1976– ) and a fellow of both the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences and the AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science. Hewas awarded the Arthur Day Medal from the Ge-ological Society of America in 1986, the RoeblingMedal from the Mineralogical Society of Americain 1991, and the Major John Sacheverell CokeMedal from the Geological Society of London in1992. He also received the 1995 Thomas Jeffer-son Medal from the Virginia Museum of NaturalHistory.

Zen has performed outstanding service to thegeological profession. He served on evaluatingcommittees for California Institute of Technology,Harvard University, and Princeton University. Heserved on the National Research Council, theScholarly Studies Committee for the SmithsonianInstitution, the U.S. Committee on Geodynamicsand on Geochemistry. He served as a member and

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E-An Zen shows weathering features on a rockexposure in Great Falls National Park in northernVirginia (Courtesy of E. Zen)

officer for committees for the Geological Societyof America and Mineralogical Society of Americatoo numerous to mention. In addition, he servedon the Committee on Human Rights and theCommittee on Transition to Sustainability at theNational Academy of the Sciences and the Na-tional Committee on Science Education Stan-dards and Assessment at the National ResearchCouncil in 1992.

5 Zoback, Mary Lou(1952– )AmericanSeismologist

When an earthquake occurs on the San AndreasFault or any one of the numerous related faults inCalifornia, the scientific spokesperson for theevent is Mary Lou Zoback. All information dis-tributed to the press is funneled through her of-fice and she is typically the person on the radio ortelevision interviews that surround the earth-quake. Because of her high-profile position, she isperiodically seen on documentaries about earth-quakes in California and in general. In her posi-tion of chief scientist for the U.S. GeologicalSurvey Hazards Team, she has a staff of 200 peo-ple and a $26-million budget to monitor allearthquake activity and research the causes andeffects.

In addition to this highly public side, MaryLou Zoback is also a talented geophysicist whostudies the interrelations of plate-scale stresses ofthe Earth’s crust and current seismicity. She studiesboth plate margins, like the San Andreas Fault,and intraplate regions like the Basin and RangeProvince of the southwestern United States andthe New Madrid seismic zone. She developedmethods to determine current distribution of tec-tonic forces using geologic, seismic, and in situstress measurements taken from boreholes. Shedemonstrated that large regions of the Earth’s crustare being subjected to a relatively constant and

uniformly oriented stress field to great depths.This stress field results from large-scale plate tec-tonic processes. Papers on this subject include“State of Stress and Intraplate Earthquakes in theCentral and Eastern United States” and “TectonicStress Field of the Continental U.S.” She extendedthis research in collaboration with 40 scientistsfrom 30 countries to cover the entire Earth. In aglobal stress mapping project, they demonstratedthat broad areas within the tectonic plates are sub-jected to uniform stresses that can be predictedfrom the geometry of the plate and the forces thatdrive the plates (this was discussed in the paper“Global Patterns of Intraplate Stress: A Status Re-port on the World Stress Map Project of the Inter-national Lithosphere Program”). These findingsmean that intraplate earthquakes like New Madrid(1812), among others, result from these large-scaleregional stresses rather than local ones.

Mary Lou Chetlain was born on July 5,1952, in Sanford, Florida, where she grew up. Sheentered college at Florida Institute of Technologyin Oceanology and remained for two years beforetransferring to Stanford University, California,where she graduated with a bachelor of science de-gree in geophysics in 1974. She remained at Stan-ford for her graduate studies and earned master ofscience and Ph.D. degrees in geophysics in 1975and 1978, respectively. She was awarded a Na-tional Research Council postdoctoral fellowshipfor 1978–1979 with the U.S. Geological Survey inMenlo Park, California, to study heat flow. In1979, she became a research geophysicist for theU.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park and laterproject chief. Zoback became the chief scientist forthe Earthquake Hazard Team for the westernUnited States (U.S. Geological Survey) in 1999and remains in that position as of 2002. Mary LouZoback works on many of her research projectswith her husband, geophysicist Mark Zoback,whom she married in 1973. The Zobacks havetwo children and reside in Palo Alto, California.

Mary Lou Zoback has authored numerous ar-ticles in international journals and professional

Zoback, Mary Lou 303

volumes. She was also editor of two high-profilevolumes. Her research has been well recognized bythe profession in terms of honors and awards. Shehas been a member of the National Academy ofSciences since 1995. She was awarded a G.K.Gilbert Fellowship by the U.S. Geological Survey(1990–1991). She received the James B. MacEl-wane Award from the American GeophysicalUnion in 1997.

Mary Lou Zoback’s service to the profession isunparalleled for someone so early in his or her ca-reer. She was a member of the President’s Medal ofScience selection committee (1999–2001). She ison the membership selection committee for theNational Academy of Sciences. She was the chair ofthe World Stress Map Program (2000–2001). Sheworked on numerous committees for the NationalResearch Council, including science standards, ra-dioactive waste management, geodynamics, andgeosciences, environment and resources. She is amember of the NASA Steering Committee forsolid Earth sciences. For the Geological Society ofAmerica, she was councilor (1986–1988), chair ofthe Geophysics Division (1987–1988), president ofthe Cordilleran Section (1989–1990), vice presi-dent (1998–1999) and president (1999–2000). Shewas president of the Tectonophysics Section of theAmerican Geophysical Union in 1996–1998. Shehas served on the editorial board for Geology(1982–1984) and the Journal of Geodynamics(1992–1999), among other editorial positions andduties. She serves on other national and interna-tional committee and panel positions but they aretoo numerous to list here.

5 Zuber, Maria T.(1958– )AmericanPlanetary Scientist, Geophysicist

The rise of Maria Zuber to her position as one ofthe foremost authorities on planetary geology hasbeen almost as spectacular as the rockets used in

the many NASA missions in which she has partic-ipated. She has been involved in at least three mis-sions to Mars, including the Mars GlobalSurveyor Science Team, as well as missions toMercury and to nearby asteroids. She even discov-ered an asteroid before she was 30 years old.Using data from topographic and correspondinggeophysical surveys collected during these NASAmissions, Zuber uses theoretical models and nu-merical analysis to evaluate the evolution of plan-ets and their various components. She has studiedthe evolution of the crust and mantle on Mars,Venus, and the Moon, in addition to that on theEarth. These studies evaluate the thickness ofcrust and circulation in the underlying mantleusing surface topography coupled with airbornegravity and magnetic surveys. These analyses in-volve sophisticated advanced mathematical studiesusing the polynomial fitting of the shapes. Sheevaluated the physical properties of Mercury’s coreusing data from the NASA Messenger mission, ofwhich she was a team member. More recently, shehas been studying asteroids and their interiors.Using data from Magellan, she evaluated the tec-tonics, structure, and volcanism on Venus. Sheeven studied clouds and snow depth on Mars inaddition to wrinkle ridges and other structuralfeatures.

Closer to home, Zuber has studied mantleconvection and the development of mid-oceanridges on Earth. She has also done extensive workon the tectonics of Australia. Her lunar studiesevaluated the volcanism and its relationship to thedevelopment of the lunar crust. To show thatthese numerical models of continental develop-ment can have more familiar analogs, she wrote apaper entitled “Folding of a Jelly Sandwich” in anillustration of rheological analyses.

Maria Zuber was born on June 27, 1958, inNorristown, Pennsylvania, where she grew up. Sheattended the University of Pennsylvania inPhiladelphia, where she earned a bachelor of artsdegree in astrophysics and geology in 1980. Shecompleted her graduate studies at Brown Univer-

304 Zuber, Maria T.

sity, Rhode Island, and earned a master of sciencedegree in 1983 and a Ph.D. in 1986, both in geo-physics. Her dissertation adviser was Mark Par-mentier. Zuber earned a National ResearchCouncil Fellowship in 1985–1986 with NASA atthe Goddard Space Center, Maryland. She re-mained there on staff as a geophysicist in 1987.She joined the faculty at Johns Hopkins Univer-sity in 1991 as an associate research professor ofgeophysics after holding the position of visitingprofessor the previous year. In 1993, Zuber wasnamed to the prestigious first-ever Second DecadeSociety endowed associate professorship by theJohns Hopkins Alumni Association. Just as shewas promoted to full professor in 1995, MariaZuber moved to the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology in Cambridge, where she remainstoday. In 1998, she was named to the E.A. Gris-wold Professorship, another endowed positionthat she still holds. She also rejoined NASA in1994 as a senior research scientist concurrent withher faculty positions. In this role, she is associatedwith the Goddard Space Center’s Laboratory forTerrestrial Physics. From 1996 to 1999, she was apart-time visiting scientist at the Woods HoleOceanographic Institution, Massachusetts. MariaZuber has a husband, Jack, and two children.

Maria Zuber is amid a very productive careerwith authorship on some 93 scientific articles ininternational journals, professional volumes, and

governmental reports. Many of these papers areseminal works on the development of the Earth’scrust, as well as the evolution of planets. In recog-nition of her many contributions to the Earth sci-ences both in teaching and in research, severalprestigious honors and awards have been bestowedupon her. She received the Thomas O. PaineMemorial Award from the Planetary Society. Shereceived Outstanding Performance Awards everyyear from 1988 through 1992 and the GroupAchievement Awards in 1991, 1993, 1994, 1998,and 2000, all from NASA. From the Johns Hop-kins University, she was given the OraculumAward for Excellence in Teaching and the David S.Olton Award for contributions to undergraduateresearch. She was also a distinguished leader in sci-ence lecturer for the National Academy of Sciencesand the inaugural Carl Sagan lecturer for theAmerican Geophysical Union.

Zuber has also performed significant serviceto the profession. She was president of the Plane-tary Sciences Section of the American Geophysi-cal Union, in addition to serving as member andchair of numerous committees. She also served onnumerous panels and committees at NASA andthe National Academy of Sciences. She was alsothe editor for Planetary Geosciences, associate edi-tor for the Journal of Geophysical Research and onthe board of reviewing editors for Science, amongothers.

Zuber, Maria T. 305

307

ENTRIES BYFIELD

ARCHAEOLOGICAL GEOLOGY

Folk, Robert L.Herz, Norman

CLIMATE CHANGE

Alley, Richard B.Broecker, WallaceFairbridge, Rhodes W.Holland, Heinrich D.Imbrie, JohnRaymo, Maureen E.Shackleton, Sir Nicholas J.

EARTH SCIENCE ADVOCACY

Grew, Priscilla C.Palmer, Allison R. (Pete)Revelle, RogerZen, E-An

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Bodnar, Robert J.Herz, NormanKerr, Paul F.Kerrich, RobertLogan, Sir William EdmondSkinner, Brian J.Smith, Joseph V.

GEOCHEMISTRY

Albee, Arden L.Allègre, Claude

Berner, RobertBodnar, Robert J.Bowen, Norman L.Bowring, Samuel A.Brantley, Susan L.Craig, HarmonDay, Arthur L.DePaolo, Donald J.Ernst, W. GaryEugster, Hans P.Fyfe, William S.Garrels, Robert M.Gilbert, M. CharlesGoldsmith, RichardHarrison, T. MarkHayes, John M.Helgeson, Harold C.Hochella, Michael F., Jr.Holland, Heinrich D.Holmes, ArthurKerrich, RobertLindsley, Donald H.Mahood, Gail A.Montanez, Isabel PatriciaMukasa, Samuel B.O’Nions, Sir R. KeithPatterson, Claire (Pat) C.Raymo, Maureen E.Ringwood, Alfred E. (Ted)Roedder, Edwin W.Skinner, Brian J.

Spear, Frank S.Stolper, Edward M.Suess, Hans E.Taylor, Hugh D., Jr.Thompson, James B., Jr.Tilton, George R.Turekian, Karl K.Tuttle, O. FrankValley, John W.Walter, Lynn M.Watson, E. BruceYoder, Hatten S., Jr.

GEOMORPHOLOGY OR

QUATERNARY GEOLOGY

Ashley, GailFairbridge, Rhodes W.Gilbert, G. KarlHolmes, ArthurKeller, Edward A.Morisawa, MariePorter, Stephen C.

GEOPHYSICS

Anderson, Don L.Atwater, TanyaBirch, A. FrancisBromery, Randolph W. (Bill)Bullard, Sir Edward C.Cox, Allan V.Day, Arthur L.

Drake, Charles L.Ewing, W. MauriceGriggs, David T.Gutenberg, BenoHolmes, ArthurHubbert, M. KingKarig, Daniel E.Kent, Dennis V.Lehmann, IngeLiebermann, Robert C.Matthews, Drummond H.McKenzie, Dan P.McNally, Karen C.McNutt, MarciaMolnar, PeterOliver, Jack E.Press, FrankRichter, Charles F.Romanowicz, BarbaraRosendahl, Bruce R.Sykes, Lynn R.Talwani, ManikTurcotte, Donald L.Van der Voo, RobWilson, (John) TuzoZoback, Mary Lou

HYDROGEOLOGY

Bethke, Craig M.Bredehoeft, John D.Cherry, John A.

MINERALOGY

Bloss, F. DonaldBragg, Sir William LawrenceDana, James D.Goldsmith, Julian R.Hochella, Michael F., Jr.Jahns, Richard H.Kerr, Paul F.Liebermann, Robert C.Navrotsky, AlexandraSmith, Joseph V.Veblen, David R.

Weeks, Alice, M.D.Wenk, Hans-RudolfWones, David R.

OCEANOGRAPHY (MARINE

GEOLOGY)Broecker, Wallace S.Bullard, Sir Edward C.Craig, HarmonDietz, Robert R.Ewing, W. MauriceHayes, JohnHess, HarryKarig, Daniel E.Menard, H. WilliamMorse, John W.Revelle, RogerRizzoli, Paola MalanotteTurekian, Karl K.

PALEONTOLOGY

Berry, William B.N.Clark, Thomas H.Cloud, Preston E., Jr.Conway Morris, SimonDawson, Sir (John) WilliamDunbar, Carl O.Gould, Stephen JayImbrie, JohnLanding, EdMiller, KennethOlsen, Paul E.Ostrom, John H.Palmer, Allison R. (Pete)Raup, David M.Stanley, Steven M.Teichert, CurtWalcott, Charles D.Whittington, Harry B.

PETROLOGY

Albee, Arden L.Bascom, FlorenceBowen, Norman L.

Brown, MichaelBuddington, Arthur F.Carmichael, Ian S.Cashman, Katherine V.Crawford, Maria LuisaGilbert, M. CharlesGrew, PriscillaHolmes, ArthurJahns, Richard H.Kuno, HisashiLindsley, Donald H.Mahood, Gail A.McSween, Harry Y., Jr.Pitcher, Wallace S.Selverstone, JaneSpear, Frank J.Stolper, Edward M.Tuttle, O. FrankValley, John W.Wones, David R.Wyllie, Peter J.Yoder, Hatten S., Jr.

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

Bally, Albert W.Friedman, GeraldKlein, George D.Withjack, Martha O.

PLANETARY GEOLOGY

Head, James W., IIIMcSween, Harry Y., Jr.Melosh, H.J.Sagan, Carl E.Shoemaker, Eugene M.Zuber, Maria T.

REGIONAL OR FIELD GEOLOGY

Bascom, FlorenceClark, ThomasCrawford, Maria LouisaDewey, JohnGlover, Lynn, IIIHatcher, Robert, Jr.

308 A to Z of Earth Scientists

Entries by Field 309

Rast, NicholasRodgers, JohnSelverstone, JaneStose, Anna I. JonasSylvester, Arthur G.Thompson, James B., Jr.Williams, HaroldZen, E-An

SEDIMENTOLOGY OR

STRATIGRAPHY

Alvarez, WalterAshley, Gail MowryBerner, RobertBouma, Arnold H.Burke, KevinChan, Marjorie A.Dickinson, William R.Dott, Robert H., Jr.Folk, Robert L.Friedman, Gerald M.Glover, Lynn, IIIHoffman, PaulHsu, Kenneth J.Jordan, Teresa E.Kay, MarshallKlein, George D.Landing, EdMcBride, Earle F.Miller, Kenneth G.Montanez, Isabel Patricia

Pettijohn, Francis J.Sloss, Laurence L.Twenhofel, William H.Vail, Peter R.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Bally, Albert W.Billings, Marland P.Burchfiel, B. ClarkCloos, ErnstHandin, John W.Hatcher, Robert D., Jr.Hsu, Kenneth J.Hubbert, M. KingMarshak, StephenMeans, Winthrop D.Moores, Eldridge M.Muehlberger, William R.Nance, R. DamianPrice, Raymond A.Ramberg, HansRamsay, John G.Sibson, Richard H.Simpson, CarolStock, Joann M.Suppe, John E.Sylvester, Arthur G.Tullis, Julia A. (Jan)Wenk, Hans-RudolfWise, Donald U.Withjack, Martha O.

TECTONICS

Alvarez, WalterAtwater, TanyaBurchfiel, B. ClarkBurke, Kevin C.A.Cox, Allan V.Dewey, John F.Dickinson, William R.Drake, Charles L.Ernst, W. GaryHess, Harry H.Hoffman, PaulHsu, Kenneth J.Matthews, DrummondMcKenzie, DanielMenard, H. WilliamMolnar, PeterMoores, Eldridge M.Muehlberger, William R.Nance, R. DamianOliver, Jack E.Ramberg, HansRast, NicholasRodgers, JohnRosendahl, Bruce R.Sengor, A.M. CelalStock, Joann M.Wegener, AlfredWilson, (John) Tuzo

310

AUSTRALIA

Bragg, Sir (William) LawrenceFairbridge, Rhodes W.Ringwood, Alfred E. (Ted)Skinner, Brian

AUSTRIA

Suess, Hans E.

CANADA

Bowen, Norman L.Cherry, John A.Dawson, Sir (John) WilliamHarrison, T. MarkHoffman, PaulKay, MarshallLogan, Sir William EdmondPrice, Raymond A.Williams, HaroldWilson, (John) Tuzo

CHINA

Hsu, Kenneth J.Zen, E-An

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Kent, Dennis

DENMARK

Lehmann, Inge

FRANCE

Allègre, ClaudeRomanowicz, Barbara

GERMANY

Cloos, ErnstFriedman, Gerald M.Gutenberg, BenoHolland, Heinrich D.Teichert, CurtWegener, Alfred

GREAT BRITAIN

Brown, MichaelBullard, Sir Edward C.Burke, Kevin C.A.Carmichael, Ian S.Clark, Thomas H.Conway Morris, SimonDewey, John F.Holmes, ArthurKerrich, RobertMatthews, Drummond H.McKenzie, Dan P.Nance, R. DamianO’Nions, Sir R. KeithPitcher, Wallace S.Ramsay, John G.Shackleton, Sir Nicholas J.Simpson, CarolSmith, Joseph V.

Whittington, Harry B.Wyllie, Peter J.

INDIA

Talwani, Manik

IRAN

Rast, Nicholas

ITALY

Rizzoli, Paola Malanotte

JAPAN

Hochella, Michael F., Jr.Kuno, Hisashi

NETHERLANDS

Bally, Albert W.Bouma, Arnold H.Klein, George D.Van der Voo, Robert

NEW ZEALAND

Fyfe, William S.Sibson, Richard H.

NORWAY

Ramberg, Hans

SWITZERLAND

Eugster, Hans P.

ENTRIES BYCOUNTRY OF BIRTH

Entries by Country of Birth 311

Montanez, Isabel PatriciaWenk, Hans-Rudolf

TURKEY

Sengor, A.M. Çelal

UNITED STATES

Albee, Arden L.Alley, Richard B.Alvarez, WalterAnderson, Don L.Ashley, Gail MowryAtwater, TanyaBascom, FlorenceBerner, RobertBerry, William B.N.Bethke, Craig M.Billings, Marland P.Birch, A. FrancisBloss, F. DonaldBodnar, Robert J.Bowring, Samuel A.Brantley, Susan L.Bredehoeft, John D.Broecker, Wallace S.Bromery, Randolph W. (Bill)Buddington, Arthur F.Burchfiel, B. ClarkCashman, Katherine V.Chan, Marjorie A.Cloud, Preston E., Jr.Cox, Allan V.Craig, HarmonCrawford, Maria LuisaDana, James D.Day, Arthur L.DePaolo, Donald J.Dickinson, William R.Dietz, Robert S.Dott, Robert H., Jr.Drake, Charles L.Dunbar, Carl O.Ernst, W. GaryEwing, W. MauriceFolk, Robert L.

Garrels, Robert M.Gilbert, G. KarlGilbert, M. CharlesGlover, Lynn, IIIGoldsmith, Julian R.Gould, Stephen JayGrew, Priscilla C.Griggs, David T.Handin, John W.Hatcher, Robert D., Jr.Hayes, John M.Head, James W., IIIHelgeson, Harold C.Herz, NormanHess, Harry H.Hubbert, M. KingImbrie, JohnJahns, Richard H.Jordan, Teresa E.Karig, Daniel E.Keller, Edward A.Kerr, Paul F.Landing, EdLiebermann, Robert C.Lindsley, Donald H.Mahood, Gail A.Marshak, StephenMcBride, Earle F.McNally, Karen C.McNutt, MarciaMcSween, Harry Y., Jr.Means, Winthrop D.Melosh, H.J.Menard, H. WilliamMiller, Kenneth G.Molnar, PeterMoores, Eldridge M.Morisawa, MarieMorse, John W.Muehlberger, William R.Mukasa, Samuel B.Navrotsky, AlexandraOliver, Jack E.Olsen, Paul E.Ostrom, John H.

Palmer, Allison R. (Pete)Patterson, Claire (Pat) C.Pettijohn, Francis J.Porter, Stephen C.Press, FrankRaup, David M.Raymo, Maureen E.Revelle, RogerRichter, Charles F.Rodgers, JohnRoedder, Edwin W.Rosendahl, Bruce R.Sagan, Carl E.Selverstone, JaneShoemaker, Eugene M.Sloss, Laurence L.Spear, Frank S.Stanley, Steven M.Stock, Joann M.Stolper, Edward M.Stose, Anna I. JonasSuppe, John E.Sykes, Lynn R.Sylvester, Arthur G.Taylor, Hugh P., Jr.Thompson, James B., Jr.Tilton, George R.Tullis, Julia A. (Jan)Turcotte, Donald L.Turekian, Karl K.Tuttle, O. FrankTwenhofel, William H.Vail, Peter R.Valley, John W.Veblen, David R.Walcott, Charles D.Walter, Lynn M.Watson, E. BruceWeeks, Alice, M.D.Wise, Donald U.Withjack, Martha O.Wones, David R.Yoder, Hatten S., Jr.Zoback, Mary LouZuber, Maria T.

312

AUSTRALIA

Fairbridge, Rhodes W.Liebermann, Robert C.Ringwood, Alfred E. (Ted)Skinner, Brian J.

AUSTRIA

Suess, Hans E.

CANADA

Cherry, John A.Clark, Thomas H.Dawson, Sir (John) WilliamFyfe, William S.Hoffman, PaulKerrich, RobertLogan, Sir William EdmondNance, R. DamianPrice, Raymond A.Rast, NicholasWilliams, HaroldWilson, (John) Tuzo

DENMARK

Lehmann, Inge

FRANCE

Allègre, ClaudeRomanowicz, Barbara

GERMANY

Cloos, ErnstGutenberg, BenoHolland, Heinrich D.Teichert, CurtWegener, Alfred

GREAT BRITAIN

Bragg, William Lawrence, SirBrown, MichaelBullard, Sir Edward C.Burke, Kevin C.A.Carmichael, Ian S.Conway Morris, SimonDewey, JohnFyfe, WilliamHolmes, ArthurMatthews, Drummond H.McKenzie, Dan P.Nance, R. DamianO’Nions, Sir R. KeithPitcher, Wallace S.Ramsay, John G.Rast, NicholasShackleton, Sir Nicholas J.Smith, Joseph V.Whittington, Harry B.Wyllie, Peter J.

ITALY

Rizzoli, Paola Malanotte

JAPAN

Kuno, Hisashi

NETHERLANDS

Bally, AlbertBouma, Arnold

NEW ZEALAND

Fyfe, William S.Sibson, Richard H.

NORWAY

Ramberg, Hans

SWITZERLAND

Eugster, HansHsu, KennethRamsay, John G.Wenk, Hans-Rudolf

TURKEY

Sengor, A.M. Çelal

UNITED STATES

Albee, Arden L.Alley, Richard B.

ENTRIES BY COUNTRY OFMAJOR SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY

Alvarez, WalterAnderson, Don L.Ashley, Gail MowryAtwater, TanyaBally, Albert W.Bascom, FlorenceBerner, RobertBerry, William B.N.Bethke, Craig M.Billings, Marland P.Birch, A. FrancisBloss, F. DonaldBodnar, Robert J.Bouma, Arnold H.Bowen, Norman L.Bowring, Samuel A.Brantley, Susan L.Bredehoeft, John D.Broecker, Wallace S.Bromery, Randolph W. (Bill)Brown, MichaelBuddington, Arthur F.Burchfiel, B. ClarkCarmichael, Ian S.Cashman, Katherine V.Chan, Marjorie A.Cloos, ErnstCloud, Preston E., Jr.Cox, Allan V.Craig, HarmonCrawford, Maria LuisaDana, James D.Day, Arthur L.DePaolo, Donald J.Dewey, John F.Dickinson, William R.Dietz, Robert S.Dott, Robert H., Jr.Drake, Charles L.Dunbar, Carl O.Ernst, W. GaryEugster, Hans P.

Ewing, W. MauriceFairbridge, Rhodes W.Folk, Robert L.Friedman, Gerald M.Garrels, Robert M.Gilbert, G. KarlGilbert, M. CharlesGlover, Lynn, IIIGoldsmith, Julian R.Gould, Stephen JayGrew, Priscilla C.Griggs, David T.Gutenberg, BenoHandin, John W.Harrison, T. MarkHatcher, Robert D., Jr.Hayes, John M.Head, James W., IIIHelgeson, Harold C.Herz, NormanHess, Harry H.Hochella, Michael F., Jr.Holland, Heinrich D.Hsu, Kenneth J.Hubbert, M. KingImbrie, JohnJahns, Richard H.Jordan, Teresa E.Karig, Daniel E.Kay, MarshallKeller, Edward A.Kent, Dennis V.Kerr, Paul F.Klein, George D.Landing, EdLiebermann, Robert C.Lindsley, Donald H.Mahood, Gail A.Marshak, StephenMcBride, Earle F.McNally, Karen C.McNutt, Marcia

McSween, Harry Y., Jr.Means, Winthrop D.Melosh, H.J.Menard, H. WilliamMiller, Kenneth G.Molnar, PeterMontanez, Isabel PatriciaMoores, Eldridge M.Morisawa, MarieMorse, John W.Muehlberger, William R.Mukasa, Samuel B.Nance, R. DamianNavrotsky, AlexandraOliver, Jack E.Olsen, Paul E.Ostrom, John H.Palmer, Allison R. (Pete)Patterson, Claire (Pat) C.Pettijohn, Francis J.Porter, Stephen C.Press, FrankRamberg, HansRast, NicholasRaup, David M.Raymo, Maureen E.Revelle, RogerRichter, Charles F.Rizzoli, Paola MalanotteRodgers, JohnRoedder, Edwin W.Romanowicz, BarbaraRosendahl, Bruce R.Sagan, Carl E.Selverstone, JaneShoemaker, Eugene M.Simpson, CarolSloss, Laurence L.Smith, Joseph V.Spear, Frank S.Stanley, Steven M.Stock, Joann M.

Entries by Country of Major Scientific Activity 313

314 A to Z of Earth Scientists

Stolper, Edward M.Stose, Anna I. JonasSuess, Hans E.Suppe, John E.Sykes, Lynn R.Sylvester, Arthur G.Talwani, ManikTaylor, Hugh D., Jr.Teichert, CurtThompson, James B., Jr.Tilton, George R.

Tullis, Julia A. (Jan)Turcotte, Donald L.Turekian, Karl K.Tuttle, O. FrankTwenhofel, William H.Vail, Peter R.Valley, John W.Van der Voo, RobertVeblen, David R.Walcott, Charles D.Walter, Lynn M.

Watson, E. BruceWeeks, Alice M.D.Wenk, Hans-RudolfWise, Donald U.Withjack, Martha O.Wones, David R.Wyllie, Peter J.Yoder, Hatten S., Jr.Zen, E-AnZoback, Mary LouZuber, Maria T.

315

1750–1800Logan, Sir William Edmond

1801–1850Dana, James D.Dawson, Sir (John) WilliamGilbert, G. KarlWalcott, Charles D.

1851–1880Bascom, FlorenceDay, Arthur L.Twenhofel, William H.Wegener, Alfred

1881–1890Bowen, Norman L.Bragg, Sir William LawrenceBuddington, Arthur F.Gutenberg, BenoHolmes, ArthurLehmann, IngeStose, Anna I. Jonas

1891–1900Clark, Thomas H.Cloos, ErnstDunbar, Carl O.Kerr, Paul F.Richter, Charles F.

1901–1910Billings, Marland P.Birch, A. FrancisBullard, Sir Edward C.Ewing, W. MauriceHess, Harry H.Hubbert, M. KingKay, MarshallKuno, HisashiPettijohn, Francis J.Revelle, RogerSuess, Hans E.Teichert, CurtWeeks, Alice M.D.Wilson, (John) Tuzo

1911–1920Bloss, F. DonaldCloud, Preston E., Jr.Dietz, Robert S.Fairbridge, Rhodes W.Garrels, Robert M.Goldsmith, Julian R.Griggs, David T.Handin, John W.Jahns, Richard H.Menard, H. WilliamMorisawa, MariePitcher, Wallace S.Ramberg, Hans

Rodgers, JohnRoedder, Edwin W.Sloss, Laurence L.Tuttle, O. FrankWhittington, Harry B.

1921–1930Albee, Arden L.Bally, Albert W.Bromery, Randolph W. (Bill)Burke, Kevin C.A.Carmichael, Ian S.Cox, Allan V.Craig, HarmonDott, Robert H., Jr.Drake, Charles L.Eugster, Hans P.Folk, Robert L.Friedman, Gerald M.Fyfe, William S.Glover, Lynn, IIIHerz, NormanHolland, Heinrich D.Hsu, Kenneth J.Imbrie, JohnMuehlberger, William R.Oliver, Jack E.Ostrom, John H.Palmer, Allison R. (Pete)Patterson, Claire (Pat) C.

ENTRIES BYYEAR OF BIRTH

316 A to Z of Earth Scientists

Press, FrankRast, NicholasRingwood, Alfred E. (Ted)Shoemaker, Eugene M.Skinner, Brian J.Smith, Joseph V.Thompson, James B., Jr.Tilton, George R.Turekian, Karl K.Vail, Peter R.Wyllie, Peter J.Yoder, Hatten S., Jr.Zen, E-An

1931–1940Allègre, ClaudeAlvarez, WalterAnderson, Don L.Berner, RobertBerry, William B.N.Bouma, Arnold H.Bredehoeft, John D.Broecker, Wallace S.Burchfiel, B. ClarkCrawford, Maria LuisaDewey, John F.Dickinson, William R.Ernst, W. GaryGilbert, M. CharlesGrew, Priscilla C.Hatcher, Robert D., Jr.Hayes, John M.Helgeson, Harold C.Karig, Daniel E.Klein, George D.Lindsley, Donald H.Matthews, Drummond H.McBride, Earle F.McNally, Karen C.Means, Winthrop D.Moores, Eldridge M.

Porter, Stephen C.Price, Raymond A.Ramsay, John G.Raup, David M.Sagan, Carl E.Shackleton, Sir Nicholas J.Sykes, Lynn R.Sylvester, Arthur G.Talwani, ManikTaylor, Hugh P., Jr.Turcotte, Donald L.Van der Voo, RobertWilliams, HaroldWise, Donald U.Wones, David R.

1941–1950Ashley, Gail MowryAtwater, TanyaBodnar, Robert J.Brown, MichaelCherry, John A.Gould, Stephen JayHead, James W., IIIHoffman, PaulKeller, Edward A.Kent, Dennis V.Kerrich, RobertLanding, EdLiebermann, Robert C.McKenzie, Dan P.McSween, Harry Y., Jr.Melosh, H.J.Molnar, PeterMorse, John W.Navrotsky, AlexandraO’Nions, Sir R. KeithRizzoli, Paola MalanotteRomanowicz, BarbaraRosendahl, Bruce R.Sibson, Richard H.

Simpson, CarolSpear, Frank S.Stanley, Steven M.Suppe, John E.Tullis, Julia A. (Jan)Valley, John W.Veblen, David R.Watson, E. BruceWenk, Hans-Rudolf

1951–1960Alley, Richard B.Bethke, Craig M.Bowring, Samuel A.Brantley, Susan L.Cashman, Katherine V.Chan, Marjorie A.Conway Morris, SimonDePaolo, Donald J.Harrison, T. MarkHochella, Michael F., Jr.Jordan, Teresa E.Mahood, Gail A.Marshak, StephenMcNutt, MarciaMiller, Kenneth G.Montanez, Isabel PatriciaMukasa, Samuel B.Nance, R. DamianOlsen, Paul E.Raymo, Maureen E.Selverstone, JaneSengor, A.M. ÇelalStock, Joann M.Stolper, Edward M.Walter, Lynn M.Withjack, Martha O.Zoback, Mary LouZuber, Maria T.

317

CHRONOLOGY

18001780 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Sir William LoganJames D. Dana

Sir William Dawson

Charles WalcottFlorence Bascom

Arthur L. Day

Alfred WegenerAnna Jonas Stose

William Twenhofel

G. Karl Gilbert

Norman L. BowenInge Lehmann

W. Lawrence BraggArthur Buddington

Beno Gutenberg

Arthur HolmesCarl Dunbar

Thomas ClarkPaul Kerr

Ernst CloosCharles Richter

Marland BillingsFrancis Birch

M. King HubbertMarshall Kay

Francis PettijohnCurt Teichert

W. Maurice EwingHarry HessSir Edward Bullard

J.Tuzo WilsonRoger Revelle

Hans Suess

Alice Weeks

318 A to Z of Earth Scientists

18001780 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Hisachi KunoDavid Griggs

Preston Cloud

Robert DietzRhodes Fairbridge

John Rodgers

Robert GarrelsRichard Tuttle

Richard Jahns

Lawrence Sloss

Harry WhittingtonHans Ramberg

John W. HandinMarie Morisawa

Julian Goldsmith

Wallace S. PitcherEdwin RoedderF. Donald Bloss

H. William MenardGerald Friedman

James Thompson Jr.Hatten Yoder Jr.Claire Patterson

Norman HerzWilliam Muehlberger

Jack OliverGeorge Tilton

Charles DrakeFrank PressAlbert Bally

Hans EugsterRobert FolkJohn Imbrie

R. William BromeryAllan CoxHarmon CraigWilliam Fyfe

Heinrich HollandAllison R. Palmer

Nicholas RastKarl TurekianArden Albee

Lynn Glover IIIJohn Ostrom

Chronology 319

18001780 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Eugene ShoemakerBrian SkinnerJoseph Smith

Kevin BurkeRobert Dott Jr.Kenneth Hsu

A. Edward RingwoodPeter Vail

Ian Carmichael

E-An Zen

Peter WyllieWilliam Berry

William DickinsonGary Ernst

Wallace Broecker

Harold HelgesonDrummond MatthewsJohn Ramsay

Donald WiseArnold BoumaEarle McBrideHugh Taylor

Donald TurcotteDavid WonesDon Anderson

John BredehoeftWinthrop MeansRaymond Price

David RaupManik Talwani

B. Clark BurchfielDonald LindsleyStephen Porter

Carl Sagan

Harold WilliamsRobert Berner

M. Charles GilbertClaude AllegreJohn DeweyDaniel Karig

Sir Nicholas ShackletonLynn Sykes

Eldridge MooresArthur Sylvester

320 A to Z of Earth Scientists

18001780 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Maria Louisa CrawfordGeorge KleinWalter Alvarez

Robert Hatcher Jr.John Hayes

Karen C. McNally

Gail AshleyJohn Cherry

Robert van der Voo

Priscilla Grew

Stephen Jay Gould

James Head III

Stephen StanleyHans-Rudolf Wenk

Paul Hoffman

Tanya AtwaterEdward Keller

Robert LiebermanDaniel McKenzie

John SuppePeter Molnar

Alexandra NavrotskyJan Tullis

Sir Keith O’NionsHarry McSween Jr.

Richard SibsonDennis KentJohn Morse

Paola Malanotte RizzoliBruce Rosendahl

Michael BrownH. Jay MeloshCarol Simpson

David VeblenRobert Kerrich

John ValleyRobert J. Bodnar

Ed LandingFrank Spear

Barbara RomanowiczBruce Watson

Simon Conway Morris

Donald DePaoloGail Mahood

Chronology 321

18001780 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

R. Damian NanceMartha WithjackT. Mark Harrison

Edward StolperMary Lou ZobackSamuel Bowring

Michael Hochella Jr.Teresa Jordan

Maureen Chan

Marcia McNutt

Paul OlsenLynn Walter

Stephen MarshakSamuel Mukasa

Katherine Cashman

Çelal SengorKenneth MillerJane Selverstone

Richard AlleyCraig BethkeSusan BrantleyMaria Zuber

Maureen Raymo

Joann StockIsabel Montanez

322

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325

INDEX

AAcadian Geology (Dawson) 66“accommodation zones” 225ACCRETE 62achondritic meteorites 247“acoustic fluidization” 169Active Tectonics (Keller) 139ADCOH. See Appalachian deep hole

projectAdriatic Sea 219Aeolian deposits 86African Americans, in geology 37Agassiz, Louis 64, 279The Age of the Earth (Holmes) 122airborne geophysical surveying 37Alaska, Harriman Expedition to 93Albee, Arden L. xiv, 1–2albite-anorthite diagram 29alkali feldspars 98alkali olivine basaltic magma 145Allègre, Claude 2–4Alley, Richard B. 4, 4–5alpine glaciation 93, 201Alps 229“alteration haloes” 141alternative energy sources 96alumina basalt magma 145aluminum silicate 94Alvarez, Luis 5Alvarez, Walter 5–6ALVIN 61, 121, 135American Association for the

Advancement of Science xiii, 64American Journal of Science 64amphiboles 95, 242, 276Analysis of Geologic Structures (Price) 206andalusite 94Anderson, Don L. 6–9, 7Andes Mountains 132, 133, 200anomalous field 256

anorthosites 40Antarctica 182, 203antidilational areas 235Antonio Feltrinelli Prize 218Apollo lunar program 2, 62, 116, 181,

182, 218, 227, 234Apollo lunar samples 1Appalachian deep hole project (ADCOH)

109Appalachian Mountains 21, 39, 53, 54,

96–97, 108–109, 220–221, 248, 288applied mineralogy 141Aqua-Lungs 74aqueous geochemistry

Brantley, Susan L. 32–34Walter, Lynn M. 280–281

Ar/Ar isotopic methods 106–108, 183Archaeopteryx 194Archean crust 143archaeological geology

Folk, Robert L. 85–87Herz, Norman 114–116

archaeology 8Arctic, soil erosion in 89asbestos 276ash deposits 156Ashley, Gail Mowry 9, 9–10Assembling California (McPhee) 177Association of Women Geoscientists 63asteroids 234“astrobleme” 73astrogeology 233–235astronomy 227–228Atlantic Ocean

development of 76–77modeling circulation of 219

Atlantic Rifts and Continental Margins(Talwani) 256

atmosphereevolution of 121

greenhouse gases in 175, 180, 191,214, 249

methane content of 61atmospheric science 266–268atolls 56, 64–65atomic bomb xiii, 22, 23, 103, 141atomic structure of minerals 31–32, 187Atomic Structure of Minerals (Bragg) 31attenuation of seismic waves 224Atwater, Tanya 10–12, 11, 175, 245aulocogens 45, 230automated petrographer 24Avalon Terrane 147

Bback-arc-basin areas 135, 289bacteria, and weathering of minerals 33Bagot, Sir Charles 154Bakker, Robert 194balanced cross section 205Bally, Albert W. xiv, 13–15, 14BAR. See Bloss Automated RefractometerBarcroft Granodiorite 79basaltic magma 218, 298basalts 62, 143, 152, 298basalt volcanism 156Bascom, Florence 15, 15–16, 249Basement Map of the United States

(Muehlberger) 182batholiths, granite 301bathythermograph 82BEARTEX 286bedded chert 161Bedrock Geology of New Hampshire

(Billings) 21“beer can experiment” 127Bence, A. E. 1Benioff Zone 253Berner, E. K. 17Berner, Robert 16–17, 91, 180

Note: Page numbers in boldface indicate main topics. Page numbers in italic refer to illustrations.

Berry, William B. N. 17–19Bethke, Craig M. xiv, 19, 19–20Billings, Marland P. 20–22, 283“biocomplexity” 244biogeochemistry 33, 89, 110biogeology 56biometrics 129biomolecular geochemistry 113biomolecules 113–114biopyroboles 276Biosphere 2 36biostratigraphy 18, 56, 147, 196, 259Birch, A. Francis xiii, 22–23Bird, J. M. 70BIRPS. See British Institutions Reflection

Profiling SyndicateBishop Tuff 156Black Sea 219“BLAG” model 91Bloss, F. Donald 23–25, 24Bloss Automated Refractometer (BAR) 24Bodnar, Robert J. 25–26bonding of minerals 187Boucot, Arthur 18boudinage 211Bouma, Arnold H. 26–28, 27Bouma sequence 26Bowen, Norman L. 28–30, 40, 98, 268,

269Bowen’s Reaction Series 28Bowring, Samuel A. 30, 30–31, 147Bragg, Sir William (father) 31, 32Bragg, Sir (William) Lawrence (son)

31–32Bragg’s Law 31Brantley, Susan L. xiv, 32–34Brazil 158breccia 235, 264Bredehoeft, John D. 34–35Brevard zone 248Bridgman, Percy W. 23British Institutions Reflection Profiling

Syndicate (BIRPS) 159brittle deformation 264Broecker, Wallace S. xiv, 35–37, 36Bromery, Randolph W. (Bill) 37–38Brookhaven National Laboratory 150Brown, Gordon 118Brown, Harrison 197Brown, Jerry 101Brown, Michael 38–40, 39“Brownian Motion” 222Buddington, Arthur F. 40–41, 117Bullard, Sir Edward C. xiii, 41–43, 161,

162Burchfiel, B. Clark 43, 43–44Burgess Shale 57–58, 278Burke, Kevin C. A. 44–46, 231

Burnham, Wayne 131Bush, George H. W. 76, 216Byrd, Richard E. 74

Ccalcite 160Caledonian-Appalachian orogen 210Caledonides 44, 200California Institute of Technology 1, 8, 67Cambrian Brachiopoda (Walcott) 278Cambrian-Ordovician boundary 260Cambrian-Precambrian boundary 30, 147Canada

fossils in 65–66Geological Survey of 153–154, 287

Canadian Rocky Mountain 13, 204Cane, Mark 174Capricorn Expedition 215carbonate atolls 56carbonate diagenesis 87carbonate petrology 175carbonates 98

and carbon dioxide 180classification of 85evaporation and deposition of 124precipitation and dissolution kinetics

of 280solubilities of 121

carbonatites 268, 296Carbonatites (Tuttle) 268carbon cycle 17, 110–111, 213carbon dioxide

in atmosphere 175, 214, 249carbonates and 180in volcanic gas 247

“Carbon Dioxide and World Climate”(Revelle) 214

Carboniferous fossil 65carbonitite magmas 268carbonitites 241carbon-13 method of isotopic dating 35carbon-14 method of isotopic dating 249Carlsberg Ridge 159Carmichael, Ian S. 47–48, 48, 157Carnegie Institution Seismological

Observatory 67Carpathians 43Carter, Jimmy 204Cashman, Katharine V. 49–50cataclasite 236, 264Catalog of Active Volcanoes (Kuno) 145Cauldron of Life (Conway Morris) 278cement 160, 280Center for High Pressure Research

(CHiPR) 150Center of Technophysics 106cephalopods 259Chan, Marjorie A. 50–51, 51

chaos theory 219, 266Charles M. Richter Seismological

Observatory 163The Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere

and Oceans (Holland) 121chemical oceanography 17, 35–37chemistry 249–250Chemistry of the Solar System (Suess) 249Cherry, John A. 51–53, 52Children of the Ice Age: How a Global

Catastrophe Allowed Humans to Evolve(Stanley) 244

China 201–202CHiPR. See Center for High Pressure

ResearchChristie, J. 265civil engineering 168Clark, Thomas H. 53–54Classical Marble: Geochemistry, Technology

and Trade (Herz) 115“Classical Theory of Orogenesis” (Sengor)

230clay minerals 141, 276climate change

Alley, Richard B. 4–5Broecker, Wallace S. 35–37carbon cycle and 17extraterrestrial influences and 84Fairbridge, Rhodes W. 84–85and foraminifera 172and glaciation 201–202Holland, Heinrich D. 121–122Imbrie, John 129–130lunar-solar tidal cyclicity and 50methane content of atmosphere and

61Olsen, Paul E. 191–192Raymo, Maureen E. 213–214Shackleton, Sir Nicholas J. 232–233tectonic processes and 174

clinojimthompsonite 261Clinton, Bill 8, 165, 204Cloos, Ernst 38, 54–55, 199Cloos, Hans 55“closure” temperatures 106–107, 183Cloud, Preston E., Jr. 56–57, 57coastlines, emergence and submergence of

84, 271COCORP 109, 159, 189coiling geometry of snails 211–212Colorado Front Ranges 229Colorado Plateau 77, 234, 284comets 169, 234Comsognathus 194Conestoga Limestone 248contact aureole 200Contact (Sagan) 227contamination of groundwater 50, 51–52

326 A to Z of Earth Scientists

continental breakup and dispersion 70continental crust 30, 82, 263continental extension, triple junctions in

45continental margins 76Continental Reflection Profiling Program.

See COCORPcontinent-continent collision 173continents 62, 69Conway Morris, Simon 57–59, 278,

287coral reefs 64–65, 84, 260Corals and Coral Islands (Dana) 64Cordilleras 43–44Cornell Andes Project 132“Correlation of Ash Flow Tuffs” (Mahood)

156Cosmos (Sagan) 227Council of Advisors on Science and

Technology 76Cousteau, Jacques 74Cox, Allan V. 44, 59–60, 116, 159Craig, Harmon 60–62, 61craterlike calderas 146craters

on Earth 73on Moon 73, 292

cratonic basins 144cratons 157Crawford, Maria Luisa (Weecha) 62–63,

63creationism 56, 74–75, 99, 244“creep” experiments 102Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary 5–6Crucible of Creation: The Burgess Shale and

the Rise of Animals (Morris) 58crystal fractionation 29crystallization of basaltic magma 298crystallization process of minerals 25, 28,

222crystallization rate 49crystallography 15Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry

(Bloss) 24crystal plasticity 285–286Crystal Structure of Minerals (Bragg) 31

DDabie-Sulu Belt 79Dahlen, Anthony 251Dalrymple, Brent 59Dana, James D. xiii, 64–65Darwin, Charles 65dating, isotope 68–69, 106–108, 183,

197, 257, 262Davis, Dan 251Dawson, Sir (John) William 65–67Day, Arthur L. xiii, 67–68

Death and Horses: Two Cases for thePrimacy of Variation, Case One 1996(Gould) 99

Death Valley, pull-apart (extensional)origin of 43

Decade of North American Geology(DNAG) 196

Deep Reflections of the Upper Mantle(DRUM) 159

Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) 82,135

deformationbrittle 264experimental rock 102, 105, 264oolite 54plastic 264of pluton 200, 254of rocks 208–209“thin-skinned” 13, 220–221

dehydration chemical reactions 89Deinonychus 194Dendrerpeton acadianum 65dense chlorinated solvents (DNAPLs) 52DePaolo, Donald J. 68–70DePoar, Declan 237Dewey, John F. 45, 70–72, 71, 231diagenesis 160“Diagenesis of Sandstone and Shale—

Applications to Exploration forHydrocarbons” (McBride) 160

diapirs 207Dickinson, William R. 72–73, 73Dietz, Robert S. 73–74differential thermal analysis (DTA) 141“Differentiation of Hawaiian Magmas”

(Kuno) 146diffraction of seismic waves 148–149dilational areas 235dinosaurs

extinction of 5–6, 77, 169functional morphology of 193–194

dissolution studies 33, 280DNAG. See Decade of North American

GeologyDNAPLs 52Donegal 200Dott, Robert H., Jr. 51, 74–76, 75Dott Ice Rise 75The Dragons of Eden (Sagan) 227Drake, Charles L. 76–77, 83DRUM. See Deep Reflections of the

Upper MantleDSDP. See Deep Sea Drilling ProgramDTA. See differential thermal analysisDunbar, Carl O. 56, 77–78dwarf bacteria. See nannobacteriaThe Dynamic Earth (Wyllie) 296dynamic recrystallization 285–286

EEarth

age of 122–123, 197craters on 73evolution of 192generation of magnetic field of 42imaging interior of 223magnetic field of 133, 256, 274,

285–286structure of deep interior of 6–7, 22

Earth (Press) 204earthquakes 253, 264

“capturing” 163control of 105fault surfaces during 235ground motions after 169and landslides 179magnitudes of 104, 216monitoring 203in nuclear power plant areas 96predicting 34, 253quantitative modeling of 162real-time estimation of parameters of

224on West Coast vs. East Coast 138

earth science advocacyGrew, Priscilla C. 100–102Palmer, Pete 196–197Revelle, Roger 214–216Zen, E-An 301–303

East African Rift System 42East African Rift Valley 60–61East Coast earthquakes 138East Coast geology 18, 20–21echinoids 211–212eclogite 123economic geology

Bodnar, Robert J. 25–26Buddington, Arthur F. 40–41Herz, Norman 114–116Kerr, Paul F. 141–142Kerrich, Robert 142–143Logan, Sir William Edmond

153–155Skinner, Brian J. 238–239Smith, Joseph V. 241–242

EDGE project 14, 256Ediacarian animals 147“Ejection of Rock Fragments from

Planetary Bodies” (Melosh) 169Elastic Waves in Layered Media (Ewing) 83electron microprobe 1, 62, 241Elementary Seismology (Richter) 217El Niño 174, 219emergence of coastlines 84, 271energy sources, alternative 96engineering geology 105England, Philip 174

Index 327

environmental geology xiv, 32–33, 87Environmental Geology (Keller) 139environmental problems 89Environmental Science (Keller) 139Eozoon canadense 66“Equilibria among Fe-Ti Oxides,

Pyroxenes, Olivine and Quartz”(Lindsley) 152

Ernst, W. Gary 79–80, 80, 95escape tectonics 45, 174“essay in geopoetry” 116Eugeosyncline 137Eugster, Hans P. 80–82Evaluating Riverscapes (Morisawa) 179“An Evaluation of Criteria to Deduce the

Sense of Movement in Sheared Rock”(Simpson and Schmid) 237

evolution 58of atmosphere 121of cephalopods 259Dana, James on 65of Earth 192of igneous rocks 29, 40of magmas 47punctuated equilibrium theory for

99Sagan, Carl on 227of sedimentary basins 72

fluid migration history in19–20

Stanley, Steven on 244evolutionary analysis 30evolutionary paleontology 56Evolution of Earth and Life Through Time

(Stanley) 244The Evolution of Igneous Rocks (Bowen)

29, 40Evolution of the Earth (Dott) 76Evolution of the Sedimentary Rocks (Garrels)

91Ewing, W. Maurice 44, 82–83, 149, 190,

204, 291“exobiology” 227experimental geochemistry

Fyfe, William S. 89–90Gilbert, M. Charles 94–96Watson, E. Bruce 281–282

experimental petrologyTuttle, O. Frank 268–269Wyllie, Peter J. 295–297

experimental rock deformation 102, 105,264

“Experimental Study of Oxide Minerals”(Lindsley) 152

extensional (pull-apart) origin of DeathValley 43

extinction of dinosaurs 5–6, 77, 169Extinction (Stanley) 244

extraterrestrial impactson climate 84and mass extinctions 5–6, 227,

233–234and Sudbury Basin 74

extraterrestrial rocks 1, 166“extrusion” tectonics 174

FFairbridge, Rhodes W. 84–85fault belt folds 250fault-bounded basins 225fault surfaces during earthquakes 235Feldspar Minerals (Smith) 241feldspars 97–98, 241, 264, 268feldspathoids 268Feltrinelli Prize 218Ferry, John 242Fe-Ti oxides 152field or regional geology

Bascom, Florence 15–16Clark, Thomas H. 53–54Cloos, Ernst 54–55Crawford, Maria Luisa (Weecha)

62–63Dewey, John F. 70–72Glover, Lynn, III 96–97Hatcher, Robert D., Jr. 108–110Rast, Nicholas 210–211Rodgers, John 220–221Selverstone, Jane 228–230Stose, Anna I. Jonas 248–249Sylvester, Arthur G. 254–255Thompson, James B., Jr. 261–262Williams, Harold 288–290Zen, E-An 301–303

Five Weeks (Gould) 99fluid dynamics 265–266fluid flow 19, 89fluid inclusion 25, 121, 222, 229fluids, in formation of minerals 81fluvial geomorphology 138fold and thrust belts 158, 220. See also

foreland thrust and fold systemFolding and Fracturing of Rocks (Ramsay)

209Folk, Robert L. 85–87, 86foraminifera 66, 172forearc prism 135Forel, François-Alphonse 216foreland thrust and fold system 204–205,

250–251fossils

in Canada 65–66Carboniferous 65Laurentian 66

Fourier Transform Infrared Microprobe 25fractals 266

fracture zones on ocean floor 70, 73Franciscan Complex 79Franconia Formation 269free oscillations 203Freeze, R. A. 53frictional aspects of faulting 236Friedman, Gerald M. xiv, 87–89, 88fugacity 81functional morphology 193–194fusulinids 77Fyfe, William S. 89–90

GGagnan, Emile 74Galapagos Islands 60gangue 238Gardner, Julia 249garnet 217–218, 243Garrels, Robert M. 91–92, 114gases

passage of, through sediments 87volcanic 49, 68, 246–247

gas mass spectrometer 106gas thermometers 67Genesis mission 249geobarometers 242geochemistry

Albee, Arden L. 1–2Allègre, Claude 2–4Berner, Robert 16–17Bodnar, Robert J. 25–26Bowen, Norman L. 28–30Bowring, Samuel A. 30–31Brantley, Susan L. 32–34Craig, Harmon 60–62Day, Arthur L. 67–68DePaolo, Donald J. 68–70Ernst, W. Gary 79–80Eugster, Hans P. 80–82Fyfe, William S. 89–90Garrels, Robert M. 91–92Gilbert, M. Charles 94–96Goldsmith, Julian R. 97–99Harrison, T. Mark 106–108Hayes, John M. 110–112Helgeson, Harold C. 113–114Hochella, Michael F., Jr. 117–119Holland, Heinrich D. 121–122Holmes, Arthur 122–124Kerrich, Robert 142–143Lindsley, Donald H. 152–153Mahood, Gail A. 156–157Montanez, Isabel Patricia 175–177Mukasa, Samuel B. 182–184O’Nions, Sir R. Keith 192–193Patterson, Clair (Pat) C. 197–198Raymo, Maureen E. 213–214Ringwood, Alfred E. (Ted) 217–219

328 A to Z of Earth Scientists

Roedder, Edwin W. 222–223Skinner, Brian J. 238–239Spear, Frank S. 242–244Stolper, Edward M. 246–248Suess, Hans E. 249–250Taylor, Hugh P., Jr. 257–259Thompson, James B., Jr. 261–262Tilton, George R. 262–264Turekian, Karl K. 266–268Tuttle, O. Frank 268–269Valley, John W. 272–274Walter, Lynn M. 280–281Watson, E. Bruce 281–282Yoder, Hatten S., Jr. 298–300

Geochemistry of Sedimentary Carbonates(Morse) 180

geochronology 30, 59geographic cycles 93Geological Methods for Archaeology (Herz)

115Geological Survey, U.S. 1, 92, 94, 278,

279, 284Geological Survey of Canada 153–154,

287Geologic Atlas of China (Hsu) 124geomorphology

Ashley, Gail Mowry 9–10Fairbridge, Rhodes W. 84–85fluvial 138Gilbert, G. Karl 92–94Holmes, Arthur 122–124Keller, Edward A. 138–139Morisawa, Marie 178–180Porter, Stephen C. 201–203tectonic 138

geophysicsAnderson, Don L. 6–9Atwater, Tanya 10–12Birch, A. Francis 22–23Bromery, Randolph W. (Bill) 37–38Bullard, Sir Edward C. 41–43Cox, Allan V. 59–60Day, Arthur L. 67–68Drake, Charles L. 76–77Ewing, W. Maurice 82–83Griggs, David T. 102–103Gutenberg, Beno 103–104Holmes, Arthur 122–124Hubbert, M. King 125–128Karig, Daniel E. 135–136Kent, Dennis V. 139–141Lehmann, Inge 148–150Liebermann, Robert C. 150–151Matthews, Drummond H. 159–160McKenzie, Dan P. 161–163McNally, Karen C. 163–164McNutt, Marcia 164–166Molnar, Peter 173–175

Oliver, Jack E. 189–191Press, Frank 203–204Richter, Charles F. 216–217Romanowicz, Barbara 223–224Rosendahl, Bruce R. 224–226Sykes, Lynn R. 252–254Talwani, Manik 256–257Turcotte, Donald L. 265–266Van der Voo, Rob 274–275Wilson, J. (John) Tuzo 290–291Zuber, Maria T. 304–305

geosynclinal theory 137geosyncline-contraction hypothesis for

mountain building 64geothermal potential of granite plutons 96geothermometer 98, 242geothermometry of metamorphic rocks

242germanium 217“ghost stratigraphy” 200Gibbs method 261Gilbert, G. Karl xiii, 92–94, 93Gilbert, M. Charles 94–96, 95Ginsburg, Robert 120glacial geology 201–203glacial geomorphology 8glacial marine sedimentation 8glaciation

alpine 93, 201analysis of 4movement of 4–5and sedimentation 35on worldwide basis 119

Glaciers and Glaciation (Gilbert) 93glaciologists, Alley, Richard B. 4–5glass, volcanic 157, 276global warming 175, 191, 214Glover, Lynn, III 96–97, 97gold deposits 142–143, 236Goldsmith, Julian R. 97–99, 241gouge 236Gould, Stephen Jay 57, 58, 99–100, 278,

287governmental work 3graded streams 93Graham, Rod 237granite batholiths 301granite magma 301granite pegmatites 131granite plutons 55, 95, 96, 200, 254, 294granites 262–263, 268granitoid plutons 39, 55, 258graptolites 18gravity 42, 76, 207, 256Gravity, Deformation and the Earth’s Crust

(Ramberg) 207gravity gradiometry 257Great Salt Lake 50, 93

greenhouse effect 214, 227, 249greenhouse gases 35, 175, 180, 191. See

also carbon dioxideGreenland 61Grenville type of anorthosites 40Grew, Priscilla C. 100–102, 101Griggs, David T. xiii, 102–103, 106, 124,

168, 265, 286Grotzinger, John 30groundwater

contamination of 50, 51–52enriched in minerals 160

Groundwater (Cherry and Freeze) 53groundwater flow 34Growth of a Prehistoric Time Scale Based on

Organismal Evolution (Berry) 18–19Gulf of California 246Gulf Stream 219Gutenberg, Beno 67, 103–104, 149, 203,

216

HHadrosaur 194half-grabens 225Hall, James 93–94, 279Handin, John W. 105–106Hardie, Lawrence 244Harriman Expedition to Alaska 93Harrison, T. Mark 106–108, 107, 243Hatcher, Robert D., Jr. 108–110, 109Hawaii 146, 290Hayes, John M. 110–112, 111, 232Head, James W., III 112–113heat flow 41

terrestrial 22heating, transformation of metamorphic

rocks into igneous rocks by 38Hebgen Lake earthquake 179Helgeson, Harold C. 113–114helium 3 60–61Herz, Norman 114–116Hess, Harry H. xiii, 6, 40, 44, 97,

116–117, 123, 146, 159, 177, 215,218, 291

high-resolution transmission electronmicroscope (HRTEM) 276, 286

Himalayas 44, 45, 107, 165, 173, 213Hobbs, Bruce 168Hochella, Michael F., Jr. 117–119, 118Hoffman, Paul 119–121, 120, 200Holland, Heinrich D. 121, 121–122Hollister, L. 229Holmes, Arthur 122–124Hoover, Herbert xiiihorizontal laminations in sandstone 161“hot dry rock” 96HRTEM. See high-resolution transmission

electron microscope

Index 329

Hsu, Kenneth J. 124–125, 125Hubbert, M. King 106, 125–128, 126hurricanes 219hydrocarbon-bearing basins 13hydrocarbon deposits 162hydrogen bomb 103hydrogeochemistry 33hydrogeology

Bethke, Craig M. 19–20Bredehoeft, John D. 34–35Cherry, John A. 51–53

“hydrolytic weakening” 102hydrothermal processes 142hydrothermal sea vents 60–61hydrothermal systems 89hyperthermophilic microbes 113–114

IIapetus Ocean 95Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery (Imbrie) 129igneous petrology

Carmichael, Ian S. 47–48Kuno, Hisashi 145–146

igneous rocksevolution of 29, 40origin of 123system of 40transformation of metamorphic rocks

into 38Imbrie, John xiv, 129–130, 232Impact Cratering (Melosh) 169impact craters 169impactogens 45, 230index of refraction 24“industrial effect” 250In Suspect Terrain (McPhee) 20International Space Station 2Introduction to the Methods of Optical

Crystallography (Bloss) 24invertebrate paleontology

Berry, William B. N. 17–19Conway Morris, Simon 57–59Imbrie, John 129–130Landing, Ed 147–148Palmer, Pete 196–197Raup, David M. 211–213Teichert, Curt 259–261Whittington, Harry B. 287–288

iridium 5–6iron ore deposits, “xenothermal” 40iron sulfide contents of coal 89Isacks, Bryan 189, 252island arcs 135“isochore” 222isostasy theory 284isotope geochemistry

Bowring, Samuel A. 30–31Craig, Harmon 60–62

DePaolo, Donald J. 68–70Harrison, T. Mark 106–108Holmes, Arthur 122–124Mukasa, Samuel B. 182–184Patterson, Clair (Pat) C.

197–198Taylor, Hugh P., Jr. 257–259Tilton, George R. 262–264

isotope geodynamics 2isotopes

radioactive 68–69, 106–108, 183,197, 257, 262, 267

stable 257–258, 272–273

JJahns, Richard H. 131–132, 268Jeffreys, Sir Harold 149, 290, 291Jensen, Hans 249jimthompsonite 261Johnson, Lyndon 204, 214Jordan, Teresa E. 132–134, 133Jupiter 112Jurassic Park (movie) 193

KKarig, Daniel E. 135–136, 136Kay, George F. 137Kay, Marshall 136–138Keller, Edward A. 138–139, 139Kelvin, Lord 122Kennedy, John F. 204, 215Kent, Dennis V. 139–141, 140Kerr, Paul F. 141–142Kerrich, Robert 142–143“keystone structures” 254–255Kidd, Bill 45kimberlites 241, 296kinematic indicators 237Kirschvink, Joe 119Klein, George D. 143–145, 144Knopf, Eleanora 248, 249Kokchetav Massif 79KREEP 62Krumbein, William 240K-T boundary 5–6Kuno, Hisashi 145–146, 146kyanite 94

LLake Bonneville 50, 93Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

76, 77, 82, 83, 130, 189Landing, Ed 30, 147–148, 148landslides 141, 179Laramie Anorthosite Complex 152Laser Raman Microprobe 25Laurentian fossils 66lava 49

lead. See also uranium-lead isotopicmethods

human induced buildup of 198terrestrial, isotope evolution of 198

Lehmann, Inge xiv, 148–150Lehmann Discontinuity 148–149Levy, David 234Liebermann, Robert C. 150–151, 151Lindsley, Donald H. 40, 152–153, 153“lindsleyite” 153lithology 240lithosphere 159, 205lock-in temperatures. See “closure”

temperaturesloess deposits 201–202Logan, Sir William Edmond 66, 153–155Loihi seamount 61long-period surface waves 203Lorenz, Edward 219low-resolution transmission electron

microscope 276lunar petrology and geochemistry 62, 146lunar samples 62, 146, 247lunar-solar tidal cyclicity 50Lyell, Charles 65, 66

MMacArthur, Douglas 103Macdonald Seamount 61mafic magmas 162Magellan mission 112, 252, 304magma(s)

alkali olivine basaltic 145alumina basalt 145basaltic 218, 298carbonitite 268granite 301isotopic analysis of 263mafic 162origin and evolution of 47passage of gases through 49rhyolitic 156tholeiite basaltic 145

magma differentiation 29magnetic field of Earth 133, 256, 274,

285–286magnetic polarity stratigraphy 132–133magnetism in marine sediments 139magnetism on ocean floor 59magnetite 139, 274magnetostratigraphy 139–140“magnitude scales” 104Mahood, Gail A. 156–157Maksyutov Complex 79Malvinas Plate 246manganese nodules on ocean floor 171Manhattan Project 23, 103, 141mantled gneiss domes 207

330 A to Z of Earth Scientists

“Mantle Reservoirs and Ocean IslandBasalts” (McKenzie) 162

Manual of Geology (Dana) 64“Mapping the Descent of Indian and

Eurasian Plates Beneath the TibetanPlateau from Gravity Anomalies”(McNutt) 165

Marathon Basin 161marble 115Mariana Trough 61marine geology

Dietz, Robert S. 73–74Karig, Daniel E. 135–136

marine geophysicsAtwater, Tanya 10–12Matthews, Drummond H.

159–160McNutt, Marcia 164–166

marine sedimentsmagnetism in 139mineralogy and petrology of 301stratigraphy of 69

Mars 112, 162, 166, 169, 227, 304Mars Exploration rovers 166Mars Global Surveyor Mission 2, 166,

304Marshak, Robert E. 158Marshak, Stephen 157–159, 158Mars Observer Mission 1–2Mars Odyssey spacecraft 166Mars Pathfinder 166Martian meteorites 166

nannobacteria on 86Martic Line 248mass extinctions 227, 244. See also

extinction of dinosaursmass spectrometry 192, 197material science 187–188Matthews, Drummond H. 116, 159–160McBride, Earle F. 160–161McKenzie, Dan P. 161–163McNally, Karen C. 163–164McNamara, Robert 103McNutt, Marcia 164–166McPhee, John 17, 20, 177McSween, Harry (Hap) Y., Jr. 166–167,

167Means, Winthrop D. 167–169mechanical engineering 168Mediterranean salinity crisis 124Mediterranean Sea 219melange 124melanosome 38Melosh, H. J. 169–170, 170“Melosh Transformation” 169melting, transformation of metamorphic

rocks into igneous rocks by 38“membrane theory” 265

Memoirs of an Unrepentant Field Geologist(Pettijohn) 199

Menard, H. William 10, 73, 136,170–172, 171

Mercalli, Giuseppe 216Mercury 304metal complexes, formation of 89metamorphic hydrothermal processes

142metamorphic petrology

Albee, Arden L. 1–2Brown, Michael 38–40Fyfe, William S. 89–90Selverstone, Jane 228–230Spear, Frank S. 242–244Thompson, James B., Jr. 261–262Valley, John W. 272–274

metamorphic rocksfossils in 261geothermometry of 242transformation of, into igneous rocks

38metamorphism 94

subduction zone 79metazoans 56, 58, 147Meteor Crater 234meteorite impact structures 73meteorites

achondritic 247breaking apart in atmosphere 169chemistry of 249isotopic analysis for dating 197Martian 166

nannobacteria on 86stable isotopes in 258

meteorology 284–285methane content of atmosphere 61micas 276, 294microbes 113–114microearthquakes 163microorganisms, on surface of minerals

117–118micropaleontology 172–173microstructures 168mid-ocean ridge 156, 253MidPac Expedition 215migmatites 38–39Milankovitch cycles 191, 232, 271Miller, Kenneth G. 172–173, 173Mineral Equilibria at Low Temperatures

and Pressures (Garrels) 91mineralogy

Bloss, F. Donald 23–25Bragg, Sir (William) Lawrence

31–32Dana, James D. 64–65Goldsmith, Julian R. 97–99Hochella, Michael F., Jr. 117–119

Jahns, Richard H. 131–132Kerr, Paul F. 141–142Liebermann, Robert C. 150–151Navrotsky, Alexandra 187–188Smith, Joseph V. 241–242Veblen, David R. 275–277Weeks, Alice M. D. 282–284Wenk, Hans-Rudolf 285–287Wones, David R. 294–295

minerals. See also specific mineralatomic structure of 31–32, 187bonding of 187classification of 40crystallization process of 25, 28,

222dating 106–108groundwater enriched in 160“hydrolytic weakening” in 102melting 38–39microorganisms on surface of

117–118optical properties of 24role of fluids in formation of 81systematized 64thermodynamic properties of 47transformation of, pressure and 150weathering of 33

Miogeosyncline 137The Mismeasure of Man (Gould) 99Modipe gabbro 192Molnar, Peter 11, 173–175, 174, 245Montanez, Isabel Patricia 175–177, 176Moon

craters on 73, 292evolution of crust and mantle on

304gravity measurements on 257origin of 218, 291–292recording events on 203samples from 62, 146, 247seismographs on 189stable isotopes on 258

Moores, Eldridge, M. 177–178, 178Morisawa, Marie 178–180Morse, John W. 180–181“Mountain Belts and the New Global

Tectonics” (Dewey and Bird) 70mountain belts on Venus 112mountain building 64, 173, 220Mountain Building Processes (Hsu) 124Mount Rogers 248Muehlberger, William R. xiv, 181,

181–182Muir, John 93Mukasa, Samuel B. 182–184, 183Munoz, J. 229mylonites 264mylonite zones 237

Index 331

NNafe, Jack 76Nafe-Drake curve 76Nance, R. Damian 185–187, 186nannobacteria

discovery of 86in Martian meteorites 86

nappes 261NASA

Albee, Arden and 1–2Allègre, Claude and 2Burke, Kevin C. A. and 45Hess, Harry and 116Jahns, Richard and 132Kuno, Hisashi and 146McSween, Harry and 166, 167Muehlberger, William and 181, 182Ringwood, Alfred and 218Sagan, Carl and 227Shoemaker, Eugene and 234Suess, Hans and 249Suppe, John and 252Zuber, Maria and 304

national defense 102, 103National Synchotron Light Sources 150“Nature and Origin of Granite” (Pitcher)

200Navrotsky, Alexandra 187–188neodymium 69, 192Neodymium Isotope Geochemistry: An

Introduction (DePaolo) 69nepheline-anorthite diagram 28–29Neukum, Gerhart 292neutron diffraction 286Newark Basin 140, 191New Madrid seismic zone 157, 303“North American Geosynclines” (Kay)

137North Qaidam belt 79North Qilian belt 79Nova Scotia 65Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 163nuclear testing 149, 203, 253nuclear waste, disposal of 34, 110

Ooblique convergence 136“oblique rifting” 293obsidian 157, 276ocean basin, formation of 44ocean circulation 219, 267ocean crust 30, 82, 116Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) 135, 215ocean exploration 165ocean floor

fracture zones on 10, 70, 73, 162,170, 253

heat flow on 41–42

magnetism on 59manganese nodules on 171mapping of 73seismographs on 189

oceanographyBroecker, Wallace S. 35–37, 36Craig, Harmon 60–62Dietz, Robert S. 73–74Ewing, W. Maurice 82–83Hayes, John M. 110–112Hess, Harry H. 116–117Karig, Daniel E. 135–136Menard, H. William 170–172Morse, John W. 180–181Revelle, Roger 214–216Rizzoli, Paola Malanotte

219–220Turekian, Karl K. 266–268

ocean sediments, dating 35octochlorophane 168ODP. See Ocean Drilling Programoil, passage of, through sediments 87Oliver, Jack E. 83, 109, 159, 189–191,

190, 253olivine 152, 217Olsen, Paul E. 140, 191–192O’Nions, Sir R. Keith 192–193oolite deformation 54opaque minerals 141ophiolites 70, 136, 177, 182–183Oppenheimer, Robert 23, 103optical glass production xiii, 67Optical Mineralogy (Kerr) 142optical properties of minerals 24Ordovician-Cambrian boundary 260Ordovician-Silurian boundary 269ore deposits 40, 81, 121ore genesis 238“Origin and classification of precipitants in

terms of pH and oxidation-reduction”(Garrels) 91

The Origin of Anorthosites and RelatedRocks (Buddington) 40

The Origin of Continents and Oceans(Wegener) 284

The Origin of Metamorphic andMetasomatic Rocks (Ramberg) 207

orogen(s) 109Caledonian-Appalachian 210Taconic 220Wopmay 119

orogenic belts 185–186Ostrom, John H. 193–195An Outline of Structural Geology (Means,

Hobbs, and Williams) 168overpopulation, warnings about 56Oxburgh, Ron 192oxide minerals 152

PPacific-Antarctic Ridge 246Pakistan 260paleoanthropology 8paleobiology 191–192paleoceanography 172paleoclimatology 129–130, 200paleoecology 129, 172, 269paleomagnetics 59

Kent, Dennis V. 139–141Van der Voo, Rob 274–275

paleontologyBerry, William B. N. 17–19Clark, Thomas H. 53–54Cloud, Preston E., Jr. 56–57Conway Morris, Simon 57–59Dawson, Sir (John) William

65–67Dunbar, Carl O. 77–78Gould, Stephen Jay 99–100Imbrie, John 129–130Landing, Ed 147–148Miller, Kenneth G. 172–173Olsen, Paul E. 191–192Ostrom, John H. 193–195Palmer, Allison R. (Pete) 196–197Raup, David M. 211–213Stanley, Steven M. 244–245Teichert, Curt 259–261Walcott, Charles D. 278–279Whittington, Harry B. 287–288

paleotemperatures 4–5, 242Paleozoic stratigraphy 240palinspastic reconstruction 205Palmer, Allison R. (Pete) 196–197, 301The Panda’s Thumb (Gould) 99Pangea 42, 161, 182, 183, 185, 290Panthalassa 185Parasaurolophus 194Paschier, Cees 237Patterson, Clair (Pat) C. 197–198, 262“Patterson Peak” 198pegmatites 131, 207, 268peridotites 116“perovskite” structure 218Peruvian Andes 200petrographer, automated 24petroleum exploration xiv, 26, 27, 87,

109, 144, 160, 162, 256–257, 271petroleum geology

Bally, Albert W. 13–15Friedman, Gerald M. 87–89Klein, George D. 143–145Withjack, Martha O. 293–294

petroleum refining 241“Petrological Notes on Some Pyroxene

Andesites from Hakone Volcano”(Kuno) 145

332 A to Z of Earth Scientists

petrologyAlbee, Arden L. 1–2Bascom, Florence 15–16Bowen, Norman L. 28–30Brown, Michael 38–40Buddington, Arthur F. 40–41Carmichael, Ian S. 47–48Cashman, Katharine V. 49–50Crawford, Maria Luisa (Weecha)

62–63Gilbert, M. Charles 94–96Grew, Priscilla C. 100–102Holmes, Arthur 122–124Jahns, Richard H. 131–132Kuno, Hisashi 145–146Lindsley, Donald H. 152–153Mahood, Gail A. 156–157McSween, Harry (Hap) Y., Jr.

166–167Pitcher, Wallace S. 200–201Selverstone, Jane 228–230Spear, Frank S. 242–244Stolper, Edward M. 246–248Thompson, James B., Jr. 261–262Tuttle, O. Frank 268–269Valley, John W. 272–274Wones, David R. 294–295Wyllie, Peter J. 295–297Yoder, Hatten S., Jr. 298–300Zen, E-An 301–303

Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks (Folk) 87

Pettijohn, Francis J. 120, 126, 161,199–200

PHD. See porphyroclast hyperbolicdistribution

Physics of the Earth’s Interior (Gutenberg)104

Piccard, Jacques 74Pitcher, Wallace S. 200–201plagioclase 28, 29planetary geology

Head, James W., III 112–113McSween, Harry (Hap) Y., Jr.

166–167Melosh, H. J. 169–170Sagan, Carl E. 227–228Shoemaker, Eugene M. 233–235Wise, Donald U. 291–292Zuber, Maria T. 304–305

plastic deformation 264plasticity, crystal 285–286plate motion modeling 265plate subduction process 79plate tectonics xiii–xiv, 42, 72, 73, 104

Atwater-Tanya 10–12Burke, Kevin C. A. 44–46Cox, Allan V. 59–60

Dewey, John F. 70–72Ernst, W. Gary 79–80Hess, Harry H. 116–117Menard, H. William 170–172Oliver, Jack E. 189–191Sengor, A. M. Çelal 230–232Stock, Joann M. 245–246Sykes, Lynn 252–254Wegener, Alfred 284–285Wilson, J. (John) Tuzo 290–291

“Plate Tectonics and SandstoneCompositions” (Dickinson) 72

Plio-Pleistocene ice age 244pluton deformation 200, 254pluton emplacement 200, 254plutons

granite 55, 95, 96, 200, 254, 294granitoid 39, 55, 258

polar ice caps 4polymorphs 94porphyroclast hyperbolic distribution

(PHD) 237“Porphyroclast Systems as Kinematic

Indicators” (Simpson and Paschier)237

Porter, Stephen C. 201–203, 202potassium-argon isotopic methods. See

Ar/Ar isotopic methodsPowell, John Wesley xiii, 92, 94Precambrian-Cambrian boundary 30,

147Press, Frank xiv, 76, 82, 83, 149, 189,

203, 203–204pressure, and transformation of minerals

150Pressure-Temperature (P-T) path 243Pressure-Temperature-time (P-T-t) path

243Price, Raymond A. 204–206, 205Principles of Paleontology (Raup and

Stanley) 212Principles of Sedimentology (Friedman)

88Principles of Stratigraphic Analysis (Berry)

18Principles of Stratigraphy (Dunbar and

Rodgers) 78PROBE program 225“pseudotachylite” 236P-T path 243P-T-t path 243pull-apart (extensional) origin of Death

Valley 43pumice 49pyroboles 276“pyrolite” 218pyroxenes 95, 116, 145, 152, 217–218,

276

Q“Quantitative Pressure-Temperature Paths

from Zoned Minerals: Theory andTectonic Applications” (Spear andSelverstone) 243

quartz 160, 264, 268“Quartz Cement in Sandstone: A Review”

(McBride) 160quaternary geology 201–203Quebec 65Questioning the Millennium (Gould) 99“quick clays” 141

Rradioactive isotopes 106–108, 183, 197,

257, 262, 267radioactivity 37, 68radiocarbon, distribution of, around

Atlantic Ocean 35radiogenic lead 197Ramberg, Hans 207–208Ramsay, John G. 168, 208–209, 237Rast, Nicholas 210, 210–211Raup, David M. 211–213Raymo, Maureen E. 174, 213, 213–214Raymo-Chamberlin Hypothesis 213“reaction space” 261Read, J. Fred 176recrystallization, dynamic 285–286Redfield, Alfred 16Red Sea 76reefs 64–65, 84, 260reflection seismology 224–226refraction, index of 24regional geology. See field or regional

geologyregional tectonics

Hatcher, Robert D., Jr. 108–110Williams, Harold 288–290

“Renegade Tectonic Models and OtherGeologic Heresies . . .” (Glover) 97

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 281“Report on the Geology of the Henry

Mountains” (Gilbert) 92research, scientific 16–17research papers, successful 1retrodeformable balanced cross-sections

205Revelle, Roger xiii, 42, 84, 214–216, 249rhyolite volcanism 156rhyolitic magmas 156Richter, Charles F. 67, 104, 216–217Richter scale 103–104, 216rifting 162Riley, Richard 110“ring tectonics” 169Ringwood, Alfred E. (Ted) 145, 151, 187,

217–219

Index 333

river systems 179Rizzoli, Paola Malanotte 219–220Rocard, Yves 3rock mechanics 127

Griggs, David T. 102–103Tullis, Julia A. (Jan) 264–265

rocksclassification of 40dating 106–108deformation of 208–209experimental deformation of 102,

105, 264extraterrestrial 1, 166sedimentary. See sedimentary rocks

rock-water interface geochemistry 91Rocky Mountains 133Rodgers, John 78, 220–221, 221Rodinia 147, 185, 196Roedder, Edwin W. 26, 222, 222–223Romanowicz, Barbara 223–224Rosendahl, Bruce R. 224–226, 225Rossi, Michele Stefano de 216Royden, Leigh 44

SSagan, Carl E. xiv, 227–228Saint Lawrence Valley 53salt domes 13, 181Salton Sea 238salt tectonics 207samarium 69San Andreas Fault 11, 174, 246, 252,

254, 303sandstone 160, 199Sandstone Depositional Models for

Exploration for Fossil Fuels (Klein) 145sandstones 72São Francisco craton 158SAR. See Synthetic Aperture RadarSaturn 227Scaglia Rossa 5scanning electron microscope (SEM) 86,

286scapolite 98Schmid, Stefan 237Schuchert, Charles 78, 269, 270science advocacy. See Earth science

advocacyscientific research 16–17Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Deep-Tow vehicle 60–61seafloor spreading 10, 59, 159, 170sedimentary basins

development of 45evolution of 72

fluid migration history in 19–20migration of pore fluids during burial

in 175

modeling 162types of 13

sedimentary geochemistry 17sedimentary rocks 199

chemical systems of 91classification of 85

Sedimentary Rocks (Pettijohn) 199sedimentation

glaciation and 35syntectonic 72volcaniclastic 72

sedimentology. See also stratigraphyAshley, Gail Mowry 9–10Berner, Robert 16–17Bouma, Arnold H. 26–28Chan, Marjorie A. 50–51Dickinson, William R. 72–73Dott, Robert H., Jr. 74–76Folk, Robert L. 85–87Friedman, Gerald M. 87–89Hsu, Kenneth J. 124–125Klein, George D. 143–145McBride, Earle F. 160–161Miller, Kenneth G. 172–173Montanez, Isabel Patricia 175–177Pettijohn, Francis J. 199–200Twenhofel, William H. 269–270

sediments 26–27foraminifera-rich 172marine

magnetism in 139stratigraphy of 69

passage of oil and gas through 87seismic discontinuity 217seismic interpretation 14Seismicity of the Earth (Gutenberg and

Richter) 104seismic networks 82, 149, 189seismic pumping 236seismic reflection profiling 14, 42, 76, 82,

96, 132, 158, 189, 257, 293seismic stratigraphy 14, 132, 271, 293seismic tomography 7, 223seismic waves 7, 223

attenuation of 224diffraction of 148–149propagation of 103–104travel of 150velocities of 150, 203, 285–286

seismographs 7, 42, 96, 138, 189, 216seismology 203, 303–304“Seismology and the new Global

Tectonics” (Isacks, Oliver, and Sykes)252–253

Seismology of the Earth (Gutenberg) 217Selverstone, Jane 228–230, 229, 243SEM. See scanning electron microscopeSengor, A. M. Çelal 45, 230–232, 231

Sequences in the Cratonic Interior of NorthAmerica (Sloss) 240

sequence stratigraphy 240, 271–272serpentinites 116Shackleton, Sir Nicholas J. xiv, 232–233Shewanella (microorganism) 117–118Shoemaker, Eugene M. 233–235, 234Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet 169, 233–234Sibson, Richard H. 235, 235–236silicates 187silicic volcanism 156silicon 98sillimanite 94Silurian-Ordovician boundary 269“simple squeezer” 102Simpson, Carol 236–238, 237Simpson Desert 86Skinner, Brian J. 238–239, 239Sloss, Laurence L. 239–241smectite clay mineralogy 89Smith, Joseph V. 241–242snails, coiling geometry of 211–212“Snowball Earth” hypothesis 119, 200sodium feldspar 98“Sofar” long-range submarine sound 83soil erosion, in Arctic 89Southern California Earthquake Center

163Spear, Frank S. 228, 229, 242–244, 243spectrometer, X-ray 31spectrometry, mass 192, 197spectroscopy, in mineralogy 23–24“spindle stage” 24spinel structure 217“spots and stains” theory 190stable isotopes 257–258, 272–273Stanley, Steven M. 212, 244–245Steinman’s Trinity 177Stern, C. R. 229Stimson, Henry 103Stock, Joann M. 245–246Stolper, Edward M. 246–248Stose, Anna I. Jonas 248–249Stratigraphic Atlas of North and Central

America (Bally) 13“Stratigraphic Models in Exploration”

(Sloss) 240stratigraphy. See also sedimentology

Alvarez, Walter 5–6Burke, Kevin C. A. 44–46Glover, Lynn, III 96–97Hoffman, Paul 119–121Jordan, Teresa E. 132–134Kay, Marshall 136–138Landing, Ed 147–148magnetic polarity 132–133Paleozoic 240Pettijohn, Francis J. 199–200

334 A to Z of Earth Scientists

seismic 14, 132, 271, 293sequence 271–272“sequence” 240Sloss, Laurence L. 239–241Vail, Peter R. 271–272

Stratigraphy and Sedimentation (Krumbeinand Sloss) 240

stratigraphy of marine sediments 69Stratigraphy of Western Australia (Teichert)

259“The Strength of the Earth” (Hubbert)

126Stress and Strain: Basic Concepts of

Continuum Mechanics for Geologists(Means) 168

“The Stretching Model for SedimentaryBasins” (McKenzie) 162

strike-slip faulting 109strontium 69structural geology

Bally, Albert W. 13–15Billings, Marland P. 20–22Burchfiel, B. Clark 43–44Cloos, Ernst 54–55Handin, John W. 105–106Hatcher, Robert D., Jr. 108–110Hsu, Kenneth J. 124–125Hubbert, M. King 125–128Marshak, Stephen 157–159Means, Winthrop D. 167–169Moores, Eldridge, M. 177–178Muehlberger, William R. 181–182Nance, R. Damian 185–187Price, Raymond A. 204–206Ramberg, Hans 207–208Ramsay, John G. 208–209Sibson, Richard H. 235–236Simpson, Carol 236–238Stock, Joann M. 245–246Suppe, John E. 250–252Sylvester, Arthur G. 254–255Tullis, Julia A. (Jan) 264–265Wenk, Hans-Rudolf 285–287Wise, Donald U. 291–292Withjack, Martha O. 293–294

Structural Geology (Billings) 21Structural Geology (Hubbert) 127Strutt, R. J. 123The Study of Pegmatites (Jahns) 132subaerial erosion 92subduction zone 135, 163, 169, 296subduction zone metamorphism 79submarine fans 26–27submarine scarps 73submergence of coastlines 84, 271subsurface process 33Sudbury Basin 74Suess, Edward 250

Suess, Hans E. 214, 249–250“Suess effect” 250sulfides 121, 180, 238sulfur 180, 238, 247supercontinent 185. See also Pangea;

Rodinia“The Supercontinent Cycle” (Nance) 185superocean 185“The Superswell and Mantle Dynamics

beneath the South Pacific” (McNutt)164

Suppe, John E. 250–252, 251surface chemistry of minerals 117–118surface waves 203Sutter, John 183suture zones 70Sykes, Lynn R. xiv, 76, 83, 189, 252–254,

290Sylvester, Arthur G. 254, 254–255synchotron 241synchotron X-ray diffraction 286“Synextensional Magmatism in the Basin

and Range Province; A Study from theEastern Great Basin” (Mahood) 156

“Synkinematic Microscopy of TransparentPolycrystals” (Means) 168

syntectonic sedimentation 72Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) 112synthetic fluid inclusion 25systematized minerals 64System of Mineralogy (Dana) 64

TTaconic orogen 220Talwani, Manik 83, 256–257taper 251Tapponnier, Paul 173Tauern Window 229Taylor, Hugh P., Jr. 257–259, 258The Techniques of Modern Structural

Geology (Ramsay) 209“tectonic escape” of landmasses 230tectonic geomorphology 138Tectonic-Lithofacies Map of the Appalachian

Orogen (Williams) 288Tectonic Map of North America

(Muehlberger) 182tectonics

Alvarez, Walter 5–6Atwater, Tanya 10–12Burchfiel, B. Clark 43–44Burke, Kevin C. A. 44–46Cox, Allan V. 59–60Dewey, John F. 70–72Dickinson, William R. 72–73Drake, Charles L. 76–77Ernst, W. Gary 79–80“escape” or “extrusion” 174

Glover, Lynn, III 96–97Hatcher, Robert D., Jr. 108–110Hess, Harry H. 116–117Hoffman, Paul 119–121Hsu, Kenneth J. 124–125Matthews, Drummond H. 159–160McKenzie, Dan P. 161–163Menard, H. William 170–172Molnar, Peter 173–175Moores, Eldridge, M. 177–178Muehlberger, William R. 181–182Nance, R. Damian 185–187Oliver, Jack E. 189–191Ramberg, Hans 207–208Rast, Nicholas 210–211Rodgers, John 220–221Rosendahl, Bruce R. 224–226Selverstone, Jane 228–230Sengor, A. M. Çelal 230–232Stock, Joann M. 245–246Wegener, Alfred 284–285Williams, Harold 288–290Wilson, J. (John) Tuzo 290–291

“tectonic surge” 62Teichert, Curt 259–261tektites 258TEM. See transmission electron

microscopeterrestrial heat flow 22terrestrial lead, isotope evolution of 198Tethys Ocean 230textural analysis 285–287“Theory of Groundwater Motion”

(Hubbert) 126“A Theory of Mountain Building” (Griggs)

102–103“Theory of Scale as Applied to the Study

of Geologic Structures” (Hubbert) 126thermal conductivity 41thermal decay 161–162thermochronology 107, 183thermocouples 222thermodynamic properties of minerals 47thermodynamic research 152thermodynamics 47, 91, 187, 261thermometers 222Thin-Section Mineralogy (Kerr) 142“thin-skinned” deformation 13, 220–221tholeiite basaltic magma 145Thompson, James B., Jr. 261–262“Thompson Diagrams” 261three-dimensional transmission electron

microscopy (3DTEM) 286thrust belts. See fold and thrust beltsTibetan Plateau 165, 173, 174, 202“Tidalites” 144Tilton, George R. 183, 197, 262–264,

263

Index 335

Titan 227tonalities 296Tonga Trench 215Tracers in the Sea (Broecker) 36transformation of minerals, pressure and

150transform faults 10, 70, 73, 162, 170, 253transmission electron microscope (TEM)

264, 275–276high-resolution 276, 286low-resolution 276

transpression 70transtension 70“Traverse Gravimeter” 257Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology

(Teichert) 260T. Rex and the Crater of Doom (Alvarez) 6Triceratops 194trilobites 196, 278, 287triple junctions in continental extension

45trondheimites 296Truman, Harry 103Tullis, Julia A. (Jan) 264–265tungsten mineralization 141turbidite 26–27, 171Turcotte, Donald L. 265–266Turekian, Karl K. 266–268“Turkic-type orogeny” 230Turner, Frank 106Tuttle, O. Frank 131, 268–269, 296“Tuttle bomb” 268“Tuttle press” 268Twenhofel, William H. 78, 269–270Twiss, Robert 178

Uunderground flow of water, modeling 34Understanding Earth (Press) 204Urai, Janos 168uranium 91, 141, 283uranium-lead isotopic methods 183, 197,

262Urey, Harold 249, 250U.S. Geological Survey 1, 92, 94, 278,

279, 284U.S.-Russian Joint Working Group on

Solar System Exploration 2

VVail, Peter R. 271–272Valley, John W. 272–274, 273vanadium 91Van der Voo, Rob 274–275, 275Veblen, David R. 275–277velocities of seismic waves 150, 203,

285–286Venus

evolution of crust and mantle on304

greenhouse effect on 227mountain belts on 112outer layer of 162tectonics of 252volcanism on 112

vibroseis 189Vine, Fred 10, 59, 116, 159, 160volcanic eruption 49, 156volcanic gases 49, 68, 246–247volcanic glass 157, 276volcaniclastic sedimentation 72volcanism. See also magma(s)

basalt 156rhyolite or silicic 156on Venus 112

volcanoes 8, 145–146Volcanoes and Volcanic Rocks (Kuno)

145–146

WWalcott, Charles D. xiii, 278–279, 279,

287Walking with Dinosaurs (documentary)

193Walter, Lynn M. 280, 280–281water resources 34Watson, E. Bruce 108, 281–282, 282Watts, W. W. 123The Way the Earth Works (Wyllie) 296weathering of minerals 33Weeks, Alice M. D. 282–284, 283“weeksite” 284Wegener, Alfred 116, 123, 170, 284–285Weiss, Pierre 23well logs 293Wenk, Hans-Rudolf 285–287West African Rift Valley 123

West Coast earthquakes 138West Coast geology 18, 20–21Westmoreland, William 103Wheeler, G. M. 94Wheeler Geological Survey 94Whipple Mountains 229White-Inyo Range 79Whitfield, R. P. 279Whittington, Harry B. 57, 287–288Williams, Harold 109, 288–290, 289Williams, Paul 168Wilson, J. (John) Tuzo xiii, 40, 44, 162,

170, 290–291Wise, Donald U. xiv, 291–292Withjack, Martha O. 293, 293–294Wolcott, Charles D. 53women, in geology 9–10, 11, 15, 63,

248, 249, 282–283. See also specificscientists

Wonderful Life (Gould) 57, 100, 278,287

Wones, David R. 81, 294–295, 295wonesite 294Wopmay orogen 119Worldwide Standardized Seismograph

Network 82, 149Written in Stone (Raymo and Raymo) 214Wyllie, Peter J. 268, 295–297, 296

X“xenothermal” iron ore deposits 40X-ray analysis, in mineralogy 23–24X-ray diffraction techniques 141, 286X-ray goniometry 286X-ray spectrometer 31

YYoder, Hatten S., Jr. 81, 145, 298–300,

299yoderite 298

ZZen, E-An 301–303, 302zeolite minerals 89, 241zircon 262Zoback, Mary Lou 303–304Zoophytes and Geology (Dana) 65Zuber, Maria T. 304–305

336 A to Z of Earth Scientists