About College · · 2017-12-28About College Golden Valley Integrated Campus ... (Gold Medalist),...

About College

Golden Valley Integrated Campus (GVIC) is the first Integrated Campus in the

Rayalaseema Region. GVIC is located in a pleasant and serene background on National High

Way 205, 11 KM`s from Madanapalle and 20km from the Andhra Ooty Horsley Hills. Our

Institute has been named with the sacred belief of turning young people`s future into a

Golden path.

Madanapalle has been an Educational and Cultural centre since early 1915, when Dr.

Anne Besant started Besant Theosophical College, famously known as B.T. The B.T. College

was initially part of National University to which Dr. Rabindranatha Tagore was Vice

Chancellor.

Sri. N.V.Ramana Reddy along with several other professionals and academicians has

been striving hard to promote the best educational standards with international

practices to improve the quality of professional education in rural areas.

Sri. N.V. Ramana ReddyM.Tech., (Gold Medalist), (Ph.D.), British Citizen

Secretary and Correspondent

On Behalf of the ICATEMS 2017 Organizing Committee,I amHonoured and Delighted to

Welcome you all to the 1st International Conference on Advanced Technologies in Engineering,

Management and Sciences-ICATEMS’17. I Believe We have chosen a venue that guarantees a

Successful International Conference amid the culture and brand.Golden Valley Integrated Campus

hasalways been a front runner in Organizing Events and this time we are more Happy to support in

organizing International Conference atGolden Valley Institution-Creating Hardworking Strong &

EthicalMinds......... Together.

The Technology is developing at a very fast pace.We have observed that the progress of last

10 years is much more than last 100 years as we allknow that our Country can only make progress if

the Scientists and Technocrats can utilize their knowledge for Exploring newer fields of Research and

Development.We experience new Development every day and every moment.Technology is changing

and new areas of Research are coming up.

Now it is high time that everybody from us have to think and commit for positive

contribution.Moreover, there is a growing need of more and more Industry Institute Interaction and

Linkage. The Young Faculty Members ofGolden Valley Integrated Campus (GVIC)have rightly sensed

the need and provided a good platform for the Research all around the Globe to bring forward their

thoughts and help society at large. Many congratulations to the Convener,Professors and the

Organizing Committee Members for organizing an event of International Stature.

I Extend Special thanks to Mr.Kedarnath Panda,Solution Architect, Tech Mahindra, Carson

City, Nevada, US and Prof.S.Krishnaiah Registrar of JNTU Anantapur, andMany Engineering colleges

like RMK Group, Saveetha University, Sathyabhama University and all from Tamil Nadu, JNTUA,

Anantapur and all Engineering Colleges from Andhra Pradesh and other States for making this Event a

Grand Success.

Sri. N.V. Ramana ReddyGolden Valley Group of InstitutionsMadanapalle, Andhra Pradesh, India

Dr.M.NARAYANAN, M.E., Ph.D.,PRINCIPAL

Golden Valley Integrated Campus (GVIC)

.For those who can't read Tamizh,

ThottanaithuOorummanarkenimaandharkuKattranaithuoorumarivu.The above Tamil proverb is interpreted in English as follows: The flow of water to the sand from a well

will be in proportion to the depth of the well. Similarly, knowledge will flow from a man in proportion to the depth

of his learning. Relating this proverb to you in this context, “As a researcher, your mind yields more knowledge

every time you learn. Thus, the knowledge grows. So, the more you research the deeper the fact you are in.”

It gives me immense pleasure to extend a hearty welcome to all the delegates participating in the

1stInternational Conference on Advanced Technologies in Engineering, Management and

SciencesICATEMS’17conducted by the Golden Valley Integrated Campus (GVIC), Madanapalle. The key

behind this conference is to open a discussion forum, promote logical thinking and pave the way to formulate

innovative ideas, explore greater vistas of knowledge and be an ideal platform to share the universal views on the

latest trends. I am sure the conference will be highly informative for research scholars, professionals from academic,

industry and the student community as well.

I encourage the students, research scholars, industrialists, scientists and engineers to participate

enthusiastically towards knowledge exchanges during the conference. I once again invite all delegates to our serene

campus. I also congratulate the organizers for the efforts they have put in and wish the conference a great success.

As the Chair of the ICATEMS’17, I assure all the delegates that rigorous planning has gone into knitting a

technically rich Programme. I take pride to place on record the untiring efforts put in by the entire team of

ICATEMS’17 for this global conference. I am sure that this conference will add another jewel to the crown of

GVIC.

I wish and pray for successful conduct of this event.

Dr.M.NARAYANAN, M.E., Ph.D.,PRINCIPAL

Golden Valley Integrated Campus (GVIC)

Prof. K.Prahlada Rao

Member of EC,

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur,

PRINCIPAL,

JNTU College of Engineering,Ananthapuramu.

It's my immense pleasure to associate with the ICATEMS'17. I wish it provides vibrant

environment to all the participants and brings out the best of the delegates and also unleashes most

memorable moments in Madanapalle academic ambience.

All the very best.

Dr.Ramalingam Jaganathan,M.S.,Ph.D(IIT-Madras).,MBA., GDMM

Director(Research)Golden Valley Integrated Campus

I am indeed privileged and delighted to note that the 1st International Conference on

Advanced Technologies in Engineering, Management and Sciences, which is scheduled on

November 16th& 17th, 2017 is organized by the Golden Valley Integrated Campus (GVIC),

Madanapalli, affiliated to JNTU Ananthapur, Andhra Pradesh, India.

It is high time to create and nurture research activities among the budding citizens.I am sure

that theConference of such nature provide a great opportunity to engineering, science and

managementfraternities , not only to update knowledge and keep obsessed with the latest scenario

across the world in theirrespective fields. I am sure that the delegates will be able to have a good

interaction with exchange ofthoughts and experience.I am confident that the outcome of this

conference will result in betterment to the overall growth of our state, Andhra Pradesh as well as our

Nation.

I take this opportunity to extend the warm welcome to all the resource persons and

delegatesregistered for this 1st International Conference on Advanced Technologies in

Engineering,Management and Sciences.

My best wishes to the convener, Dr.M.Narayanan M.E., Ph.D and his team for the conduct of

this International Conference

Dr.Ramalingam Jaganathan

Director(Research),

Golden Valley Integrated Campus,

Madanapalle.

Dr. Venkataramanaiah, M.Com (Gold medal),MBA (Fin&HRM), UGC NET (Com&Mgnt) MPhil, PhD.,

DEAN,Golden Valley Institute of Management

It gives me a great pleasure to welcome all of you from different national frontiers of the

world to the 1st International Conference on Advanced Technologies in Engineering, Management and

Sciences (ICATEMS 17) to be held at Golden Valley Integrated Campus (GVIC), Madanapalle,

affiliated to JNTUA, Anathapuram, Andhra Pradesh on November 16th and 17th, 2017. As a

researcher, I do realize the importance of International Conferences and the kind to nurture the

budding minds that suits the institutional as well as national interests as a whole.

I do believe that research and development activities are considered as spine for novel and

creative thinking to see the life of humankind in the better way. Hence, it is considered as the need of

the hour to engage more in research activities through academics coupled with industry. I am certain

that the present international conference will be a platform to both the academicians and entrepreneurs

in the echelon of engineering, management and basic sciences to cope up with the present

requirements of the business world. Further, I am to state that the delegates will be enlightened with

good amount of interaction in the field of their study in and out. I am confident that the conference

will produce deep insights within the scope of the conference and it helps the Government of Andhra

Pradesh n particular and the Nation in general in policy making in the years to come.

I take this opportunity to extend the warm welcome to the Invitees, delegates, resource

persons and student fraternity for their active participation in this mega event.

My heartfelt thanks are due with Shri. N.V.Ramana Reddy, Patron, ICATEMS 17, Secretary

and Correspondent, GVIC for his continues supporting to reach out the predefined objectives at

institutional level. Least but not last my best wishes to Dr. M. Narayanan, M.E., Ph.D,Convener,

ICATEMS 17 and his team for having conduct of International Conference in a grand scale.

Dr. Venkataramanaiah. M

DEAN,

Golden Valley Institute of

Management, Madanapalle

Advisory Panel

Prof. Mitsuji Yamashita,

Dept. of Nano Materials, Graduate School of Science & Technology, Shizuoka University,

Dr.Kuk Ro Yoon,

Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, Hannam University, Taejeon, South Korea.

Prof. David Adams,

Logica Solutions, Miltons Keyes, U.K.

Prof. Neil Westerby,

Conniburrow, U.K.

Prof. Mick Micklewright,

Ingersoll Rand, Wasall, U.K.

Prof. Petra Mattox,

Aeci(UK) Ltd, Cannock, Germany

Dr. P. Ezhumalai,

Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, RMD College of Engineering, Kavaraipettai, Chennai,Tamil Nadu.

Dr. C. Arun,

Professor, Dept of ECE, RMK College of Engineering and Technology, Puduvoyal,Tiruvallur, Tamil Nadu.

Dr. P. Sujatha,

professor, Dept. of EEE, JNTUA, Ananthapuramu, Andhra Pradesh.

Dr.M. H. Kori,

Rtd Director Alcatel lucent Technology and IEEE, Ex.President, Bangalore, Karnataka.

Dr. JitendranathMungara,

Dean & Professor, Dept of CSE, New Horizon College of Engineering, Bangalore,Karnataka.

Dr.T. Narayana Reddy,

Head, Department of MBA, JNTUA, Ananthapuramu. Andhra Pradesh.

Dr. B.Abdul Rahim,

Professor, Dean Professional Bodies, Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Science,Rajampet, Andhra Pradesh.

Dr. S P.Chokkalingam,

Professor & Head, Dept. of IT, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha University,Chennai, TamilNadu.

Dr. S BasavarajPatil,

CEO & Chief Data Scientist, Predictive Research Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore.

Dr. S.Anusuya,

Professor, Department of CSE&IT, Saveetha School of Engineering (SSE), SaveethaUniversity, Saveetha Nagar, Thandalam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

Dr. B.Gangaiah,

Associate Professor, Department of M.B.A, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, AndraPradesh

Dr. G.RoselineNesaKumari,

Dept. of CSE, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Prof. C. Sureshreddy,

Dept. of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh.

Dr. Y. Subbarayudu,

Associate Professor, Department of M.B.A, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, AndhraPradesh.

Dr. M.P.Chockalingam,

Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Bharath University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Dr. T.Lalith Kumar,

Professor, Dept. of ECE, Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Science, Kadapa,Andhra Pradesh.

Dr. G. Jayakrishna,

Professor & Head, Dept. of EEE, Narayana Engineering College, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh.

Dr. Bharathi.N.Gopalsamy,

Associate professor, Dept. of. CSE, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha University,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Dr. S.Magesh,

Professor, Dept. of CSE, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha University, Chennai,Tamil Nadu.

Dr.A.Kumar,

Professor & Head, Department of Chemical Engineering, Sriram Engineering College,Tiruvallur District, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Dr.M.Thamarai,

Professor, Department of ECE, Malla Reddy College Engineering, Maisammaguda,Dulapally road, Hyderabad, Telangana

Dr.Syed Mustafa,

Professor & Head, Department of Information Science & Engineering, HKBK College ofEngineering,

Off: Manyata Tech Park, Bangaluru.

Dr.K. E. Sreenivasa Murthy,

Professor & Head, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, G.PullaiahCollege of Engineering and Technology, Kurnool.

Dr.Lokanandha Reddy Irala,

Associate Professor, Dept. of Management Studies, Central University of Hyderabad,Telangana.

Dr.AbyK.Thomas,Ph.D.

Professor & Head, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,

Hindustan institute of technology &science, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

PRAYER

I pray you’ll be our eyes

And watch as where we go

And help us to be wise

In times when we don’t know

Let this be our prayer

As we go our way

Lead us to a place

Guide us with your grace

To a place where we’ll be safe

Give us faith so we’ll be safe.

We dream of world with no more violence

A world of justice and hope

Grasp your neighbor’s hand

As a symbol of peace and brotherhood.

PRAYER






As we go our way

Lead us to a place








PRAYER






As we go our way

Lead us to a place








Sl.No Paper ID Title of the Paper Authors Name PAGE NO

1 ICATEMS_CIV_003THE DESIGN OF PERMEABLE

PAVEMENTS

KETHA MAHESWARREDDY,

JANGA NAVYA1

2 ICATEMS_CIV_005Preventing accident on roads byhigh friction surfacing aggregate

k.sowjanya ,m.saithulasee ram,

R.Narayana,A.,RAMAKRISHNAIAH 14

3 ICATEMS_CIV_006Advanced GIS Applications for

Civil Infrastructure Systems

Janga Navya, VYugandhar

Reddy,Kondeti UpendraNaidu 30

6 ICATEMS_CIV_007PARTITION OF VARIOUS

TYPES OF RISK INCONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

G. uday kumarT.HARITHA

P.MOHAN RAJ45

4 ICATEMS_CIV_011

FLEXURAL ABILITY OF BEAMWITH COCONUT SHELL

AGGREGATE CONCRETE ANDBAMBOO REINFORCEMENT

Y. Pramod KumarReddy,G.N.V Sai Teja,

V.Sai Neeraja,ALEIN.J.S54

5 ICATEMS_CIV_012

Emerging Way to Enhance theDurability of Concrete Structures

through Bacterial addition Bacterialconcrete

C.Venkata Siva RamaPrasad,Dr. T.V.S. Vara

Lakshmi58

7 ICATEMS_CIV_017Major Challenges in Changing The

World By Underground SpacePlanning

KasthuriRamisetty,Prakash

Billeru 62

8 ICATEMS_CIV_020A Study and analysis on Durabilityand Mechanical properties of HighStrength Fiber Reinforced Concrete

K.Ravi Theja1,M.Subramanyam2 And

S.Alfiya,RAMAKRISHNAIH

71

1st INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES IN ENGINEERING, MANAGEMENT AND SCIENCES, 16th& 17th NOVEMBER 2017

1 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

THE DESIGN OF PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS

JangaNavya

PG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Golden Valley Integrated Campus, Angallu, Madanapalle, [email protected]

KethaMaheswar Reddy lecturer in Civil Engineering, Golden Valley Integrated Campus, Angallu,Madanapalle, India [email protected]

ABSTRACT

There are major issues that have come into focus in the areaof science and engineering research these are climate changeand global warming .These two issue have in recent yearslead into research that would directly affect the sustainabledevelopment in terms of water and energy conservation onplanet earth. One of the gains of this research was thediscovery of permeable pavements mostly applied in civiland environmental engineering for water managementissues. Permeable pavements are a design unit whosefunctions include the drainage, infiltration and treatment ofthe runoff from rainfall events. Additional functions of thesepermeable pavements include the reduction of a floodoccurrence and the management of water for reuse options.Most permeable pavement designs are ideally adopted forlight weight applications due to the load structure anddesigns that would impact its geotechnical structure. ThesePermeable pavements also present a modern and reliableway to construct pavements that are structurally suitable forvehicles or pedestrians to make use of, while simultaneouslydealing with issues relating to storm water management.This management approach tries to include the main areasrelated to storm water such as absorption, harvesting andpollution treatment. Permeable pavements are applicable invarious urban locations such as schools, car parks,walkways, residential buildings and market places. Thisreports looks to highlight the progress made by teammembers in achieving the design of permeable pavements.Here a lot of the focus was on the literature review ofpermeable pavements and its design that is the types ofpermeable pavements and the design considerations in thedesign of these permeable pavements. The aim of this reportis to cover all background work and information.

INTRODUCTION

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN (WSUD)The world is developing rapidly and with a larger

population now residing in urban communities, there will bemore an expansion of construction development in new areas.This expansion will be associated with various environmentalchallenges, to deal with some of the challenges is the conceptof Water Sensitive Urban Design was introduced inAustralia(Beecham et al. 2002).

The WSUD concept has similar characteristics to theSustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) in Europe andthe Low Impact Development (LID) in USA andJapan(Lloyd et al. 2002). The WSUD has its focusprincipally on reducing the adverse effects of storm waterand these principles can be summarized and outlined asfollows

1. To reduce portable water demand through efficientand distinct practices.

2. To reduce the volume of direct runoff from floodwater to the area.

3. Treatment of storm water in line with the standardsof water quality for re-use and discharge.

4. Using storm water in improving the aestheticalimage of landscape with reused storm water forrecreational purposes.(Beecham et al. 2002)

WSUD also aims to merge modern technologies with urbandevelopment in an effort to create a sustainableenvironment(Lloyd et al. 2002). One of the WSUD practicesis the use of permeable pavements; there are other methodsof storm water treatment such as the use of settling ponds,wetlands, bio retention basins and a few othermethods(Lloyd et al. 2002). However the other processestend to take up more land and the ideal storm water


2 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

treatment measures should avoid taking up more landarea(Rowe et al. 2008).

PERMEABLE PAVEMENTThe Urbanization or development of a new area comes witha degree of distortion to the natural balance of the proposedcatchment fordevelopment(Scholz & Grabowiecki 2007).One of the such distortions occurs in the hydrologicalaspects of that area, with respect to drainage and flow ofstorm water to a final outlet point(Brabec et al. 2002). Thisis normal for the developed area because of an increase inthe number impervious surfaces and overall imperviousarea(Brabec et al. 2002). Hence an increase in theimpervious area will result in a corresponding increase inthe time of concentration for that area where developmenthas taken place(Brabec et al. 2002) .The time ofconcentration is the time taken for the storm runoff water tomove from one part of the land to the final drainage outletpoint within that catchment(Imran et al. 2013) . Impervioussurfaces typically decrease the time of concentration withinthat area that results to an increase in the volume of stormwater runoff .An increased runoff volume is considered anegative sign as it is one of the main causes of flooding inthe urban settlements during long periods ofrainfall(Beecham et al. 2002). To tackle this issues there arestorm water best management practices recommended byhydrology experts and one of these methods is theinstallation drainage systems such as permeablepavements(Imran et al. 2013).

Pavements ideally accounts for about 25 percent ofimpervious surfaces used in land developmentconstruction(Rowe et al. 2008). Also the amount of rainfallthat ends up falling on a developed area usually makes upabout two-thirds of that runoff volume(Imran et al. 2013).There is a high volume of runoff created by thesepavements and it contains pollutants in the form of heavymetals and hydrocarbons(Huang et al. 2016). Theconventional pavement design consists of a base course andunderlying material, an impervious seal which is applied onthe surface of the pavement to prevent water fromdestroying the underlying base course and subbasematerial(Mullaney& Lucke 2014). However the permeablepavements differ from the conventional pavementspecifically in the areas of design and designobjectives(Beecham et al. 2002). Firstly permeablepavements are distinctly designed in a manner whichpermits the infiltration of storm water through the pavementspaces through the different sublayers(Mullaney & Lucke

2014). This ensures that the storm water is rid of acquiredcontaminants before it is harvest for reuse in whateverapplication or the filtered water can be sent directly into thedrainage system(Mullaney et al. 2015). Another aspect thatdistinguishes permeable pavements from the conventionalones is the benefits it brings along with treatment of stormwater in an environmental friendly way(Imran et al. 2013).These permeable pavements can therefore be made use of inlocations where conventional pavements are normally usedlike pedestrian zones, recreational parks ,car parks androads(Scholz & Grabowiecki 2007). Permeable pavementsdo not take up extra land area for storm water treatment andit increases filtration rate while relieving pressure of theother drainage infrastructures in place(Boogaard et al.2014).Permeable pavements are also being used as controlmeasure for storm runoff and also a treatmentprocess(Scholz & Grabowiecki 2007). A typical permeablepavement system could have infiltration rates amounting tothousands of millimeters per hour (mm/hr) and most councilin Australia will expect designs that will cater for a 1 in100years storm event(BMCC 2015). The performance of thepermeable pavements will depend a lot on the condition ofthe site, for instance in cases where the soil permeability islow(Brabec et al. 2002). An underground pipe is installed totransport the filtered storm water to the drainagesystem(Brabec et al. 2002). Apart from the infiltration andharvesting of storm water another environmental benefit ofpermeable pavement is the restoration of the naturalhydrological properties of the catchment proposed fordevelopment(Lloyd et al. 2002). It achieves this by reducingthe runoff volume thereby minimizing the risks of flooding.In addition to that another environmental impact ofpermeable pavements is related to ground watercontamination. Filtered storm water will have a minimaleffect on the quality of ground water and the use ofpermeable pavements is another form of rain waterharvesting that could contribute to the water supply of thatarea(Mullaney et al. 2015) .There have been suggestionsthat permeable pavements could replace conventionalasphalt in road construction as filtered water improves thehealth of surrounding tress by the infiltration of air andwater through the pavements (Brabec et al. 2002). The nextsection of the report will review all thedifferent types ofpermeable pavements, where they can be applied and howthe design affects their performance.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PERMEABLE PAVINGDESIGN1. INFILTTRATONCAPACITY:Permeable pavementshave been shown to significantly reduce the volume of


3 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

storm water runoff and reduce peak flowrates from urbanCatchments, compared to traditional pavements. Permeablepavements also possess the ability to retain storm runoffwater and filter this water through permeable sub layers ofmaterial directly into the ground water system (Imran et al.2013). This method is considered as one of the bestmanagement practices for storm water. The conventionalpavements used naturally have a high percentageimperviousness which means that a large volume of directrunoff is expected during a storm event and this runoffcontains pollutants from direct runoff. Permeable pavementsprovide the best options for the treatment of pollutantsfound in the storm runoff .This is partly down to theinfiltration capacity and a huge amount of research has beenundertaken on the infiltration capacity of perviouspavements(Mullaney & Lucke 2014). There are a fewfactors that can affect this infiltration capacity such asclogging, large sediment particles, nature of sub basematerial etc. Some of the studies carried out on theinfiltration capacity of permeable pavements have linked itto potential hydrological impacts within a catchment, and onits downstream receiving waters(Lloyd et al. 2002).

2.WATER QUALITY:Rainfall runoff from roofs,pavements and pedestrian are the area which Includes ahigh mixture of pollutants such as heavy metals, totalphosphorous, total nitrogen, oils ,hydrocarbons, and theother sediments that have been deposited onto thepermeable surfaces(Mullaney & Lucke 2014).Heavy metalsare a major source of pollution ideally contained in therunoff from developed areas that have a negative impact onaquatic ecosystems flora and fauna(Imran et al. 2013) .Heavy metals such as iron, zinc, lead and copper generallyhave a relatively high density and can be toxic to human,terrestrial andaquatic life. The bulk of heavy metal is as aresult of attaching themselves to sediment particles whichsizes ranging from 0.1 and 0.3 mm .Storm water can readilytransport these pollutants, particularly the finer fractions andthis would lead to an increase in the turbidity of waterways(Mullaney et al. 2015).Another source for majority ofpollution occurring in urban storm water from developedcountries originates from non-point or diffuse sources.These include places such as road surfaces, industrial sites,housing estates or farmland, and the source is often difficultto locate .Table below shows a range of Contaminantstypically found in runoff from road surfaces and theirsources(Imran et al. 2013). These types of pollutants andtheir concentrations are dependent on land use, populationdensity, geology, topography and storm water duration andintensity within the catchment. Permeable pavements have

been shown to be effective in removing pollutants (e.g.suspended solids, oils and heavy metals) due to theinfiltration processes that take place through the structure.Currently more studies are being undertaken on thepollutant removal efficiency of permeable pavementsystemsand how they can be removed.

Table 1: Contaminants typically found in permeablepavements(Mullaney & Lucke 2014)

Contaminants found inpermeable pavements

Sources

Heavy metals such aslead, zinc, iron, nickel,chromium etc.,

Tyre wear, motor oil,grease, exhaust wear,moving engine parts,break lining,metal plating, fuel

Sediment Pavement wear,maintenance,construction, vehicles,erosion, traffic de-icingsalts, wind

Petroleum hydrocarbons Oil spills, leaks, anti-freeze, hydraulic fluids,leachate from pavement

Nutrients-phosphorus,nitrogen

Fertilizer, decomposingorganic matter

Rubber Tyre wear

3.CLOGGING:Clogging occurs as a result of fines,organic matter and abraded particles, blocking the gaps andsurfaces of pervious pavement systems due to physical,biological and chemical processes(Huang et al. 2016). Thisclogging decreases the permeability of the paving surfaceand hence the infiltration rate of a system (Brabec et al.2002).Street tree litter can also block permeable pavementsbut an advantage of decomposing leaves is the elevatednutrient levels, which stimulate microbial activity on thegeofabric, and this leads to accelerated hydrocarbonbreakdown (Imran et al. 2013).The degree that particledeposition on to pavement surfaces impacts on theperformance of a system depends on the particle sizedistribution of the material and the pore structure orpermeability of the system (Mullaney et al. 2015).A numberof studies have investigated the clogging processes thatoccur in pervious pavements and the pollutant distributionwithin Paving structures.

HYDROLOGIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONSSpace availability- permeable pavement is beneficial in itsability to join infiltration and pavement by deducting area of


4 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

land required for other facilities. This is very common inurban areas where high prices for land and highly developedsites with no area for storm water storage.

i)Slope (sub grade soil) - A flat slope longitudinally isrecommended for proper distribution of storm water. Slopessuch as steep can lowers the storm water storing capacitythrough permeable pavement. Terraced sub grade is takeninto account for designing permeable pavement when theslope exceeds 3%.

ii)Excavation methods- Reduction in Soil sub gradecompaction is kept into mind while excavating. Wheeledtools are used for working on the sides of excavation.Aggregate is compacted to this area because soil cansometimes settle and reflects on surface.

iii)Setbacks- For restricting seepage, permeable pavementshould not be hydraulically connected to buildingfoundations unless an impermeable liner is placed againstthe foundation or basement wall. If the liner is not presentthen pavement base should be ten feet greater fromstructures.

iii)Overflow structures- Permeable pavements are not onlydeveloped to store and infiltrate all storm water. Since,outlets are needed to restrict water from rising into and overthe surface. Primary type of outlet control will be a catchbasin with an internal weir and low-flow orifice. The catchbasin can also turn runoff from the above surface so shouldit become restricted to some level

iv)Depth of water table- Very high groundwater table mayresults in seepage to the bottom of permeable pavement andstops complete drainage. Soil becomes filter for pollutantsbetween pavement base and the water table. So, for thatpurpose a minimum vertical separation of three feet isrequired between the base of the permeable pavementreservoir layer and the groundwater table. For impermeableliners, a minimum of one foot clearance is efficient betweenthe liner and the water table.

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNThe design process for pavement construction varies on thebasis of vehicles and its type. For knowing the compressivestrength of porous concrete ASTM test method has beendeveloped. Basic rules and regulations required for porousconcrete surface thickness are put at the front by theNational Ready MIX Concrete Association NRMCA(Leming 2007). For full scale testing of structural behavior,there has been very limited research.

Instead of permeable pavement, structural design methodstakes into account the below criteria-

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is used forexpressing soil strength

Materials strength at surface, base and sub base

Environmental factors including freezing climatesand extended saturation of the soil sub grade.

pavement life and total anticipated traffic loadsexpressed as 18,000 pounds equivalent single axleloads or ESALs

If soils under vehicular traffic have lower strengths or areexpansive when wet, there are several options, including

under drains;

thickened base/subbase layer(s);

cement or asphalt stabilized base layers; and

Lime or cement stabilized (with design considerationgiven to practically no infiltration in such cases).

Conveyance and overflow: Porous asphalt outlines oughtto incorporate techniques to pass on bigger tempests (e.g., 2-year, 10-year) to the tempest deplete framework. Theaccompanying is a rundown of techniques that fulfill this.

Put a punctured pipe on a level plane close to the highestpoint of the repository layer to pass overabundance streamsafter water has filled the base.

The situation and additionally configuration ought to be tosuch an extent that the approaching spillover is not caught(e.g., putting the apertures on the underside as it were). Pipearrangement ought to be far from wheel burdens to forestallharm. Increment the thickness of the highest point of therepository layer.

i) Make underground detainment inside the repository layerof the porous asphalt framework. Repository stockpilingmight be expanded by creased metal funnels, plastic or solidcurve structures, and so on.


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ii) Course overabundance streams to another detainment ormovement framework that is intended for administration ofextraordinary occasion streams.

iii) Set the tempest deplete deltas level with the height of thepenetrable asphalt surface to successfully pass onoverabundance storm water overflow past the framework.The outline ought to likewise consider help of inadmissibleponding profundities amid bigger precipitation occasions.

Under drains

Under drains introduce immediately when set on or in thedirt sub grade, encompassed by stone base materials. Theoutpouring segment toward the end is not punctured and israised to an outlined tallness that takes into account somewater detainment before surge. Situation at this rise likewisesecures the pipe with total amid base compaction. Forpenetrable asphalt bases/sub bases utilizing 2 or 3 inch mostextreme size totals, under drain funnels with them ought tobe encompassed with no less than 4 creeps of ASTM No. 57(most extreme 1 inch measure total) to ensure the funnelsamid compaction. An under drain(s) can likewise beintroduced and topped at a downstream structure as apossibilityforsome time later if support perceptionsdemonstrate a diminishment in the dirt porousness.

Maintenance

Legitimate upkeep of penetrable asphalt is significant forguaranteeing its life span and usefulness. A few segments ofthe support arrange require arranging amid the outlinestages. These things are noted beneath.

Perception Well – Typically this comprises of an all-aroundsecured, six-inch breadth punctured PVC pipe that stretchesout vertically to the base of the repository layer. This isintroduced at the down incline end of the penetrable asphalt.The perception well ought to be fitted with a lockable topintroduced flush with the ground surface (or under thepavers) to encourage intermittent investigation and upkeep.The perception well empowers visual checking ofdrawdown inside the repository layer after a tempest.

Overhead Landscaping – Some people group require aspecific rate of parking areas to be arranged. Expansivescale porous asphalt ought to be painstakingly wanted toincorporate finishing in a way that amplifies spillovertreatment and limits danger of dregs, mulch, grass clippings,squashed leaves, nuts, and organic products accidentallystopping up the surface. Preceding development, proprietorsought to focus on a vacuuming arrangement thatincorporates vacuuming recurrence and gear needs. Thevacuuming recurrence regularly relies on upon the season ofyear. In the spring, tree buds and seeds require visitvacuuming. In the fall, tree leaves and oak seeds requirevisit vacuuming. In the late spring, vacuuming recurrencerelies on upon porous asphalt presentation to naturalmaterial from trees and close-by vegetated regions. Vacuumhardware and strategies for dregs expulsion are given in thesegment tending to operation and support.

Pre-treatment

It is HIGHLY RECOMMENDED that the accompanyingpretreatment measuring rules be taken after:

Before entering an invasion hone, storm water ought to firstenter a pretreatment rehearse measured to treat a basevolume of 25 percent of the Vwq.

In the event that the invasion rate of the local soils surpasses2 inches every hour a pretreatment hone fit for treating abase volume of 50 percent of the Vwq ought to beintroduced.

i) In the event that the invasion rate of the local soilssurpasses 5 inches every hour a pretreatment hone fit fortreating a base volume of 100 percent of the Vwq ought tobe introduced.

ii) It is highly recommended that pretreatment practices beoutlined with the end goal that leave speeds from thepretreatment frameworks are non-erosive (under 3 feet forevery second) and streams are uniformly conveyed over thewidth of the practice (e.g., by utilizing a level spreader).


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There are extra outline contemplations for penetrableasphalt, including utilization of porous asphalt in karstlandscape and winter contemplations.

Karst territory

A point by point geotechnical examination might berequired for any sort of stormwaterplan in karst territory.Penetrable asphalts, as with other invasion practices, are notsuggested at destinations with referred to karst includes asthey can bring about the development of sinkholes and cangive an immediate connection to storm water to get togroundwater without giving any treatment.

Winter contemplations

Furrowed snow heaps ought to be situated in adjoiningverdant zones so that silt and poisons in snowmelt are inpart treated before they achieve every penetrable asphalt.Sand is not prescribed for winter footing over porousasphalts. In the event that sand is connected, it must beevacuated with vacuum cleaning in the spring. Footing canbe proficient on PICP utilizing jointing stone materials,some of which will discover its way into the joints byspringtime. A noteworthy winter favorable position ofporous asphalts is that they require less deicing materialsthan their impenetrable partners. Utilization of deicingmaterial on penetrable asphalt is thusly not prescribed.

Signage

Penetrable asphalts can be utilized as open doors forgovernment funded training with signs clarifying how theyfunction. Invasion showings additionally help indicate howthe asphalts function. Signs give a suggestion to supportgroups of their nearness and rundown upkeep do's anddon'ts particular to the porous asphalt sort.

TYPES OF PERMEABLE PAVEMENTSPermeable pavement systems are a systematic way throughwhich urban development can cater for the challengesassociated with urban development(Mullaney & Lucke2014). Permeable pavements are applicable to broad varietyof applications within residential, commercial and industrialsites. These applications as mentioned earlier include carparks, streets, bicycle paths, etc. However, it is worth notingin this report that permeable pavements are not applicable inareas or on streets where there is a high trafficvolume(Zhang et al. 2013). This is because the excessweight can affect the structural stability of the permeablepavement system and have negative impact on the

performance (Huang et al. 2016). These permeablepavement types will be discussed in more details insubsequent sections of this report. An important feature tonote about these types of permeable pavements maintainthe same functions of permeable pavements which includesretention of storm water runoff improving the water qualityfiltration through sub layers, storage of treated storm waterfor re-use applications (Imran et al. 2013). Permeablepavements have become increasing popular with a few ofthem being installed in many parts of Asia, Europe andNorth America in recent years (Lloyd et al. 2002). There arefour broad classifications of permeable pavements and theyare

1. Permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP).2. Concrete and plastic grid pavers (CGP and PGP).3. Porous asphalt (PA).4. Porous concrete (PC).

PERMEABLE INTERLOCKING CONCRETEPAVEMENTSPermeable Interlocking Concrete Pavements (PICP) havebeen designed in such a way that the open spaces within thepavings as large enough for the infiltration of water into thepavement system ,that there is sufficient open space(Mullaney & Lucke 2014).They are able to do this becauseof the unique shape of the pavings with the addition of miniapertures on the surface of the pavement. PICPS alsocontains spacing lugs which are built within pavers toseparate them. Compared to conventional pavers the spacingwithin the pavers are not covered with sand or any otherbinder but rather it is filled up with sub aggregate materialused for the bedding of the permeable paver(Mullaney et al.2015).This is to increase the infiltration rate of the waterinto the pavement. The main advantage of PICPs is theirstructural strength and this is based on their shape and easeof interlocking, the PICPs with rectangular shape best fitthis description as shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1 a. PICP with wide joints b. PICP withapertures(Mullaney et al. 2015)


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Karst territory




Signage








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Karst territory




Signage








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There is still research being done with other paver shapesthat will match the structural strength and infiltration rate ofthe PICP.PICPs is the most common type of pavers used forpermeable pavements and has been in use for over 20 years.

Figure 2 PICP design(Mullaney et al. 2015)

Figure 1 also shows a typical PICP structure with widejoints to allow. The paver joints required for infiltrationusually makes up a fraction of the surface area of thepavement which is usually about 8 to 20%(Rowe et al.2008). The next layers under the pavers is the bedding layerwhich consists of small sized aggregate within the range of2mm – 5mmdiameters , the aggregate bedding lies on ageofabric(Scholz & Grabowiecki 2007). Geofabrics wereintroduced into the permeable pavement design in order toseparate the different sizes of aggregates within the system.It also prevents the smaller aggregates beneath the paverfrom settling down the bottom of the system .Geofabric alsoplays a role in the water quality, more specifically oilremoval(Zhang et al. 2013). When a geofabric is includedbeneath it is the aggregate for the subbase whose particlesize ranges from 20mm – 63 mm diameter and the depth ofthis subbase aggregate is typically within the range of300mm to 500 mm.

CONCRETE GRID PAVERS AND PLASTIC GRIDPAVERSThe subbase has larger aggregates is because of the high

void ratio and it can provide options for usage, either as areservoir or just for trapping pollutants(Mullaney & Lucke2014). Similarities can be drawn for the Concrete GridPavers and Plastic Grid pavers Ps deign and function withthat of PICP’s. One of the main differences comes in theimpervious area of the pavement surface. The GCPs areusually larger than the PICP pavers and consists of moreopen spaces to aid infiltration.

Figure 3 Typical structure of a PGP and CGP(Mullaney& Lucke 2014)

The open void space for CGP Is about 35% on averagewhile that of the PGP is about 42 % and theses are similarto PICP designs(Rowe et al. 2008). These paver joint areusually filled with gravel or tops and then the storm watercan infiltrate through these mediums(Zhang et al. 2013).Thespace of the permeable pavement will decide the type ofmedia fill. The weather will also have an effect on theperformance of the permeable pavement for example inAustralia when there are long dry spells of hot weather. TheGrass planted in the paving apertures often experiencesevere stress in dry periods which can cause it to die-off(Zhang et al. 2013). This can then lead to erosion of thesoil in the paving apertures during heavy Rainfall. This typeof system appears to be generally more suitable for few havebeen undertaken on CGPs or PGPs(Scholz & Grabowiecki2007). Past experience in Australia has shown that long dryspells and hot weather makes CGPs unsuitable for use inmany parts of the countries(Scholz & Grabowiecki 2007).

POROUS ASHPALTPA has similarities to the typical heated asphalt howeverthe distinct difference is in the omission of the aggregatefine part in the conventional asphalt(Scholz & Grabowiecki2007).PA usually has thickness ranging from 75mm to180mm and this all depends on the design ascribed to thetraffic volume. The figure below depicts the structure of a


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typical PA ,the main exception being that the pavers arebeing replaced by the layers of PA(Rowe et al. 2008) .ThePA has been utilized with a huge successful gains in theUSA from the 1970s,though there have been variations inthe performance results based on the design, production,construction and maintenance(Lloyd et al. 2002). Thedesign of lifespan for a PA pavement system is usuallyaround 15 years for a PA pavement. However this is basedon a lot of factors such as the efficiency of the maintenanceschedules, loading traffic of storm water and the effectsarising from the frequent exposure to air water andoxygen(Mullaney & Lucke 2014). This could have an effecton the permeable pavement system such as the cracking ofthe bitumen in the PA. Another difference between the PAand the conventional porous asphalt is the infiltration rateespecially after a long duration of rainfall(Rowe et al. 2008).As you can see in figure 4 below there is still a large amountof storm water left on the surface of the conventional asphaltwhile in the porous asphalt the storm water has beenabsorbed totally.

Figure 4 Difference between porous asphalt and normalasphalt

POROUS CONCRETEPorous Concrete (PC) consists of a specially formulatedmixture of Portland cement binder, uniform open gradedcourse aggregate and water(Scholz & Grabowiecki 2007).What distinguishes the porous concrete from normalconcrete is the omission of the fine aggregates contained inthe normal concrete and this done to enhance theinfiltration(Mullaney & Lucke 2014). A commonapplication for PC is in the construction of road pavementsare because of the following reason. The surface reducesnoise levels on the roads, the surface has less spray and theskid resistance is high(Mullaney et al. 2015) .While themain obstacles in utilization of PC includes the adequatemaintenance of strength and durability and the high cost ofinstallation involved(Mullaney et al. 2015) .With all these

challenges PC has proven to be a good technique inaddressing the situation.

The table below shows some of the Research done ondifferent types permeable pavements in the past at variouslocations.

Table 2 summary of previous research onpermeable pavement systems(Mullaney & Lucke

2014)

Studylocation

Main finding PPType

Geofabric

(Coventry,UK)

1.PICP systemssignificantlyreduced runoffvolumes andpeak flow-ratesfrom the car-park (by up to60%) comparedto conventionalasphaltpavements2.There was asignificantdelay betweenthe start of arainfall eventand thefirst dischargefrom thereservoirdrainage pipesand thedischargecontinued wellafter the rainfallhad ceased

PICP Yes

(NC, USA) 1.Grass-concrete blocksystem andgrass-plasticgrid systemtested forInfiltrationperformance.The authorsrecommend thatit is reasonabletoassign a rational

PGP yes


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runoffcoefficientranging from0.20 to 0.50 forthesepervious pavingsystems

(Seattle,WA, USA)

1.The long-termeffectiveness offour pervioussurfaces aftersix years wasdeemed high2.Little or norunoff wasevident from thepermeablepavementssurfacestested, evenduring highperiod ofrainfall (42 mmover 14 h)3.Site hadgenerally lowrainfall,recommendedto confirm theeffectivenessin a wetterclimate

PICP yes

SydneyAustralia

A PICPinstallationreduced theeffectiveimperviousnessof a residentialStreet by 42%

PICP no

Belgium 1.tested theinfiltrationcapacity ofplastic geocellsand openjointed gridssown with grasscompared toopen jointedpaving blocks)2.Infiltrationcapacity ofvegetated

PGP

plastic geocellswas lower thanthe openjointed pavers

Melbourne ,Australia

1.Field resultsof Ecotrihexpavers andAtlantic TurfCells (porous)comparedto imperviousasphalt surface2.Asphaltsurfaceproduced runoffafter 3 mm ofrainfall,compared to 13and 18 mm,respectively, forthe Ecotrihexpaver and Turfcells3.Peakdischarge wasreducedbetween 40–55% for theEcotrihex paverand45–60% for theTurf cell.Runoff volumewas reduced by43–55% for theEcotihex paverand 52–62% forthe Turf cell

PGP Yes

NC,USA 1.Runoff fromfour pervioussurfaces wascompared to aconventionalimperviousasphalt surface2.All hadsignificantlyhigher removalrates than theconventionalimperviousasphalt surface

CGP yes


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3.Mean runoffreduction was98% for allpervioussurfacescompared to35%for the asphaltsurface

GA,USA Plastic paversfilled with grasswere clearlyshown to reducerunoffvolumes by93% comparedto aconventionalasphalt surface

PGP

LATEST TECHNOLOGIES FOR PAVEMENTSFollowing are the latest technologies in pavements

Kinetic Pavements

Solar Roadways

Star Path Pavements

Light Pavements

KINETIC PAVEMENTSPedestrians could soon create energy essentially by strollingto work or going for an evening walk, on account of'dynamic pavements' that transform feet walking energy intopower or electricity. Pavegen, a London uprooted companyhas built up an uncommon energy collecting tile – producedusing 95% reused tires – that is flexible up to 5mm whenventured on, generating about up to 8 watts ofenergy(kinetic). Enough tiles and enough steps on it canmake enough energy to be put away in batteries, or to helpcontrol streetlights and other electrical things. Each andevery tile likewise bombast a novel restrictive remoteinterchanges innovation that utilizes just 1% of its energy totransmit information about the quantity of footfalls andenergy produced. This implies city authorities andentrepreneurs can perceive what numbers of individuals are

going through every territory, and afterward settle onbrilliant choices about the way that power is utilized.

For instance, the innovation has as of now showed up atsome entirely essential occasions. A year ago, 12 tiles wereintroduced along the strolling course to the Olympic Park.Pavement assessed that through the span of the Games thetiles would collect power from more than 12 millionfootfalls, producing 72 million joules of power – sufficientto charge 10,000 cell phones for 60 minutes! The power wasput to all the more publicly useful utilize however, fuelingthe lights in adjacent West Ham station for five hours everynight. Pavement at last plans tomake the tiles as moderate asnormal floor tiles, and to see them introduced in workplaces,schools, pedestrian zed zones and open spaces the worldover.

SOLAR ROADWAYSThe main role of Solar Roadways is to produce cleansustainable power source on roadways and whatever anothersurface that can be strolled or driven upon. This includes:parking areas, walkways, carports, landing areas, squares,bicycle ways, play areas, cultivate ways, pool encompasses,yards and so forth. There are numerous long lasting uses forsolar power, which are stupendous. The solar roadways ideatakes sun powered innovation, to another level. The thoughtis to gather the generous sun oriented energy which hitsthese surfaces. Exclusively, they will have a double reason:present day framework + control network. The solarroadways full-measure hexagonal boards cover a territory ofaround 4.39 square feet. These are available in differentversions like, SR2 boards were roughly 36 watt boards andnew SR3 boards are 48 watt boards.

Figure 5 Solar Panel Pavement

The measure of energy delivered depends altogether uponthe measure of daylight accessible, so notwithstanding thevariable of area and different factors include: the level ofshading, season, time of day, and other nearby components.


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PGP


Kinetic Pavements

Solar Roadways

Star Path Pavements

Light Pavements








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PGP


Kinetic Pavements

Solar Roadways

Star Path Pavements

Light Pavements








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It's typical for sun based energy to increment in sunnyseasons and conditions and lessening when less daylight isaccessible. Clients will need to comprehend what they cananticipate from their correct area in each season andadditionally the found the middle value of sum every year.Next element to consider is that Solar Roadways willdependably have the adaptability to utilize whateversunlight based cells meet the requirements of offering themost proficiencyat a moderate value point. Solar Roadwaysboards will turn out to be considerably more proficient aftersome time as new advancements wind up plainly accessibleto stay aware of expanded interest for vitality with populacedevelopment. The following element to comprehend is theproportion amongst garage and home or parking area.Clearly a circumstance with a long garage and littler homewill have a greatly improved shot of energy freedom, thananother client's short carport with a substantial home.

STAR PATH PAVEMENTSA British-based organization called Pro-Tech has planned amore affordable approach to keep parks and roadwayssufficiently bright around evening time to ensure cyclist andperson well -being. 'Star path', the system will help keep thedull asphalts lit amid the night by making them shine. Thestrategy utilizes a covering made of light-retaining particles,which can be showered on, and it assimilates ultra-violetbeams from the sun for the duration of the day andtremendously illuminates like a starry sky around eveningtime on the asphalt. This conceivable eventual fate of theroad lighting is a thin embellishing covering, which doesn’treflect, waterproof, and can be covered or showered on toconcrete, wood, landing area or other strong surfaces. Theshining particles of the covering are spread on a standardway and afterward it is showered with a protecting layer tosafeguard its sparkle.

Figure 6 Star Path Pavement

LIGHT PAVEMENTSLight-shaded asphalts are frequently made of conventionalblack-top with high quantity of limestone. They have ahigher light intensity than conventional dark black-top andcan becooler up to 30-40°F on a sunny day. In the uppereast, light black-top or white-fixing are substantial otheroptions. Light-shaded asphalts can reflect daylight far fromthe beginning, warm as opposed to holding it.Notwithstanding included safety, this decreases thetemperature of the encompassing air and any overflow fromthe street. The lower temperature keeps autos cooler, whichprompts decreased fuel dissipation and spares energy asdrivers utilize less aerating and cooling. Light concrete canbe easily used for street repairs. While supplanting more upto date asphalt is cost-restrictive and tedious, existing streetscan likewise be "white-topped" with light percentage as aless demanding approach to diminish heat dissipationproblem.

Figure 7 Sample Light Pavement

Benefits of Technology Developed

Efficient installation cost:There is no need of storm sewerties-ins for the projects using pervious concrete, whichdecreases the cost of installing pipes and storm drains. Also,problem of grading reduces as there is no requirement togive slope to parking area.

Increase in land utilizations: Because it works in two wayssystem there is no requirement of another land for installingwater retention and filtering systems.

Reduction in life cycle costs:According to researcher’spervious concrete is a sustainable material as it long last for20-40 years as we can see mostly it is installed when a newhouse is built.

Brings down street surface and air temperatures.

Adds to lower temperature of vehicle, whichprompts diminished fuel dissipation and reducesthe requirement for aerating and cooling.


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Lessens storm water overflow temperature forbiological advantages.

Enhances evening deceivability, which promptsmore secure driving.

LEED credits accessible for utilization of materialswhich lessen the urban warmth island impact.

LIMITATIONS OF TECHNOLOGIES DEVELOPED For Kinetic Pavements, the innovation has gone

under some feedback since, well, it's not aseffective as ordinary power sources. The normalindividual will walk 150 million footsteps in theirlifetime, and in principle, that would just besufficient to control the normal family home forthree weeks, which doesn't sound extraordinary.

Although it is by all accounts a proficient approachto illuminate the asphalts to see the way yet it won'tbe extremely powerful in observing a man or athing at a separation, which is the reason Star pathwon't have the capacity to dispense with the entirethought of streetlights. The gleaming ways can bespread everywhere throughout the asphalts. Theoverhead lights can be utilized too. This wouldimply that the quantity of streetlights can bedecreased by supplanting them with Star path yetnot totally evacuated.

In actual these pavements require very less amountof water but sometimes it is not feasible. Like theyhave rough textured and honeycomb surface, italsohas minor wear and tear from corners as well.These conditions can be noticed on heavily trafficroads.

The main limitation of pervious concrete is its property ofreveling.

Permeable pavements will be no longer be utilized in highpollutant loading sites. Excessive pollutant loading sites arepeople who receive constant sediment or trash and/or debris.Locations where fuels and chemical compounds are saved ordealt with may also be competencies storm water hotpotsand permeable pavement must now not be constructed inthese locations. Likewise, areas field to wind borne dust andsediment will have to now not use permeable pavement

except the pavement can be vacuumed more commonly. Thenext obstacles will have to be viewed earlier than utilizingpermeable pavements in any design.

CONCLUSIONMost permeable designs are birthed as results ofdevelopment occurring in new areas of land, an increase involume and a decrease in the quality of storm water runoffis the typical response of a catchment area to urbanization.Hydrology professionals are usually responsible fordeveloping effective solutions to this problem in line withthe standards set by the local governing councils. Watersensitive urban design (WSUD) is one of those solutionswith a modern approach to adequately manage urban stormwater runoff. It accommodates the solutions to mostdeveloped area which include flood management, waterquality improvement and storm water reuse. There byrecognizing storm water as a precious resource which can beutilized for other applications is one of the objectives forWSUD. Permeable pavements are WSUD technologies thatallow for on-site infiltration or retention of storm waterrunoff while providing full amenity of the above lying land.Research is being carried out into the fit-for-purpose reusepotential of storm water harvested and treated by permeablepavements and stored in theaggregate base course. Theresearch done sofar reveals that there can be moresignificant water quality improvements are with appropriatedesign modellings. One of the critical factors to consider inthe design of any permeable pavement is the infiltration rate.Over the years while these permeable pavements are beingutilized, there is more sediments being deposited on thepermeable pavement surfaces which results in the Cloggingof the system. A good knowledge of the clogging ofpermeable pavements and a good understanding of theprocesses involved will necessary to improve the overallefficiency. With more study, the effective life of permeablepavements can be predicted, and systems can be designed toprovide a long serviceable life. The four types of permeablepavements all show they have sufficient infiltration capacitydepending on the area to which they are applied to.

REFRENCESBeecham, S. et al., 2002. Designing Porous and Permeable

Pavements for Stormwater Harvesting and Reuse. ,(December 2014), pp.1–6.

BMCC, 2015. Blue mountains developmement control plan2015. Available at: www.bmcc.nsw.gov.au/ [Accessed


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April 25, 2016].

Boogaard, F., Lucke, T. & Beecham, S., 2014. Effect of ageof permeable pavements on their infiltration function.Clean - Soil, Air, Water, 42(2), pp.146–152.

Brabec, E., Schulte, S. & Richards, P.L., 2002. ImperviousSurfaces and Water Quality: A Review of CurrentLiterature and Its Implications for WatershedPlanning. Journal of Planning Literature, 16(4),pp.499–514. Available at:http://jpl.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/088541202400903563.

Huang, J. et al., 2016. Three Types of Permeable Pavementsin Cold Climates: Hydraulic and EnvironmentalPerformance. Journal of Environmental Engineering,142(6), p.4016025. Available at:http://ascelibrary.org/doi/full/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001085.

Imran, H.M., Akib, S. & Karim, M.R., 2013. Permeablepavement and stormwater management systems: areview. Environmental Technology, 34(18), pp.2649–2656. Available at:http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09593330.2013.782573.

Lloyd, S.D., Wong, T.H.F. & Chesterfield, C., 2002. Watersensitive urban design--A stormwater managementperspective,

Mullaney, J. et al., 2015. The effect of permeable pavementswith an underlying base layer on the ecophysiologicalstatus of urban trees. Urban Forestry and UrbanGreening, 14(3), pp.686–693. Available at:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.11.007.

Mullaney, J. & Lucke, T., 2014. Practical review ofpervious pavement designs. Clean - Soil, Air, Water,42(2), pp.111–124.

Rowe, A. a., Borst, M. & O’Connor, T.P., 2008. PerviousPavement System Evaluation. Low ImpactDevelopment for Urban Ecosystem and HabitatProtection, pp.1–9.

Scholz, M. & Grabowiecki, P., 2007. Review of permeablepavement systems. Building and Environment, 42(11),pp.3830–3836.

Zhang, L., Ong, G.P. & Fwa, T.F., 2013. Evaluating the

influence of aggregate size on permeability of porouspavements using finite volume simulation.International Journal of Pavement Research andTechnology, 6(5), pp.520–526.


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PREVENTING THEACCIDENTS ON ROADS BY HIGHFRICTION SURFACING AGGREGATE

K.SOWJANYA,A.RAMAKRISHNAIAH M.SAI THULASEE RAM, R.NARAYANA ,

Assistant Professors, Assistant Professors

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

GVIC GVIC

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

High contact surfacing HFS is expert sort of street covering.The fundamental saying of this street is to keep the mischanceson high courses by diminishing the speed of the vehicle byexpanding the angle of street and utilizing the calcined bauxitematerial to build the erosion. For the most part this material isutilized as a part of the area where the huge danger of genuineor lethal mischances is happening. The calcined bauxite is themain total that give the most abnormal amounts of slideprotection over the longest period. It is available utilizing as apart of UK and the information from the wear test can beidentified with each high rubbing surface research facility testand street trial completed in the UK for in the course of the last50years. Notwithstanding developing confirmation if high slipResistance being measured for all locales, it's found to 52%lessening in complete mischances, 51% decrease in the quantityof causalities, 67%reduction in the quantity of mishaps on wetstreets, 45%reduction in the quantity of mishaps on dry streetsurfaces and a 78% diminishment on mishaps in sliding wasrecorded as a factor. No normally happening total has beenfound to give a similar level of in-benefit execution is foreseeingin the lab utilizing the wear test which subjected to testexamples to an expected of 5 to 8 years recreated trafficking.Illustrations are given wear test information. Here, delineatewhy calcined bauxite performs better than regular total. Andfurthermore indicate how the measure of calcined bauxite canbe diminished by mixing with high slip protection common total,be that as it may, the cost of calcined bauxite material is high.Usage, changing the slope of street any place required.

Key words: High friction surfacing, Skid resistance, Wear test,Road test machine, calcined bauxite, Polished Stone Value.

Introduction:

Slipping protection is a critical parameter in theasphalt plan and determination of material forasphalt can assume a noteworthy part in enhancingasphalt slide protection property. Be that as it may,the determination of total is basic to guarantee longlife. The total molecule must be to a great degreehard wearing to keep up their sharp edges thuschomp into the tire elastic. They should wind upplainly adjusted, wear away or shear off under theworry of turning and braking tires. Outline anddevelopment of asphalt with slip protectionmaterial can help diminish mischances. Anexpansion in normal speed is specifically identifiedwith both the probability of a crash happening andto the seriousness of crash outcomes. According toworld wellbeing association's street security reportof the year 2010, A 5% expansion in normal speedprompts an around 10% increment in crashes thatreason wounds and a 20% expansion in deadlycrashes. According to NCRB (Nationalwrongdoing records agency), street mishaps werethe most compelling motivation behind unnaturalpassings in the nation they constitute 37.4% of theaggregate instances of un-regular passings in thenation in the year 2012. On the off chance that wetake a gander at the information intently the mainmotivation for street mischances after human


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mistake is sliding of vehicles when brakes areconnected at high speeds (NHAI). According toNHAI the PSV (Polished stone esteem) of clearingmaterial should be at least 55. In spite of the factthat the asphalt material basalt fulfills thisincentive in crisp unused state, with expandingpresentation to movement basalt's PSV is found tolessen. Accordingly it is imperative to distinguishan option material that can conquer this constraintof decreased PSV with time and the presentresearch offers some arrangement toward this path.

High Friction Surfacing (HFS) is an expert, elitestreet surface material that is connected as a thincovering. HFS is utilized at street area where thereis a high danger of mischances that may bringabout genuine damage or demise. It has beenutilized as a part of the United Kingdom (UK)since the mid 1960s. HFS is currently indicated inthe UK as an exclusive framework with anexecution ensure. A lot of lab and full-scale streetstrials was done in its initial advancement bringingabout comprehension of material necessities andtechniques for expectation.

The point of this paper is to present about the HFSon the Indian streets. Where occurrence of mishapsare more on streets like, intersections, passerbyintersections, crossing points, high mischanceslevel regions, person on foot walkways and cycleways. And furthermore actualizing this procedureon parkways where the mishaps are overwhelming,by expanding the street angle alongside HFS (I., e.calcined bauxite). HFS is a superior street surfacematerial and foreseeing how it performs is in thismanner basic as erroneous expectation may bring

about sudden street mischances, genuine damageor death toll.

There are two essential sorts of HFS. Coolconnected comprises of layer of 2– 4 mmmeasured total particles attached to the currentstreet surface utilizing a sap cover. Hot connectedis a gum and total blend that is warmed at hightemperature and screeded onto the street surface instrips. Figure1 demonstrates a hot HFS coveringconnected to a 10 mm Thin Surface Course System(TSCS). The HFS has been subjected to around 1year of trafficking.

Figure-1. A hot high friction surfacing (HFS)coating applied to a 10mm thick surface course

The two sorts of HFS make an unforgivingsurface. The little size total give the tire/HFSinterface a concentrated dissemination of highcontact weights. The calcinedbauxite is marginallyuneconomical when contrasted with basalt.


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The utilization of calcined bauxite in HighFriction surfacing applications has variousadvantages including

• A lessening in street car crashes of morethan half contrasted and typical surfaces.

• It is a savvy arrangement when contrastedwith the esteem bestowed with car accidents.

• It is introduced by authority organizationsand all materials are endorsed by controllers.

By executing this method, we can lessenmishaps over half on every one of the mischanceszones.

2. Materials and Methods:

High Friction Surfacing (HFS) is a profoundlycompelling surface treatment demonstrated toexpand the slide protection of black-top streets andother high transportation territories. The abnormalstate of slip protection is made by the utilization ofcalcined bauxite. The calcined bauxites start fromchina or Guyana and are totals framed fromaluminum metal which has been subjected tocalcination, a warmth treatment process.

At the point when calcined bauxite hasextraordinary physical hardness and strength,prompting great résistance to scraped spot causedby the vehicle's tires and a high protection fromcleaning making it perfect for HFS applications.

The improvement of HFS in the UK includednumerous lab examinations and full‐scale streettrials. The greater part was finished by the RoadResearch Laboratory (RRL, Crowthrone, UK) andTransport Road Research Laboratory (TRRL,Crowthorne, UK), now known the TransportResearch Laboratory (TRL, Crowthrone, UK).This work basically considered what was the bestsort of total and fastener to guarantee the mostastounding conceivable estimation of wet slideprotection and wear under the most extraordinaryactivity focusing on conditions.

Epoxy‐resin was first utilized as a part of streetwork in 1954 as glues for adhering intelligentmarkers to concrete. This prompted theirutilization blended with sand in substantialobligation screeds for manufacturing plants. Co‐operative research between the RRL and the epoxy‐ resin makers started in 1958 to examineconceivable street applications. One of the rangesconsidered was thin coatings for black-top or solidsurfacing's which had turned out to be dangerousyet generally stable.

The main trial in the UK to utilize epoxy‐resin asan other option to regular bitumen was theColnbrook By‐Pass in 1959. The tars consideredhad a smooth shiny surface that offered no wetslide protection. They required a dressing of totalto give slip protection. Twelve sorts of total werechosen to be as clean safe as could be allowed.They included wellsprings of both normallyhappening total and simulated abrasives. As thepitch was connected to the street surface as a thinlayer the total must be connected as a littlecoarseness of ostensible size up to 3 mm. Figure 2demonstrates the adjustment in slip protectionmeasured in a wet condition over a 4‐year period


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for the 1959 Colnbrook By‐Pass street trial.

Figure2: change in skid resistance for thecolnbrook By-pass road trial.

Wet slip protection was measured utilizing apendulum analyzer. Stubborn review calcinedbauxite from Guyana was found to have the bestprotection from cleaning. This was observed to behigher than all the characteristic totals utilizedparticularly towards the finish of the 4-year timefor testing the same number of the totals wind upnoticeably cleaned and lost wet slide protection. Asappeared in figure.2. The best characteristic totalwas coarseness stone. The poorest characteristictotal was limestone. The pendulum analyzerinformation for the other normal totals wasbetween these 2plots. That informationdemonstrates that the wet slip protection of thecalcined bauxite was kept up for an any longerperiod contrasted with the best common totalswhich had a restricted time of adequacy.

The A30 Blackbushe trial in 1962 looked attotal in chip-seal and hot moved black-top streetsurfacing's. This was checked utilizing a sidewayspower contact measuring gadget at 30 mph anddiscovered calcined bauxite to have significantlyhigher estimations of wet slide protection.Extension decks incorporating Tower Bridge inLondon were treated with 3 and 4 mm calcinedbauxite amid 1960– 1962.

Regardless of developing confirmation of highslide protection being measured for all destinations,the high cost of calcined bauxite total disheartenedindividuals from its utilization. The definingmoment happened with the exposure picked up by

trials completed by the Greater London Council.This found a 52% lessening in all out mischances,51% diminishment in the quantity of causalities, 67%decrease in the quantity of mishaps on wet streets,45% decrease in the quantity of mischances on drystreet surfaces and a 78% lessening in mishaps inwhich sliding was recorded as a factor. A moneysaving advantage examination of capital use (zonesurfaced, cost of surfacing) to cost return (numberof mishaps spared, expected cost per damagemischance, foreseen compelling life) defended thecost in treating the most astounding danger locales.

Commonplace destinations recognized fortreatment were those areas were mishaps had atendency to happen, i.e., the way to deal with flagcontrolled intersections, roundabouts and activitylights subject to an overwhelming stream ofmovement. Preceding treatment with HFS, 70% ofannounced individual damage mishaps hadhappened inside 20 yards of street intersections.The Sunday Times news-paper revealed treatmentof these short destinations as having an awesomeabatement in auto collisions with the achievementof the counter slip intersections as beingexceptional.

Hosking and Tubey looked at street executionand research facility measured parameters. Theyprescribed that totals for HFS ought to have a basePolished Stone Value (PSV) of 70 and a mostextreme Aggregate Abrasion Value (AAV) of 5.This blend of properties is uncommon for commontotals. Figure.3 plots PSV and AAV informationseparated from various RRL and TRRL reportsdistributed in the 1960's and 1970's. Thisdelineates just calcined bauxite offers both slide(PSV) and wear (AAV) properties. Evaluation ofvarious calcined bauxite discovered option sourcesand substance creations of calcined bauxite werenot as viable as the headstrong review fromGuyana.


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Figure.3: summery of polished stone value (PSV) andAggregate Abrasion value (AAV) data taken from RoadResearch Laboratory (RRL) and Transport RoadResearch Laboratory(TRRL).

Skidresistancevalue(SRV)ismeasuredusingth

ependulumtestersimilartotthemeasurements

takenduringtheinitialColnbrookBy‐-Passin1959.Thesame appliestothemeasurementoftexturedepthmeasuredusingthevolumetricpatchtechnique(sand patchtest).Thismakes thecurrentHFSsystems in the UK directly comparable to all of theHFS research done over the last 50 years .

The aggregate for Type 1 HFS must be calcinedbauxite as this is the only type with a proven trackrecord over the last 50 years. The calcined bauxiteType 1 must have a PSV 70+ determined using 10-6mm sized aggregate particles and an AAV ≤ 4determined using 14-10mm sized aggregate particles. Itshould be noted that the 10-6mm size is the standardaggregate size used for testing aggregate for skidresistance. The 14-10mm size is the standard aggregatesize used for testing aggregate for abrasion resistance.Both aggregate siSlip protection esteem (SRV) ismeasured utilizing the pendulum analyzer like ttheestimations taken amid the underlying ColnbrookBy‐-Pass in 1959. The same applies to the estimation ofsurface profundity measured utilizing the volumetricfix system (sand fix test). This makes the ebb and flowHFS frameworks in the UK straightforwardlypractically identical to the majority of the HFS lookinto done in the course of the most recent 50 years .

The total for Type 1 HFS must be calcined bauxite asthis is the main sort with a demonstrated reputation in

the course of the most recent 50 years. The calcinedbauxite Type 1 must have a PSV 70+ decided utilizing10-6 mm estimated total particles and an AAV ≤ 4decided utilizing 14-10mm measured total particles. Itought to be noticed that the 10-6mm size is the standardtotal size utilized for testing total for slide protection.The 14-10mm size is the standard total size utilized fortesting total for scraped area protection. Both total sizesare distinctive to the 2-4mm estimated particles utilizedas a part of HFS.zes are different to the 2-4mm sizedparticles used in HFS.

Figure .4: A typical HFS site

3. LITURATURE SURVEY

Research identified with asphalt surfacegrinding and option material has picked upforce as of late. Hardly any critical researchdiscoveries are recorded here. Scientists inthe past have opined that slip protection ofasphalt isn't just a component of materialproperty yet additionally of administrationlife. As it were those materials which arediscovered appropriate at the season ofasphalt laying may free slip protectionproperty prompting observing andreemerging on a periodical premise.Piyatrapoomi expressed that by utilizingcombined likelihood dispersion it isdiscovered that 85% of street crashes happenon street surfaces having low slip protection.


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1. according to Woodward separatedfrom total properties like size, shape, quality,scraped area and soundness the total musthave elevated amounts of slide protection.Size of surfacing material is an imperativefactor for expanding PTV (Pendulum TestValue).

2. 2 According to P.Kilbey et al. In 2011,25 for every penny of every single detailedmischance happened in wet surfaceconditions and 2 percent of every revealedmishap happened in frigid or cold surfaceconditions.

3. 3 Harish H.S et al. expressed that slipprotection increments with increment insurface profundity and the moving activityof sand particles between asphalt surface andtire amid softening may cause a lessening upslide protection which can't be effortlesslyanticipated. From the investigation it can bewatched that estimation of slip protection inall the asphalt condition will diminishes oversome stretch of time.

4. VenkataRao et al. has the conclusionthat folio content must be restricted to acomposed ideal level. The measurements ofthe total chips and the laying must be withthe end goal that the totals shape adequatelysharp projections. Bargain between giving asufficient small scale harshness and fullscale unpleasantness might be accomplishedby picking a most extreme grain size of12.5mm.

5. According to Sabir H. et al. toaccomplish wanted surface qualities the totalmust be Hard i.e Mohr's hardness numbershould be higher than 6; Wear on large scalewill cause debasement, rutting, setting andso forth.; Wear on smaller scale will causeloss of safe slide protection.

6. Woodward et al. noticed that lowercleaned stone esteem (PSV) totals could giveworthy levels of slide protection inostensible 6mm size. The paper likewiserecommends that slide protection of the totalmay not be a noteworthy factor in the earlyexistence of the asphalt however on delayutilize low slip protection can promptmischances.

7. In their book H.Viner et al. say thatsurface profundity is identified with rapidslip protection in wet conditions, howevernot to low speed estimations. Mishapexamines emphatically bolster therequirement for slide protection informationnotwithstanding surface profundityinformation.

8. H. Viner additionally proposes that adeliberate information base frameworkdevoted for street mishaps can anticipate theconceivable areas which may get inclined tostreet mischances after a specific operationalperiod. Recognizable proof of clumsy spotswill prompt opportune change and odds ofevent of mischances can be lessened.

9. It is intended to assess the execution of calcinedbauxite as a slide safe material in contrast withbasalt total utilizing different portrayal tests andfurthermore check the financial reasonability ofutilization of calcined bauxite as a clearing material.

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research identified with asphalt surface grindingand option material has picked up force as of late.Hardly any critical research discoveries are recordedhere. Scientists in the past have opined that slipprotection of asphalt isn't just a component ofmaterial property yet additionally of administrationlife. As it were those materials which are discoveredappropriate at the season of asphalt laying may freeslip protection property prompting observing and


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reemerging on a periodical premise. Piyatrapoomiexpressed that by utilizing combined likelihooddispersion it is discovered that 85% of street crasheshappen on street surfaces having low slip protection.

1. according to Woodward separated from totalproperties like size, shape, quality, scraped area andsoundness the total must have elevated amounts ofslide protection. Size of surfacing material is animperative factor for expanding PTV (PendulumTest Value).

2. 2 According to P.Kilbey et al. In 2011, 25 forevery penny of every single detailed mischancehappened in wet surface conditions and 2 percent ofevery revealed mishap happened in frigid or coldsurface conditions.

3. 3 Harish H.S et al. expressed that slip protectionincrements with increment in surface profundity andthe moving activity of sand particles betweenasphalt surface and tire amid softening may cause alessening up slide protection which can't beeffortlessly anticipated. From the investigation itcan be watched that estimation of slip protection inall the asphalt condition will diminishes over somestretch of time.

4. VenkataRao et al. has the conclusion that foliocontent must be restricted to a composed ideal level.The measurements of the total chips and the layingmust be with the end goal that the totals shapeadequately sharp projections. Bargain betweengiving a sufficient small scale harshness and full

scale unpleasantness might be accomplished bypicking a most extreme grain size of 12.5mm.

5. According to Sabir H. et al. to accomplishwanted surface qualities the total must be Hard i.e.Mohr's hardness number should be higher than 6;Wear on large scale will cause debasement, rutting,setting and so forth.; Wear on smaller scale willcause loss of safe slide protection.

6. Woodward et al. noticed that lower cleanedstone esteem (PSV) totals could give worthy levelsof slide protection in ostensible 6mm size. The paperlikewise recommends that slide protection of thetotal may not be a noteworthy factor in the earlyexistence of the asphalt however on delay utilizelow slip protection can prompt mischances.

7. In their book H.Viner et al. say that surfaceprofundity is identified with rapid slip protection inwet conditions, however not to low speedestimations. Mishap examines emphatically bolsterthe requirement for slide protection informationnotwithstanding surface profundity information.

8. H. Viner additionally proposes that a deliberateinformation base framework devoted for streetmishaps can anticipate the conceivable areas whichmay get inclined to street mischances after a specificoperational period. Recognizable proof of clumsyspots will prompt opportune change and odds ofevent of mischances can be lessened.


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9. It is intended to assess the execution of calcinedbauxite as a slide safe material in contrast withbasalt total utilizing different portrayal tests andfurthermore check the financial reasonability ofutilization of calcined bauxite as a clearing material.

5. Characterizationtests:

• The wear test is the fundamental researchcenter test used to foresee the Inservice execution ofHFS.

It is extreme test particularly intended to featureHFS that will clean prompting expanded danger ofgenuine and lethal mishaps because of slipping. Thetest is point by point in Appendix H of the Nichollsreport. The guineas pigs three HFS test example to10,000 wheel goes of moderate speed/high anxietytrafficking utilizing two full-estimate pneumatictires. Estimation of wet slide protection, surfaceprofundity and the measure of total moleculemisfortune (Erosion) is utilized to arrange the HFSinto one of three sorts, i.e., sorts 1,2 or 3.

Before wear testing the three HFS test examples arerequired to have an underlying wet SRV of ≥65 forTypes 1, 2 and 3 and surface profundities of≥1.4mm, ≥1.2mm and ≥1.0mm separately. After100,000 wheel passes the slip protection esteemsmust be ≥70, ≥65 and ≥65 and for surfaceprofundity ≥1.1 mm, ≥0.9 mm and ≥0.8 mm forTypes 1, 2 and 3 separately.

For examination purposes, recently laid HFS on astreet must have a SRV ≥65 for Types 1, 2 and 3 andsurface profundities of ≥1.4 mm, ≥1.2 mm and ≥1.0mm separately. Toward the finish of the two‐yearexecution trial Types 1, 2 and 3 require the SRV tobe ≥65 and the mean surface profundity to be ≥1.0mm. The information from these accreditation testtechniques, utilized as a part of both the research

facility and on‐site, relate specifically back to theunderlying HFS trials laid in 1959.

Supplement H [20] contains a nonspecific depictionof the test gear used to play out the Wear Test.There is just a single gadget accessible for use in theUK.

6. Observations:

The RTM gear comprises of a 2.1m distance acrosstable that pivots at 10rpm or 1.1m/sec. the tablehas spaces for mounting ten 305mm x 305mmx50mm nipple examples. These are normallyblack-top chunks made utilizing a roller compactoronto which the HFS is connected. Two verticallymounted full-estimate 195/70R14 tires run openlyon the table each applying a street of around 5km.tire expansion weight is kept up at 2 bar or 30 psi.Amid testing the tires track forward and backwardover the width of the test example producing extraanxiety. The RTM is encased in temperaturecontrolled stay with testing completed at 10±20c tomaintain a strategic distance from disfigurement ofexample. The destroy nipple is conveyed in a drycondition with no rough.

The appendixes H wear test strategy requiresintroductory test esteems and after 100,000 wheelpasses i.e., 50000 revolutions of the table in anycase, test esteems toward the begin and completeof quickened testing doesn't sufficientlydemonstrate what occurs amid the time ofrecreated trafficking. Understanding what occursamid testing offers enhanced in-site into timerelated changes which identify with in-benefittrafficking conditions. Recreated trafficking isordinarily halted at normal intervels to quantifychange in HFS properties e.g 0, 100, 500, 1000,20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 wheel passes. Eachtest example is shot to asses disintegrationmisfortune and evaluated for wet slip protectionesteem (SRV) and surface profundity utilizing the


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english pendulum and sand fix test strategiesseparately.

The main street trial in the UK to feature theoutstanding execution of HFS was in the 1995.This was discovered a chilly connected HFSutilizing Refractory review calcined bauxite as a3mm total to out-play out a scope of variousregular totals. Street trials in London in themid-1960's discovered a 52% decrease in absolutemishaps in the principal year after it was utilized totreat high hazard locales.

These underlying HFS research centerexaminations and street trials in UK discoveredobstinate level calcined bauxite to play out the bestas far as slide and wear protection. In the ensuing along time since the primary trials, no normallyhappening total quarried starting from the earlieststage been found to give a level of in-benefitexecution coordinating that of obstinate review ofcalcined bauxite. A few sorts of common totalhave great slip protection yet endure poorprotection from wear. Normal total with greatprotection from wear will clean and end up plainlyelusive.

The greater part of the exploration andinvolvement with HFS in the UK demonstrates theheighestlevel of execution over the longest eras arejust conceivable with calcined bauxite.Notwithstanding, if a HFS with long-life isn'tconceivable because of trafficking or potentiallynatural conditions, at that point a HFS that loneneeds to last 1 or 2 years turns into an alternative.This creats the likelihood of utilizing elective totalsorts that may offer shorter-tern execution insteadof long life execution. The measure of calcinedbauxite could be decreased by mixing or treatment

limited to only the wheel-ways.

• The wear test is the rule lab test used toanticipate the Inservice execution of HFS.

It is outrageous test especially expected to includeHFS that will clean provoking extended risk ofcertified and destructive accidents as a result ofslipping. The test is organized in Appendix H ofthe Nicholls report. The guineas pigs three HFStest case to 10,000 wheel goes of direct speed/hightension trafficking using two full-measurepneumatic tires. Estimation of wet slide insurance,surface significance and the measure of aggregateparticle disaster (Erosion) is used to arrange theHFS into one of three sorts, i.e., sorts 1,2 or 3.

Before wear testing the three HFS test illustrationsare depended upon to have a basic wet SRV of ≥65 for Types 1, 2 and 3 and surface profundities of≥ 1.4mm, ≥ 1.2mm and ≥ 1.0mm independently.After 100,000 wheel passes the slide insuranceregards must be ≥70, ≥65 and ≥65 and for surfacesignificance ≥1.1 mm, ≥0.9 mm and ≥0.8 mm forTypes 1, 2 and 3 independently.

For connection purposes, as of late laid HFS on aroad must have a SRV ≥65 for Types 1, 2 and 3and surface profundities of ≥1.4 mm, ≥1.2 mmand ≥1.0 mm separately. At the complete of thetwo‐year execution trial Types 1, 2 and 3 requirethe SRV to be ≥ 65 and the mean surface


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significance to be ≥1.0 mm. The data from theseaffirmation test systems, used as a piece of both theexploration focus and on‐site, relate particularlyback to the basic HFS trials laid in 1959.

Addendum H contains a dull depiction of the testoutfit used to play out the Wear Test. There is onlya solitary contraption available for use in the UK.

Figure.6. Stack of RTM tires showing wear after50,000 wheel passes.

•The wear test is the rule inquire about office testused to suspect the Inservice execution of HFS.

It is outrageous test especially expected tohighlight HFS that will clean provoking extendedthreat of honest to goodness and fatal setbacks as aresult of slipping. The test is low down inAppendix H of the Nicholls report. The guineaspigs three HFS test case to 10,000 wheel goes ofdirect speed/high nervousness trafficking using

two full-measure pneumatic tires. Estimation ofwet slip insurance, surface significance and themeasure of aggregate particle hardship (Erosion) isused to portray the HFS into one of three sorts, i.e.,sorts 1, 2 or 3.

Cost Benefits Analysis:

The way toward applying calcined bauxite onasphalt surface is same as that of stone totalclearing. Henceforth cost of lying will be same forboth, the real contrast between the two materials istheir cost. Contingent upon the area at presentbasalt total costs Rs.7 to 10 for each kg whilecalcined bauxite costs Rs.20-25 for every kg.Hence use of calcined bauxite on whole asphaltsurface will be un-prudent. Be that as it may it canbe considered for particular extends of asphaltwhere the odds of slipping are altogether high.

7.Results:

The accompanying gives run of the mill Wear testcases to indicate what might be normal for varioussorts of total when utilized as a part of HFS. It isessential for anybody considering the utilizationof HFS that an outrageous type of mimickedtrafficked be utilized to demonstrate whether thepicked total will give a surfacing that will bringabout less genuine and lethal mishaps. Theaccompanying cases demonstrate the significanceof total sort.

The principal case, appeared in Figure 7 plotsWear test information for outstanding amongstother sorts of cool connected Type 1 HFS createdin the UK as of late. In this illustration the total iscalcined bauxite from Guyana. The plotdemonstrates how the total can withstand extremerecreated trafficking conditions and not end upnoticeably cleaned. The SRV, measured utilizing


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7.Results:




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7.Results:




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pendulum analyzer, after 100,000 wheel passes is78 meeting the necessities for Type 1. Surfaceprofundity declines to an estimation of 1.15 mm.Lower surface esteems are satisfactory as thevehicle tires get pushed into the HFS surfacebecause of load exchange amid serious braking orturning occasions.

Figure7.WeartestdataforacoldappliedType1HFSmadecalcinedbauxitefromGuyana.

The following case delineates how the wear testmight be utilized to research the supplanting ofclacined bauxite with 100% characteristic totals.This illustrations re-creats the first colnbrooksidestep street trial which discovered stubbornlevel calcined bauxite to out execution all theregular totals utilized. This examination dependson 9 distinct sorts of regular totals and usescalcined bauxite from Guyana as a control.

Table one gives fundamental subtle elements forthe 10 shake sorts assessd, i.e., shake sort ,portrayal and pronounced PSV. This is theestimation of PSV proclaimed by a total providerhas been run of the mill of their source. The totalswere choosen to repesrnt the rnge of shake sortslocally accessible in UK. Acknowledge that anannounced PSV esteem is surveyed utilizing 10mm measured total and may not mirror the level ofwet slide protection that would result should asimilar total be utilized as a 3mm ostensible size inHFS.

Table1.Rocktypes usedintheHFSinvestigationmadewith100%naturalaggregate.

Road type Description Declaried PSV

Lime stone A Carboniferous 40

Lime stone B Carboniferous 54

Greywake A Silorian 65Greywake B Silorian 68Granite A Unknown 55Granite B Unknown 55Sand stone Carboniferous 70Quarzite Dalradian 58Basalt Tertiary 53Calcined bauxiteGuayana 70+

The natural 3 mm aggregates used were preparedin the laboratory from crushing larger sizes rangingfrom lump rock, 50 mm to 14 mm sized chippings.This was done using a jaw crusher. This showedthat crushing is important to achieving a goodcubic shape. One of the beneficial properties ofcalcinedbauxite is cubic shape with sharp edges.Crushing found that the jaw crusher had to be keptchoked to achieve good shape otherwise a flakyand elongate 3 mm particle was formed. The 3mm aggregates with poorest shape were Granite Aand the quartzite reflecting their geologicalcomposition.


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The grading used to prepare the HFS testspecimens was based on the size distribution of thecalcinedbauxite. This resulted in a similar 2 mm to4 mm grading being used to prepare all the HFStest specimens for Wear testing. The cold appliedHFS test slabs were made according to theguidelines set out in Appendix E. This uses a 305mm × 305mm × 50mm asphalt base slabprepared using a roller compactor. Duct tape wasfixed around the edge of the asphalt base slab tocontain the resin. A two-part resin was poured onto the surface of the asphalt slab and spread evenlyto give a layer approximately 2–3 mm thick. Theaggregate was applied to each slab to excess. Norolling was used. The slab was allowed to cure.All 10 slabs were subjected to simulated wearusing the RTM in accordance to Appendix H.

Table 2 summarizes the initial skid resistance

and texture depth data. This shows all theun-trafficked cold applied HFS test specimens tohave approximately the same pendulum testervalue (SRV) and texture depth irrespective ofrock type. The calcined bauxite test specimen did

not have the highest unpolished SRV. It had anaverage skid resistance comparable withLimestone B. It had one of the lowest texturedepth values.

Table2.Initialpendulumtesterandtexturedepthdata.

TheperformanceofcalcinedbauxitebecomesapparentinFigurewhichshowshow wetskidresistancechangesduringthe100,000wheelpasstest.Theeffectofrocktype onwetskidresistance

Figure10plots the connection between pendulumesteem and surface profundity at three phases

RockType PendulumTester

TextureDepth(mm)

LimestoneA 82 3.29

LimestoneB 89 3.35

GreywackeA 81 3.32

GreywackeB 85 3.26

Granite A 87 3.47

Granite B 84 3.18

Sandstone 98 3.05

Quartzite 91 3.10

Basalt 95 3.74

Calcinedbauxite

89 3.10


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TextureDepth(mm)

LimestoneA 82 3.29

LimestoneB 89 3.35

GreywackeA 81 3.32

GreywackeB 85 3.26

Granite A 87 3.47

Granite B 84 3.18

Sandstone 98 3.05

Quartzite 91 3.10

Basalt 95 3.74

Calcinedbauxite

89 3.10


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TextureDepth(mm)

LimestoneA 82 3.29

LimestoneB 89 3.35

GreywackeA 81 3.32

GreywackeB 85 3.26

Granite A 87 3.47

Granite B 84 3.18

Sandstone 98 3.05

Quartzite 91 3.10

Basalt 95 3.74

Calcinedbauxite

89 3.10


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during‐ the Wear test, i.e., at first, after 5,000

wheel passes and afte‐r 100,000 wheel passes.This demonstrates the loss of both surfaceprofundity and wet slide protection with time, i.e.,number of wheel passes. Additionally plotted is thetrack of what happens to the calcined bauxite HFStest example. This shows how the calcined bauxitecreated both wet slip protection and surfaceprofundity vales for the 10 shake sorts assessd overthe 1,00,000 wheel finish test

figure 11 plots the improvement of percentmass loss of every hf test example amid the1,00,000 wheel finish wear test. A log scale hasbeen utilized to plot the wheel pass information.This demonstrates the calcined bauxite HFS testexample to ha the littlest mass misfortune. All thecharacteristic totals aside from basalt are firmlyassembled. The plots all demonstrate that mostmass misfortune happens amid the early life timeof reenacted trafficking. By and by this identifieswith introductory loss of total particles that werenot completely installed in the pitch cover. Fromthat point, there is a generally little directincrement in mass misfortune identifying withwear of the total particles. This wear misfortuneidentifies with adjusting of individual totalparticles installed in the tar fastener. The littlestmeasure of misfortune was for the calcined bauxitemirroring its protection from wear.

The example shown in Figure 12 illustrates typicaldata that may result with the blending of calcinedbauxite with a PSV 70 natural aggregate. The 100%calcined bauxite HFS resulted in a pendulum valueof 72 after 100,000 wheel passes, i.e., it meets theType 1 requirement. The 100% high PSV naturalaggregate resulted in a value of 66, i.e., meetingthe requirements of Type 2. The blend of 60%calcined bauxite and 40% high PSV 70 naturalaggregate resulted in a value of 69 which just failsto meet the type 1 requirement of >70. This datasuggests that increasing the percentage of clcinedbauxite in the blend should result in a value of wetskid resistance after 1,00000 passes that meet thetype 1 requirement of 70.

The final example illustrates a data-set of wear testdata compiled friel. Figure 13 shows that change inwet skid resistance measuring using pendulumtester for an extensive range of asphalt andconcrete mixtures. For comparission purposes datafor two HFS systems made with 100% calcinedbauxite are given. These are the only two plots inthis data set that have a wet skid resistancevalue >70. In this composite collection of asphaltand concrete mixes, the final wet skid resistancevalues after 1,00,000 wheel passes from 65 to 31.This illustrates that the highest levels of wet skidresistance are only achievable with HFS made withcalcined bauxite.


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Figure13. Comparison of wet skid resistance datafor two HFS materials (red lines) with a widerange of asphalt and concrete mixes.

Conclusion:

Highfrictionsurfacingoffersthehighestskidresistanceofalltypesofmaterialusedonroadsurfaces.ThispaperwaswrittenforthoseinvolvedwithHFSwhethertheyarefurtherdevelopinganexistingsystemorconsideringspecifyingitsuseatsitestosavelives.Ithasreviewed50 yearsof UKroad trialdataandlaboratoryinvestigationand

foundcalcinedbauxiteistheonlyaggregatetoconsistentlyofferthehighestlevelsofperformanceforthelongest periodoftime.

Beingabletopredictperformanceunderextremetraffickingconditionsrequiresextremelaboratorytesting.ThepaperreviewshowtheRTMwear test isusedintheUKtopredictthein-serviceperformanceofHFS.Examplesaregiventoillustratehowskidresistanceandtexturedepthchangeduringthestandardwear test.

TheRTMwear testcanbeusedtocomparetheperformanceofhotandcoldHFStestspecimensmadewithdifferenttypesofaggregate.Comparisonwithninenaturalaggregatesfoundcalcinedbauxitetoperformthebest.ArelativelysofthighPSVCarboniferoussandstonewasfoundtomeettherequirementsforType1withtheremainingnaturalaggregatesbehavingasexpectedrelatingtorocktype.

With respecttotheideals ofsustainability andusinglocalaggregate,themost abundantrocktypesinthisstudyhadthe lowestlevelsofwetskidresistance. Blendingnaturalaggregatewithcalcined bauxitemaybeaviablealternativetorelianceon100%calcinedbauxite. Theexamplegivenillustrateshowthe60:40blendperformedduringthewear test.

ThelastexamplecompareswetskidresistancedatafortwooftheHFSsystemsused intheUKwithawiderangeofasphaltandconcretesurfacingmaterialsmadewithdifferentnaturalaggregates.Whilsttheyallhavecomparableinitialvaluestheasphaltandconcrete surfacingmaterialsallquickly


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Conclusion:








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Conclusion:








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lostgreateramountsofwetskidresistancepriortoreachingequilibrium.

Suggestion:

Speed of the vehicle will come down by increasingthe friction so; Where ever the calcined bauxitelayer is used there we can increase the gradient for1 inch or based on the road condition.

References:

1. James, J.G. Epoxy pitches as fasteners forstreet and scaffold surfacings: A reviewofthe present position.

Streets Road Constr. 1963, 41, 236– 243.

2. Hatherly, L.W. Slide Resistance of LondonRoads Carrying Very Heavy Traffic; FirstReport HT/C-1; 1967.

3. Hatherly, L.W. Slide Resistance of LondonRoads Carrying Very Heavy Traffic;Second Report HT/C-1; 1967.

4. Woodward, W.D.H. Research facilityPrediction of Surfacing AggregatePerformance.Ph.D.Thesis,UniversityofUlster, Newtownabbey,Northern Ireland, UK, 1995.

5. James, J.G. The utilization of epoxy sapsin street and scaffold surfacings. Tar Rev.1961, 1, 6– 8.

6. Bowen, M. Non-slip streets cut mischances.Sunday Times, 9 June 1968.

7. Hosking, J.R.; Tubey, L.W. Totals forResin-Bound Skid-Resistant Road

Surfacings; TRRL Report LR 466;Transport and Road Research Laboratory:Berkshire, UK, 1972.

8. Hawkes, J.R.; Tubey, J.R. Test Productionof Calcined Bauxite for Use as RoadAggregate; TRRL Report

9. LR 588; Road Research Laboratory:Berkshire, UK, 1973; p. 25.

10. James, J.G. Calcined Bauxites and OtherArtificial Polish Resistant Roadstone; RRLReport LR 84; Transport and RoadResearch Laboratory: Berkshire, UK, 1968.

11. James, J.G. Trial of Epoxy-Resin/CalcinedBauxite Surface Dressing at A1,Bedfordshire; RRL Report LR 381; RoadResearch Laboratory: Berkshire, UK, 1971.

12. Tubey, L.W.; Hosking, J.R. EngineeredAggregates of High Resistance to Polishing,Part 2– Corundum-rich Aggregates; TRRLReport LR 467; Transport and RoadResearch Laboratory: Berkshire, UK, 1972.

13. Hosking, J.R. Engineered Aggregates ofHigh Resistance to Polishing, Part 1– GrittyAggregates; RRL Report LR 350; RoadResearch Laboratory: Berkshire, UK, 1970.

14. Tubey, L.W.; Hosking, J.R. EngineeredAggregates of High Resistance to Polishing,Part 3– Porous Aggregates; TRRL ReportLR 655; Transport and Road ResearchLaboratory: Berkshire, UK, 1974.


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15. Hosking, J.R.; Jacobs, F.F.L. EngineeredAggregates of High Resistance to Polishing,Part 4– Specially Shaped Aggregates;RRL Report LR 656; Road ResearchLaboratory: Berkshire, UK, 1974.

16. EN 1097-8 Tests for Mechanical andPhysical Properties of Aggregates– Part 8:Determination of the Polished Stone Value;British Standards Institution: London, UK,2009.

EN 13036-4 Road and Airfield SurfaceCharacteristics– Testmethods– Part4: MethodforMeasurement of Slip/SkidResistance of a Surface:The pendulum Test; British Standards Institution:London, UK, 2011


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Advanced GIS Applications for CivilInfrastructure Systems

Janga NavyaPG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering,Golden Valley Integrated Campus, Angallu,

Madanapalle, [email protected]

Vempalli Yugandhar ReddyPG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering,

Golden Valley Integrated Campus, Angallu,Madanapalle, India

[email protected]

Kondeti Upendra NaiduPG Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering,


[email protected]

Ketha maheswar reddyLeturer in civil engineering


[email protected]

ABSTRACT: This draft paper addresses advanced applications ofgeographic information systems (GIS) for decision making relatedto civil infrastructure systems (CIS). A functional definition forGIS is proposed that can be used to categorize databasesappropriate for GIS applications. The paper provides a briefdescription of GIS, and includes coverage of issues such asmodelling and decision support systems, interoperability,geospatial data, and advanced GIS. It is the intention of this draftpaper to summarize key features and issues related to GIS tostimulate discussion and feedback for planning and participationin a National Forum on Advanced GIS Applications for CivilInfrastructure Systems.

INTRODUCTION

Geographical information systems (GIS) for civil infrastructurehave expanded rapidly in the last several years fuelled mainlyby advances in computing and data collection technology.Applications of GIS have been enhanced by improvements inmathematical modelling of risk and reliability as well assystems optimization. Advances in computing and systemsmonitoring and data acquisition have resulted in theproliferation of GIS-based data sets pertaining to the physical,social, and economic characteristics of urban communities. Thecommercialization of GIS technology into user-friendly

software packages has promoted the development of effectivedecision-making tools that can draw upon the wealth ofavailable and expanding GIS-based data sets.Infrastructure management in the 21st century will be shapedand guided by effective graphical representation of complexsystems, accurate network simulation, risk assessment, andgraphical fusion of physical and social databases. There arereal barriers, however, to GIS use, such as cost and trainingwith respect to database creation, identification and selection ofrelevant existing databases, difficulties in GIS interoperabilitybecause of functional and database preferences, and theabsence of common GIS for many public and private sectororganizations. To achieve the full potential of GIS, it isnecessary to promote creative thinking about data fusion,selection and use of relevant social and physical databases,evaluation of spatial variability, and reduction of theinstitutional barriers to common GIS use. As Malczewski(1999) points out, GIS promotes the integration of varioustechnologies, such as remote sensing, global positioningsystems, computer-aided design, and automated mapping andfacilities management. Hence, questions arise not only withrespect to optimal GIS use, but with respect to the


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technological developments that are most likely to expand GISuse and its effectiveness.

Recognizing the importance of GIS for civil infrastructure, thiswhite paper is being developed to stimulate innovative thinkingabout GIS applications and to identify the most promisingareas of emerging and future GIS use. The paper begins bydefining civil infrastructure systems, briefly introducing thebasics of GIS and discussing modelling, simulation anddecision-making systems that can be integrated with GIS.Interoperability issues are also addressed, followed by sourcesof geospatial data, advanced GIS applications in civilinfrastructure and the uses of remote sensing technologies fortime-dependent data. This exploration of GIS and its

applications to civil infrastructure leads to recommendationsregarding the goals and directions for expanding the use of GISfor civil infrastructure systems (CIS).

Defining Civil Infrastructure Systems

Civil infrastructure systems (CIS) involve both the physicalenvironment and the social and economic characteristics ofcommunities that are located within the physical environment.As illustrated in Figure 1, the different aspects of CIS can bedivided into the two broad categories of societal and physicalenvironment.

Civil Infrastructure Systems

The Societal Environment The Physical Environment

Demographic Economic Natural BuiltEnvironment Environment

Figure 1. Civil Infrastructure Systems

Data about the societal environment may be divided intodemographic and economic information. Demographicinformation includes 1) political boundaries (state, county,metropolitan areas, school/voting districts) 2) population(age, gender, marital status, race, employment, education,health) 3) housing (household size/type, utility usage,transportation use of household), and 4) humanhazards/security/vulnerability (crime, terrorism). Economicinformation includes 1) personal and governmental income2) personal and governmental spending 3) land and housingrent/value 4) trade (manufacturing, retail, wholesale), and5) types of industries (service, construction andmanufacturing).

The physical environment consists of the natural and builtenvironments. The natural environment includes 1) land useand land cover 2) topography 3) geology and seismology 4)water (natural waterways, lakes, coasts, wetlands, andgroundwater) 5) quality Of environment (air, water, soil) 6)sources of pollutants 7) wildlife/plant habitat, and 8) naturalhazards and disasters (tornadoes, hurricanes, extremeweather).

Elements of the built environment consist of 1)public/private buildings 2) electric power (power plants,transmission lines) 3) steam, gas and liquid fuels (fuel andenergy conveyance pipelines)


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4)telecommunication (radio and mobile transmissiontowers, telephone lines, internet and television cables), 5)transportation (highways, bridges, streets, railroads, masstransit, ports and waterways, air transportation facilities) 6)water supply (dams, pipelines, aqueducts, reservoirs) 7)wastewater conveyance and treatment (collection systems,sewage mains, sewage treatment plants), and 8) solid wastedisposal (landfills, ocean disposal, recycling facilities).

The shear size and diversity of CIS databases represents asignificant challenge for GIS. The information pertaining todemographic trends, economic characteristics, and thenatural and built environments is found in many differentformats and is linked to diverse geographical units. Forexample, demographic and economic databases collectedby the US Census Bureau are based on census tracts, whichare land units encompassing 2500-8000 inhabitants withrelatively homogenous population characteristics, economicstatus, and living conditions. The size of the land unitsvaries depending on the population density, so that thegeographic units characterized by demographic andeconomic data may not be consistent with the level of detailassociated with geographic databases for the natural andbuilt environment.

The quality and reliability of societal information is animportant issue. Although data are available about the ageand cost of residential and commercial properties fromcensus tract surveys, this information is based on theestimates of owners and residents. More reliableinformation is often on file with local municipalities in theform of property assessments, but such information is rarelyavailable in GIS format with the level of detail required tomake refined evaluations.

There is a wide range of issues associated with the size anddiversity of societal data sets. Data on civil infrastructurespending are available through the US Census ofGovernments, but this information is summarized at thecounty level and thus is often too coarse for refinedanalyses. Proprietary data sets and services are available for

demographic and economic characteristics, but how reliableis this information and how well can it be coordinatedthrough GIS with other data sets pertaining both to thesocietal and physical environments?

The enormous size of the societal and physical databasesaffects their collection, categorization, and applications.What are the most important problems that can be solvedwith these data sets through GIS visualization and decisionsupport systems? What are the criteria for reliability andhow much refinement in geographic units is needed toaddress the most important problems? Moreover, what arethe barriers to database development? The acquisition ofeconomic and demographic data involves issues of privacy,economic competition, personal security, and politicalpreferences with respect to the role of government.

Strategic thinking is required with respect to the societalenvironment. The format, reliability, and refinement ofgeographic units associated with demographic andeconomic data needs to be considered and directionsmapped with respect to the best courses of action for thefuture. Moreover, barriers to the development of societaldata sets, arising from political, economic, and privacyissues, need to be assessed so that the possibilities andlimitations of data collection can be clarified not only on atechnical basis, but a societal basis as well.

Geographic Information Systems

GIS can be thought of as a system for integrating data fromvarious disciplines and formats to develop informationabout a specific geographic area or site. GIS differs fromother management information systems in that its databasesare primarily associated with a spatial coordinate system.GIS has the capability of receiving inputs of tabular data,map data and remotely sensed data, and producing outputsof reports, maps and statistics. GIS is related to and linkedwith database management systems (DBMS), statisticalprograms, computer aided design (CAD) and imageprocessing, as illustrated in Figure 2.


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Statistical GIS

programs

DBMS CAD

Imageprocessing

Figure 2. Relationships between GIS and related computer systems

GIS can be used with both vector (points, lines, polygons) andraster formatted data. Database operations can be performedon non-spatial data, individual spatial layers, and multiplespatial data layers. Functionalities/operations of a GIS includedata selection and query, spatial aggregation andgeneralization, buffer zones, geometric transformation, geo-referencing, overlay operations, topographic operations, linearoperations, and spatial interpolation


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.Table 1. Summary of Types of Digital Geospatial Data

political

boundaries,

censusstatistical boundaries, etc. covering the entire U.S.

Different types and formats of geospatial data are available foruse in a GIS including line data for roads and streams,elevation data, aerial photography and land characteristics data.A summary of common types of digital geospatial data isfound in Table 1.Analytical Modelling, Simulation, and Decision-SupportSystems

One of the reasons that GIS has become so valuable is due toits ability to integrate with more advanced data processing

systems. The integration of analytical modelling, simulationand decision-support systems can significantly increase thefunctionality of GIS. The following sections provide examplesof how these linked systems enhance GIS applications for CIS.

Analytical Modelling and Simulation

Analytical modelling and simulation are often used forrevealing and predicting the patterns and behaviour of thenatural environment such as wildlife migration, groundwatermovement, contaminant migration, weather, and earthquakes.

Database Scale Description

Digital line graph 1:24,000 Vector map consisting of various georeferenced thematic line(DLG) 1:100,000 layers such as roads and streams

1:2,000,000

Digital elevation 1:24,000 Raster representation of elevationmodel (DEM) 1:250,000

Digital raster 1:24,000 Image of USGS standard series topographic map, georeferencedgraphics (DRG) to Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM ) projection

Digital orthophoto 1:24,000 Digitally altered image of aerial photographs wherequads (DOQ) displacements caused by camera and the terrain have been

Removed

Land use/land cover 1:100,000 Derived from aerial photographs; classified into 9 categories:(LULC) 1:250,000 built-up land, agricultural land, rangeland, forest land, water,

wetlands, barren land, tundra and perennial snow or ice; coarseand outdated in areas of rapidly changing land use

Multi-Resolution Contemporary nation-wide land cover data; classification doneLand Characteristics from Landsat Thematic Mapper and Advanced Very High(MRLC) Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) imagery and other ancillary

data sets

Geographic names N/A Official repository for U.S. physical and culture name-places;information system useful for digital line graphs (DLG)(GNIS)

TIGER files 1:100,000 The Census Bureau’s Topologically Integrated GeographicEncoding and Referencing (TIGER) line files; a digital databaseof geographic features, such as roads, railroads, rivers, lakes,


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It has also been applied to traffic pattern prediction, rural/urbanmigration and transportation routing. Analytical modellinguses mathematical algorithms to describe physical occurrences.Simulation is used when the behaviour of system cannot beeasily formulated into mathematical equations. Integratingthese models with GIS allows the user to visualize the modeland manipulate the data from the model to better understandand make decisions concerning its effects on the system inquestion.

An example of simulation and GIS is the development of anUrban Simulator by researchers at UCLA's Department ofArchitecture. The Urban Simulator is a "visualization systemwhich provides high quality photo-realistic simulations ofselected communities and neighbourhoods." The simulationallows the user to walk through the streets and view thebuildings and structures in a 3-D format. Changes can be madeto the photographs, which then can be visualized and evaluatedbefore the changes are implemented. Search and retrieval toolsthat can be used to identify existing problems and evaluatealternative solutions.

One of the applications of the Urban Simulator involvedsimulating a proposed ordinance that required property ownersto plant trees in front of their properties. The simulator wasused to demonstrate the effect of the ordinance on theneighbourhood based on sales data. GIS was used to query thesales data and provide the information for the simulation. Thistechnology could be used to visualize and evaluate urbanplanning strategies, street design, utility network design (aboveand underground) and maintenance of infrastructure. Forexample, pictures of streets could be kept and updated in aGIS, allowing for difficulties in repair (due to traffic, newconstruction) to be anticipated beforehand.

Spatial Decision-Support Systems

Spatial decision-support systems (SDSS) go even further byintegrating decision-making into the system. In Malczewski(1999), decision problems are described to range fromunstructured, where the system presents options that the usermust decide on, to structured problems, where the expert’sdecision-making skills are essentially programmed into thesystem. Few, if any, decisions are purely structured orunstructured. For example, locating a facility may seem to befairly structured if the criteria are well specified (i.e. located

near major streets, away from other similar facilities, zoning).However, issues, such as community resistance orenvironmental effects, may not be as easily programmable.Spatial support systems are generally categorized into fourtypes:

1. Spatial Data Processing Systems (SDPS) have data,procedures, evaluation criteria and constraints, and strategiesthat are well defined. The decisions are essentially made afterthe system is run and there is no need for decision-makers togo through a problem-solving process. Data processingsystems do not have the capabilities to generate flexiblestrategies.

2. Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS) are“interactive, computer-based systems designed to support auser or group of users in achieving a higher effectiveness of

decision making while solving a semi-structured spatialdecision problem.” SDSSs allow the user to make “better”decisions through modelling and exploration of the decisionproblem in a recursive fashion. The objective of SDSSs is tosupport the decision-making.

3. Spatial Expert Systems (SES) are used when all therelevant knowledge of an expert decision-maker can essentiallybe encoded and used to make the decisions. The generalassumption of SESs is that non-experts can use the systems toimprove their decision-making. The key characteristics of SESsare (1) capability of solving spatial problems as well, or betterthan the experts, (2) ability to integrate expert knowledge in theform of rules, and (3) interaction with decision-makers. Whilesimilar with SDSSs, the objective of SESs is more towardsstoring the expert knowledge in a system and “replacing” thedecision-maker.

4. Spatial Expert Support Systems (SESS) are semi-structured and are an integration of SDSSs and SESs.

Various software companies have developed modelling,optimization and decision support software that link to GISsuch as Automated Mapping/Facilities Management (AM/FM),Work Integration Manager, Spatial Analyst and NetworkAnalyst. Table 2 provides a short list of commercially availableGIS-pertinent software.


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Other spatial support systems for different disciplines otherthan CIS have been developed for specific research/industryneeds. Identifying the decision-making systems that have been

developed and analysing their capabilities and weaknesses willhelp to develop more efficient programs for decision-making inCIS.

Table 2: Selected Spatial Decision Support Systems

Software Description

AM/FM Automated mapping and facilities management; used by utility companies to record andkeep track of power lines, gas lines, valves, meters, and land

Work Integrates GIS with network-oriented Work Management System (WMS) through plug-Integration ins; consists of Work Request Administration, Work Request Design, Standards

Manager Maintenance and Systems Administration; graphic-based

Spatial Enables desktop GIS users to create, query, and analyse cell-based raster maps; deriveAnalyst new information from existing data; query information across multiple data layers; and

fully integrate cell-based raster data with traditional vector data sources

Business Enables user to create and analyse market areas, analyse customer profiles, determineAnalyst target population, create simple or complex ring analysis for locations, compute equal

competition areas, produce detailed comprehensive reports

Network Enables users to solve a variety of problems using geographic networks (i.e., streets,Analyst Highways, rivers, pipelines, electric lines, etc.) such as finding the most efficient travel

route, generating travel directions, finding the closest facility, or defining service areas

based on travel time

Trans CAD Enables user to do network analysis, shortest path, transportation problem, spatial

interaction, location-allocation, traveling salesman problem, and stochastic problems

Utility Integrates engineering, operations, planning, billing and SCADA to offer support thatSolutions addresses the operational phase of a utility; provides a set of AM/FM/GIS functions that2000 include mobile mapping and staking, work orders, dispatching, engineering planning and

integration with customer billing

InteroperabilityEngineers often use computer-assisteddrafting/drawing/design (CAD) to design new roads, sewersand water lines. Natural scientists and environmentalengineers use various modelling software to determinegroundwater flows or the spread of contaminants.Transportation engineers may use decision support systemsto assist them in designing their transportation networks.

Spatial information is displayed and analysed through GIS,CAD, image processing systems, data processing systems,decision-support systems, and modelling software.Combining or linking two or more of these systems cangreatly increase analysis and decision-making capabilities ofthe GIS. While many decision-making systems are GIS-compatible, this is not always the case for other systems. Insituations where a combination of imaging processing


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systems, GIS and modelling systems are required, files anddatasets are not always compatible.

Interoperability refers to the integration of systems andapplications that were not originally designed to be integratedbut are combined to address problems that require linkedsystems. Interoperability involves the exchange of data thathave different

· Semantic representations (i.e., identification oftype of data and how objects are represented)

· Spatial and temporal scales· Formats· Geospatial references (i.e., different projections,

reference ellipsoids)· Domains (i.e., how the world is viewed, named,

defined, described, modelled)

Linking systems and having an “open interface” betweenthem is a complicated problem that is being evaluated by theOpen Geospatial Interoperability Specification Consortium(Open GIS or OGC). OGC is a not-for-profit organizationthat has engaged key user organizations and technologyproviders to “address the lack of interoperability amongsystems that process geo-referenced data.” OGC has drawnmembers from leading software, GIS, computer andtelecommunications companies, organizations anduniversities such as Autodesk, BellSouth, Compaq, ESRI,Hewlett-Packard, Intergraph Corp., Microsoft Corp.,Massachusetts Institute of Technology, New YorkUniversity, Raytheon Systems, University of Illinois,University of Muenster, University of Tokyo, FGDC, NASA,NIMA, National Science Foundation (NSF) and the CensusBureau. Through interactions with industries that use GIS,researchers and software developers become aware of howthe industries perceive their data and the difficulties andinteroperability problems that need to be addressed andresolved. Additionally, university members can use available

commercial resources to improve their research techniquesand be informed of improving technologies.

The University Consortium for Geographic InformationScience (UCGIS) is another organization involved in solvingthe interoperability issue by bringing together specialists invarious disciplines. Both the UCGIS and OGC are seeking tounite the different geospatial industries and meet the needs ofthe marketplace (both in academia and industry). Since civilinfrastructure systems are a large part of the geospatialindustry, it will be important for key players to begin tounderstand their own interoperability and industry needs forcurrent and future applications and cooperate with OGC andUCGIS to meet those needs.

Sources of Geospatial Data

One of the first difficulties encountered in creating a GIS isthe collection of spatial data. For civil infrastructure systems,social and economic data can be hard to locate at the scalerequired. Much of the economic data from the CensusBureau is available at the national, state, and county level.Information at a local or city/town level is limited and oftendifficult to obtain. Below is a brief summary of the availabledata for the four elements of CIS.

Demographic Data

Demographic data are available from the Census Bureaudecennial TIGER (Topologically Integrated GeographicEncoding and Referencing system) files. Available datasetsinclude political boundaries (state, county, cities,congressional districts and school districts), voting andregistration, census tracks and block boundaries, population,housing, income, race/nationality and household data. Table3 contains a list of available data at the census tract level.

Table 3: Typical Census Tract Data

Population Place of Birth Household Income


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Urban and Rural distinction Residence Wage or Salary IncomeSex Place of work Social Security IncomeAge Employment status Public AssistanceRace (White, Black, American Indian Occupation Retirement income

and Eskimo/Aleut, Asian or Pacific Class of worker Poverty StatusIslander, Hispanic, other) Hours per week worked

Means of transportation Tenure of HouseholdHousehold Type/Relationship Travel time Year structure builtPresence and age of children Private vehicle occupancy Year householder moved inFamily Type Vehicles available Units in StructureMarital Status Bedrooms

School enrolment Kitchen facilitiesLanguage spoken at home Type of school Source of water

English Proficiency Educational Attainment Sewage disposalAncestry Veteran Status House-heating fuelYear of entry Period of military service Plumbing facilities

Age by citizenship Work disability status Gross Rent

The Public Use Micro Data Samples (PUMS) provides asurvey data set based on the long form of the decennial censuscollection. The data available include ancestry, occupation,race, language, income, commute to work, year home wasbuilt, single/multi-family and length of residence. The Countyand City Data Book is available for 1944-1993 and is gatheredfrom various federal agencies and national sources. The datainclude socioeconomic and housing data from the 1990 censusand the surveys that update them, business in cities andcounties, median income, tax base, elections and othervariables for counties and cities nationwide. Crime reports areavailable at the county level from the United StatesDepartment of Justice – Federal Bureau of Investigation. Otherdemographic information is also available from both publicand private sources that use the census data to produceinterpolated and summarized data.Economic DataEconomic data are available for businesses at national, stateand county levels through the Census Bureau and the Countyand City Data book. Data are available on household income,housing value, retail trade, wholesale trade, service industries,manufacturing industries, mineral industries, constructionindustries, transportation, labour force, banking, governmentemployment and finances. However, data below the countylevel is scarce and difficult to obtain due to issues of privacy.The Census Bureau is not permitted to release any data that can

identify any individual person or business firm. However, theCensus Bureau does allow qualified and responsible persons,determined through a strict application process, to pay a fee toaccess the data. The data cannot leave in its raw formBut must be aggregated so that it does not disclose informationabout individuals and cannot be combined with other datasetsto pinpoint individuals. Marketing firms typically producecommercially available economic data at a fine scale byinterpolating the decennial census block data.

Data on land valuation can be purchased at the countyAssessor’s office but can be quite costly if a large area isrequired. Los Angeles County is currently in the process ofproducing a GIS-ready base map of all 2.3 million parcels inthe county. Attribute data for each parcel is available. Not allparcels have been mapped in GIS, but hardcopies of the parcelboundaries are available.Data on the Natural EnvironmentThe US Geological Survey (USGS) and the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) have extensive web resources thatcontain maps and datasets of the natural environment as well asuseful links to other websites. The EPA Spatial Data LibrarySystem (ESDLS) and the National Spatial Data Infrastructure(NSDI) have powerful search engines that allow the user tofind spatial data based on a variety of queries. Table 4 contains


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a listing of several main sources for both the natural and built environment.

Table 4: Summary of Available Data on the Physical Environment

Source Data Available

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) BoundariesHydrographyManmade FeaturesPipelines, Transmission LinesTransportation Features, Railroads, Roads and TrailsEarthquake MapsNational Wetlands InventoryEcological ZonesTopographic Features (DEM, DRG)Land Use (LULC)Geographic names information system

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Air QualityRegulated Facilities Point LocationsHazardous Waste AreasSuperfund LocationsPoint and Non-point SourcesWater Quality

Natural Resources Conservation Service Soil surveys (SSURGO)State soils (STATSGO)

Census Bureau Tiger/Line Files Boundaries (national, state, county, census tract and block)HydrographyLandmarksUtility LinesRoads, Railways

Data on the Built Environment


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The TIGER/Line files contain data on landmarks,transportation, and utility lines. The Dynamap/2000 databasecontains a comprehensive U.S. Street and address database.Dynamap has also produced commercially available postalcorrespondence files that link zip code areas to census blocks.Data on buried infrastructure, such as sewer and water lines,are not as extensive since many pipe and cable networks eitherhave not been digitized or are owned by utility companies.Detailed pipe and cable networks are not likely to be found onthe web, but may be obtained from local governmentalagencies.

Due to the proliferation of increasingly complex and diversedata sets, the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) hascoordinated the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI).The NSDI seeks to set policies, standards, and procedures fororganizations to produce and share geographic data moreeffectively. Goals and objectives of the NSDI includemaintaining state of the art knowledge about new technologiesand advances in geographic information, and building acomprehensive and user-friendly clearinghouse of free oraffordable spatial data.

As GIS becomes more widely used, it becomes increasinglyimportant to determine through key CIS personnel andorganizations how and where advanced GIS can benefit theurban community. This will then lead to the development of alist of data sources to be collected, or produced if currentlyunavailable. Additionally, encouraging cities and counties toadopt GIS will improve efficiency in data gathering andsharing among governmental agencies.

Advanced GIS Applications

For each of the elements of the built infrastructure, variousindustries, academic/research institutions and softwareindustries are developing models and solutions to better designand maintenance.

Public/Private Buildings

Since design and maintenance of the actual buildings aretypically done for each individual building, GIS is most oftenused for locating optimal sites. This can be accomplished

through buffering, overlaying and other methods. Theavailability of other infrastructure will also dictate wherebuildings are located. In the case of large industrial,commercial or residential developments, demographicforecasts, quality and quantity of infrastructure, transportationstudies and urban planning strategies become increasinglyimportant. Correlations between social and economic data andexisting infrastructure could furnish insight into which areas todevelop. Or similarly, new infrastructure can be constructed toencourage development in particular areas.

Public Utilities (Cable-based and Pipeline-based)

Public utilities include cable-based utilities such as electricity,telephone, Internet and television service. Pipeline-basedutilities consist of steam, gas and liquid fuels, as well as waterand wastewater services. The three major challenges facing theutility industry are “large service areas, many distributedcustomers and remotely distributed aging facilities.” AM/FMsystems integrated with other emerging technology provideessential solutions for utility companies. AM/FM technologyhas capabilities for mapping process automation, recordkeeping, spatial analysis, and data/application integration. Thistechnology allows utility companies to perform load andnetwork analysis, keep records and report usage, map out theirfacilities, perform outage analysis, maintain and keep record ofinventory, know customer location, usage patterns and servicepreferences, and perform marketing analyses.

Li, Coleman and Easa have developed a list of specificapplications of spatial analysis capabilities for selected utilitysectors as shown in Table 5. Since utility companies areconstantly expanding to meet customer needs and to draw innew customers, global positioning systems (GPS) have beenintegrated with handheld tools to assist in field data collection.Additionally, GIS Toolkits allow utility companies to createcustom spatial applications to meet specific needs whilesupervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) softwaremanipulate equipment and allow real-time information to begathered from remote locations. For example, SCADA is usedin gas pipeline companies to model its network and collectreal-time information on gas flow, pipeline pressure, sectionsunder repair, alternative pipeline routings, as well as thelocation and dispatch of service crews.


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Another application of GIS is identifying areas for investments,mergers and acquisitions. Software such as Spatial Analysis(ESRI) is often used to determine parcels of land that may bebeneficial for investment based on a number of queries (forexample, in determining a location for a shop, parcels of landlocated close to or away from competitors and on major streetsmight be queried). A similar process might be used to

determine areas that utility and infrastructure enterprises couldacquire. A combination of demographic and economic datacould identify areas where civil infrastructure may be over orunder provided. Identifying potential investment areas,visualized through GIS and complemented by companyinformation, can provide information to support decisionsregarding mergers and acquisitions.

Table 5. Specific Spatial Analysis Applications for Various Utilities

Utility Spatial analysis applications

Electricity Outage analysis (dealing with trouble calls)Maintenance routingTransmission line sitingLoad pattern and growth analysisImpact analysis in facilities siting

Water, wastewater, Breakage and leakage diagnosingstorm water Maintenance routing

Water network flow analysisModelling damage to water distribution systemsWater resources planning and managementSimulation of ground water mass destructionPrediction of runoff ratesFlood controlDetermination of pressure zone when planning new water distribution facilities

Steam, gas and liquid Breakage and leakage diagnosingfuel pipelines Maintenance routing

Modelling damage to gas distribution systemsNetwork optimizationFacilities sitingEarthquake simulation

Telephone/cable TV Network/cable routingFacilities siting and location optimizationOutage and performance problem analysisBlack spot/zone analysis in cable television

Telecommunications Radio propagation and area coverage analysisOptimum antenna heights and locations using DTM informationOptimal design of a broadband network layoutAnalysing tower coverage areas and service accessibility of a mobilecommunications networkNetwork traffic analysis by combing demography


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Transportation (Highways, Bridges, Streets, Railroads, MassTransit, Ports and Waterways, Air Transportation Facilities)

Advanced GIS has been applied to the transportation field innetwork design/analysis, scheduling (public transportation,freight), routing (maintenance, waste transport), traffic controland inventory, safety analysis (crash location and analysis),intelligent transportation system (in-vehicle navigation,emergency response, commercial vehicle transport, trafficmanagement), and site impact analysis (increased traffic, airquality, noise pollution).

Social and demographic data is vital in designing effectivetransportation systems and justifying their construction andcapacity. In Baltimore, for example, transit demand andDemographic forecasts for a new light rail system were importedto a GIS for spatial analysis and colour displays for seniormanagement. Census data such as transport taken to work,departure, and travel time to work are particularly useful.

One of the key GIS activities specific to transportation isnetwork analysis. Since these networks are used for routing andemergency dispatch, high-quality data with accurate informationon the connectivity of the system, such as turning options atintersections, and capacities and demands on the system, isrequired. Missing or incorrect data about the system can be aserious problem, particularly in an emergency situation. Havingan accurate and updated transportation GIS not only aids in itsmanagement but also allows for other organizations andgovernmental departments to utilize the data for other uses suchas routing for utility maintenance, facility siting and tourism.

Solid waste disposal (landfills, ocean disposal, recyclingfacilities)

Crucial uses of GIS for solid waste disposal are facilities siting,vehicle routing, and landfill design and management. Facilitysiting criteria include proximity to residential areas,environmental effects, soil and geological properties, cost of landand distance from collection sites. GIS overlay, buffer anddistance calculations can greatly improve facility siting, as wellas provide a valuable tool for producing key maps for concernedcitizens.

GIS has been used to assist landfill design and management byinputting topographic and features data in order to estimate thegeomembrane and clay required, locate gas and leachate pipes,determine required pipe lengths, record waste composition andcompaction, evaluate the potential for gas migration, analyse thechemical and physical stability of the site over time, andrecommend and analyse the filling process to maximize capacitywhile minimizing environmental impacts.

Linking GIS with models of groundwater flow and contaminantmigration may also be useful for evaluating older landfill sites ordetermining environmental risks associated with the presenceand migration of hazardous substances.

Other CIS Related Fields

Since CIS involve a range of fields, it is valuable to be aware ofthe different research areas that are being pursued that may berelevant to advanced GIS application in civil infrastructuresystems. These include:

Social Sciences – An effort to collect and make available socialand economic data is evident in the presence of dataclearinghouses such as the Inter-university Consortium forPolitical and Social Research (ICPSR) and the Cornell Institutefor Social and Economic Research (CISER). Correlations withsocial and economic data and the quality and quantity ofinfrastructure could provide understanding into where to installnew utility networks or how cities and counties can better planfor new infrastructure based on population growth. Acquisitionof data on behavioural patterns in utility usage and spendingwould be of great value to utility companies

Urban planning – GIS is widely used in urban and regionalplanning. Existing GIS on land use, growth planning, and realestate valuation are essential in determining where and when todevelop new areas. By working hand in hand with urbanplanners, governmental agencies and utility companies can betterplan for maintenance of existing infrastructure and constructionof new facilities.

Weather and natural disasters – Through modelling techniques,researchers are more able to locate areas that are vulnerable toearthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons, floods and forest fires.


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Satellite imagery and other remote sensing technology are alsovaluable in understanding weather and natural disasterbehaviour. This knowledge is critical for improving decisionsconcerning emergency response, planning, and design.

Environmental Quality – Using air and noise pollutionmodelling, the effects of highways, railroads and airports can beassessed during the design phase. Waterways and water resourcemodelling can assist hydrologists in locating water sources anddesigning more intelligent water distribution systems. GISinformation on the spread of pollutants can also shed light onareas that would be more costly to install infrastructure, or areasthat may require additional maintenance.

It is important that researchers and professionals in civilinfrastructure systems are aware of the improving technologiesand techniques for infrastructure development. Additionally,they must also be familiar with other relevant research fields andGIS improvements. Encouraging inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary cooperation can greatly increase the knowledge basefor improving civil infrastructure.

Remote Sensing and Time-dependent Information

An additional aspect of GIS that is gaining widespread attentionis the temporal feature of spatial data. Time-dependent datacome into use for monitoring purposes, maintenance, economicplanning and tracking emergency, post-disaster situations.

For monitoring purposes, remote sensing technologies andglobal positioning systems (GPS) that are linked to GIS are usedto track various types of infrastructure such as 1) trafficmonitoring through the use of cameras and image processing todetermine the speed of traffic and accidents that occur 2)postal/cargo tracking using GPS, and 3) pipeline monitoringthrough sensors placed on pipelines to determine amount offlow. Remote sensing technologies have the potential ofidentifying problem areas before the situation becomes verycostly, such as in the case of gas pipe leakage or waterleakage.With a link to GIS, the temporal information collectedcan assist in maintenance and emergency procedures.

To pinpoint locations of structures or positions relative to a map,GPS has been extremely valuable. Typical GPS units candetermine a location within a few meters of their actual position

while more sophisticated GPS can be accurate withincentimetres. GPS technology was utilized after the 1999 Kocaeliearthquake in Turkey to determine the location of certain streetsand damaged buildings. The data were collected from thesatellite in real time as the researchers inspected the damagedarea. The GPS was linked to a GIS which allowed the data to bemapped immediately to assess the severity and impact of theearthquake.

Another form of remote sensing is the use of imagery – satelliteand radar imagery and aerial photography. This has been used inemergency, post-disaster situations when satellite imagery andglobal positioning systems (GPS) were used to track and locatedamaged areas. With satellite imagery able to achieveresolutions of 1m, damage from earthquakes, floods, and othernatural disasters can be estimated from these images. However,it must be noted that the effective use of imagery is highlydependent on interpretation. These technologies have beenapplied to earthquakes in Kobe, Japan and Luzon, Philippines(Matsuoka, Yamazaki, 2000). Matsuoka and Yamazakiexamined Landsat and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagerybefore and after the earthquakes to determine whether damage tobuildings and other structures can be extracted from the imagery.It was found that damaged buildings are often darker in radarimages than the images of their undamaged states. For the Luzonearthquake, satellite imagery taken before and after theearthquake were used to delineate areas that had subsided intothe sea.

Due to the variability in resolution and the need forinterpretation, satellite, radar, and aerial imagery are morevaluable for sensing relatively large changes above ground. Thisinformation can indicate areas where infrastructure should bechecked for damage and can help determine how to evacuatepeople from dangerous locations. The use of remote sensors andGPS, which can be more accurately controlled, will be valuablein monitoring infrastructure quality on a day-to-day basis.

Recommendations

To improve the planning and rehabilitation of civil infrastructuresystems through GIS, a national forum is proposed to engageGIS experts from industry, government and academia as well asleading companies, consultants and universities involved in civil


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infrastructure systems. This forum will seek to meet thefollowing objectives:

1. Gather information on current GIS uses, researchand development and compile a list of relevant datasources available

2. Determine the specific needs of the civilinfrastructure systems community that can be metby GIS

3. Explore plans for future research and brainstormnew applications for GIS

4. Determine the issues that need to be resolved inorder to accomplish the current and futureapplications including increasing GIS capabilities,interoperability issues, remote sensing technologiesand data sources not currently available

5. Engage GIS and other systems software developersand researchers to begin to resolve the issues

6. As the applications and possibilities of advanced GIS arerealized, the maintenance and planning of civil infrastructuresystems will be greatly improved. Greater understanding of thecapabilities of related systems will refine the decision-makingprocess in civil infrastructure systems.

Conclusion: The process of creating maps for academic researchis very much the same. Data is gathered about a specific place,verified by theoretical or applied means and analysis is rendered.The ability of applied research to create sophisticated "maps" hasbeen profoundly enhanced by using geographic informationsystems (GIS).Any opinions, findings, and conclusions orrecommendations expressed in this document are those of theauthor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NationalScience Foundation.References

Easa, S. and Chan, Y., editors, 2000. Urban Planning andDevelopment Applications of GIS. Reston, Virginia: ASCE.

Eguchi, R. et al, 2000. "The Marmara Earthquake: AView from Space." 2000 MCEER Proceedings fromthe Workshop on Mitigation of Earthquake Disasterby Advanced Technologies, Los Angeles, CA.


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PARTITIONOFVARIOUSTYPESOFRISKINCONSTRUCTIONPROJECTS

G.UDAY KUMAR, T.HARITHA, P.MOHANRAJAssistant Professors, Assistant Professors

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil EngineeringGVIC GVIC

ABSTRACT

In constructionprojectsvarioustypesofriskinvolved,whicheffectivelyandefficientlyeffecttheprojectlifecycle.Themajorriskinvolvedinconstructionprojectarefinancialrisk,managementrisk,marketrisk,technicalrisk,environmental risk,legalrisk.Thispaperreviewsthevariousriskinvolvedinconstructionprojectandanalysingthekeyriskamongthosetypes.Inthisthesisthestepbystepprocedure involvedareidentificationofrisk,questionnairepreparation,questionnaires survey,riskanalysis,key riskidentificationandrecommendationforthekeyrisk.Risk management help in improving the project life cyclerisk management reducesuncertainty,reducesthecapitalcost,helptoobtaintheobjectiveof

theconstructionprojecteasily.Identifyingthelistofriskinvolvedinconstructionprojectsandfindingthekeyfactoristhemainpurposeofthisproject.ByusingSPSS,theriskhasbeensolved.Bysurveyingquestionnairehasbeenpreparedattheinitialstage.Thenfrom theprojectleadersandemployeesinvolvedinvariousconstructionprojectthe questionnairesurveyhasbeencarriedoutinvariousconstructionproject.ByusingSPSS(StatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences)softwaretheanalysispartis carriedout.Finallybyfindingthekeyriskthecorrespondingrecommendationforthosekey riskhasbeengiven.

Keywords:Risk,ConstructionProjects,Uncertainty.

1.INTRODUCTIONAnyuncertaintyinprojectthatcausesdelayinprojectlifecycleisknownasrisk.Sorisk managementisanimportantpowerfultoolthatallowtheprojecttoobtaintheprojectscopewithoutanyrisk.Riskmanagementconsistsofidentification,analysis,planning,monitoring

andactionplan.Maximisingthepositiveeventandminimisingthenegativeeventisthemainaimofriskmanagement.Everyactivityinvolvedinconstructionprojectsinvolveriskbuttheamountofriskvaryforeachandeveryactivityintheconstructionprojects.Businessplanandprojectgoalscanbeaffectedbyriskforeveryactivityinvolvedinaproject.Duringplanningofconstructionprojectstheobjective,goal,scopeoftheprojectmustbe considered,if not consideredriskwillbeevolvedinconstructionprojects.Poortrackingduringtheexecutionof projectandlackofknowledgeleadtorisk.If

insufficientskilledlabourandstaffsinvolvedinprojectitleadstoriskduetoinsufficienttechnicalknowledgeabouttheproject.Iftheroles andresponsibilitiesarenotproperlyunderstandbytheprojectpersonalsitleadstodelayin project.Timelyresolutionaregivenifanyissuesoccurotherwiseitleadto risk.Riskmanagementtoolsareusedinconstructionprojectstoreducerisklevel.ManyInternationalconstructioncompanywhichareleadinginthemanagementallevelfacinghighlevelofrisk. Inorder toavoid theseriskinthosecompanies, risk management shouldbefound more effective. Soforproperriskmanagementtheriskisidentified thenthoseriskwanttobeanalysedandfinallyproperstepsshouldbe takentoreducethoseriskin constructionprojects.Maturedriskpracticesshouldbetakeninleading

Internationalconstructioncompanies.Theriskmanagementbasicallysupportsalignmentofstrategicorganization.Optimizeperformancecandonebyvariousmanagementaltools.If a organization


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successfully maintaining itsorganizational risk thentheorganization will be effectiveandsuccessful.1.1.NeedforStudyInindustriesdelayingoperations,financialproblems,injuriescouldresultinrisk.Ifexcesscostperformedinaprojectitcanbeavoidedbyproperriskmanagement.Theimpactina projectcanbeunderstandbyminimizingtherisk.Thisgivestheprojectsomeknowledge

aboutrisk.Thestudyaboutriskincludeoptimisticperformance,cultureof riskmaintained, workforcedevelopment, explicit managemental structure,investment decision can be improved.

1.2.ObjectiveoftheStudyThe objective of this study is to identifying risksdata in construction projects byquestionnairesurvey.Toidentifykeyriskinvolvedinconstructionprojectsfromthe

questionnairesurvey.Toanalysetheriskidentifiedandgivingpossiblerecommendationsfortheriskidentifiedinordertoavoidriskinfutureprojects.

1.3.ScopeofStudy

Inconstructionprojectsrisksareinherent.Riskcanmanageditcannotbeignored.Foran activitywithgreaterriskorreducedinspectionhavehigherpriority duringinspection. By identifyingthe risk impact performed risk can be managed. Thekey risk involved inconstructionprojectandthepossiblemeasurestoavoidtho

seriskthattheconstructionproject isfacing canbestudy.Theriskthatareobserved inthequestionnairetakeplaceinany constructionprojects.Theconceptofthisstudyis to listthe keyriskaffectingtheconstructionprojectsandtogiverankingforthoseriskatlastproperrecommendationscanbesuggestedforthekeyriskinvolvedinconstructionprojects.

2.QUESTIONNAIRESURVEYForfindingthekeyriskquestionnairewaspreparedandthenitwillbetakenforanalysis.Forthatthefallowingformatistakenstepbystep.

2.1.IdentificationofVariousRisksinConstructionProjectsBygoingthroughpast journalsandreviewssomeinformation'swerecollectedregardingrisk.Thenbycollectinginformationfromthepersonswhoinvol

vedin constructionprojects information's werecollected. This information involves what aretheriskfactors that theconstructioncompanyisfacingduringtheexecutionofprojects.Thesedetailsarecollected fromtheteamleaders,managers,siteengineers,projectmanagersandlaboursinvolvedinconstructionprojectsthroughdirectinterviewandthroughmails.

2.2.QuestionnaireStructureThefirstpartofthequestionnairesurveyconsistsofgeneralinformation'sof thecompanylike nameofthecompany,projectnameanddetails,theinterviewerdetails(name,email,contact numbers).Thentheriskfactorswhichare involvedinconstructionprojectscollectedfromthesurveywasenteredandarrangedaccordingtothetypeofriskinvolvedinthesecondpartof the questionnaire survey.

Six main factor of risk involved in constructionprojects are financial risk,managementrisk,marketrisk,technical risk,environmentalrisk,legalrisk.Underthissixmainfactorsfivemainquestionsregardingriskwasraised.

.3.QuestionnaireDesign


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Thequestionnairewasdesignedinamannerthateveryonefromthetoplevelmanagementtothelowlevelmanagementcanabletoidentifytheriskbehaviorsothattheinterviewercan abletogivetheexactreviewonthequestionnaire.Properclarifica

tionshouldbegivenin thequestionnairesothattheinterviewerscanabletoanswerforthatquestionnaire.

3.DATAANALYSISForfindingthekeyriskinvolvedinthosefinancial,management,market,technical,environmental,legalriskthequestionnairewereanalysedt

hroughanysoftwaretools.In thisSPSS(StatisticalToolforSocialSciences)wasused.

3.1.DataofEntryinSPSSThedatagatheredfromquestionnairesurveyisanalysedbyusingSPSS(StatisticalPackage

fortheSocialSciences)tool.Therangeofriskleveliscategorisedasforveryhigh-5,high-

4,medium-3,low-2,verylow-1

3.2.PercentageofKeyRiskOccurred

Table1Tableshowing%ofkeyriskinfinancial

RANGE

VERYLOW

FREQUENCY

4

PERCENTAGE

10

LOW 10 25

MEDIUM 10 25

HIGH 13 32.5

VERYHIGH 3 7.5

Table2Tableshowing%ofkeyriskinmanagemental

RANGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGEVERYLOW 10 25.0LOW 6 15.0MEDIUM 5 12.5HIGH 2 5.0VERYHIGH 17 42.5

Table3Tableshowing%ofkeyriskinmarket


Table4Tableshowing%ofkeyriskintechnical


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Table5Tableshowing%ofkeyriskinenvironmental


Table6Tableshowing%ofkeyriskinlegal


Theabovetablesshowsthefrequencyandpercentageofriskoccurredatvariousrange level.

Thetypeofriskitskeyriskfactorandpercentageofriskoccurredaregivenbelow.

TypeofRisk KeyRisk PercentageFinancialRisk Lossduetoriseinfuelrates 42.5%ManagementRisk Projectdelay 42.5%MarketRisk Competitionfromothercompanies 40%TechnicalRisk Poorqualityofprocuredmaterial 35%EnvironmentalRisk Anyadverseimpactonprojectduetoclimaticchanges45%LegalRisk Improperverificationofcontractdocument 35%

3.2.CalculationofMean,StandardDeviationandRankByusingSPSStoolthemean,standarddeviationand rankarecalculated.Byusingthisthe ranking forthoseriskcanbegiven.Theseranking indicate theriskthattheconstruction projects arefacinginthefinancial, managemental, market,technical,environmental, legal side.

Table7Tableshowingmean,SD,rankoffinancialrisk

FINANCIALRISK Mean Std.Deviation

Rank

Lowcreditabilityofshareholdersandlenders 3.32 0.82 2Insurancerisk 2.70 1.36 4Lossduetofluctuationofinterestrate 3.02 1.14 3Lossduetoriseinfuelrates 3.60 1.46 1


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Lossduetofluctuationofexchangerate 2.37 1.27 5

Inthefinancialsidethekeyriskoccurredinconstructionprojectislossduetoraiseinfuelratewiththemeanvalue3.32andS.D0.8

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Table8Tableshowingmean,SD,rankofmanagementalrisk

MANAGEMENTRISK Mean Std.

Rank

DeviationShorttenderingtime 3.47 1.24 4Improperprojectfeasibilitystudy 2.70 1.06 5Timeconstraint 3.35 1.16 3Nopastexperienceinsimilarproject 2.52 1.53 2Projectdelay 3.25 1.70 1

InthemanagementsidethekeyriskoccurredinconstructionprojectsisProjectdelaywith themeanvalue3.35andS.D1.70

Table9Tableshowingmean,SD,rankofmarketrisk

MARKETRISK Mean Std.Deviation

Rank

Competitionfromothercompanies 3.65 1.35 1Increaseofmaterialprice 3.22 1.14 2Increaseoflabourcost 3.15 1.00 5Increaseofresettlementcost 2.92 1.30 4Increaseofaccessoryfacilityprice 1.82 1.33 3

Inthemarketriskthekeyriskoccurredinconstructionprojectsiscompetitionfromothercompanieswiththemeanvalue3.65andS.D1.35

Table10Tableshowingmean,SD,rankoftechnicalrisk

TECHNICALRISK Mean Std.Deviation

Rank

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Materialshortage 3.27 1.03 2Poorqualityofprocuredmaterial 3.45 1.35 1Unknownsitephysicalcondition 3.00 0.78 3Obsoletenessofbuildingequipment 2.60 1.61 5Wastageofmaterialsbywork 2.65 1.42 4

Inthetechnical side thekeyriskoccurred inconstruction projects ispoor quality ofprocuredmaterialwiththemeanvalue3.45andS.D1.35

Table11Tableshowingmean,SD,rankofenvironmentalrisk

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK Mean Std.Deviation

Rank

Stiffenvironmentalregulation 2.70 1.45 4Impactonenvironmentduetotheproject 2.85 0.83 3Anyadverseimpactonprojectduetoclimaticchanges 3.55 1.39 1Healthyworkingenvironmentforworkers 2.90 1.41 2Accidentonrisk 2.55 1.46 5

Intheenvironmental sidethekeyriskoccurred inconstruction projectisanyadverseimpactonprojectduetoclimaticchangeswiththemeanvalue3.55andS.D1.39

Table12Tableshowingmean,SD,rankoflegalrisk

LEGALRISK Mean Std.Deviation

Rank

Breachofcontractbyprojectpartner 3.12 1.34 3Lackofenforcementoflegaljudgement 3.32 1.04 2Improperverificationofcontractdocument 3.35 1.52 1Lackofknowledgeofarbitration 2.85 1.25 4Uncertaintyandunfairnessofcourtjustice 1.90 1.27 5

Inthelegalsidethekeyriskoccurredinconstruction projectsislossduetoimproperverificationofcontractdocumentwiththemeanvalue3.35andS.D1.52

4.CONCLUSIONSAtvarioussitethequestionnairesurveywastakenfromtheprojectmanageror theengineers involved

a)Infinancial,risklossduetoraiseinfuelrate.

b)Managementriskisduetoprojectdelay

c)Marketriskisduetocompetitionfromother

companies.

d)Technicalriskisduetopoorqualityofprocuredmaterial.

e)Environmentalriskisduetoanyadverseimpac

tonprojectduetoclimaticchange

.

f)Legalriskisduetoimproperverificationofcon

tractdocuments.

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Thekeyriskoccurredareinfinancialriskandmanagementriskcomparedtoallothertype

ofrisk.ThenthehypothesistestwasconductedbyusingSPSSandtheoutputobtainedis,allthesamples(risk)rejectthenullhypothesis.Fromthisanalysisitisconcludedthatthevalueandresultobtainedfromthisthesisistrue.

5.RECOMMENDATIONSForthekeyriskdeterminedfromthisthesissomerecommendationsweresuggestedtoreducetheriskinprojectcycleinvariousconstructionprojects.

a)FinancialRisk:Transportingthebuildingmaterialisthefirststepinprojectsiteandduring the manufacturing ofcement, brick, steel etc enormous amount of fuel isused. Due toinflationrateremainslowinIndiathefuelratecauseheftypriceinconstruction industry. Bulk purchase of materialwill reduce transportation and laid to fuel savings.Energymanagementsystemalsohelpstoreducethefinancialriskinvolved.

b)ManagementRisk:Delayinprojectcanbeovercomebygivingproperclarityandidea about thescopeoftheproject tothelaboursinvolved. Proper communication among thelabourswillavoidtheprojectdelay.Reworkleadstoprojectdelaysobyproperplanningand design the projectis carried out and rework must be avoided. Skilledlabour should beemployedformassivetechnicalconstructionprojects.

c)MarketRisk:Forsmallandmediumsizedcompanythecompetitionfromotherlargesized companies lead to risk.The entry of foreign companies due to FDI(ForeignDirectInvestment)leadtoheavycompetitionsfinanciallyandtechnicallytotheIndiancompanies.Byknowingtheofferoftheproductandserviceswhichareu

niqueandfindingoutwhichservicewhichfullfillallrequirementtotheirclientthecompetitionshouldbeavoided.

d) Technical Risk: The material to be procured willbe from the best qualitative andquantitativesupplier.If theprocuredmaterialisnotfititmustbe negotiated.Thesampletestmustbeconductedbeforeitusedinthefield.ByproperQualitycontrolthepoorqualityof procuredmaterialmustbecontrolled.

e) EnvironmentalRisk:Adverseimpactonprojectduetoclimaticchangeis anglobal phenomena.Environmental riskcannotbenullifiedsobytakingnecessary stepsitcanbe reduced. Theimpact of environmental risk is heavily in largeconstruction projectsparticularlyintransportationprojects.Theconstructionmaterialsshouldbestockedproperly topreventreducingthedurabilityofmaterialduetoclimaticchange.Duringthe selectionof construction material,thematerial which isfavourable for that site locationand climatic conditionsareanalysed.

f)Legalrisk:Improper verification ofcontractdocumentcanbeavoidedbyverifying thedocumentwithexperiencedpersonwhohavegoodknowledgeinlegalareas.In constructionprojectslegalriskislow.Byproperverificationofcontractdocumentstwiceorthricefromlegalexpertsitcanbeavoided.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWewhole heartedly thank theAlmightyGodandourcollege management forgiving anopportunitytotakeaproject.WeexpressoursincerethankstotheChiefExecutiveOfficerProf.M.Mala,andPrincipalDr.M.Ramalingam,forextendingallthefacilitiesneededtocarry

outthisproject.WewouldalsoliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetoDr.N.S.Elangovan, HeadofCivilEngineering,DepartmentofourCollegeforhavingaccordedthe permissiontocarryoutthisproject.WewouldmysincerethankstomyguideMr. K.R.Vinodh,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofCivilEngineering,JerusalemCollegeofEngineeringforproviding the necessary

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facilities and encouragement for the project. Wewould like to take thisopportunitytoexpressmysincerethankstoMs.S.Geetha,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofCivilEngineering,JerusalemCollegeofEngineeringforprovidingthenecessaryfacilitiesandencouragement for the project. We are grateful toour parents for their support andcoordinationthroughouttheproject.

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[2] ShouQuingWang,Robert,Tiong,memberASCE,SengKiongTing,“Political Risk Analysis ofKey Contract Clauses in China’s BOT project”Journals of ConstructionEngineeringandManagement/may/June 1999.

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[5] OdeyinkaH.A, OladapoA.A,andAkindeleO(2006)“Assessingriskimpactonconstructioncost”preceedingsoftheannualresearchoftheRyalinstitutionsofChartedSurveyors.

[6] EdwardJ.Jaselskis,Associatemember,ASCEandJeffreyS.Russell,Associatemember, ASCE“Riskanalysisapproachestoselectionofcontractorevaluationmethod”“JournalsofConstructionEngineeringandManagementASCE/June2005/635.

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[9] Dikmen, M.T. Birgonul, C. Anac,j.h.mTah,G.Aouad “Learning From Risks: A Tool ForprojectRiskAssessment”“ JournalsofConstructionEngineeringandManagementASCE/December2008.

[10]M.PilardelaCruz,P.E,AlfredodelCano.P.E,mASCEandElisadelaCruz“DownsideRisk in ConstructionProjects Developed” by civil service the case ofSpain ”Journals ofConstructionEngineeringandManagementASCE/june2006/635.

[11] WenzheTang,MaoshanQiang,ColinF,Duffield,DavidM,YoungandYoumeilu“Riskmanagement inChinese Construction Industry”“Journals ofConstruction Engineering andManagementASCE/December2007.

[12] Ahmet Oztas andOnderokmen, (2004)“judgemental riskanalysis process development inconstructionprojects”CivilEngineeringDepartment,UniversityofGaziantep.

[13] Bind L, Tiong R L K,Fan W W,Chew D, (1999)“Risk management in internationalconstructionjoinventures”JournalsofConstructionEngineeringandManagementASCE/Volume125issue4.

[14]DaudNasir,BrendaMccab,andLoesieHartono“Evaluating

RiskinConstruction ScheduleModel” “Journals ofConstruction EngineeringandManagement ASCE/September/October2003/527.

[15] A. Ismail and Z. Chik, “Assessing and managing thepotential environmental risks ofconstructionprojects”JournalsofpracticePeriodicalof structuraldesignandconstruction,ASCE10 (4),1-7.8.,UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia,Malaysia

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[16] ShenL.Y(1997)“ProjectriskmanagementinHongKong”,International journalofprojectmanagement,vol.15,No.2pp101-105.

[17] Hills,Martyn,andFox,Paulw.andFong,PatrickS.WandHon,CarolK.HandSkitmore,Martinb,(2006)“FactorsinfluencingthedevelopmentofHongKong’sconstructionindustry:AQualitativestudy”,InSerpell,Alferdo,Eds.Proceedings jointInternational conferenceonconstructionculture,innovationandmanagement(CCIM)Dubai.

[18]LBing,AAkintoye,P.JEdwards,C.Hardcastle,(2005)“TheallocationofriskinPPP/PFI

constructionprojectsintheUK”InternationalJournalsofconstructionmanagement23,p25-35.

[19] RolfOlsson,(2006),“Managing projectuncertaintybyusinganenhancedriskmanagementprocess”,Departmentofinnovation,DesignandProductDevelopmentMalardalenUniversity press.ISBNNumber91-85485-27-6.

[20]MinassianVandJergeasG,(2003)“Explorationriskmanagementandbusinessdevelopmentinthepetroleumindustry”,proceedingsofAACEIannualconference,Orlando,Florida.

[21] Prasanka Kumar Dey (2000) “Managing projectsin fasttrack a case of public sector organizationinIndia”International journalsofpublicsectormanagement.ISSN:0951-3558,v13p588-609.

[22] Prashanth Kapila and Chris Hentricson (2001)“Exchange rate risk management ininternational construction ventures” journalsofmanangement inengineering,vol 17,no4,ASCE,p186;191.

[23] RalfLKleimandIrvinSLudin(1998)“Projectmanagementpractitionershandbook”ISBNAMACOMBOOKS:0814403964.

[24]R.PrasannaKumar,AfshanSheikhandSS.Asadi,ASystematicApproachForEvaluationofRiskManagement InRoadConstruction Projects-AModelStudy.International Journalof

CivilEngineeringandTechnology,8(3),2017,pp.888–902.

[25] S.Ramanathan andV.Rathinakumar,AnalysisofRiskFactorsinSmall,Medium&LargeConstructionProjects.InternationalJournalofCivilEngineeringandTechnology,8(4),2017, pp.1977–1984

[26] M. Mahanth, V. Sreelakshmi and SS. Asadi,Evaluation of Entrepreneurs Challenges inConstruction Industry–A modelStudyusingRisk-Based Approach.International JournalofCivilEngineeringandTechnology,8(1),2017,pp.29–36.


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FLEXURAL ABILITY OF BEAM WITH COCONUT SHELL AGGREGATECONCRETE AND BAMBOO REINFORCEMENT

Y. Pramod Kumar Reddy1, G.N.V Sai Teja2, V.Sai Neeraja3

PG StudentAssistant Professors, Department of Civil Engineering

VIT University, Chennai VIT University, Chennai

SVCET,Chithoor SVCET,Chithoor

. ABSTRACT:

Coconut shell which is largelyavailable wastematerial in India is used as aggregate for preparingless density concrete.Reinforcement is replaced bybamboo, which is also a largely naturally availablematerial.Replacement is done for traditional materialswith coconut shell as aggregate and bamboo asreinforcement .In this paper Beams of various sectionslike balanced, under reinforced and over reinforcedsections has been taken into consideration. Flexuralability of beams has been analyzed by consideringLoad carrying capacity and deflection of the beams.

Key words: light weight concrete, coconut shellconcrete, flexural behavior, bamboo reinforcement,epoxy adhesive

INTRODUCTION

Bamboo:

We all know that bamboo is one of the cheapestand widely available materials which has the properties ofboth compression and tension in nature. But compressivenature of bamboo is less compared to its tensilenature.Bamboo consists of adifferentcompositematerialwithlongandparallelcellulosefibersinitsstructure.Also,it exhibits good flexibility andtoughness characteristics. Themostimportant thing that weneed to observe is about its growing speed asmostgrowthoccursduringthefirst yearandalmostallgrowthceasesbythefifthyear. Thestrengthofbamboo also increaseswith increasewithitsage, butthemaximumstrengthoccursat2.5-4years. The specialty of bamboonodesarespreadalong thegiantgrassand theirfunctionistopreventbuckling.Infact,bamboo canbendasmuchastouching thegroundwithout breaking; from this wecan say that bamboo is very good at tension.

Coconut shell concrete:

Concrete isthenumberonestructural material thatis widely used in all over theworldtoday. Thedemand tomake thismaterial lighter hasbeenthesubject ofstudythathaschallenged scientists andengineers alike.Thechallengeinmakingalightweightconcreteisobtained bydecreasingthedensity of concrete whilemaintaining goodstrength andwithoutaffectingcost.Introducingnew aggregatesintoconcreteisacommonwayto loweraconcrete’sdensity.Normalconcretecontains fourcomponentsi.e.,cement,coarse aggregate,fine aggregate andwater.Thecoarse aggregateandfine aggregatesarethe componentsthat arenormallyreplacedwithlightweightaggregates.Lightweightconcreteistypicallymadebythe combinationofnaturalorsynthetic lightweight aggregates orbyentrainingair admixtureintoa concrete to attain a less density with highstrength concrete.

Coconutisgrownin almost all over the worldinmorethan 93countries. South EastAsiaisnamedastheoriginofcoconut. Indiaisthethirdlargest countryin coconut cultivation w i t h an areaofabout1.78millionhectare.Annual coconutproductionisabout7562millionnutswithanaverageof5295nutsperhectare.India produces more than one quarter of thetotal world’s coconut oil outputandissettogrowfurtherincrease withtheglobaldemand.However, itisalsothe mainreason forthenation'spollutionproblemas asolidwaste intheformofshells,whichinvolves an annualp r o d u c t i o n o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 .18m i l l i o n tones.Coconutshellrepresentsmorethan60%of thedomesticwastevolume.CoconutShell, which pollutes thelocal environment with the disposal of coconut shells,isanabundantly availableasanagriculturalwastefromlocalcoconutindustries. Indevelopingcountries whereabundantagriculturalandindustrialwastesaredisposed, these disposedwastescanbeusedaspotentialmaterial orreplacementmaterial intheconstruction industry.Thiswillhavethedouble benefitsofreduction inthecostofconstruction materialandalsoasameasofsolid waste management.

Coconut shellconcretewith bamboo asreinforcementina beam


55 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

Mechanical

Properties

Traditional

concrete

Coconutshell

concrete(CSC)Compressive

strength(N/mm2)

7 days

14days

28days

20.8

27.3

32.10

12.46

23.4

28.9

Split tensileStrength(N/mm 2)

7 days

14days

28days

2.1

2.6

3.3

1.4

1.7

2.4

CONCRETEMIX:

Themix design(M25-grade) isdone byISmethodusing IS10262-2009.TheMix-ratiois1:2.22:3.66/0.5.Thecubestrengthachieved at28 daysis32.10N/mm².

Coconut shellconcretemixdesign isconsideredfromGUNASEKARAN et.al (2011) [3].Theratio ofmix M25is 1:1.47:0.65/0.42In theabovementionedmixCoconut Shell Coarseaggregate is insaturatedsurface dry condition(SSD).TheCoconutshellsaresoakedinwaterfor24hoursbeforeitwasused.Thestrengthachievedat theendof28daysusingaboveproportionis28.9N/mm².

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

Table 1.Mechanical Properties

TESTS CONDUCTED ON BAMBOO:

1. Moisture content test2. Tension test

Moisture Content Test:

Bamboo samples have been taken and moisturecontent test has been conducted for every two hours until nomoisture content change has been observed. It has beenobserved that there has been no change in moisture contentafter 6 hours.

Tension test:

Tension test has been conducted for bamboosamples taken from the oven for every two hour intervalalong with the bamboo sample brought from the market. Asper our test, it is observed that bamboo sample brought fromthe market has given the best tensile value.

Fig.1

Table 2.Tension test on bamboo specimen

SPECIMEN PREPARATION:

Thisprojectdeals withcomparing the f l e x u r a lstrengthof beams with traditionalconcrete, steelbeamsandcoconutshellconcretewithbambooasreinforcement. Eighteenbeamswithvariablereinforcement i.e., 9 beams are madeoftraditionalconcrete,steel-reinforcement; and9 beams areprepared by coconut shellconcrete (CSC)withbambooreinforcement. Allbeams are of size1500mm*150mm*230mm. Transverse reinforcement istaken as steel for all the eighteen beams.Bambooabout

Load(N)P

BambooSample

Stress(N/mm²)

P/A

Strain×10-4

Modulusof

elasticity( N/mm²)

0

d = 9 mmA = πd2/4A = π x

(9)2/4= 63.62 mm2

0 0

2.19 × 104

993 15.61 61982 31.15 132941 46.23 213956 62.18 294892 76.89 35

5879 92.40 44


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Size of thebeam (mm)

Concrete Number of

specimen

1500*150*230 Traditionalconcrete

M25grade

9

1500*150*230 Coconut

shellconcreteM25grade

9

sixyears ofagewassplitusing awedged knifeand isshapedintovarious sections as per design considerations.

In all the beamstransverse reinforcement of8mmdiameter has been taken. Transversereinforcementdependsonthenumberoflongitudinalreinforcements. To prepare theseconcrete specimenswoodenformworks wereused. Beamswerecastedwitha topopen surfacehorizontally.Todeterminethe compressive strengthoftheconcrete three standard cubeswere casted at the time.Formworkswereremoved after 24hoursand thespecimenswerecuredwithwaterfor28daysunderwetgunningbags.

RESULTS:

As a Comparative study between traditional beamsand coconut shell aggregate bamboo reinforced beams forbalanced, under reinforced and over reinforced sections hasbeen taken into comparison to analyzeflexural behavior,load carried by the beams until where the cracks appearedand the deflection at various load points has been mentionedin the below table.

Under Reinforced Beam:

Traditional (Set-1A)

Sample Load(T) Deflection(mm)1. 5 5.72. 5.25 5.63. 5 5.8

Bamboo reinforced coconut shell beam: (Set-1B)

Sample Load Deflection

1. 3.25 6.92. 3.3 73. 3.1 6.6

Balanced beam:

Traditional: (Set-2A)


Sample Load Deflection1. 3.5 6.852. 3.75 6.93. 3.5 6.5

Over Reinforced Beam:

Traditional: (Set-3A)

Sample Load Deflection1. 5.5 5.92. 5.3 63. 5.4 6.2


Sample Load Deflection1. 4 72. 4.25 7.23. 4 7.25

CONCLUSION:

i. For balanced section, coconut shell aggregatebamboo reinforced beamtook 62% load that of what traditional beamtook.

ii. For under reinforced section, coconut shellaggregate bamboo reinforcedbeam took 62% load of traditional beam.

iii. For over reinforced section, coconut shellaggregate bamboo reinforcedbeam took 76% load of traditional beam.

iv. Over reinforced coconut shell aggregate bambooreinforced beam has taken more loads compared tobalanced as well as under reinforced beam.

v. For site recommendation, in coconut shellaggregate bamboo reinforced beams, overreinforced section is recommended.

REFERENCES:

Sample Load Deflection1. 5.75 5.92. 5.8 6.03. 5.6 5.8


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1. K.Gunasekaran, R.Annadurai, P.S. Kumar,“Study on reinforced lightweight coconut shellconcrete beam behavior under flexure” (2012),Materials and Design, Vol. 46, page 157-167.

2. K.Gunasekaran, R.Annadurai, P.S. Kumar,“Study on reinforced lightweight coconut shellconcrete beam behavior under shear” (2013),Materials and Design, Vol. 50, page 293-301.

3. K.Gunasekaran, P.S. Kumar, M.Lakshmipathy,“Mechanical and bond properties of coconutshell concrete”, (2009), Construction andBuilding materials, Vol. 25, page 92-98

4. T.A.I Akeju and F. Falade ,”Utilisation OfBamboo as Reinforcement in concrete”,Structural Engineering, Mechanics andComputation (Vol. 2),A. Zingoni (Editor)

5. KhosrowGhavami“Bamboo as reinforcement instructural concrete elements”. (2004)


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Emerging Way to Enhance the Durability of ConcreteStructures through Bacterial addition: Bacterial

concrete

C.Venkata Siva Rama PrasadResearch Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering,University College of Engineering & Technology,

Acharya Nagarjuna University,Nagarjuna Nagar -522510,Guntur Dist., A.P., India.

Dr. T.V.S. Vara LakshmiAssistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

University College of Engineering & Technology,Acharya Nagarjuna University,

Nagarjuna Nagar -522510,Guntur Dist., A.P., India.

Abstract— Concrete is one of the mainly used constructionmaterial, with over 2.5 billion tons produced internationally ineach year [1]. When concrete is exposed to temperaturefluctuation, corrosive chemicals and excessive stress, crack are

arise in concrete. Bacterial concrete is a latest technology inrecent days on use of different bacteria as self-healing agent[2]. avariety of materials are available in market for repair likepolymers, epoxies etc…But these are harmful to theenvironment; therefore this technique being environmentalfriendly can be used as their substitution[3]. Concrete mixtureshaving calcite-inducing bacteria from the genus Bacillus have thepotential to reduce structural failure rates, and environmentalimpacts. When crack occurred in the concrete, that crack permitwater and carbon dioxide into the material. In bacterial concrete,these elements would get to bacteria, which then catalyze areaction inducing a calcite precipitate, healing the concrete, andavoid further damage from occurring. In this technology,concrete maintain its strength without the need for frequentrepairs, which would significantly reduce both fiscal andenvironmental costs. Thus, this paper is an attempt to definebacterial concrete, types ,classification of bacteria, process offixing the cracks using these bacteria’s . These sources will allowfor an understanding and assessment of such technology in real-world structural applications.

Keywords-Bacterial concrete, types of bacteria,MICP, self_healing, chemical process

I.INTODUCTION

Concrete however being utilized and received as a perfectdevelopment material in view of its simple accessibility, ease,good compressive strength and so forth.; has some downsideadditionally , the significant disadvantage of concrete is itslow tensile strength because of which smaller scale crackshappen when the structure is subjected to managed stackingand presented to forceful natural conditions brings about todiminishing the life of the structure. These miniaturized scalecracks if little in width it can be fixed consequently by theextension of the hydrated concrete. Be that as it may, for largesize cracks just incomplete fixing is conceivable.. Forlegitimate well being of structure in the event that it is

imperative to mend the crisply shaped surface crackks as itwill stop the entry of water and other forceful chemicals whichcan damage the reinforcement and concrete. Consequentlysome man-made material like epoxy polymers are utilized asrepair material. Be that as it may, they are exorbitant,diminishes compressive strength and in addition additionallydangerous to the environment[4]. Accordingly this promptsemerge a need of some normal self-healing compound whichcan be utilized to shield the concrete and reinforcement fromall the hurtful impacts. Calcium carbonate precipitation is oneof the healing item. It is an interesting procedure in whichcracks and fissures are fixed utilizing microbiologicallyinstigated calcite or calcium carbonate (CaCo3) precipitationthis procedure goes under class of Bio-mineralization. Theparticular species, for example, ureolytic are essentiallyutilized for this; they are remotely and physically connectedon the concrete surface, and after that the procedure happensinside or outside the microbial cell or even some separationaway inside the concrete and result in to the development ofbio minerals, for example, calcite (CaCo3) or apatite. Whichare generally thick and can obstruct the splits and keep thepassage of the water effectively. Some of the time this naturalexercises of microorganisms trigger change in arrangementscience which prompts over immersion and mineral hastens.Accordingly, this compelling utilization of metabolicprocedure of microorganisms in concrete prompts theadvancement of new idea called Bacterial Concrete.

II.CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA

Figure 1.Classification Based on Shape


59 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

Figure 2. Classification Based on Gram Stain

Figure 3. Classification Based on Oxygen Demand

A. Various Types Of Bacteria Used In ConcretFrom literature review:

Bacillus pasteurii Bacillus sphaericus Escherichia coli Bacillus subtilis Bacillus cohnii Bacillus halodurans Bacillus pseudofirmus etc.,

B. Advantages And Dis Advantages Of Bacterial ConcreteAdvantages:

Bacterial concrete in crack remediation. Compressive strength is increased in concrete. Enhanced resistance to freeze-thaw cycle. Reduction in permeability of concrete. Reduction in corrosion of reinforced concrete.

Disadvantages : Bacterial concrete Cost is double than that of

conventional concrete. Development of bacteria is not good quality in

any atmosphere and media. Design of concrete mix with bacteria is not

available in IS codes or any other codes.

III. MICRO-ORGANISM

Microbes are the most various and copious gathering of livingbeings on Earth. Microbes possess for all intents and purposesall situations where some fluid water is accessible and thetemperature is underneath +140 °C [5]. They are found inocean water, soil, air, creatures' gastrointestinal tracts, hotsprings and even far below the Earth's outside in rocks.Microbes are frequently expelled as germs, however enable usto do a scope of helpful things like generation of anti-toxins,nitrogen obsession, live in the guts of creatures (countingpeople) or somewhere else in their bodies, or on thefoundations of specific plants. Microscopic organisms are ofextraordinary significance in view of their outrageousadaptability, limit with regards to fast development andgeneration. A smaller scale life form is a living being that isminute (too little to be seen by the stripped human eye). Smallscale living beings are unimaginably various and incorporatemicrobes, parasites, archaea, and protists, and in additionsome minute plants and creatures, for example, microscopicfish, and prominently referred to creatures, for example, theplanarian and the one-celled critter.

A. Bacterial concrete and its applications :

Microbial or bacterial concrete is set up by blending a cementpaste containing microbial cells alongside a calcium-basedsupplement known as calcium lactate, and nitrogen andphosphorus are added to the elements of the concretespecifically proportion. Aside from its other awesomeproperties, because of its significant property of crackremediation or self-healing, it is otherwise called self-heaingconcrete. This innovation of utilizing microorganisms forcalcium carbonate statement or microbial concrete, called asMicrobially actuated calcium-carbonate precipitation(MICCP), can be utilized for unraveling different sturdinessissues of development materials. Because of common ability toaccelerate calcite ceaselessly bacterial concrete isadditionally called a 'SMART BIO MATERIAL'.This special kind of concrete has multiple usage. According toits different usage it can be classified as following

B. Bacterial concrete as concrete crack remediation/healing.

Bacterial concrete as an unusual surface treatment forconcrete.

Bacterial concrete as antifungal cement mortar.

Bacterial concrete as water purifier


60 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

Bacterial concrete as restoration material for stonebuilding.

C. Bacterial concrete for concrete crack remediation

Regular procedures, for example, weathering,deficiencies,land subsidence, earthquakes and humanexercises make splits and cracks in concrete structures.Weathering incites expanded porosity, auxiliary debilitating ofsurface layers, ugly appearance and eventually lessens theservice life of the structures[6]. Worry about the degradationof concrete and the monetary effect of the support and repairof concrete structures have attracted the considerationregarding procedures of concrete weakening, and to thetechniques to back off or even to take out solid debasement.Without prompt and appropriate medications, cracks inconcrete structures have a tendency to extend further and inthe long run require exorbitant repair. Despite the fact that it isconceivable to diminish the degree of splitting by accessiblepresent day innovation, remediation of crack in concrete hasbeen the subject of research for a long time.

D. Concrete Crack Remediation with Conventional Solutionsand their disadvantages:

There are such a large number of manufactured agents whichare utilized to keep away from any sort of cracks and fissuresin the concrete structures. These are additionally utilized as apart of repair applications, for example, the bonding ofconcrete, sprayed concrete or cement/sand repair mortar tosolidified concrete. bonding agents are regular, aggravated ormanufactured materials used to expand the joining ofindividual individuals from a structure without utilizingmechanical fasteners. The primary sorts of bonding agentsutilized as a part of the development business to remediatecracks and to solidified structure are: Latex emulsions Epoxy bonding agents Surface treatments with silanes.

These conventional means of protection show a number ofdisadvantageous aspects such as : weak bonding with surface different thermal expansion coefficient of treated

layers degradation over time need for constant maintenance and costly too. some solvents contributes to pollution Styrene butadiene latex coagulate if subjected to

high or freezing temperatures.Cracking in concrete structures proceeds over a drawn outstretch of time, so these sorts of treatment are required morethan once. Also, these are not the permanent solution.Consequently, in such circumstances, a route as self-heaing

materials ought to be discovered seal the crackksautomatically.

E. Possible biochemical reactions

Bio-mineralisation is characterized as a biologically inducedprecipitation in which a life form makes a nearby smaller scalecondition with conditions that permit ideal extracellularsubstance precipitation of mineral stages[7].

In regular habitats, chemical CaCO3 precipitation (Ca2++CO3

2-→ CaCO3↓) is joined by organic procedures, both ofwhich frequently happen at the same time or consecutively.This microbiologically prompted calcium carbonateprecipitation (MICCP) involves a progression of complexbiochemical responses[8] .As a feature of metabolism, B.pasteurii produces urease, which catalyzes urea to create CO2

and ammonia, bringing about an expansion of pH in thesurroundings where particles Ca2+ and CO3

2-accelerate asCaCO3. Conceivable BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS in urea-CaCl2 medium to encourage CaCO3 at the cell surface can beabridged as takes after.

Ca2+ + Cell → Cell-Ca2+ ..................................... (1)Cl- + HCO3

- + NH3 → NH4Cl + CO32- .................(2)

Cell-Ca2+ + CO32- → Cell-CaCO3↓..................... (3)

F. Chemical process to remediate cracks by bacteria :

crack infiltrating water would not just disintegrate calcite(CaCO3) particles introduce in mortar lattice, however wouldlikewise respond together with environmental carbon dioxidewith not completely hydrated lime constituents, for example,calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide as indicated by theaccompanying responses:CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2OThe newly created minerals from the above expressedresponses and from dissolved and re-crystallized calciteminerals, hastened on the surface of cracks what broughtabout crack sealing and accompanying decrease Permeabilityof the mortar. The recuperating capability of this frameworkwas specifically identified with the measure of non-respondedlime particles inside the set mortar[9].

Calcium carbonate precipitation is a straight forward chemicalprocess administered for the most part by four key elements:1) Calcium focus 2) Concentration of dissolved inorganiccarbon (DIC) 3) The pH 4) Availability of nucleation sites.The convergence of carbonate particles is identified with thegrouping of DIC and the pH of a given oceanic framework.The precipitation of Calcium Carbonate valuable stoneshappens by heterogeneous nucleation on bacterial cell dividersonce super concentration is accomplished. The way thathydrolysis of urea is a straight forward microbial process andthat a wide assortment of microorganisms deliver ureasechemical and makes it in a perfect world suited for crack


61 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

remediation for building material applications. Thisprecipitation shapes an exceedingly impermeable layer whichcan be utilized as crack remediation for concrete or some otherbuilding material. The hastened calcite has a coarse crystallinestructure that promptly holds fast to the concrete surface asscales. What's more it can consistently develop upon itself andit is very insoluble in water[10]..

IV.MECHANISM OF SELF-HEALING BACTERIA

The microbial organism utilized for manufacturing of bacterialconcrete ought to have the capacity to have long haulsuccessful concrete fixing component amid its lifetimeserviceability. The guideline behind crack healing system isthat the microorganisms ought to have the capacity to changedissolvable natural supplements into insoluble inorganiccalcite precious stones, which seals the cracks. For successfulcrack healing, the two microorganisms and supplements fusedinto cement ought not bother the respectability of bond sandnetwork pore-distance across and ought not contrarilyinfluence other essential new and hardened properties ofconcrete.In concrete cracks up to 0.2mm wide are healedautogenously. . Such miniaturized scale cracks are worthy asthese don't straightforwardly impact the safety and quality ofconcrete. The in-built microbes based self healing process wasfound to heald makes totally upto 0.5mm [11].As revealed, bacterial material is a savvy material than regularmaterials so it can be used in different development exercisesto enhance the execution including self healing of concrete.

V. CONCLUSION

Bacterial concrete innovation has turned out to be superior tonumerous ordinary advancements in view of its eco-friendlygnature, self-healing capacities and extremely helpful for use.This novel and imaginative concrete innovation will soon givethe premise to an option and astounding structures that will besavvy and environmentally safe. In any case, more work isrequired to enhance the plausibility of this innovation fromboth an efficient and commonsense perspectives.

The use of bacterial concrete to development may likewiseimprove a portion of the current development forms andevolutionize the methods for new development forms.

VI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

As the numerous researchers discovered this better andbrilliant material although due than its different restrictions,additionally contemplate is require to get a more advantagefrom this material. In this way, point by point thinks aboutneed to concentrate on various sorts of nutrients and metabolicitems utilized for developing calcifying microorganisms, asthey impact survival, development, and bio film and crystalformation.

REFERENCES

[1]. T.R. Naik. (May 2008). “Sustainability of Concrete”.Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction.(Online article). Volume 13, issue 2 May 2008.

[2]. H.S. Patil, H. Prashant, D.B. Raijiwala, B. Vijay. (2008,December). “Bacterial Concrete-- A Self Healing Concrete”.International Journal of Applied Engineering Research.(Onlinearticle).http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA216041362&v=2.1&u=upitt_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1

[3]. Jonkers, H.M. & Schlangen, E. (2007). "Crack repair byconcrete-immobilized bacteria". In: Schmets, A.J.M., van derZwaag, S. (Eds.), Proc. of First International Conference onSelf Healing Materials, Noordwijk, The Netherlands.

[4]. Sakina najmuddin saife, Divya maheshbai lad, Jayeshrameshbhai juremalani (march 2015). “Critical appraisal onbacterial concrete” , Journal of mechanical and civilengineering ,Volume 1, Issue 3, pp 10- 14 , March 2015.

[5]. Beena kumara (jan 2015) , “Microbial concrete: a amultipurpose building material”, International Journal of Advancesin Engineering and Technology, Volume 7, Issue 6, pp.1608-1619 , Jan2015.

[6]. Hewlett, P.C., (1990), "Methods of protecting concrete –coatings and linings". In: Dhir RK, Green JW, editors.Proceedings of international conference: Protection of concrete.Scotland: Dundee; p. 105–34.

[7]. Hamilton, W.A.(2003), "Microbially influenced corrosionas a model system for the study of metal microbe interactions:a unifying electron transfer hypothesis", Biofoulin, Vol.19, 65-76.

[8]. Stocks-Fischer S., Galinat JK., Bang SS., (1999),"Microbiological precipitation of CaCO3". Soil Biol Biochem1999;31(11):1563–71.

[9]. Jonkers, H. (2007). "Self healing concrete: a biologicalapproach. In: van der Zwaag, S. (Ed.), Self Healing Materials:An alternative Approach to 20 Centuries of Materials Science",Springer, Netherlands, pp. 195–204.

[10]. S.Soundhrya, Dr.K.nirmal kumar (july 2014), “Study onthe effect of calcite- precipitating bacteria on self healingmechanism of concrete”, Iternational Journal of EngineeringResearch & Management Technology, Volume 1, Issue 4, ,pp202-27, July 2014.

[11]. Seshagiri Rao.M.V, Srinivasa Reddy.V, Hafsa.M,Veena.P and Anusha.P, “Bioengineered Concrete – ASustainable Self- Healing Construction Material”, ResearchJournal of Enginering Sciences, Vol 2, No.6, Page 45-51, 2013.


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Major Challenges in Changing TheWorldByUnderground Space Planning

KasthuriRamisetty, PrakashBilleru.PG Scholar, PG Scholar,Golden Valley Integrated Campus, Golden Valley Integrated Campus,

Angallu. Angallu.__________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction

1.1 Ever changing worldThe world today is confronting real difficulties, one ofwhich is quick urbanization. The greater part of the totalpopulace is living in urban communities today, specifically3,5 billion. By 2050 the world's urban areas should suit 6billion individuals. (or, on the other hand 70% of the world'sevaluated populace around then. This reality alonerepresents a noteworthy test for urban organizers. Envisionthe world's present populace, all living in urbancommunities. This is the thing that the figure of 70% ofevery 2050 likens to (Admiral, 2012). Worldwideenvironmental change and cataclysmic events are other realdifficulties confronting our planet. The impacts ofenvironmental change, striking as progressivelyextraordinary climate designs, are a repeating worldwidewonder. This enormously affects expansive urbancombinations. Quakes, tidal waves, real tempests andflooding on a gigantic scale, are debilitating extensive urbanpopulaces and are causing enormous disturbance. Most vasturban combinations are in beach front regions and areespecially influenced. Urban communities need to figure outhow to adapt to this test and turn out to be stronger to suchoccasions.

Urban, social and monetary structures are continually andprogressively changing and affecting the way we utilize thespace in our urban areas and urbanizing locales. There is aneed to end up noticeably more adaptable in our arrangingof urban areas to adapt to the difficulties of these regularlychanging and hyper dynamic situations. Urban areas areadvancing quick, determined by social, monetary andnatural factors and difficulties. The inquiry is the manner bywhich to react to these difficulties.

1.2 How is the world meeting these challengesThe difficulties depicted above have been distinguished bythe United Nations as real issues that require arrangementsand activity at a worldwide level. UN Habitat is running theWorld Urban Campaign which has the topic 'Better City,Better Life'. The premise of this program isn't just to bringissues to light be that as it may, it is additionally a genuine

call for activity. It requires connecting with general societyeverywhere, the

common society, the business part, the examination groupand governments in a worldwide development. The crusadeincorporates a dream of what reasonable urban advancementrequires. As the Executive Director of UN-Habitat JuanClos (World Urban Campaign, 2012) puts it: "We have toshow that change is conceivable through the virtuoso,imagination and boldness of individuals and chiefs to makethe smartest decisions for our urban future. This is thesubstance of the World Urban Campaign."

Manageable urban improvement calls for strong urban areas.This is one of the program targets of UNISDR, theInternational Strategy for Disaster Reduction. It approachesurban areas to consider and get ready for catastrophic eventsand to get ready for these occasions. As urban communitiesconfront the undertaking of environmental changeadjustment, imaginative believing is required.Contemporary arrangements never again give theappropriate responses. Margareta Wahlström(UNISDR,2012), Special Representative of the UN Secretary-Generalfor Disaster Risk Reduction says: "Unless we act now, wewill see an ever increasing number of fiascos because ofimpromptu urbanization and natural corruption.Furthermore, climate related debacles are certain to ascendlater on, because of components that incorporateenvironmental change."

These calls for activity are not new and are additionallyunderlined in the result report of the Rio+20 meeting(UNCSD, 2012): "We perceive that, if very much arrangedand created including through coordinated arranging andadministration approaches, urban areas can advancemonetarily, socially and earth practical social orders." It'sthe creators' conviction that coordinated arranging andadministration endeavors must incorporate consolidatingunderground space.

2. Can underground space use contribute to thesechallenges?


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Amid the ITA Global Perspective Open Session 2011 inHelsinki, the Deputy Director of UNISDR, Helena Molin-Valdes, brought up the excellencies of the SMART (Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel) idea in KualaLumpur, Malaysia (ITACUS, 2012). This passage wasessentially intended to keep the city from flooding. Itdepletes the water the city needs to adapt to amid realprecipitation. In any case, it likewise halfway incorporates atwofold deck street movement burrow. This eight km longpassage is a prime case of how an underground arrangementcan both add to city strength and ease the impacts of quickurbanization by diverting the street movement underground.

Figure 1: SMART Tunnel showing its three possiblemodes of operation

Underground structures are way less defenseless to theimpacts of seismic tremors than surface structures. A uniquereport made amid a similar session by Professor TetsuyaHanamura on the impacts of the Japan quake and wave of2011 plainly outlined this point (ITACUS, 2012): "In spiteof the fact that a vast extent nine occasion, seismic tremorharm was little contrasted with the destruction of the tidalwave. Most death toll was because of suffocating andkeeping in mind that many surface structures were clearedaway by a surge of water, with run-up statures of 10m and15m at the most noteworthy, there was practically noauxiliary harm to underground framework." Hanamuraadditionally detailed that in spite of the fact that liquefactionhad made harm the Sendai sewage treatment plant, the harmto underground utility passages was insignificant. Watersupply and sewerage frameworks were either unaffected or

reestablished rapidly. Power and shallow gas supply lineswere harmed gravely, however the underground LNG(Liquefied Natural Gas) storerooms in the region stayed safe(ITACUS, 2012).

The report made by Hanamura clearly shows one of theadvantages of the use of underground space: shelter.Underground space can provide shelter from outsideinfluences. This not only applies to people but also for themany infrastructures our modern hyper dynamic cityenvironments depend on. Modern cities have becomevulnerable to natural disasters and effects of climate change.It is the reason cities are called on to invest in becomingmore resilient. Helena Molin-Valdes challenged thosepresent during the session to join a mission to influence thedesign and development of modern cities in such a way thatthese cities become more resilient and can withstand theconsequences of climate change and natural disasters(ITACUS, 2012).

3. Using underground space to enhance urban life

3.1 Underground space as additional spatial andservice layerlayer When taking a gander at discovering answers for thesignificant difficulties the world is confronting and howunderground space utilize can contribute, it bodes well totake a gander at underground space as an extra spatial andadministration layer for our advanced urban areas. Thislayer contains transportation and utility foundation, (forexample, metro, street and waste water burrows).

In setting this framework underground we are authorizingsurface space: the space over the ground can be utilized allthe more proficiently and viably to make more bearableurban areas. Two cases that outline this approach are givenunderneath. The first is the M30 Motorway venture inMadrid, Spain. This major internal city roadway was set intounderground passages for 56 km of its 99 km length.

As an immediate outcome it not just liberated the city of realmovement by setting it underground, decreasing commotionand fumes emanations, it additionally made 1 million m2 ofnew green space for the city upgrading the personalsatisfaction fundamentally for occupants and guests inMadrid .


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Figure 2: Surface space freed up by placing the M30motorway underground.

The second case is an underground Waste Water TreatmentPlant in the city of Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Itdemonstrates how a previous internal city dock can be re-utilized and be changed over from a previous modern site tocontain an underground waste water treatment plant. It ispresently secured by soil with a wonderful stop set on topfor nationals to appreciate the water front and openperspectives.

Figure 3(a): Waste Water Treatment Plant duringconstruction

Figure 3(b):City of Rotterdam

In this example urban development can now take placealong the river bank on a site which would never have beendeveloed if the plant had been situated on the surface.

So physically utilizing underground space as an extraadministration and spatial layer is convincing in essentiallyprohibiting commotion, contamination and visual cursesunderground, winning significant arrive at first glance forother more good uses and improving the generalbearableness of our urban communities. In any case, does itcompletely abuse the subsurface as an extra resource forhyper-dynamic urban areas which require significantly moreincorporated capacities and all encompassing ways to dealwith urban arranging and outline

3.2 Making underground space visibleUnmistakableThe most inventive, innovative, venturesomeunderground space ventures, are those tasks that considerhow to utilize underground space by truly opening up theunderground space for all to see. In doing as such theunderground spatial layer is incorporated into the over theground city texture and turns into a fundamental piece of it.

The Paris Transport Authority, RATP, sorted out anopposition named 'Osmose', to outline the metro stationwithout bounds (RATP, 2012). One of thoseOutlines was made by Foreign Office Architects. The OpenAir Metro idea is it could be said about getting rid of theground level as the hard limit layer amongst surface andunderground space.

It is tied in with making a sensational access to undergroundspace such that it ends up noticeably coordinated withsurface life. The subsequent program isn't just a metroentrance however gives space to diversion, shopping andfeasting figure 4).

Figure 4(a): foreign architect building

Envision a city with numerous notable structures that aresecured and can't be annihilated. A city with tallnessdirections, not permitting new structures over eight stories.A


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city in urgent requirement for new open transportframework, workplaces, retail and living space. It could beany city, yet for this situation it is Mexico City. Twoyouthful modelers thought of a challenging arrangement toconstruct a 65 story (or 300m) profound supposed"Earthscraper" underneath the focal city's fundamentalmemorable square.

The creative arrangement was made as a major aspect of anengineering rivalry. The building would channel in normallight and be improved with common greenery. it wouldhouse workplaces, lofts, and diversion and social spaces.The planners have thought of an absolutely new idea, in away the direct opposite to the high rise. Is it attainable? Willit ever be assembled? In the creators' conclusion thesignificance of this case lies in the calculated arrangementthat it gives. It exhibits that urban areas can utilizeunderground space in absolutely new courses bycoordinating it into the city texture. Decency should beaccomplished at first glance. That is the thing that urbanareas are for. Underground space can add to this, howeverthis idea demonstrates that making bearablenessunderground is likewise practical.

Figure 4(b): open metro project

Similarly as the earth scrubber is the direct opposite to thehigh rise, the "Low line" venture is the absolute opposite tothe very mainstream "High Line" in New York City. TheHigh Line venture is an exceptionally fruitful case of inwardcity renewal through changing a previous hoisted railroadinto a straight city stop giving truly necessary new greenspace to the city. Green and open spaces are indispensablefor urban areas: not exclusively are they the lungs of thecity, they give spaces to individuals to meet and to unwind.In the expressions of the American urban originator andorganizer, William H. Whyte, who devoted his life to theexamination and plan of focal city open spaces: "(… )inacclaim of little spaces: The multiplier impact is gigantic. Itisn't quite recently the quantity of individuals utilizing them,however the bigger number who go by and appreciate themvicariously, or even the bigger number who feel better aboutthe downtown area for information of them. For a city, such

places are extremely valuable, whatever the cost" (Projectfor Public Spaces, 2012).

Figure 5: Earth scraper

The High Line is a prime case of what Whyte infers. TheLow line, or Delancey Underground undertaking, is goingfor accomplishing a similar objective by re-utilizing aprevious underground trolley terminal in New York Citybeneath Delancey Street. The craftsman impressions of howthis underground space could be changed into anunderground parkscape again exhibit how intense theutilization of underground space can be whenopened up from the surface and making it unmistakable forall to see and appreciate (Delanceyunderground.org, 2011).

Figure 6: Transforming a former underground trolleyterminal. Courtesy: RAAD Studios.

4. Using underground space – planning challengesand opportunities

4.1 Do we need to plan?The first question that needs to be asked is: why do we needunderground space planning? The answer to this questioncan be found in many cities where metro systems havealmost organically evolved over decades. Finding space fornew alignments becomes a major problem and is oftensolved by going deeper. But also utilities below the surface,cables and pipes, are posing a formidable barrier in


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accessing the underground in the first place. Added to thiswe are now finding that energy systems are beingdeveloped. Where the former uses where all more or less inthe horizontal plane, energy applications call fordevelopment in the vertical plane. If we are to develop theuse of underground space in a sustainable way, planning andmanaging it is imperative.

Figure 7: Conceptual scheme of an urban network

Not doing so would leave the use of underground spaceopen to the ‘first come, first served’ principle. This in turnincreases the possibility of a later “underground chaos”,severely limiting the use potential for future generations. Inthe authors’ opinion this is non-sustainable. Thereforesustainable use of urban underground space calls for urbanplanning and management.

4.2 Planning challengesIn an article in the New York Times published on the adventof the Rio+20 Conference, the UN Secretary-General, BanKi Moon expresses how the world is slowly realizing that itis entering a new era. “Some even call it a new geologicalepoch, where human activity is fundamentally altering theEarth’s dynamics” (Ban, 2012). In this simple statement liesthe first challenge the planning profession faces whenconsidering the use of underground space. Can we permitourselves to intervene in the underground given that wemight be interfering with natural processes which occur atvastly different time scales than life on the surface? Thisquestion might not make sense when looking atunderground space consisting mainly of bedrock. In, forexample, more Deltaic regions consisting mainly of softsoils this does make a lot of sense. The underground spacein these regions literally supports the life on the surface.Fertile lands were the main reasons why people settled inthese regions. There could be underground water aquifersand streams. Will human activity in underground spaceinfluence these systems? Ecology and bio-diversity need tobe considered when looking at using underground space.But are we only looking at creating new spatial programsbelow the surface? Do we need to consider other activitiesas well?

Parriaux, Tacher and Joliquen (2004) first proposed aconceptual model of underground space. This model takesthe underground space to consist of four resources: space,water, energy and geo-materials. It proposes that all humanactivity in underground space will be due to exploitation ofone or more of these resources. This model illustrates thesecond challenge which planners face which is the question:how to plan the use of underground space in such a way thatthe exploitation of these resources is complimentary ratherthan being competing. This can easily be illustrated by theabove example of autonomous development of metrosystems. When now looking at exploitation of undergroundspace for energy purposes: i.e. geothermal systems orground source heating and cooling systems, this could beseverely hindered or even be impossible because of thepresence of these metro systems. Even more to the point:how can city planners choose between using undergroundspace for transport solutions or energy applications? Part ofthe answer lies in the need to understanding the importanceto plan underground space.

4.3 The need for a deeper understanding ofunderground spacePlanning on the surface has one major advantage overplanning below the surface. The area to be planned can beseen. It can be seen by literally walking around, it can beviewed from the air, and it can be analyzed by images takenby satellites that give unique insights into the topographyand settlement patterns. The ability to visualize surfaceplanning in the context of the surface is the main differencebetween planning on the surface and

planning below the surface. The challenge for planners istherefore to understand underground space in such a waythat it is possible to use it to its full extent and withoutinfluencing or intervening in the Earth’s dynamics. Using itto its full extent in this sense means, using it for a multitudeof purposes that are complementary to each other rather thancompeting or preventing future uses. Understandingunderground space from a planning perspective calls fornew approaches, methods and models to be able to do this.

To further illustrate this point consider the case of the Earthscraper described above (para 3.2). As antithesis to theskyscraper there is one major difference. Where theskyscraper concept is more or less universal in itsapplication, the earth scraper concept can be severelyrestricted due to the geophysical constraints of undergroundspace. In deltaic regions with characteristic highgroundwater tables, the depth at which physicalunderground space use can take place is often constrainedby the water pressure. In the Netherlands the deepest tunnellies at 60m below mean sea level. This means withstanding6 bar outside pressure on the construction. A 65 story deepearth scraper would be a technical challenge from thisperspective. In other areas the existence of hard bedrockprovides enormous opportunities for underground space use.


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But the actual composition, layering and presence of theunderground geology, determine where physicalunderground space use can take place. The presence ofunderground water aquifers, for instance, wouldautomatically limit the physical use of underground space.Before any planning activity can take place a deepunderstanding of the underground space is required.

4.4 The spatial dialogueGetting a deep understanding of underground space, doesnot resolve some of the issues that have been highlighted. Itis however a first step of the planning process, analyzing theunderground space to get a better understanding. A secondstep is to create a vision on how to use underground space.This vision could look at the future requirements, functionsthat can be placed underground but also on how to integratethe underground with the above ground urban context. Arewe developing a new urban tissue or are we enlargingcurrent space? The vision should also be part of a process ofa spatial dialogue with all involved stakeholders. Thisdialogue not only aims at creating the vision but also atfinding solutions for competing functions. In the earlier caseof metro systems competing with energy applications, avision on underground space use could call on future metrosystems to be designed as energy systems. In this way multi-functional use can be made of underground space across thefour resources: space, water, energy and geo-materials. Thethird step would be to combine both vision and the outcomeof the spatial dialogue into developing an UndergroundMaster plan for the city.

In addition to what has been described above the advantageof developing an underground master plan also lies in theability to plan ahead. Current use of underground space inmany cities teaches us that it only comes about when nomore surface land is available. It also teaches us that from atechnology point of view this is the most difficult way inwhich to create physical spaces below the surface. Planningahead, integrating the use of underground space into thedevelopment or redevelopment of cities has one majoradvantage: underground space use can be created beforesurface development takes place. A second advantage ofplanning the use of underground space is that dueconsideration can be given to the creation of public spaces.Where public spaces on the surface are formed by theoccupation patterns created, the same doesn’t hold true forunderground space. Often physical spaces are createdwithout any thought given to connecting these spaces. Sothe public often has to leave an underground car park andexit to the surface only to go down again in the cinema nextdoor to enjoy a movie. The logic of creating an undergroundpassage between the two objects was not seen as both wereindependently developed at different times. Planners shouldconsider this and be aware that underground public spaceswill only exist if they are planned and constructed.

5. Examples of Underground Master planning

The cities of Helsinki (Finland) and Arnhem (theNetherlands) have been master planning the underground oftheir cities. Both of these cities reserve strategicunderground areas for future uses.

Helsinki was the first city in the world to adopt anUnderground Master plan as part of its urban developmentpolicy. This is facilitated by the fact that 60% of land in thecity is owned by the local government and that the city isbuilt on solid granite which is highly favorable forexcavating cost-effective underground facilities. TheUnderground Master Plan of Helsinki reserves designatedspace for public utilities and important private utilities invarious underground areas over the long term.

The Master Plan also provides the framework for managingand controlling the city’s underground construction work,and allows suitable locations to be allocated forunderground facilities (ITACUS, 2010). Since the 1960s,the City of Helsinki has been adept at widely utilizing theopportunities for underground construction. More than 400premises and over 200 kilometers of tunnels have alreadybeen built underground. Furthermore, there are more than200 new reservations in the register for long-termunderground projects. Demand for underground facilities incentral Helsinki has grown considerably and, at the sametime, the need to control construction work has increasedsubstantially (…) As the city’s structure becomes moredense, more and more facilities suited for different purposesare being built underground.

There is likewise a developing need to interfaceunderground premises to each other to frame intelligible andinterrelated edifices. When arranging and doing newbuilding ventures, it is vital to ensure that space bookingsfor open long haul ventures, for example, passages andconduits for movement and specialized upkeep, are held forfuture development. The development in undergrounddevelopment and arranging and the need to organizedistinctive undertakings prompted the need to set up anUnderground Master Plan for Helsinki. Having legitimatestatus, the Master Plan additionally strengthens themethodical nature and nature of underground developmentand the trading of data identified with it (… ) Undergroundreservations and existing offices/burrows have been isolatedinto the accompanying classifications on the premise oftheir principle reason:

1. Community specialized frameworks;2. Traffic and stopping;3. Maintenance and capacity;4. Services and organization;5. Unnamed shake asset (does not yet have an

assigned reason)….The reservations in the Master Plan are partitioned into theaccompanying four arranging levels:

Project design; Needs determination;


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Provisional space prerequisite; Space prerequisite (… )

The Master Plan demonstrates the most imperativeunderground offices and plans with which the spacenecessities for affirmed or arranged open and privateventures can be secured over the more extended term. Sincethe Underground Master Plan has legitimate status,landowners and experts are committed to stick to it. TheUnderground Master Plan has a portion of anindistinguishable highlights from a vital land protectiondesign. It indicates arrive bookings for key activities that areviewed as vital to society on the loose. The UndergroundMaster Plan indicates both existing and future undergroundoffices and passages (Vähäaho, 2012).

Figure7:HelsinkiInner City UndergroundMaster plan map.

In the Netherlands a coordinated arranging approach and thedistinguishing proof of underground space as a critical partof arranging has supported the consideration of theunderground in city arranging? For instance, in the City ofArnhem, the utilization of underground space has beenupheld and advanced by the City Council because of thelack of general space for improvement and, in the meantime,the need to keep up and broaden the spatial characteristicsof the city. All parties involved in the process of cityplanning in Arnhem, both public and private, now need tospecifically consider underground space use in theirplanning.

The cities of Hong Kong and Singapore are also increasingtheir underground master planning activities at a strategiclevel. The main reason being that they have limited surfaceland area available and want to use their existing spacewisely and efficiently. The Singapore Government hasinitiated a study to be conducted on utilizing the islandnation’s underground space- a quality approach inoptimizing its scarce land area. The study under theMinistry of Development is looking forward to come upwith an ‘Underground Master Plan’, subterranean land rightand valuation framework. In a report from the SingaporeEconomic Strategies Committee the Senior Minister of State

for National Development, Ms. Grace Fu is quoted(ITACUS, 2010): “We would like to develop anunderground master plan to ensure that underground andabove ground spaces are synergized and optimized so thatwe have more space for Singaporeans and give the sense ofspace to Singaporeans.”

Figure 8: Extract from Arnhem Underground Masterplan map showing zoning for ground source heating and

cooling in the third water layer. Courtesy: City ofArnhem.

The City of Shanghai in China gives a case of how a citycan keep running into issues if no arranging directions exist.The utilization of underground space in Shanghai, as innumerous other Chinese urban areas, has been developingquickly over the most recent two decades yet clashes withearlier uses can cause significant challenges. For instance,city organizers have been compelled to occupy thearrangements of arranged metro lines in light of as of latebuilt building establishments, broadening further than thenormal 16 meters underneath level. In Shanghai and inBeijing, neighborhood directions have now been placed byand by to organize the utilization of underground space andto forestall spatial clashes by controlling, outstandingly withrespect to stopping and business utilizes, the measure ofunderground space property engineers can use under tallstructures. Nearly 20 cities in China now have planscompiled for the use of their underground space. The plansshow the size, layout, function, development depth andtimescale for planned projects.


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Figure 9: Underground space integrated design and use -Guogongzhuang Station of Metro Line 9, Beijing China

– comprising 200,000 m2 of underground space(Courtesy X.D. Shi)

6. Discussion

The authors have shown that the use of underground spacecan contribute and indeed already contributes to helpingcities evolve within a hyper-dynamic context. They havealso shown that it is imperative that the use of undergroundspace is planned and managed if sustainable development isto be achieved. In terms of developing Underground Masterplans, evidence shows that this is not (yet) a worldwidepractice. In this sense the authors feel that the internationalplanning professions needs to further discuss and developthis specific part of planning. Given the specifics ofunderground space planning as discussed above, they feelhowever that a larger co-operation between planners,architects, engineers and decision-makers is required tofully comprehend the potential of this societal and spatialasset. This co-operation could be similar to the spatialdialogue proposed as part of the approach to undergroundspace planning.

7. Conclusions

Urban underground space can play a vital role in creatingcities that are able to evolve within the hyper-dynamiccontext of modern times. It can contribute to making citiesmore resilient and cope with rapid urbanization. In order touse underground space in a responsible, effective andsustainable way, it is vital that underground space planningand management are seen as an integral part of planningpractice.

Planning underground space poses new challenges toplanning professionals but also provides them with newopportunities. New approaches must be explored asplanning underground space is not a simple inverse ofsurface planning methodologies.

A multi-disciplinary approach is required at all levels tofurther enhance our understanding of underground space

and to make it possible to use it in such a way that it will bepart of the future we want and the future that cominggenerations will want.

8. Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the support they receivefrom the International Tunneling and Underground SpaceAssociation (ITA-AITES). The ITA Committee onUnderground Space (ITACUS) is committed to creatingworldwide awareness on the many possibilities andadvantages of underground space use. The strategic use ofunderground space is an integral part of sustainable urbandevelopment. Building a vision on and planning how to usea city’s underground space is essential. They also wish toacknowledge ISOCARP in making it possible to write thispaper as part of the ongoing cooperation between bothorganizations.

References:

Admiraal, Han, (in press). Underground Space as InvaluableResource for Resilient Cities.Proceedings 13th WorldConference ACUUS – Singapore.(Accepted for publication,July 2012).

Ban, K., 2012. The Future We Want. The New York Times,23 May.

Delanceyunderground.org, 2011.The DelanceyUnderground Project. [online] Available at:<http://delanceyunderground.org/the-project> [Accessed 18July 2012].


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ITACUS, 2010.White Paper.Planning the Use ofUnderground Space. [online] Available at: <http://itacus.ita-aites.org>. [Accessed 18 July 2012].

ITACUS, 2012.Brochure.Urban Underground Space in aChanging World. [online] Available at: <http://itacus.ita-aites.org>. [Accessed 18 July 2012].

Parriaux, A., L. Tacher and P. Joliquen, 2004. The hiddenside of cities – towards three dimensional land planning.Energy and Buildings 36, pp. 335-341.

RATP, 2012.Osmose: building the station of the future.[online] Available at:<http://www.ratp.fr/en/ratp/c_12236/osmose-building-the-metro-stations-of-the-future>. [Accessed 18 July 2012].


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A Study and analysis on Durability and Mechanical properties of High Strength FiberReinforced Concrete

K.Ravi Theja1, M.Subramanyam2 And S.Alfiya3

1Student , SVIST(Madanapalle), JNTUA, Anantapur, India [email protected],MJR(Piler), JNTUA, Anantapur, India subramanyam. [email protected],GVIC(Angallu),JNTUA,Anantapur,India [email protected]

1.1 INTRODUCTIONThe expense of development materials is

at present so high that exclusive governments, corporateassociations and rich people can stand to do importantdevelopments. Lamentably, creation of cement includesoutflow of vast measure of carbon-dioxide gas into theclimate, a noteworthy donor for greenhouse effect and aworldwide temperature alteration, consequently it isunavoidable either to look for another material or mostlysupplant it by some other material. The browse for anysuch material that can be activated as an advantage or asan added for accurate should alert common achievableadvance and atomic believable accustomed effect.

The usage of replacing cementitious materials ormineral admixtures, for example, silica fume and fly ashin solid fits extremely well with reasonable improvement.With the progression of the demand, there was aceaseless scan in individual for the improvement of highquality and solid cement. The historical backdrop of highstrength concrete (HSC) is around 35 years of age, in late1960s the innovation of water decreasing admixturesprompt the high quality precast items and basiccomponents in pillar were thrown in situ utilizing highstrength cement (HSC). After the innovation arrived toage and concrete of the request of M60 to M120 arenormally utilized. Cement of the request of M200 or

more are a plausibility in the research center conditions.The meaning of high strength concrete (HSC) isconstantly creating. In 1950s 34 N/mm2 was viewed ashigh quality cement, and in the 1960s compressive

qualities of up to 52 N/mm2 were being utilizedfinancially. All the added so apropos late, compressivecharacteristics affective appear 138N/mm2 buck beenactivated namely a allotment over artificial commence onstructures. The aperture about pre-focused apropos closeaddition has addicted motivator for accomplish adhesiveover top quality. In India boundless multiplicationadhesive is activated namely a abundance apropos pre-focused over adamant scaffolds of superior from35N/mm2 afterwards 45N/mm2. By Concrete strength of75 N/mm2 is being utilized without precedent for aflyover at Mumbai. Likewise in development ofregulation vault at Kaiga control venture utilized HighStrength Concrete (HSC) of 60MPa with silica seethe asone of the constituent.High strength concrete (HSC) isused mostly all over the world like in the gas, oil, nuclearand control the genuine livelihoods. The utilization ofsuch cement is expanding step by step of their moreprominent auxiliary execution, ecological agreeablenessand vitality rationing suggestions. Beside the standardrisk of fire, this sort of cements is introduced to raisingtemperatures and weights for significant timeframe.Reassures for impressive timeframe.

Abstract: At exhibit a substantial scale generation of cement is valuable for development which causes anEarth-wide temperature boost on one side and exhaustion of common assets on opposite side. So uniquepozzolanic materials like silica fume, Fly ash, are utilized as a part of concrete as admixtures. The presentexamination was to assess the mechanical and durability properties of M60 review concrete by supplanting10%, 15% of silica fume and 10%, 20%, 30% of fly ash to cement. 0.5% steel snare fibers are utilized byvolume portion as admixture for all extents of HSFRC. The primary target of the present work is to createM60 review concrete and to locate the compelling measurements of silica fume and fly ash. This paperintroduces the itemized exploratory investigation on compressive strength at various ages i.e. 3 days, 7days, 28 days, 56 days, 90 days and split tensile test and flexural strength at 28 years old days. Durabilitytests like Rapid Chloride Permeability test and Water Absorption test were directed on done on castedspecimen.


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The essential distinction between high strengthcement (HSC) and typical quality solid (NSC) identifieswith the compressive quality that demonstrates the mostextreme protection from solid example to connectedweight. Disregarding the way that there is no correctmotivation behind separation between brilliant concreteand common quality cement, the American ConcreteInstitute (ACI) portrays superb concrete as concrete witha compressive quality more vital than 60MPa.High-strength cement is exact, where decreased weight is vitalor where design contemplations for little helpcomponents. Via conveying loads productively thanordinary quality solid, high-strength cement likewisedecreases the aggregate sum of material set and lower theweight of structure. The utilization of fine Pozzolanicmaterials in High Strength concrete (HSC) like silicafume and fly ash prompts diminishment in size of thecrystalline glue, especially, calcium hydroxide. Thusly,there is a decay of the thickness of the interfacial changezone in cement. Jobs of mineral admixtures, for example,silica fume (SF), fly ash remains (FA) in concrete arepersuading and simple to future growth in the quality andeffect strong for high quality to concrete. Theadvancement of admixtures to the solid mix develops thequality by pozzolanic development and filling the littlevoids and that are made between strong particles.

In the present examination, the specificadmixtures were utilized to think about their individualand joined impacts on the security of concrete in spite oftheir outcomes for workability, durability andcompressive quality by the substitution of admixtures by10%, 15% of silica fume &10%, 20% and 30% of fly ashby the expansiveness of cement with an anticipatedmeasure of 0.5% steel catch strands are consolidated byvolume of concrete, all through the examination2.0 Experimental Program2.1 Materials2.1.1 CementOPC of (Zuari cement) 53 grades was chosen for the trialexamination. The qualities of cement were tried as per IS:4031-1988 and IS: 12269-1987(9). The analyses, forexample, fineness, standard consistency, introductorysetting time, last setting time and particular gravity ofcement are

S.No Characteristic of cement Value1 Finess of cement 6%2 Normal consistency 33%3 Initial setting Time 40 Minutes4 Final Setting Time 350 Minutes5 Specific Gravity 3.14

2.1.2 fine aggregates

Sand is a naturall material from nature by weatheringand is composition of sio2, and Calcium carbonate. Thesand utilized all through the exploratory work wasacquired from the Punnetipalem near Madanapalle,Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh. This sort of sand wasutilized by a considerable lot of analysts as a fixing inconcrete. As indicated by IS 650:1966, the sand used asa part of cement concrete should affirm to theaccompanying details. The characteristics of sand wereexamined in accordance with the procedures laid downin IS 2386 (Part I and Part II): 1963 and weretabulated

S.no Properties Results

1. Specific gravity 2.5832. Bulking of sand 43. particle size variation 0.15 to 4.75

4 Water absorption forsand

15 Bulk Density of Sand 14606 Fineness modulus

osand.2.8

2.13. SILICA FUMEPresently a day, we have to take a gander at an

approach to lessen the cost of building materials,especially concrete is as of now so high that lone richindividuals and governments can bear the cost ofimportant development. Studies have been completed toexplore the likelihood of using an expansive scope ofmaterials as halfway swap materials for cement in thegeneration of concrete.

Silica fume is a misfortune consequence of themaking of silicon and ferro silicon mixes. It isaccessible in various structures, of which the mostusually utilized is in a dandified shape. Silica Fumecomprises of fine vitreous particles with a surfaceterritory in the vicinity of 13,000 and 30,000m2/kg andits particles are around 100 times littler Than theordinary concrete particles. Silica fume utilized wasfitting in with ASTM C (1240-2000) Silica fume,likewise alluded to as smaller scale silica orconsolidated silica fume, is a result material that isutilized as a pozzolanic


73 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

Property ResultsColor Dark greyPractical size <1µmSpecific surface 15,000 to 30,000 m2/kgBulk density 695 g/cm3

Specific gravity 2.2Moisture content 0.78%Sio2 92.83%Al2o3 0.69%

2.1.5 Fly AshThe Fly ash is collected from Rayalaseema thermalpower plant (RTPP), Kadapa. Fly ash meets to therequirements of IS: 3812 part-I and also ASTMC-618 type-F were used.

Table 2.5 Properties Of Fly AshSl. No. Characteristics Percentage

b Silica,SiO2 49-672 Alumina,Al2O3 16-28

3 Iron oxide,Fe2O3 4-10

4 Lime, CaO 0.7-3.6

5 Magnesia, MgO 0.3-2.6

6 Sulphur trioxide, SO3 0.1-2.1

7 Loss of ignition 0.4-0.9

8 Surface area,(m2/kg) 230-600

9 Specific Gravity 2.3

2.16. STEEL HOOKSSteel hooks impact huge changes in flexural, to impactand depletion strength of concrete. These fibers used asa piece of concrete work as split arrester and wouldfundamentally upgrade its static and dynamicproperties. Compressive strength of fiber fortifiedconcrete stretched out with increment in steel fibercontent.The augmentations of steel filaments shearstrength increments altogether. Steel hook strandsconsistence to the necessities of ASTM A 820 (type-1cold drawn wire)

Table-2.6: Properties Of Steel Hook Fibres1 Type Hooked End2 Diameter of fibres 0.60mm3 Length of fibres 30mm4 Aspect ratio(L/d) 50

As per ASTM Yield Strength of Wire : >1000MPaWire Mechanical PropertiesTensile strength of the wire : 1450 MpaStrain at failure : < 4 %ShapeThe closure states of Hooked End Steel Fiber arecritical to allow grip amongst fiber and concrete.3.0 MIX-PROPORTIONS3.1 Mix Proportions:

Water CementFine

aggregateCoarse

aggregateProportionby weight(Kg/m3)

147 420 650.916 1254.24

Proportionby ratio

0.35 1 1.55 2.985

3.2 Experimental ProcedureExploratory technique the case of standard cube of150mm x 150mm x 150mm and standard cube of 300mmx150mm and crystals of 100mm x100mm x 500mm wereused to choose the compressive strength, split Tensilestrength and flexural strength of concrete. For each extentof silica fume replacement, 10%, 20% and 30% fly ash issupplanted to cement and a steady measure of 0.5% steelhook filaments are included for all extents HSFRC. Theconstituents were weighed and the materials were mixedby hand mixing. The water cement proportion (W/B)(Binder = Cement + Partial substitution with silica fumeand fly ash) embraced was 0.35. The threw exampleswere cured in water at room temperature and after thattried for its compressive strength, split ductile andflexural strength according to IS Codes.

TABLE-3.2: MIX-PROPORTIONS FOR M60GRADE CONCRETE THAT ARE USED IN HSFRCSilicafume(%)

FlyAsh(%)

FA(Kg/m3)

CA(Kg/m3

)

W/CRatio

Waters(liters)

Steel fibers(% by Vol of

concrete)0% 0% 651 1254 0.35 147 0.5%

10%10% 651 1254 0.35 147 0.5%20% 651 1254 0.35 147 0.5%30% 651 1254 0.35 147 0.5%

15%10% 651 1254 0.35 147 0.5%20% 651 1254 0.35 147 0.5%30% 651 1254 0.35 147 0.5%

3.3. TEST METHODS3.3.1 Compressive Strength Test


74 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

Compressive strength test normally gives a general photoof the quality of concrete since strength is specificallyidentified with the structure of the hydrated cement glue.The pressure test is a vital concrete test to decide thestrength advancement of the concrete examples.Compressive strength tests were performed on the cubeexamples at the ages of 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days. Thecompressive strength test comes about are specified intable 4.1..3.3.2 Splitting Tensile StrengthThe other method of applying tension in the form ofsplitting was conducted to evaluate the effect of silicafume and fly ash on tensile properties of concrete. Thesplit tensile strength is a more reliable technique toevaluate tensile strength of concrete (lower coefficient ofvariation) compared to other methods. The split tensilestrength of 150 diameter and 300 mm high concretecylindrical specimens was determined to assess the effectof silica fume and fly ash on the tensile properties of theconcrete. The split tensile strength test results arementioned in table 4.2.3.3.3 Flexural StrengthThe ultimate flexural strength analysis presented in thispaper is based on the conventional compatibility andequilibrium conditions used for normal reinforcedconcrete except that the contribution of the fibers in thetension is recognized. . The Flexural strength test resultsare mentioned in table 4.2.

3.4.0 DURABILITY TESTS3.4.1 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test

The rapid chloride penetration test is carried out asper AASHTO T277, (ASTM C1202) test. In this awater-soaked, 50-mm thick, 100-mm measurementconcrete example is subjected to a 60 V connected DCvoltage for 6 hours utilizing the mechanical assembly. Inone store is a 3.0 % NaCl arrangement and in the othersupply is a 0.3 M NaOH arrangement. The aggregatecharge passed is resolved and this is utilized to rate theconcrete.

The strategy of this test technique for measuring theprotection of concrete to chloride particle infiltration hasno predisposition in light of the fact that the estimation ofthis protection can be characterized just as far as a teststrategy. The technique depends on the outcomes from atest in which electrical current goes through a concreteexample amid a six-hour introduction period. Theunderstanding is that the bigger the Coulomb number orthe charge exchanged amid the test, the more noteworthythe penetrability of the specimen. The more penetrable

the concrete, the higher the coulombs the less porous theconcrete, the lower the coulombs. The method has showngood correlation with chloride tests [10]. The following

formula, based on the trapezoidal rule can be used tocalculate the average current flowing through one cell.

3. =900(I0+2I30+2I60+2I90+2I120+…+2I300+2I330+I360)Where,Q = current flowing through one cell (coulombs)I0 = Current reading in amperes immediately aftervoltage is applied, andIt = Current reading in amperes at t minutes aftervoltage is appliedThe table 3-2 shows the rating of chloridepermeability according to ASTM C 1202-97[10].

Charge Passed(Coulombs)

Chloride Ion Penetrability

> 4000 High2000 – 4000 Moderate1000 – 2000 Low100 – 1000 Very Low

< 100 NegligibleThe main objective of this test was to evaluate

the performance of mixes and compared with eachother. Chloride ion penetrability test were conductedon 100mm diameter and 50mm thick cylinder

S.NO SAMPLEAVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH3

days7 days

28days

56days

90 days

І Controlled mix 27.62

44.2368.0

775.1

878.74

2 10%SF+10%FA+0.5%SHF

36.96

49.4075.3

379.7

781.11

3 10%SF+20%FA+0.5%SHF

40.18

50.0781.9

282.6

783.40

4 10%SF+30%FA+0.5%SHF

39.33

49.6376.6

081.0

682.00

5 15%SF+10%FA+0.5%SHF

39.18

49.4874.8

880.5

181.55

6 15%SF+20%FA+0.5%SHF

36.96

48.6774.6

779.1

180.66

7 15%SF+30%FA+0.5%SHF

36.41

47.3371.5

573.5

578.00


75 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

specimens for each concrete mixture 28 days for M60grade of concrete. The results of chloride permeabilityin coulombs for different proportions of concrete aregiven in Table 4.3.3.4.2 Water Absorption TestOne of the most important properties of a good qualityconcrete is low-permeability, especially one resistantto freezing and thawing. The water absorption test iscarried out at the age of 28 day according to standardprocedure ASTM C 642-11. For the water absorptiontest, 100 x 200mm size of cylinder is cut into threeparts (top, middle, bottom) of 50mm thickness and100mm diameter, thenspecimens are dried in an oven at 100o to 110o C fornot less than 24 hours. After removing each specimenfrom the oven, allow it to cool in dry air to atemperature of20o to 25o C and determine the mass. . The percentagewater absorption test results are mentioned in table 4.4.4.0 Results and DiscussionResults of hardened concrete with partialreplacement of silica fume and fly ash with 0.5%steel hook fibers are discussed in Comparison withnormal concrete.4.1 Compression TestTable-4.1: compressive strength of high strengthFRC with 0.5% steel hook fibres as admixture:

4.2. Split Tensile testTable – 4.2 : Split test results

Days Cases Average split tensilestrength (N/mm2)

28days

Controlled mix 3.2710% SF+10% FA+0.5% steel fibers

4.5

10% SF+20% FA+0.5% steel fibers

5.2


4.8


4.2


4.4


3.8


76 ISBN 978-93-86770-41-7

4.4.Durability Tests

WATER ABSORPTON TEST FOR DIFFERENTPROPRTIONS OF CONCRETE:

S.no SampleWet

weight(kgs)

Dryweight(kgs)

Waterabsorption

in %

1 CC 9.56 9.40 1.702 S10F10 9.52 9.42 1.063 S10F20 9.53 9.45 0.844 S10F30 9.44 9.39 0.535 S15F10 9.44 9.35 0.966 S15F20 9.46 9.40 0.637 S15F30 9.49 9.44 0.53

ConclusionsIn view of the outcomes acquired from the presentexamination the accompanying conclusions weremade;1. By the expansion of steel hook filaments inconcrete prompts increment in compressive strengthand makes concrete into malleable.2. In split ductile and flexural tests, we seesthat break width diminished because of the nearnessof steel filaments when contrasted and customaryexample.3. When the cement is supplanted with 10%silica fume and 20% fly ash gives the idealcompressive strength, split elasticity and flexuralstrength.4. At 10% silica fume and 20% fly ashreplacement to cement, compressive strength wereexpanded up to 20.34% when contrasted and regularconcrete for 28 days.5. At 10% silica fume and 20% fly ashreplacement to cement, split rigidity were expandedup to 60.85% when contrasted and traditionalconcrete for 28 days.6. At 10% silica fume and 20% fly ashreplacement to cement, flexural strength wereexpanded up to 38.74% when contrasted and regularconcrete for 28 days7. The expansion of silica fume and fly ash asreplacement to cement, its typical consistency andbeginning setting time increments with increment inrate and last setting time diminishes with incrementin rate.8. The utilization of mineral admixtures inconcrete causes extensive decrease in the volume ofhuge pores at all ages and in this way lessens the

penetrability of concrete mixes in light of its highfineness and development of C-S-H gel

References

1) Gambhir M.L., Concrete Technology, McGrawHill Education (India) Private Limited, NewDelhi, 2013.

2) Indian Standard methods of tests for strengthof concrete are: 516-1959, Bureau of IndianStandards, New Delhi.

3) Santhakumar, A.R., Concrete Technology,Oxford press, New Delhi, 2005

4) Mehta P. and Aitcin (1995), “Development inthe application of high performance oncrete”,Chapter17 University of Memphis

5) Indian standard code of practice forspecification for coarse and fine aggregatefrom natural sources of concrete IS: 383-1970,Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.

6) Indian standard code of practice forrecommended guidelines for concrete mixdesign IS: 10262-2009, Bureau of Indianstandards, New Delhi.

7) Indian standard code of practice for plain andreinforced concrete IS: 456-2000, Bureau ofIndian Standard, New Delhi.

8) P.K. Mehata: (Concrete International 17/97),“Durability – Critical issues for the future”.

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