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BADURDEEN SHAKEAL 1
AUSTONINSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT CEYLON
Faculty of Engineering
Advanced Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
A203SE Analogue Electronics
Coursework
Student Name: Badurdeen Shakeal
Student ID: T1-11-EEE-L2-86
Supervisor: Dr. Rohan Munasinghe
Submission Date: 2012.05.30
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PROJECT/ASSIGNMENT SUBMISSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT SLIP
Name of Student: M.Badurdeen Shakeal Student No: aimc260211/86 T1-11-EEE-L2-86
Home Address: No.2/154, Sejiah Zone. Panavitiya, Deekirikewa, 60123, Sri Lanka
Date of Submission: 03th of May 2012 Name of Tutor: Dr. Rohan Munasinghe
Program/ Module: A203SE (Analog Electronics)
Received By: _________________________ Date: ___________________________________
Individual Projects (50%)
Marks
Learning Outcome Weightage 1st marker2nd marker/
moderator
Final mark
1. State the limitations of voltage operational amplifiers and
predict how these limitations affect performance.
P1:
Schematic diagrams Multisim simulations Analysis/ Discussion
25%
5%
10%
10%
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2 Extend the application of voltage amplifiers into areas
such as instrumentation, filters, oscillators and non-linear
circuits.
P2:
Schematic diagrams Design Calculation Multisim simulation Analysis/ Discussion
35%
5%
15%
10%
5%
3. Analyse transistor amplifiers using small signal models.
P3 :
Schematic diagrams Design Calculation and bandwidth plot Multisim simulation Analysis/ Discussion
30%
5%
12%
8%
5%
Quality and structure of the report 10%
Total Marks 100%
1stmarkers comment
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2ndmarkers/ moderator comment
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Table of Contents
1. Declaration of originality. 012. Abstract. 023. Introduction.. 034. Solution for problem one (offset voltage characteristics of an operating amplifier)
4.1. Offset of AD741H Op-Amp ........ 064.2. Offset of AD707AR Op-Amp ......................................... 084.3. Offset of AD743KR Op-Amp ...104.4. Reduce offset voltage using Method 01... 124.5. Reduce offset voltage using Method 02... 134.6. Reduce offset voltage using Method 03... 14
5. Designing of an active crossover filter5.1. About active crossover filter. 17
5.2. Calculations....19
5.3. Multisim diagrams..... 21
6. Implementation of two stage BJT amplifier.6.1. Basic diagram of BJT transistor........ 23
6.2. Design Implementation and Calculations .24
6.3. Calculation stage two low frequency part .... 25
6.4. Calculation stage two high frequency part ....29
6.5. Total circuit component chart....... 31
6.6. Multisim simulations..... 31
7. Critical analysis7.1. Discussions and comparisons of results 33
8. Conclusions....339. Reference... 34
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1. Declaration of Originality
I am aware of and understand the universitys policy on plagiarism and I certify that this
coursework is my own work, expert where indicated by referencing, and that I have followed the
good academic practice.
Signature: __________________ Date: 30th may 2012
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2. Abstract
This A203SE Analogue Electronics module course work has three main parts. The first part is
analyzing the effect of offset voltage rating in the output of an operational amplifier. Using the NI
Circuit Suits Multisim software designed and simulated three different operating amplifiers with
three different offset voltage rating and calculated output of those operating amplifiers.
The second main part is designing an active crossover filter which has capability of separating the
base signal from the treble. The crossover filter has ability to divide its output into main two
outputs which is base and treble even it receives full spectrum audio signal in to the input. The NI
Circuit Suits Multisim software used here for designing the filter and run the circuit. The bode
plotter is used here for show the output signal.
The last part is designing and implements a two stage BJT amplifier with a rated input and output
impedance. The total gain of two BJT assumed as thirty. Two BJT transistors are cascade in the
design. Using the circuit design calculated the components value and manipulated results. The NI
Circuit Suits Multisim software is used here for design and verifies the circuit.
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3. Introduction
Operating amplifiers have two inputs and one output. One input terminal is negative ( - ) and
other one is positive ( + ). There is additional supply input to made the output voltage into zero
when input voltage is zero. When it comes to practical application it wont become zero and
have an offset voltage.
Offset parameters of an operational amplifier
Offset parameter in an op-amp can happen as a natural built in fault. It could occur by input
current and input voltage forms in an operational amplifier. So these two factors (input and
output parameter faults) are making a different voltage. According to these cases in the op-amps
it is divided to two parts as mentioned below.
Offset due to current input current
Small amount of current flows in to the input of the operational amplifier due to current leakage
in the op-amp. So when a big input impedance or source with large output impedance is used,
the current that flowed due to leakage is after that start to create a big turbulence of voltage drop
within the op-amp. Because of the balance less between both non inverting and inverting
amplifier terminals it is start to produce small offset voltage.
A output of an op-amp depend on input voltage, input offset current input bias current and both
input and output factors. These factor can be represent by following equations
Output offset voltage due to input voltage is =+
Output offset voltage due to input offset current =
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Total output voltage due to (Vio and Iio) =+
. .
Following three practical operational amplifiers are selected to do the calculations
1. AD741H2. AD743KR3. AD746BQ
Active crossover filter
Mostly a crossover network is used in audio stage amplification and separator of base and treble.
Using an electronic crossover eliminates the problem that besets an audio designer; an electronic
crossover circuit separates and amplifies selected frequency ranges for each frequency band. The
mid and high range frequency that comes from the supply frequency are then subtracted from the
output of the filter to provide the bass. These types of crossover circuits are phase coherent
BJT Transistors
The first ever BJT was invented by William Shockley at Bell laborites new jersey in 1949. It is a
3 terminal electronic device constructed by doping semiconductor material and it is created out
of sensitive silicon or germanium. As the material only decides the Vbe where for silicon it is 0.7
and for geranium 0.3 Depending on the structure it could be understood weather semiconductor
layer is electrons or holes design. These type of semiconductors are used in designs as amplifiers
switching devices and Impedance matching devices
There are certain advantages in an BJT they are
1. Low cost design2. Operating voltage is low so it could be used in sensitive places3.
High efficiency
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4
SOLUTION FOR PROBLEM ONE
OFFSET OF OP-AMP
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4.1 AD741H Op-Amp
This is low cost and high accuracy operational amplifier.
The Analog Devices AD741H is a high performance mono lithic operational amplifier. All the
devices feature full short circuit protection and internal compensation. The Analog DevicesAD741J, AD741K, AD741L, and AD741S are specially tested and selected versions of the
standard AD741H operational amplifier. Improved processing and additional electrical testing
guarantee the user precision performance at a very low cost. The AD741J, K and L substantially
increase overall accuracy over the standard AD741C by providing maximum limits on offset
voltage drift nd significantly reducing the errors due to offset voltage, bias current, offset current,
voltage gain, power supply rejection and common-mode rejection. For example, the AD741L
features maximum offset voltage drift of 5 mWC, offset voltage of 0.5 mV max, offset current of
5 nA max, bias current of 50 nA max and a CMRR of 90 dB min. The AD741S offers guaranteed
performance over the extended temperature
range of -550C to +1250C, with max offset voltage drift of 15 mV/C, max offset voltage of 4
mV, max offset current of 25 nA, and a minimum CMRR of 80 dB.
Connection Diagram
Characteristics Chart of the op-amp
Description Typical Maximum
Input offset voltage 1.0 mV 6.0 mV
Input offset current 20 nA 200 nA
Input bias current 80 nA 500 nA
Input impedance differential 0.3 M 2.0 M
Input voltage range 12 13
NC = No Connect
Mini-DIP (N) Package
NC = No Connect
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Take Rf= 192 and R1= 3.0
Output offset voltage due to input voltage is =+
=+
1 1 0
= 0.064 V
= 64mV
When use this in application
When it come to the practical the offset voltage is little bit different then calculated voltage. But
this voltage is very close to manipulated result.
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4.2 AD707AR Operational Amplifier
This op-amp is a ultralow drift amplifier.
The AD707AR is a low cost, high precision op amp with state-of- the-art performance that
makes it ideal for a wide range of precision applications. The offset voltage spec of less than 15
pVis the best available in a bipolar op amp, and maximum input offsetcurrent is 1.0 nA. The top
grade is the first bipolar monolithic op amp to offer a maximum offset voltage drift of 0.1
mV/0C, and offset current drift and input bias current drift are both specified at 25 pA/ 0C
maximum.
The AD707's open-loop gain is 8 V/pV minimum over the full 10 V output range when
driving a 1 kW load. Maximum input voltage noise is 350 nV p-p (0.1 Hz to 10 Hz). CMRR and
PSRR are 130 dB and 120 dB minimum, respectively. The AD707 is available in versions
specified over commercial,
industrial and military temperature ranges. It is offered in 8-pin plastic mini-DIP, small outline
(SOIC), hermetic cerdip and hermetic TO-99 metal can packages. Chips, MIL-STD-883B, Rev.
C, and tape & reel parts are also available.
Circuit Diagram
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Characteristics Chart of the op-amp
Description Typical Maximum
Input offset voltage 30 uV 90 uV
Input offset current 0.5 nA 2.0 nA
Input bias current 1.0 nA 2.5 nA
Input impedance differential 24 M 100 M
Input voltage range 15 30
Take Rf= 192 and R1= 3.0
Output offset voltage due to input voltage is =+
=
+
3 0 1 0
= 1.92 mV
When use this in application
Specially in this particular operational amplifier the calculated output offset voltage and the
application output offset voltage are same. Therefore this model AD707AR op-amp is more
accurate and very close to ideal op-amp.
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4.3 AD743KR Op-Amp
This is a ultralow noise BiFET operational amplifier
The AD743KR is an ultralow noise precision, FET input, monolithic operational amplifier. It
offers a combination of the ultralow voltage noise generally associated with bipolar input op-amps and the very low input current of a FET-input device. Furthermore, the AD743 does not
exhibit an output phase reversal when the negative common-mode voltage limit is exceeded.
The AD743's guaranteed, maximum input voltage noise of 4.0 nV/VHz at 10 kHz is
unsurpassed for a FET-input monolithic op amp, as is the maximum 1.0 mV p-p, 0.1 Hz to 10
Hz noise. The AD743 also has excellent dc performance with 250 pA maximum input bias
current and 0.5 mV maximum offset voltage.
The AD743 is specifically designed for use as a preamp in capacitive sensors, such as ceramic
hydrophones. It is available in five performance grades. The AD743J and AD743K are rated
over the commercial temperature range of 00C to +700C. The AD743A and AD743B are rated
over the industrial temperature range of -400C to +850C. The AD743S is rated over the military
temperature range of -550C to +1250C and is available processed to MIL-STD-883B, Rev. C.
The AD743 is available in 8-pin plastic mini-DIP, 8-pin cerdip, 16-pin SOIC, or in chip form.
Connection diagram of AD743KR op-amp
Characteristics Chart of the op-amp
Description Typical Maximum
Input offset voltage 0.1 mV 0.5 mV
Input offset current 40 pA 150 pA
Input bias current 150 pA 400 pA
Input impedance differential 1 1 0// 20 //pF 3 1 0// 18 //pF
Input voltage range 20 13.3
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Take Rf= 192 and R1= 3.0
Output offset voltage due to input voltage is =+
=+
0.1 10
= 6.4 mV
When use this in application
When it comes to the practical the offset voltage is little bit different then calculated voltage. But
this voltage is very close to manipulated result.
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Reduce offset Voltage
4.4 Method 1
Setting offset voltage zero using potential meters.
To reduce the offset voltage of the op-amp one assumption make. That is connect potentiometer
for inverting input. In this test the same op-amp is taken to show output off set effect in previous
illustration. There for R1, and Rfvalues of the op amp keep unchanged and connect 10 k
potentiometer. The tested results of output offset voltage of the op-amp. Simulation result with
potentiometer. That shows output off set voltage effect can be reduced to more significant level
from this method. The below table shows results more clearly
Configuration Output offset voltage
AD741H op-amp without
potentiometer63.979 mv
AD741ch op amp with
potentiometer0 V
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4.5 Method 2
Connecting a series op-amp with final output
In this analysis can implement such a simple test to eliminate output offset voltage eliminated by
DC input offset voltage. A series 1uF series capacitor is added with output terminal of the op-
amp. Therefor this capacitor blocks all DC voltage and allows flowing only AC voltage through
the output terminal. There for can remove DC offset input automatically and utilize needed
application using op-amp. But this method can only remove DC input off set and ac voltage
from the input is keep remaining.
In the simulation result shows multi meter XMM1 is direct output from op-amp and it shows 6.4
mV output offset voltage. But the second multi meter is connected through 1uF capacitor and it
reads 17.829 nV. Therefore the output offset voltage is reduced and it became very close to zero.
Comparison of both states.
configuration Output offset voltage
Without connecting series capacitor 6.4 mv
With connecting series capacitor 17.829 nV
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4.6 Method 3
Reduce offset voltage using null pin configuration
In this test AD743KR op-amp is used here and its null pin configuration diagram is given in the
data sheet. This data sheet has provided also how is schematic diagram power the supply for this
op amp has provided bypassed with two capacitors for each supply and which is called
recommended power supply bypassing. The rated is 15V dual supply and internal power
dissipation of this op amp is 1.0W. The simulation result for overcome this offset effect is as
follows.
Pin no 1null decompensation
Pin no 4compensation
Pin no 5null compensation
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The output voltage shown here is very low and it is in femto value and very close to zero.
Comparisons of states.
configuration Output offset voltage
Without offset null pin 6.408 mv
With use of offset null pin 260.535 fV
The result here is for the same op-amp when the use the null pin the offset voltage is reduced
and it get close to zero. It is clearer effect of input offset voltage can be significantly reduced
from this configuration with potentiometer use. The percentage of potentiometer can adjust untilthe output voltage becomes zero. The different controls of the potentiometer make slightly
difference in the output.
Potentiometer resistance % Output offset voltage
0 % 260.535 fV
25% 260.535 fV
50% 260.535 fV
100% 260.535 fV
Here are the same values shown by output with adjustment of potentiometer.
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5
SOLUTION FOR PROBLEM TWO
ACTIVE CROSSOVER FILTER
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5.1 Design an active crossover filter.
The crossover filter is means split audio frequency range ( 20 -20k herts ) into two or three
bands. A active crossover filter to divided in to two bands is designed here. Those are bass and
treble. The slope of filter can make more accurately and cost is low compared to passive filters
is an advantage of active crossover filters. The design of active crossover is simpler than passive
filters then and it can be modified easily. This filters are made with only passive elements such
as resistors, capacitors and inductors and it is called passive filters. Also a filter network
includes transistors and operational amplifiers are called active filters.
Mostly a crossover network is used in audio stage amplification and separator of base and treble.
Using an electronic crossover eliminates the problem that besets an audio designer; an electronic
crossover circuit separates and amplifies selected frequency ranges for each frequency band. Themid and high range frequency that comes from the supply frequency are then subtracted from
the output of the filter to provide the bass. These types of crossover circuits are phase coherent
Schematic diagram of the active crossover filter
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This is a audio signal frequency ranges and it was divided into three different filtering ranges.
Crossover filters frequency range according to above three basic bands.
Here designed Cut off frequency for bass range is 300 Hz. And designed low pass filter.
Designed Cut off frequency for treble range is 3.0 KHz and use high pass filter.
Therefor according to this frequency can assume filters value like resistance and capacitors of
the filters.
Ausdio Signals
(20Hz-20kHz)
Base band(20Hz-200Hz)
Midrange
(200Hz-2kHz)
Treble
(2Khz-20kHz)
Bass 20 Hz200 Hz 20 Hz140 Hz
Treble 2 KHz20 KHz 2.5 KHz20 KHz
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5.2 Calculations
=
Fc = cutoff frequency, R = Resistance and C = Capacitor
= 1
Bandwidth (BW) = Fc2Fc1
Bass frequency would be considered as low frequency in the ongoing calculations
Low frequency bellow 300 Hz is base tone
Fc = 300 Hz, R1 = 10k
300 =
=
= 53nF
So, Fc = 300 Hz, R1 = 10k, = 53
Treble frequency would be considered as High frequency in the ongoing calculations
High frequency above 3000 Hz is treble tone
Fc = 3.0 kHz, R1 = 10k
3 1 0 =
=
= 530nF
So, Fc = 300 Hz, R1 = 10k, = 530
Bandwidth = Lower cutoff frequencyupper cutoff frequency
BW=3.0 kHz - 300Hz
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BW= 2.7 KHz
Values of Q factor is given
Q factor Equation
=
For Low Pass Filter
=
=
=
.
= 0.111
For high Pass Filter
=
=
=.
.
= 1.111
For Low Pass Filter = 0.111
For high Pass Filter = 1.111
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5.3 Multisim Simulation Diagrams
Low Pass cutoff
High pass cutoff
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6
SOLUTION FOR PROBLEM THREE
BJT TRANSISTER
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BJT Transistor
Schematic diagram of the circuit
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Design Implementation and Calculations
Values to carry on equation and construction of circuit
Low cutoff frequency 100Hz
High cutoff frequency 20KHz
Input impedance 1K
Output impedance 100
VCC 12V
Fundamental block diagram
Vin
Vout
Vin
Zin=1K
Zout=100
AV1AV2
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Total gain
=
20 = 10 2
Therefore = 10, = 2
= 0.7
Ic = Ie
=
Calculation stage 0ne, low frequency part (common emitter voltage divider)
To maintain stability of circuit assumption is made
Calculate VE
=.
=.
= 1.2
Calculate Re
=
=.
= 600
Datasheet values are given below
Vce =5V
Ve =1.2V
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Therefore calculate Vc
Vc =Ve + Vce
= 1.2 + 5
= 6.2V
Calculate Rc
=
=.
= 2900
= 2.9
Calculate re
=
=
= 13
Calculate RL
Av1= ( Rc // RL ) /re
10 = ( Rc // RL ) /re
10 13 = Rc// RL
RL= 136.1
Calculate RB
Zin= Rb// hie
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hie Value to be take from datasheet
Zin= Rb// hie
Rb= (hie*Zin) // (hie-Zin)
= (5.5K *1K ) // (5.5K - 1K )
=1.22K
Calculations can be carried out to find the value of Vb because Vbe of silicon transistor is 0.7
Vb = Vbe + Ve
=0.7 V + 1.2 V
=1.9V
Apply voltage dividing rule to find R1
Vb= Vcc*R2 / R1+R2
=12*R2) / ( R1+R2)
R1=5.31*R2
Value of R1 and R2 taking value from and
Rb=R1//R2
1.22K= (5.31*R2)*R2//(5.31*R2)+R2
R2=1.58K
Rb=R1//R2
R1=Rb*R2 / Rb-R2
1
2
1 2
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=1.22 K*1.58K//1.22 K - 1.58K
R1=5.35 K
Find the value of C
Capacitor has to be able to bypass the low cutoff frequency which is assigned as 100Hz
C =1 / (2*F*re)
=1/ (2*100*13)
=122F
The circuits bypass capacitor has been calculated which is a vital part of the circuit now the
calculation has to be carried on to find Cin, but there is another way which insists that the value
of the capacitor Cin only has to be much lesser than C so we
So Cin=20 F (this is an assumption value only)
A filter capacitor has to be used in parallel with RL to meet the upper cutoff frequency in the
design which is 20KHz
Calculate Thevenin resistance to get Cf
R1= Rc//RL
=2.9K // 136.1
=129.99
Cf=1 / (2*F*re)
=1/ (2*20*103*129.99)
=61.2nF
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Calculation stage two high frequency part (emitter follower configuration)
Zout
Zin=136K
Calculate re
Zout = re
Zout=100
re=26mV/Ie
100 =26mV / Ie
Ie =26mV /100
=0.26 mA
Data imported from datasheet
Vce 5V
Ve 5V
hfe 370
AV2
Emitter follower
configuration
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Re= Ve / Ie
= 5V/0.26 mA
=19.2 K
Calculate Rb
Zin= Rb//hfe*Re
136.1= Rb//370*19.2K
Rb=(370*19.2 K )* 136.1 //(370*19.2 K ) -136.1
=136.1
Calculate Vb
Vb=Vbe + Ve
=0.7 V + 5 V
=5.7V
Apply voltage dividing rule to find R1
Vb= Vcc*R2 / R1+R2
5.7=12*R2) / ( R1+R2)
R1=1.105*R2
Value of R1 and R2 taking value from and
Rb=R1//R2
136= (1.105*R2)*R2// (1.105*R2)+R2
R2= 259.07
3
2 1
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Rb=R1//R2
R1=Rb*R2 / Rb-R2
=136 *1.11K//136 - 1.11K
R1= 286.288
Total circuit component chart
List of components Value received by
calculation
E24 standard resistor and capacitor
values
Re 600 620Rc 2.9K 3K
re 13 13
RL 136.1 130
Rb 1.22K 1.2K
R2 1.58K 1.5K
R1 5.35K 5.6K
C 122F 120 FCin 20F 20 F
CF 61.2nF 62 nF
Re 19.2K 20K
Rb 136.1 130
R2 259.07 270
R1 286.288 300
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Multisim simulations
At lower cuttoff frequency 100Hz
At upper cuttoff frequency 20KHz
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At mid band 2.5 kHz
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Discussion and conclutions
Studying operational amplifiers is a part of the course work we studied about op amp
characteristics and there implantation in circuits, here a critical part that we studied was that it
was offset voltages and how to null it the using a potentio meter
In the crossover filter after going through the circuit design it is possible for a person to
understand its complexity. Not only in the calculation part, but also in the circuitry part as well.
All parts like the high pass, low pass and band pass filters are tested for stability and it is
working at its full optimum levels. The crossover designed here is a limited to an audio system.
The increase of complexity in the circuit is because of the integration of active filters this design
could be more simplified using passive components. Therefore the design has gone from simple
to complex; but if passive components are used the circuit would have more distortion involved.
If the simplicity is increased the processing time is also reduced therefore increasing high
amounts of crossover distortion and reducing overall quality of the system
The circuit has been tested and stimulated and problem has not been raised during the process.
The use of multisim in circuit has a great effect on the circuit. If multisim wasnt present the
designer would have to create the circuit in a real bread board to get his desired value, use of
software has saved time money and overall possible mistakes. The above circuit could be more
simplified. By the means of the removal of the mid-range part
In the BJT part the circuit has been tested and stimulated, No problem has been raised during the
process. The use of multisim in circuit has a great effect on the circuit. Here in this simulation a
board plotter is used where it clearly shows the bandwidth of the circuit. In this circuit
temperature factor isnt considered this might be a problem in places where a voltage bias cct is
used because a divider is a practical value region if load across Rc isnt handle properly this
may lead to temperature rise within the bjt therefore reducing gain parameters eventually
overheat might destroy the BJT itself
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Reference
1. Electronic Devices and circuit theory [2006], 10th edition. United Kingdom.
2. Parallel resister calculator [20th may 2012] http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-paralresist.htm
3. LED resister calculator [20th may 2012]http://www.ohmslawcalculator.com/e24_resistor_sizes.php (assessed of 2nd may 2012)
4. Analogue electronics BJT [24th may 2012]http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Analogue_Electronics/BJTs (assessed of 2nd may 2012)