A World of Difference: Richard Lynn Maps World Intelligence … · 2012. 10. 3. · Richard Lynn,...

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Wednesday, February 01, 2006

A World of Difference: Richard Lynn Maps World

Intelligence posted by Jason Malloy @ 2/01/2006 07:12:00 PM

A review of Richard Lynn's Race Differences in Intelligence:An Evolutionary Analysis(Click here for summary chart. Warning: 20 page review.)

The generally listed "peak" age for scientific creativity andproductivity is around the surprisingly young age range of 30-40,but the same exact age doesn't apply to all scientific disciplines.The peak in fields that demand greater doses of pure reasoning,such as mathematics, theoretical physics, and molecularbiology, appears to be somewhere in the twenties. So, forinstance, James Watson discovered the double helix at 25 andthen dropped off the radar as anything but a nerd celebrity. Incontrast are fields such as evolutionary biology, where years ofcollecting and assimilating large amounts of data can be requiredfor original analysis. So, for example, Charles Darwin was 50years old when he published his landmark The Origin of Species,not to mention 62 for The Descent of Man and 63 for TheExpression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. What's true forevo-bio may also be true for the often belittled field ofpsychometrics, or the measurement and analysis of humanintelligence, and for much the same reasons. So, to take somemore obvious examples, we find that John B. Carroll publishedhis seminal work, Human Cognitive Abilities, at the age of 77,while Arthur Jensen was similarly 75 when he published The gFactor in 1998 (This spring, in fact, Jensen releases his treatiseon mental chronometry, Clock ing the Mind, at 83).

Richard Lynn, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at theUniversity of Ulster, is surely another example. Now 76, Lynn hasreleased a large number of papers and 5 books since his"retirement", 4 of them since 2001, starting with 1996'sDysgenics, 2001's follow-up Eugenics, 2001's The Science ofHuman Diversity, 2002's IQ & the Wealth of Nations, and nowRace Differences in Intelligence. Richard Lynn appears to be asurprising exception as a modern hereditarian researcher whohas not had to fight an exasperating battle with his institution, buthis reputation in the media has been characterized by much thesame turbulence as his colleagues' - most prominently during theBell Curve backlash of the mid 1990s. Thus Leon Kamin's reviewof the book in Scientific American included:

I will not mince words. Lynn's distortions and

misrepresentations of the data constitute a truly venomous

racism, combined with scandalous disregard for scientific

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objectivity. But to anybody familiar with Lynn's work and

background this comes as no surprise . . . It is a matter of

shame and disgrace that two eminent social scientists . . .

[would cite the work of] Richard Lynn . . .

Similarly, New Republic senior editor Charles Lane used RichardLynn as his launching pad for two jeremiads against The BellCurve in the invidiously titled (and argued) Neo-Nazis! publishedin The New Republic , and an expanded version of this articlewhich appeared in The New York Review of Books, titled TheTainted Sources of The Bell Curve, featuring Lynn as theeponymous "tainted source". While these and similar articles inthe popular press may have helped solidify Lynn's reputation as a"fringe" researcher among certain segments of the literate public,his reputation as a scientist in differential psychology remainssecure and respectable. Little known, for instance, is the bookreview of Richard Lynn's Dysgenics (about the genotypic declineof socially valued traits) by the late scientific legend WilliamHamilton in the Annals of Human Genetics. This review is stillavailable free at the journal's website as a tribute, because it wasactually Hamilton's last published piece, submitted just twoweeks before his tragically premature death in 2000. Incomparison to Kamin's recriminations, Hamilton had nothing butgood words for Lynn's character and work, calling Dysgenics a"brave and fertile book", and Lynn himself "brave, thick-skinned, and very persistent to swim against. . . popularantirealistic currents." and that "Lynn. . . does an excellentjob with the facts". The contrast between interchangeabletalking heads rebuking Lynn as a crank in popular magazineswith Hamilton, possibly the most eminent evolutionary theorist ofthe 20th century, praising him in a prestigious journal at aboutthe same time, could hardly be more ironic. (Meanwhile it isactually Kamin himself who can most convincingly be chargedwith data distortion and heavily compromised objectivity, seeMackintosh 1998 pp 78-79, 98-102)

Lynn's follow-up book Eugenics (about remedying the genotypicdecline of socially valued traits) received similar praise in theAmerican Psychological Association Review of Books (Lykken2004) as "[an] excellent, scholarly book . . .one cannotreasonably disagree with him on any point unless one canfind an argument he has not already refuted.", as well as bythe journal Nature (Martin 2001) as a "comprehensive histor[y]"and a welcome one, "given the importance of the topic" ofdysgenic trends. Lynn's third recent book, The Science ofHuman Diversity, a hagiography of the Pioneer Fund, alsoreceived supporting words in the APARoB from the psychologistUlric Neisser (2004), who was also chairman of the APA'sTaskforce on Intelligence (that was convened largely to counterthe proliferation of scientific misinformation against IQ in the BellCurve aftermath). Despite Neisser's repeated ostentatious andinappropriate insults against his hereditarian colleagues (such assaying that Lynn and Rushton's work on race "turns [his]stomach"), he ultimately couldn't avoid agreeing with Lynn's mainargument: "Lynn's claim is exaggerated but not entirelywithout merit: "Over those 60 years, the research funded byPioneer has helped change the face of social science"".Neisser tellingly concludes in agreement with Lynn (and againstWilliam Tucker's Pioneer book, also reviewed) that the world wasactually better off having the Pioneer Fund: ". . . Lynn reminds

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us that Pioneer has sometimes sponsored useful research -research that otherwise might not have been done at all. Bythat reckoning, I would give it a weak plus" (These wordscoming from the APARoB should come as some news to certain'watchdog' outfits which are still attempting to anathemize thissame position. Pehaps all these journals and scientistsmentioned above should now be added to the list of 'hategroups'?).

Lynn's fourth recent book, along with Tatu Vanhanen, IQ & theWealth of Nations, received more mixed reviews in academicjournals, but this should be taken as a sign of its controversialimportance. Heredity, for instance, hedged its bets and printed ahostile review back to back with a sympathetic one (Richardson,Palareit 2004), as is sometimes done with controversial books(APARoB did the same thing for The Bell Curve, The NurtureAsumption, etc.). Unfortunately, much of the criticism in thejournals, as is common in the popular press, centered around anobsessive focus with and antipathy towards the book's hereditaryposition on racial differences, far outstripping its relevance to thebook's thesis that national IQ is a major cause of differences innational wealth. Worse still, many negative reviewers were deeplyignorant of the subjects that made them most angry. Someeconomists were outraged in stereotypical form, over use of the"discredited" IQ measure. Almost nobody was qualified tounderstand the race research, which Lynn specializes in, thoughit deeply unsettled almost all of them. So, for example, mostreviewers took offense at the reference to race and brain size butnone had informed or adequate scientific ways to critique it. Todate though, the book is already generating a surprising amountof original commentary and research given this radioactivity,(Barber 2005; Dickerson, in press; Hunt & Williams, in press;Jones & Schneider, in press; Jones 2005; McDaniel & Whetzel,in press; Voracek 2004), and it is clearly Lynn's most importantcontribution to date. Also, while not referenced directly it is alsoinfluencing international policy. So, for instance, 2004'sinternational panel of economists in league with Britain'sEconomist magazine, known as the "Copenhagen Consensus",ranked improving micronutrient levels as the second mostimportant action to help the developing world. The impact ofnutrition on intelligence was a prominent part of their argument,with 54 references to the word "cognitive" and 10 references to"IQ" (Jones 2005). These issues and recommendations are quiteclearly taken from IQ & the Wealth of Nations.

While Lynn has made valuable and original contributions to anumber of psychometric issues, IQ&tWoN, and his recent workwith sex differences, confirms that group differences inintelligence are clearly his forte, and since so few otherresearchers dare to touch the issue, the field is mostly wide openfor discovery. Which brings me to Lynn's fifth recent and latestbook, Race Differences in Intelligence, which Lynn himselfdescribes as ". . . the first fully comprehensive review thathas ever been made of the evidence on race differences inintelligence worldwide". (p. 2) In contrast to IQ&tWoN, RDiIdoes not contain a newly created thesis. This is not to say it isunoriginal, many of its ideas (and much of its copious data)certainly originates with Lynn himself, but the theory, its basicoutline and many of the key references of this book were almostall first presented 15 years ago in Lynn's Mankind Quarterlyarticle 'Race Differences in Intelligence: A Global Perspective'

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and its companion piece 'The Evolution of Racial Differences inIntelligence', while an even more basic version appeared in his1978 chapter 'Ethnic and Racial Differences in Intelligence,International Comparisons' in the book Human Variation.

The main strength of RDiI is just how much data Lynn hascollected, totaling 620 different IQ studies from around theworld and 813,778 tested individuals. While IQ&tWoN,published only a few years ago, presented data from 81countries, RDil has boosted that number up to 100 differentcountries (additions include Cameroon, Central African Republic,Estonia, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Laos, Lithuania, Madagascar,Malta, Mozambique, Pakistan, Samoa, Serbia, Sri Lanka, Syria,Yemen, and a few others), amounting to 137 newly referenced IQstudies. RDiI is seventeen chapters; the first 2 are on theconcepts of race and intelligence. The next 10 chapters cover thepsychometric data on 10 different racial groups: Europeans,Africans, Bushman and Pygmies, South Asians and NorthAfricans, Southeast Asians, Australian Aborigines, PacificIslanders, East Asians, Arctic Peoples, and Native Americans.The next chapter discusses the psychometric justifications forthese results, while the last four chapters discuss theenvironmental and evolutionary nature of these differencesaccording to Lynn's assessment.

Chapter 1 & 2: Intelligence and Race

These chapters are small and polemical. IQ&tWoN had asimilarly abbreviated, but fully adequate chapter on IQ and Irecommend that one instead. Lynn's chapter on race benefitsless by squaring old scores with Ashley Montagu than it wouldby focusing more on the rapid advances in genetics. Lynn, forinstance sourly demonstrates that Ashley Montagu and L.L.Cavalli-Sforza have continuously contradicted themselves tryingto strategically deny that populations exist and are geneticallydifferentiated even while ultimately admitting that they do. Butthese conceits ridicule themselves; Tan (2005) and Rosenberg(2002) , which both go sadly unreferenced, help illustrate andjustify the use and meaning of Lynn's clusters far more thanyears-old absurd quotes from race-deniers, which are alreadywell on their way to becoming little but historical oddities. On theother hand, Lynn can't be blamed that his book was publishedtoo late to catch the latest paper by Rosenberg in the December05 issue of PLoS Genetics which again concludes, in the face ofrecent challenges stating otherwise, that:

. . . if enough markers are used with a sufficiently large

worldwide sample, individuals can be partitioned into

genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions

of the globe. . .

Finally, as a tertiary complaint, Lynn also states:

In the 1830s, Samuel Morton (1849) in the United States

assembled a collection of skulls, measured their volume,

and calculated that Europeans had the largest brains

followed by Chinese, Malays, and Native American

Behnam

Unfortunately, it seems from the article that

such...

T Greer

I am curious if Mr. Turchin w ill still publish the...

Dave Chamberlin

Read more books, spend less money, support

your fa...

Otto Kerner

Armenian has the additional distinction of being

t...

Huxley

I predict that Armenians and Jew s w ill be found

to...

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Indians, while Africans and finally Australian Aborigines

had the smallest brains. He concluded that these

differences in brain size accounted for the race differences

in intelligence.

This of course was also Stephen J. Gould's argument inMismeasure of Man. Both mens' assertions should be read inlight of science historian, William Stanton's more qualifiedjudgment that: "Morton himself never equated cranialcapacity with intelligence" (Stanton 1960, p. 30), and thatMorton's collection was ethnographic in its aim.

Chapter 3: Europeans

Lynn first looked at European IQ in his 1978 chapter - it listed 14studies from 13 different countries including the Europeanrepopulated territories of America, Australia, and New Zealand.Lynn found that they mostly scored extremely similar, with anaverage IQ of about 100. He also noted that results from Spainand Greece in Southern Europe were lower, although Italy wasnot. By 1991 the number of European countries covered was 23with 35 studies. In comparison RDiI now lists data for 36majority European countries, as well as data for Europeanpeoples in 6 mostly nonwhite nations, for a total of 112 differentstudies and a combined sample of 175,950 people. SinceIQ&tWoN, much valuable new data from Europe especiallycomes from the recent book Culture and Children's Intelligence.The median IQ of European peoples is now listed as 99, and thismostly holds for rich countries in the North and poor ex-Communist ones in the East, as well as white Americans,Australians, etc., and whites in six different Latin Americannations. But there also appear to be some differences too -Ireland, Portugal and Lithuania all have IQs, unlike theirneighbors, in the low 90s. Multiple studies give similar resultsshowing the scores are 'reliable' if not 'valid' (Ireland for instancehas three studies with large standardization samples showingvery similar results). Secondly, while Southern Europe does notscore poorly as a block (Spain and Italy score "normally"),Southeast Europe does reflect a regional trend of lower scoresthat extends from the Balkans into Turkey and the Near East (sofor instance Romania 94, Bulgaria 93, Croatia 90, Serbia 89,Greece 93 [5 studies], and Turkey 90). Lynn also compares 4different regions of Europeans (including North America) on IQand brain size, finding that North American whites have thelargest brains and highest IQs (perhaps because of selectivemigration?) and Southeast Europeans the lowest test scores andbrain size. Of course if there is a decline in the Balkans, Lynn'sFlynn reduced estimate of 99 for Europe is incorrect, and needsto be dropped probably even a few more points.

While Lynn looks at adoption studies for evidence of heredity forother races, he unfortunately does not consider it for this majordifference within Europe, even though it would seem like an evenmore suitable test, since these adoptees are not visibly raciallydistinct, controlling for the possible social effects of e.g., racismor stereotypes. Also, I know that there are, in fact, a number ofIQ studies of Romanian children adopted into American andBritish homes. It was unfortunate that they were not reviewed. Mysuperficial impression is that they indeed show a lower IQ thanother adoptees.

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I don't expect any of this to go uncontested, and Lynn's accuracyand care with the data is a fitful concern. Lynn and colleagues goback and forth over differences of up to 5 points in the technicalliterature all the time, and these debates are resolved slowly asmore literature accumulates on the controversial/disputeddifference, but no one has 'exposed' Lynn fraudulentlymanufacturing a conclusion, as is sometimes hinted. As withAfrica, Asia, and sex differences, Lynn seems adept at buildingup the case for his controversial estimates with more data overtime. But getting overly concerned with values of several points insingle European countries is probably unwarranted, as Lynnhimself notes, it's more helpful to concentrate on the generalpatterns.

Chapter 4: Africans

Lynn first looked at Sub-Saharan African IQ in his 1978 chapter -it listed 7 studies from 4 different countries including 1 Diasporaterritory: Jamaica. By 1991 the number of African countriescovered was 6 with 11 studies. In comparison RDiI now lists datafor 23 majority black countries in and outside of Africa, as wellas data for Diaspora blacks in 5 mostly nonblack nations, for atotal of 155 different studies and a combined sample of387,286 people.

References to the subject from the 60s and 70s typically gaveAfricans an IQ much like African Americans, thus Jensen (1973)wrote: "We do know that studies of the intelligence of Negroes inAfrica have found them to average at least one sigma belowEuropeans on a variety of tests" (p. 66). Lynn (1978) is noexception. It wasn't until 1991, that Lynn had revised thisestimate dramatically to minus 2 standard deviations, which hasbeen the source of much anger and controversy ever since. Well,the current volume drops it a little bit lower even, to an IQ of 67as the median score from 57 studies collected from 18 differentAfrican countries. Similarly, the average IQ of black populationsfrom 6 locations in Latin America and the Caribbean is 71. This isvirtually the same as the score for Ethiopians in Israel. Indeveloped, predominately white countries, a second cluster ofscores emerge for black Africans. African-Americans, of course,score about 85, while the median IQ from 20 studies of blacks inBritain is 86. Similarly, West Africans from the Dutch Antillesliving in the Netherlands were found to have an IQ of 85. Althoughan older reference, Lynn also leaves out an IQ study of anestablished black population in Canada, descended from USmigrants (Tanser 1939, 1941) - the measured IQ was about 87.Given that the scores have not changed a bit in America for 100years, the age should not matter, and the educational gap ofblacks in Canada is still discussed as a problem and mystery tothis day.

More than Asia, Europe, and other areas of the world, theaccuracy of such a low IQ for Africa is popularly questioned, butmore with reflexive incredulity than adequate methodology. Atypical comment is that it is hard to believe that half of Africa ismentally retarded. It is also hard to believe that 16% of African-Americans are "mentally retarded", but 16% of African-Americans do have IQs below 70, and the APA recognizes thisas an accurate and factual reflection of ability - IQ tests are not

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biased against African-Americans (the criticism is fairly ignorantto begin with since diagnosing mental retardation is mostlyorthogonal to the intelligence test, See Mackintosh 1998, p.177). While this is not controversial now, among scientists, itcertainly was as shocking to believe for many back in the 1970sas the 2 SD difference is to many today. While the logic of testbias has been around since at least the 1960s, a turning point inthe scientific consensus on African-American IQ certainly camewith Arthur Jensen's Bias in Mental Testing (1981) whichexhaustively laid out the tools and methods for accuratelydiscerning bias in IQ test results. In principle these samemethods can be used to answer if 70 is or is not a spuriousestimate for Africa.

Lynn unfortunately is less than thorough and ratherunconscientious on this topic, and since the estimate was his tobegin with he should be the most careful and aggressive onedefending it. Lynn skips the issue of internal test validity entirely,even though there are some key references from Africa that standrepeating, and speak directly to commonly raised issues suchas, e.g. language bias. Key references for external validity arealso omitted, though Lynn's chapter 13 shows that IQ certainlydoesn't underpredict African academic performance wherecountries are included for International comparisons. So forinstance, while African countries like Nigeria and South Africamay score 2 SD below European nations on IQ tests, Lynnshows that international indices of math and scienceperformance between the 1960s and 1990s reveal an even moredramatic gap of about 2 and a half SD. (It was noted in the WallStreet Journal, for example, that in South Africa: " . . . barely 1%of black high school students pass higher grade math"). SinceEast Asian nations score even higher than Europe, the gapapproaches three standard deviations between Africa and Asia,consistent with earlier reports showing that there was almost nooverlap between the highest and lowest scoring countries, e.g.TIMSS 2003 (PDF):

"Singaporean students had the highest average achievement atboth grades, with their average eighth-grade performanceexceeding performance at the 95th percentile in the lower-performing countries such as Botswana, Ghana, and SouthAfrica."

Lynn also reviews data of so-called Elementary Cognitive Tasksfrom Africa, such as reaction time tests (how quick you processand react to a lit button on a console), and EEGs, which monitorhow quickly the brain responds to a stimulus, confirming thegeneral picture of African IQ. Jensen's upcoming book shouldhave interesting things to say on this topic; a combined battery ofECTs correlate with IQ tests just as well as standard IQ testscorrelate with each other (Detterman 1999), indicating that thepen and paper IQ test, as well as most attendant concerns aboutculturally biased tests, might very well become soon obsolete.

The issue of brain size is similar to that of test bias; I would thinkLynn would want to up the arms race against his critics sincethis issue received so much attention in reviews of IQ&tWoN,despite being such a small and irrelevant part of that book. Andyet brain size is prominently used to defend controversialhereditarian arguments in many chapters of this book, so it wasunwise that key references are similarly omitted like with test

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bias. So, for instance, there is no discussion of the importanceof, or tests for, a functional relationship between IQ and brainsize, even though this is critical to the argument. And suchresearch exists and would have made his argument muchstronger and more immune to glib dismissal. Lynn does attemptto resolve one "contradiction" - that women have smaller brainsbut do just as well as men on IQ tests - by presenting data forhis own theory that women actually average 5 IQ points belowmen. But since the difference between races is larger than thesex difference in IQ, and the brain size differences smaller, I don'tsee what has been resolved, even if we accept the stillcontroversial sex difference in IQ.

Particularly interesting (not only for Africans, but for other racialgroups reviewed as well) isn't just that racial groups scoresimilarly on intelligence tests across an improbable number ofdifferent countries, but also have the same profiles (or "multipleintelligences" if you will) on these tests across nations as well. Inthe US, for instance, if we take poor and rich whites and look attheir relative strengths and weaknesses on various test sectionswe will find the same pattern of strengths and weaknesses.Same for poor and rich US blacks, who have distinct strengthsand weaknesses. African blacks show the same test profile asUS and Jamaican blacks, for example with strengths onperceptual and short term memory tasks and weakness on testsof abstract reasoning (this is for matched total IQ, remember).The visuospatial profile that also distinguishes women and menand European and Asian/Amerindian populations has also longbeen noted by research of blacks in Africa and the United States,but this difference is not analyzed by Lynn.

For the first time I've seen, Lynn also reviews tests of "MQ" ormusical intelligence for black and white Americans. While blacksscore lower on almost all the items, commensurate with the factthat IQ correlates with musical ability, they also do much better,on average, than whites on rhythm items - Lynn calculates arhythm IQ for Af-Ams of 106, though no cross-cultural results arepresented, this has been recognized in a number of societiesthrough time. Since Sub-Saharan Africans have been musicalinnovators across a number of different countries, this topicshould have more attention.

Based on the IQs of transracially adopted black children, Lynndecides that the 1 SD IQ difference of American blacks (same asin Britain and the Netherlands) is 100% genetic, given the lack ofany convincing environmental theory or data for the gap. Basedon this he decides that poor nutrition primarily is depressing theAfrican (and mostly identical black Latin-American/Caribbean) IQabout 13 points. Indeed, incredulity that African IQ could be anylower than African-American IQ is belied by known drasticcomparative disadvantages of Africans on variables known toaffect IQ. These include things such as higher lead exposure(which can lead to IQ reductions of 4-7 points) and micronutrientdeprivation, such as iodine deficiency (reductions of 10 points).Indeed, critics are incredulous over the wrong gap! - after all, it isthe 15 points between American blacks and whites that is hardto account for, not the 15 points between American blacks andAfricans. 5 additional IQ points between African-Americans andAfrican-Africans, Lynn attributes to the white admixture ofAmerican blacks. Lynn puts the level of white admixture inAfrican-Americans at 25% based on references from 1971 and


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1992, and northern black admixture at 50% (based on pureconjecture) and concludes from IQ studies that African-Americans gain 1 IQ point for every 5% of white admixture.Lynn's estimate is compromised because his admixturereferences are outdated and his estimate of northern admixture iscontradicted by the data. Parra et al. (1998) put the latestestimate of average admixture at 17%, not 25%, and don't evenfind admixture higher than 23% in any sampled US region. It'sdifficult to guess why he is using the obsolete reference, when hehimself has previously cited the Parra paper and the 17%estimate (Lynn 2002).

On a final note, I will say that Lynn is especially talented atbringing new references to the table, so that while his 1991 reportfeatured only three references of black IQ in Britain, this bookdelivers 20 - all in support of a black IQ in Britain typically muchlower than all other ethnic groups, and much like that of blacks inthe US. This is no small ability since critics are terrible atknowing or caring about the literature. But more important is this- Lynn should expand his research ability to cover a broaderrange of data points. An over-reliance on IQ tends to minimizejust how strong these international racial patterns are because itlimits the argument to just one kind of data. A book like Lynn's,in my opinion, would be much more effective if it started with therace and worked up to the IQ data, where available, instead ofvice versa. So for instance, a more thorough picture would beavailable of racial patterns if, instead of cataloguing nations wherewe have black IQ, we first catalogue nations that have blacks,and chart what we know about their comparative situation in eachcountry up from that fact, given whatever data is available, be itIQ or educational or economic data - or even anecdotal(journalism/anthropology) reports or local viewpoints, if that is allthat's available. The point is that IQ data is limited and workingup to the data from the people would make the patterns evenmore unavoidable. I have in mind the structure of ThomasSowell's Migrations and Cultures or Amy Chua's World on Firewhich didn't even use IQ data, but demonstrated ethnic patternsthrough economic, political, and educational data. A merge ofstyle and data between these books and Lynn's would paint aneven more persuasive picture of the differences that do, more orless, rather reliably follow race, and perhaps uncover which onesdon't as well.

Chapter 5: Bushmen and Pygmies

In Frank Miele and Vincent Sarich's Race, an account is given byHenry Harpending of a resourceful young Bushman who repairedhis Jeep by jumpstarting it with a rope, like a lawnmower.Harpending and his colleagues concluded that Bushmen weresmarter than other Africans: "All of us have the impression thatBushmen are really quick and clever and are quite different thantheir neighbors . . . I expect there will soon be real data availablefrom the Namibia school system" (p. 227). On the other hand,Lynn lists the average IQ of Bushmen, estimated from 3 studies,as 54! Lynn decides that this is a reasonable score byconsidering that it is equivalent to the average score of anAmerican third-grader: " An IQ of 54 represents the mental ageof the average European 8-year-old child, and the averageEuropean 8-year-old can read, write, and do arithmetic and wouldhave no difficulty in learning and performing the activities ofgathering foods and hunting carried out by the San Bushmen" (p

The Essential Difference

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How Rome Fell

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Keepers of the Keys of Heaven

A History of the Byzantine State and Society

Europe After Rome

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A History of Christianity

God's War

Infidels

Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople

The Sacred Chain

Divided by the Faith

Europe

The Reformation

Pursuit of Glory

Albion's Seed

1848

Postw ar

From Plato to Nato

China: A New History

China in World History

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When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World

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After Tamerlane

A History of Iran

The Horse, the Wheel, and Language

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1491

A Concise Economic History of the World

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Know ledge and the Wealth of Nations

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76). Lynn's estimate is not new, the same studies and sameaverage IQ were listed in the 1978 chapter, the only thing thathas changed is Lynn's opinion, who then wrote: ". . . it strainsone's credulity that a population could long survive the rigors ofthe Kalahari with a true mean IQ around 55". This should notserve as a "gotcha", because I agree that the 'age' comparison ismore appropriate than the 'mentally retarded' comparison forthinking about lower IQ population (such as the 16% of Af-Amswho score below 70). At the same time this also demonstrates atheoretical deficit in intelligence research of distinguishingexactly how an average child with an age unadjusted IQ of 63, abelow-average non-retarded adult with an IQ of 63 and a mentallyretarded adult with an IQ of 63 all differ in what are fairlyconsidered intellectual abilities (real world indicators ofindependent self care and adjustment). Suggestions that theseare just "personality' differences are rather specious, especiallywhen Lynn gets to the point of comparing young children andapes as well as humans and extinct hominids on the same linearIQ dimensions. Although I agree that test bias literature alsoconfirms important aspects of intelligence are being capturedacross diverse groups.

Lynn notes there was a Pygmy intelligence study, but says thatit does not permit an average IQ, though he does suggest it islower than other Africans. Since no new data has been collectedfor Pygmies and Bushmen in over thirty years, theseassessments are dead ends. As one caveat, I have to object toLynn's statement that " Pygmy children up to the age of pubertyhave normal height, but when they become adolescents they donot have the growth spurt of other peoples because of their lowoutput of the insulin-like growth factor 1" (p. 77). This fact isoutdated, a mixed longitudinal study from 1991 found thatPygmies were much smaller than other populations at birth andup until age 5, indicating a suite of adaptations for smaller size.

Chapter 6: Near East and South Asia

Lynn first looked at the Middle-East/South Asia region in his1978 chapter - it listed 5 studies from Iraq, Iran and India and anaverage of 86 was given. Except for one study for India, thisregion was not addressed in the 1991 review. RDiI is pretty muchthe only survey of Middle Eastern IQ to date, now listing datafrom 15 predominately West/South Asian countries as wellas data on these populations living in European countries for atotal of 98 studies and a combined sample of 65,855. Themedian IQ is 84. 40 studies are also given for South Asians livingin a variety of African, Asian and European countries - themedian IQ for Indians in India is listed as 82, in South Africa as86, and in Britain as 89. South Asian Americans have not beentested to my knowledge, but data from income and educationindicate they probably have IQs significantly higher than average -this is likely due to selective top-tier migration. Unfortunately, nodata for IQ diversity within India is discussed, even though somedata probably exists right now and probably contains somefascinating information on caste and ethnic differences. In myopinion South Asia (the Indian subcontinent) should have been achapter apart from West Asia (the Middle east), highlighted moreby the fact that Lynn also lists a score of 89 for the Near Eastand 82 for South Asia, suggesting the 84 score is misleading.

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Lynn argues for a partially environmental explanation for lowerWest/South Asian IQ with reference to nutrition as he does withother regions, but argues that since these populations performmuch lower even in Western nations and have a lower brain size,that there are genetic causes too, which in his evolutionaryframework is said due to their more limited exposure to two littleIce ages than Europeans and East Asians. Lynn leaves out animportant genetic issue as well, one mediated by cultural events.While the prevalence of cousin marriage is less than 1% inEurope and its Diaspora nations, and low in much of EasternAsia as well, the Middle East has the highest rates of inbreedingin the world, running to 20-50% of all marriages (see the work ofAlan Bittles for more). Jensen (1998, p. 194) lists 14 studies ofinbreeding depression on IQ, many of them done directly withinthe Middle East, and finds the typical cost of cousin marriage is7-8 IQ points. It is doubtful that this is a major source of theaverage IQ difference between Europe and the Middle-East,though, since all, or even a majority of, the people of this regiondo not engage in cousin marriage, making the real effect, atmaximum, only a few IQ points. Also most of South Asia, whichhas much less inbreeding, does not appear any higher.

While Lynn's book lists the IQs of blacks, Asians, Indians, andother groups living as internationally dispersed minorities, this isnot done for Ashkenazi Jews, who are largely - sadly -neglected,though a few examples are given to indicate they score highly inAmerica and Britain. Earlier discussions of Israel's IQ, when itwas listed as 94 in IQ&tWoN treated it as a suspect score,because Ashkenazi Jews are thought to score 1 SD higher thanother Europeans. Of course even if this were true (and Lynnhimself (2004) estimates the IQ as only about 107), AshkenaziJews represent only about 40% of Israel's population, andOriental Jews and Arabs, who make up the majority, are thoughtto score nearly as far (if not more) below Europeans asAshkenazi Jews score above them, so the estimate actuallywasn't unreasonable at all (although '95' in a country with adistinct, high scoring population is qualitati

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