Cambridge, the moon and beyond…NASA’s vision for the next twenty years is to establish acolony on the moon from which to launch rockets to the restof the solar system, facilitated by the lower gravitationalforce (1/6
th that on the earth). This is not without itschallenges as the most likely fuel is a one-to-six mixture ofhydrogen and oxygen. Neither element is freely available onthe moon, but would have to be shipped there – at a cost of$4m/tonne. But lunar rocks are mainly oxides, permittingour Department to come to the rescue –
The FFC Cambridge process, in which oxygen extraction isused to produce pure metals and alloys from their oxides, willbe familiar to our readers. An oxide powder is convertedelectrochemically to a pure metal in a single step by applyingan electric current, causing the oxygen in the oxide to ionise, dissolve in the salt, and be discharged at the anode, leavingbehind the metallic components – a great improvement oncomplex traditional extraction often involving intermediatecompounds. Derek Fray, Tom Farthing and George Chendeveloped the process in the mid-1990s while investigatinghow to remove oxide from the surface of titanium. Progresshas since been made on the reduction of the oxides oftitanium and other metals. High-technology alloys such asNbTi, FeNdB and Ni2MnGa have been produced directly bythe reduction of mixtures of metal oxides. An exciting newopportunity has arisen from a proposal submitted to NASAby engineers at British Titanium. Of 4,000 proposals submit-ted, only seventy are being funded and of those only two arefrom outside the US – at British Titanium and at Snecma, theFrench aerospace company. The project, now underway, ismaking excellent technical progress with laboratory cellsproducing oxygen. Cells have been shipped to the US forevaluation and, if successful, will be redesigned for use onthe moon. Once working satisfactorily there, NASA’s inten-
EditorialI trust that this issue of Material Eyes will give you a flavourof the exciting research and teaching in the Department. Buttogether with the many successes to applaud, I have also toreport the very sad news of the death of Prof. Jan Evetts on18th August. Jan was much loved and tributes have pouredin; an appreciation will appear in the next issue. Just such amixture of joy and sadness is likely to permeate any history:our Department’s story is now wonderfully accessiblethrough Dr Jim Charles’ new book, and I urge you to takeadvantage of the pre-publication offer on the enclosed flyer.
These are my parting words to you as the Head ofDepartment: I thank you for your support over the last fiveyears, and I wish my successor Prof. Lindsay Greer all thebest in his new position.
Professor Derek Fray, Head of Department
tion is that the technology will be exported to the rest of thesolar system.
The process originally conceived to remove dissolved oxygenfrom titanium, has been adapted to reduce metal oxides, toprepare high-technology alloys, and now to assist in furtherspace exploration – a fascinating evolution. Back on earth, work on the NASA project is carried out in Cambridge, in thepilot facility of British Titanium plc. and in the Department. The company’s new venture with Norsk Hydro will installtitanium production units in redundant Norwegian aluminiumsmelters – thereby preserving employment in isolatedcommunities. More information about the process isavailable at http://www.britishtitanium.co.uk/. MeanwhileMetalysis Ltd, which has the rights to the exploitation of theprocess outside the field of titanium, recently raised £5m ofventure capital, the largest amount of finance won by themetallurgical sector in recent times. The company, now inSouth Yorkshire, employs nearly 20 people, and is starting toparticipate in the regeneration of the region. For moreinformation, see http://www.metalysis.com/.
Thus the simple FFC Cambridge process is creatingemployment in the Cambridge, South Yorkshire, Norway andperhaps on the moon!
ContentsEU Placements
Domains ABC ForumNew Head Modelling BookDept. History Next GenerationMicro & Nano Judith Driscoll
1950s Reflections Congratulations
Magnetic domains in a thin cobalt filmThis picture gained first prize in the “Science as Art”category in the 2004 Daily Telegraph Visions of Sciencecompetition for Rafal Dunin-Borkowski and his collab-orators: A. Husmann (Toshiba Cambridge Res. Lab.), M. McCartney (Arizona State University), and C. Boothroyd(Inst. ofMaterials Res. and Eng., Singapore).
The colours in theimage show thedifferent directions ofthe magnetic field in alayer of polycrystallinecobalt only 20 nm thick. The direction of themagnetic field in thefilm changes at thedomain walls. The fieldof view is ~ 200 μm
wide. The image was acquired using the Fresnel mode ofLorentz microscopy in a field-emission-gun TEM. It wasrecorded out of focus to enhance the contrast of the domainwalls, and then converted to a colour induction map. Forfurther information contact [email protected].
New Head of DepartmentLindsay Greer will succeed Derek Fray as Head of Dept. from 1 January 2006. An undergraduate and graduate studentin the Dept., then a Research Fellow at Churchill College, Lindsay’s first teaching position was as Assistant Professorof Applied Physics at Harvard. He returned to the academicstaff here in 1984, rising to a Personal Chair in 2001. AFellow of Sidney Sussex, he is currently Vice-Master of theCollege. He has held visiting positions at the InstitutNational Polytechnique de Grenoble, the Institute forMaterials Research (Sendai, Japan) and Washington Univ. (St Louis, MO). Lindsay edits Philosophical Magazine(founded 1798, treating the physics of condensed matter)
His research, which has attracted awards from academic andprofessional institutions in Japan and the USA as well as theUK, focuses on the kinetics of microstructural evolution, ofinterest for assessing the stability of materials, and fordeveloping new microstructures and properties. Stemmingfrom his PhD with John Leake and subsequent work withDavid Turnbull at Harvard, Lindsay has maintained interestsin metallic glasses and in nucleation. But his group (website:www.msm.cam.ac.uk/mkg/) has worked on a wide range ofother topics: deposition and stability of metallic multilayeredthin films, sugar-based glasses for drug delivery,nanocomposites, electromigration in microelectronic devices, chalcogenide thin films for data storage, grain refinement andintermetallic phase selection in aluminium alloys.
Lindsay was awarded a Pilkington Teaching Prize by theUniversity in 2000 for his consistently successful cont-ributions to the Department’s teaching, and currently giveslectures on biomaterials to our first-year undergraduates.
Where we came from, where we are nowA history of the Dept. with the title Light Blue Materials hasbeen prepared by ‘old-timer’ Jim Charles, assisted byLindsay Greer. Jim was on the academic staff from 1960 until retirement in 1990, but still frequents the place! Thebook follows the growth of the Dept. from its origins in theSidney Sussex laboratory used by C.T. Heycock, later tobecome the first Reader in Metallurgy with his ownGoldsmiths’ Laboratory as a small sub-department ofChemistry. This early development owed much to the goodoffices of the successive Heads of Chemistry, Prof. G.D. Liveing and Prof. Sir William Pope. Then followed a newdegree course in Metallurgy, growth to take over the greaterpart of the Chemistry building when that Department movedto Lensfield Road, and establishment within the new Arupbuilding as the top-ratedMaterials department that it is now.
The account remembers the main areas of effort, someindividual characters, both academics and assistants, andtheir unique contributions to all aspects of Dept. life. Theperiods of successive Heads of Department are covered, interspersed with consideration of specific areas of research. That such matters are currently of keen interest is heavilyunderlined by Raymond Hart’s article in this issue about histime here 50 years ago, and by the imminent appearance ofRobert Cahn’s autobiography, of which more details areenclosed, not forgetting Jim’s autobiographical book Out ofthe Fiery Furnace. A ‘flyer’ enabling orders for Light BlueMaterials to be sent toManey Publishing taking advantage ofa pre-publication discount is enclosed with this issue ofMaterial Eyes. All royalties from sales will go to a Dept. student assistance fund.
Master’s course –Micro and nanoOctober 2004 saw 14 students embark on the latest degreecourse with which the Department is closely involved. Organised by Mark Blamire and Steffi Friedrichs, the one-yearprogramme in Micro- and Nanotechnology Enterprise, leadingto the M.Phil., unites world-leading scientists and successfulentrepreneurs to deliver a programme combining scientificrigour with a practical perspective on the exploitation ofrapidly developing technologies. It is intended for studentswith a good first degree in the physical sciences, engineering orrelevant areas of biology or biochemistry, ideally with somepost-graduate experience in an industrial or businessenvironment and who are enthusiastic about enterprise andinnovation. The students use of the Nanoscience Centre on theUniversity’s West Cambridge site, and are taught also in otherparts of the University, particularly the Judge Business School. They have some joint video-conference sessions with MIT andvisits by MIT faculty. The course modules are taught in thefirst two terms and followed by individual project workinvolving scientific-literature and business-case studies leadingto a 15,000 word dissertation. The modules are drawn fromstrands covering Science and Technology, BusinessManagement, and Innovation and so cover the manycomplexities involved in discovery and exploitation.
The Department in the 1950s
Dr Raymond K. Hart, IOM, winner of the 1995 MortonD. Maser Distinguished Service Award of the MicroscopySociety of America, sent us his reflections on his time inthe Department fifty years ago. What follows is a slightlycondensed version.
Upon reading the recent issue of Material Eyes it grieved meto read the obituary of Gerry Smith. Although I was agraduate student of U.R. Evans, Gerry and I talked on manyoccasions, since we had mutual interests in aluminum alloysand hydrogen in metals. I was drawn again to theDepartment’s 1954 group photograph, which still hangs inmy library. At that time the Department had a complementof four lecturers under Professor G. Wesley Austin. With thepassing of Gerry Smith, all five of the then academic staff arenow deceased.
The first eight to ten years following World War II was trulya most fascinating period of time to enter the field ofMaterials Science. Many new materials and processes hadbeen developed under wartime urgency and security, butthose materials required additional research/develop-ment/refinement in order to be acceptable for use in everydaycommerce. Also, those early post-war years saw themandatory retirement at age 65 of many materials scientistsof great stature. Fortunately, only a few of those personswithdrew from their professional activities.
During my time in Cambridge one was able to attend lecturesby Sir Lawrence Bragg on his bubble model dislocationtheory, followed by Sir NevillMott on dislocations in metals. Those lectures were often followed by discussion meetings atthe Cambridge Philosophical Society, which nearly alwaysconcluded with a lively discussion between Sir GeorgeThomson and Sir Charles Galton Darwin, and on occasioneven Professor Paul Dirac would enter into the fray.
Arthur Tabor assisting in the teachinglaboratory of the 1950s
Also, during my time at Cambridge, Professor G. I. Taylorwas working on a more satisfactory solution to his plasticdeformation theory, which he originally put forward in theearly 1930s.
By 1950, fundamental metals research was either aimed atelucidating the physical nature of the system, such asbehavior of dislocations and defect structure, or determininga material’s environmental compatibility. In particular, metals for the nuclear industry, on which my research wasfocused, had to accommodate extremes in temperature andpressure, as well as be corrosion-resistant and not sufferdegradation while under intense radiation.
A somewhat similar situation also existed with aircraft gas-turbine engines, but without the added complication ofirradiation and fission-fragment damage. However, theservice life of many turbine engines was severely shortenedas a result of vanadium compounds in the fuel and later bysulfur. I investigated the nature of the fused vanadiumcompounds (vanadates) in the surface of turbine blades byelectron diffraction in the mid 1950s. Sulfidation problemsare still real even today in the hot-sections of turbine engineswhen inferior grade fuel is used, and unfortunately thatpractice still occurs in many locations around the world.
By the early 1950s there was an urgent need for newmethodologies to explore the surfaces of metals as well astheir bulk properties. During the previous 15 years, excluding theWorldWar II years, X-ray diffraction, electrondiffraction and optical spectroscopy had played an importantrole in metals research. Transmission electron microscopy(TEM) became a research tool in 1939, and following the warTEM became an important biological research tool, a role inwhich it is still very prominent today.
As a research tool in metals research the early series of post-war electron microscopes were highly inadequate for the taskwhich was assigned to them. All operated under very poorvacuum, at relatively low accelerating voltage, with poorstigmator control and rudimentary electron beam control. Itwas not until 1957-1958 when Siemens introduced itsElmiskop 1, and which incorporated a double condenser lenssystem, that serious transmission electron metallography wasrealized.
A major commitment of Professor Wesley Austin was tobuild up the research standing of the Department and toobtain new instruments which were to be commensurate withthe aims of the Department. To that end, a 75 kV Siemenselectron microscope and an Edwards (Finch-Type) electrondiffraction camera were installed in the Goldsmiths’Laboratory by the end of 1952.
During the winter of 1952-1953 an intense interest for what Iwill call electron metallography was generated withinuniversity departments that were lucky enough to haveelectron-optical equipment. The enthusiasm shown by bothfaculty and graduate students alike was so intense that asummer school in The Use of Electrons in the Examination ofMetals was organized for 20-31 July, 1953. By courtesy ofProfessor Bragg, Professor Austin and Dr F.P. Bowden, thecourse was held in the Cavendish and Goldsmiths’
Laboratories as well as in the Laboratory for the Physics andChemistry of Surfaces (PCS). Important work at that timewas being carried out by Dr J.W. Menter, in studying surfacemorphology by reflection electron microscopy in a modified“Metro-Vic” instrument.
As a demonstrator during that course, I was able to apply myskills in preparing oxide replicas as well as in electro-polishing/electro-thinning metal surfaces and foils.
Of historical note, the Tuesday afternoon session of the 1953Summer School was devoted to scanning electronmicroscopy with a practical demonstration by Dr K.C.A. Smith, using the Engineering Department’s SEM-1. Theinclusion of SEM as a specific topic in that summer school’sschedule was the first occasion, to my knowledge, in whichSEM was included in an academic course.
I received my Ph.D. in Metallurgy in early 1955, and until1970 I set up and managed an electron microscope facility atthe Argonne National Laboratory, near Chicago, USA. Mymain research interests were corrosion/oxidation of nuclearreactor materials and environmental damage from fissionfragments and fusion by-products. For the past 35 years Ihave been involved in forensic engineering science asPresident of Raymond K. Hart, Ltd., ConsultantMetallurgists.
Many of my investigations have involved hot-section failuresin aircraft gas-turbine engines, which I first became interestedin during my Cambridge years.
Dr R K Hart, Atlanta GA
Vacation Placements in Europe
Although it is open to our undergraduates to participate in theexchange with MIT that started under the auspices of theCambridge-MIT Institute, it is not possible for them to spenda year in Europe under the ERASMUS scheme.
EPFL Lausanne Photo: James Chivall
Instead, largely through the initiative of Professor Bill Clyne, a series of summer vacation placements in Europe was
initiated nearly ten years ago and to-date upwards of 100 undergraduates have each spent about eight weeks inlaboratories in one of a number of universities or researchestablishments in Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria orBelgium. The list of placements available evolves from yearto year and currently includes institutions such as the MaxPlanck Institut für Metallforschung in Stuttgart, the EcolePolytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne and the TechnischeUniversität in Vienna. Apart from providing valuableexperience in the application of their subject, the participantshave an excellent opportunity to improve their languageskills, which can help them with the language optionsavailable in the third and fourth years of our four-yearMaterials Science course. Of the 20 or so placements onoffer in a typical year, roughly one quarter are in French-speaking regions and the rest are almost all in German-speaking areas. For each placement, the host institutionprovides financial support in some form, possibly as freeaccommodation, and a bursary is also available via theDepartment from Alcan and the Worshipful Company ofArmourers & Brasiers, for whose generous support we aremost grateful. To provide gentle encouragement to completeit in a timely manner, the second part of the bursary is paidonly after receipt of the (short) final report! Someundergraduates are also eligible for additional support fromother sources and so, in practice, the placements impose littleor no net financial burden on participants and, for many, provide an opportunity for further European exploration. Ascan easily be imagined, all this involves a substantialadministrative burden, ably carried out over several years byMary MacGinley and now by Lianne Sallows.
The students selected are those judged most likely to benefitfrom the experience and to prove most satisfactory from theviewpoint of the host institution – both in terms ofsuccessfully completing a research project and from the pointof view of interacting well with personnel there at variouslevels. Projects carried out cover an enormous range oftopics and give experience of many important techniques.For example, in summer 2004 sample projects ranged frominvestigating carbon nanotubes for future industrialcomposites, through measuring the effect of temperature onfracture mechanism in particle-reinforced metal-matrixcomposites, to determining the TTT diagram forcrystallization of some bulk metallic glasses, and carrying outa structural and mechanical characterisation of insect cuticle. The great majority of the projects involve the student inproducing a written report for the host institution or giving anoral presentation, or both, thus providing further valuableexperience in these important skills. Happily, but notsurprisingly, the great majority of students rate the interest oftheir projects and the general experience gained very highlyindeed. Further details can be found at:www.msm.cam.ac.uk/Teaching/placement/euro
For any comments about this newsletter oralterations to your address, please contactCarol Ann Monteith by e-mail:[email protected]
Armourers & Brasiers’ Cambridge Forum16 June 2005This year saw the second in this annual series of events, hosted by our Department with the aim of raising the profileof materials science in the UK academic and industrialcommunities, while being international in scope. The Forumattracts high-level involvement from industry, researchcouncils and other influential bodies. It is generously supp-orted by the Armourers & Brasiers’ Livery Company andother sponsors (Corus, IOM3, Innoval Technology, Instituteof Physics, NAMTEC, Novelis UK, Rolls-Royce, RoyalAcademy of Engineering, Royal Society of Chemistry).
The speakers were: Dr Bill Jones (Associate Director, PfizerInstitute, and Dept. of Chemistry, Cambridge) on “Relatingstructure and properties in pharmaceutical solids”; Prof. Tony West (Head, Dept. of Engineering Materials, Univ. ofSheffield) on “Electroceramics: The role of solid statechemistry”; Prof. John Kilner (Head, Dept. of Materials,Imperial Coll.) on “Powering the future: Materials selectionfor solid oxide fuel cells”; Dr Graham Cooley (CEO, Metalysis plc) on “Introducing a new technology to atraditional industry”; and Prof. Peter Edwards FRS(Inorganic Chemistry Lab., Oxford) on “Materials forhydrogen storage: The grand challenge”. There followed themain event of the day, the 7th Kelly Lecture, given by Prof. Daniel Morse (Director, UCSB-MIT-Caltech Institute forCollaborative Biotechnologies, Univ. of California SantaBarbara). His talk, “Biologically inspired routes for materialssynthesis and nanofabrication: High performance with lowenvironmental impact” provided a masterly overviewshowing (among other things) how an in-depth understandingof biomineralization can lead to new environmentallyfriendly routes for the synthesis of electronic ceramics.
We hope to see you at the 2006 Forum, to be held on 13thJune; for further information please contact the authors ofthis item Lindsay Greer, [email protected] and RachelHobson, [email protected].
MaterialsModelling – now read the bookOur M.Phil. course in Materials Modelling has led topublication by Maney of a book entitled Introduction toMaterials Modelling edited by Dr Zoe Barber andincorporating contributions from several members of theacademic staff of the Department. In nine chapters it coversa wide range of modelling techniques in computer simulationof the structure and properties of materials (quantum andcontinuum) with examples of applications on length scalesfrom atomic upwards. In addition to being the “course book”, it is undoubtedly useful to anyone seeking an introduction tothe increasingly significant area of modelling.
Attracting the next generation
This July young science enthusiasts have been getting first-hand experience of what studying at Cambridge is really like
by taking part in the Headstart physical sciences summerschool. The course gives Year 12 (or equivalent) students ataste of the Natural Sciences courses at Cambridge – lectures, practicals and taking part in seminars. The week wasorganised by Dr Rob Wallach and Lianne Sallows from theDepartment as part of the Royal Academy of Engineering’snational Headstart programme for young people interested inpursuing scientific careers. The 36 participants stayed inKing’s College and learnt about astronomy, materialsscience, chemistry and physics, as well as experiencing mockadmissions interviews, working on team projects and gettingcareers advice.
Participants in the Headstart programmeinvestigating fracture toughness
A practical session in the Science for Society course
Another way of attracting the next generation is by informingand enthusing their science teachers. With this aim, theGoldsmiths’ Company funds free residential Science forSociety courses for science teachers, broadening theirperspective on subjects allied to A-levels. So, in parallel withthe Headstart summer school, the Department has been hostto the inaugural Science for Society course in MaterialsScience, a happy reminder of the long-standing connectionsbetween the Department and the Company. The courseprovided an insight into the broad field of modern materials, spanning the physical sciences, engineering and biomedicalapplications, through lectures, practical demonstrations andindustrial visits covering topics as diverse as aerospace, superconductivity, and biomedical materials. Highlights ofthe course included talks by Goldsmiths’ Professor ColinHumphreys on “How materials science can reduce globalwarming” and Head of Department Derek Fray on“Electrochemical processing – from metal extraction, through high technology, to space exploration”.
Nanostructures and Excellence- profile of Dr Judith Driscoll
Dr Judith Driscollreturned to theDepartment in Sept. 2003, twelve yearsafter completing herPhD in Derek Fray’sgroup. She broughtwith her a researchgroup and manyinteresting bits ofequipment, whichhave been dispersed in
different labs across the department. In her career so far, shehas worked at some of the world’s leading researchestablishments including the Max Planck Institute Stuttgart,IBM Almaden, Stanford University, Los Alamos NationalLaboratory, and Imperial College, London.
Judith is a Reader in Materials Science, her speciality beingmaterials chemistry and processing of functional materials.She is also a Marie Curie Excellence Fellow where she leadsan Excellence Team called “NanoFen” in the area ofnanostructuring of functional oxides. The materials systemsshe works on include high-temperature superconductors forpower applications, medium-temperature superconductors(MgB2) mainly targeted towardsMRI applications, oxides forspintronic and magnetoresistive applications (e.g. highlyspin-polarised oxides and dilute magnetic semiconductors)and nano-composites for enhanced and novel functionalities.Some of her work is undertaken in partnership with LosAlamos National Laboratory, where she is a long-termvisiting staff member.
Dr Driscoll lectures a Part IA course on Device Materials. She recently became a Fellow of Trinity College, where shesupervises and directs studies of undergraduates. She andhusband Kelly have two daughters, who are the usualpassengers of the bright yellow cycle trailer that is often seenparked outside the department. When not working, enjoyingthe children, or renovating their home in Cambridge, they areavid outdoors people, and are fortunate to spend a number ofweeks each year hiking and ski-ing in both the Northern andSouthern Rocky mountains (namely Montana, where Kelly isfrom, and NewMexico where Los Alamos is located).
Congratulations to:Dr Serena Best and Dr Ruth Cameron: PersonalReaderships from October 2003. ProfessorMark Blamire: Personal Chair from Oct. 2004. Professor Bill Bonfield: the Prince Philip GoldMedal of theRoyal Academy of Engineering (the Academy’s PremierMedal) for his exceptional contribution to Engineering.
Professor Tim Burstein: the 2004 Pilkington Teaching Prize, in recognition of excellence in teaching at the University;Fellow of the Electrochemical Society; a Personal Chairfrom October 2005. Professor Robert Cahn: Membership of the Johns HopkinsSociety of Scholars.Dr Bill Clegg: Department Teaching Prize for 2003-2004. Professor Bill Clyne: IOM3 GriffithMedal and Prize. Dr Judith Driscoll, Personal Readership from October 2004. Dr Caterina Ducati: Royal Society Dorothy HodgkinResearch Fellowship, 2004. Mr Dave Duke: two score years with the Department. Dr John Durrell, Dr AthinaMarkaki, and Dr CharlieWu:EPSRC Advanced Fellowships, 2005. Professor Derek Fray: 2003 Royal Society Armourers andBrasiers’ Award; TMS 2005 LMD Light Metals: ReactiveMetals Technology Award. Dr Ian Kinloch: Royal Academy of Engineering / EPSRCResearch Fellowship, 2004. Saurabh Kundu: Indian Institute of Metals “YoungMetallurgist of the Year Award”, 2004. Dr John Leake: President of St John’s College from 2003. Dr NeilMathur: University Lecturer from Oct 2005. Dr Paul Midgley: Personal Readership from Oct 2003; theIOM3 RosenhainMedal and Prize 2004. AlexMischenko: Churchill College Peter Roth Prize. Dr Tom Quested: Mater. Sci. Technol. Literature ReviewPrize for 2004 for his article “Understanding the mechanismsof grain refinement of aluminium alloys by inoculation”. Dr Cathie Rae: the 2003 Rolls-Royce Mark Shipton Awardfor the best Rolls-Royce patent, with Ken Grubb, Neil Jones,and Bob Broomfield from Rolls-Royce, for their patent “ASingle Crystal Alloy forMaximum Creep Strength”. Dr Karl Sandeman: College Lectureship in Physics andFellow, Churchill College; Royal Society UniversityResearch Fellowship from Oct 2005. Dr Sammy Tin and Robbie Hobbs: the 2004 Rolls-RoyceMark Shipton Award for the best Rolls-Royce patent, withBob Broomfield and Neil Jones from Rolls-Royce, for“Single Crystal Superalloy with Improved Castability”. Professor Sir JohnMeurig Thomas: GoldMedal from TheHonourable Society of Cymmrodorion for distinguishedservices to Welsh culture and British public life; HonoraryDoctorate from the University of Turin during the 600th
Anniversary celebrations of the founding of the University;Honorary Doctorate from Clarkson University, at the 79th
Colloid and Surface Chemistry Symposium of the AmericanChemical Society; Honorary Fellow of AccademiaNazionale Dei Lincei, Rome, the oldest scientific academy inthe world, founded 1603; the RSC Sir George Stokes GoldMedal for “pioneering and innovative electron-basednanochemical analyses”. Yokota Tomoyuki: Tawara Medal of the Iron and SteelInstitute of Japan for his work on the Spontaneous ReverseTransformation in Steel.
