Absolutism and
Constitutionalism in Europe
Main Ideas
• 16th-18th centuries (1550-1715)
- Protestants and Catholics fight for religious and
political control
- European rulers attempt to extend their power both at
home and overseas (colonization)
- Ideas about Constitutionalism and Democracy are
developing in an era of absolute monarchs
Spanish Empire
• At this point, Spain is the most powerful country in the
world
• Why? Land, wealth (339000 pounds of gold by 1600,
1600 tons of silver between1550 and 1650), and military
power
• They are also ultra-Catholic: Ex: Inquisition,
Reconquista, Lepanto
Spanish Wars of Religion
• Greatest supporter of militant Catholicism is King Philip
II, son of Charles V
• He saw himself and Spain as chosen by God to save
Catholic Christianity from Protestant heretics
• Philip tried to crush Calvinism in the Spanish
Netherlands. But nobles, led by William the Silent,
resisted and gained a truce, thus becoming the United
Provinces of the Netherlands- core of the modern Dutch
state.
• By the end of Philip’s reign in 1598, Spain is the world’s
most populous empire & appears to be a superpower.
BUT……. $ spent on wars and expansion is bankrupting
the empire.
Philip II of Spain
Decline of Spain
• Factors in Spanish decline:
inflation
lack of middle class
expulsion of Jews and Muslims- what does this
cause?
Dutch revolt
defeat of Spanish Armada- symptom more than
cause?
ELIZABETH I
• daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn
• Elizabeth’s half sister Mary rules from 1553-1558. She
is not popular. Why?
• Elizabeth inherits the throne in 1558
• She restores Protestantism in the form of the Church of
England
• Elizabeth faced many threats Ex: Mary Queen of Scots
• Perhaps the greatest threat was the Spanish Armada
Elizabeth I
Of
England
My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that we are careful of our
safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes for fear of
treachery; but, I do assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and
loving people. Let tyrants fear, I have always so behaved myself, that under God I
have placed my chiefs' strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of
my subjects; and, therefore, I am come amongst you as you see at this time, not
for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of battle,
to live or die amongst you all – to lay down for my God, and for my kingdoms, and
for my people, my honour and my blood even in the dust. I know I have the body
of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king – and of
a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of
Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which, rather than any
dishonour should grow by me, I myself will take up arms – I myself will be your
general, judge, and rewarded of every one of your virtues in the field. I know
already, for your forwardness, you have deserved rewards and crowns, and, we
do assure you, on the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. For the
meantime, my Lieutenant-General Leicester shall be in my stead, than whom
never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject; not doubting but by
your obedience to my General, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in
the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over these enemies of my God, of
my kingdom and of my people.
Tilbury Speech
Spanish Armada
Spanish Armada
• 130 Ships, 8000 sailors, 19,000 infantrymen
• Fire-ships broke up the Spanish formation
• English ships were smaller but better armed and more
maneuverable.
• Storms and navigational errors plagued the Spanish
after the battle
• Barely half of the original Armada returned to port
• Result: England begins its rise to power, Spanish navy
never recovers
Absolutism
• A ruler holds ultimate power
• Seventeenth century crises cause citizens to seek
stability= increased power for monarchs
• people appeared to be willing to give up natural rights
for stability
• “Divine Right” theory and Thomas Hobbes are
intellectual foundation
Thomas Hobbes
• author of Leviathan (1651)
• Man is by nature selfish, sinful, and evil
• Life is “nasty, brutish, and short” and a war
of “all against all”
• To keep from destroying itself, man must
submit to social order in a social contract; i.e.
man must agree to be governed by an
absolute ruler with complete power
• Only the state can preserve order
French Wars of religion
• 1562-1598
• Calvinism vs Catholicism
- both become militant
- Huguenots= French Protestants (7% of population
but 40% of the nobility)
• Henry of Navarre (Henry IV), a Huguenot, attains throne
in 1589
•Henry converts to Catholicism and issues “Edict of
Nantes”, which establishes Catholicism as France’s official
religion. BUT Huguenots have the right to worship freely
LOUIS XIII AND RICHELIEU
• Henry is stabbed to death
• his son Louis XIII is not a very good ruler, and the govt.
is controlled by Cardinal Richelieu
• Richelieu involves France in the 30 Years War and took
steps to weaken the Huguenots
Cardinal
Richelieu
France Under Louis XIV
• Best example of 17th century absolutism
• Came to throne at age 4, so Cardinal Mazarin ran the
government. Louis becomes King at age 23 in 1661.
• Louis controlled every facet of government. He wanted
to be seen as the “Sun King”- a source of light for all his
people
• Established his royal court at Versailles
• Expanded French culture and influence throughout
Europe and gained land through 4 wars
• Died in 1715, leaving France in debt and surrounded by
enemies
Louis XIV
WARS OF LOUIS XIV
• Louis’ foreign policy was always aggressive
• 1667- Louis invades Netherlands but is stopped
because they literally open the floodgates and flood the
countryside
• other European nations form alliances to stop Louis
• War of the Spanish Succession- Louis’ grandson is
about to become king of Spain, so England, Austria, the
Dutch, and several German and Italian states declared
war. What was the result?
Economic and Social Crisis
• Inflation-rising prices-due to influx of gold from Americas
& demand for land
• Population actually declined. Reasons= war, famine,
disease
• Paranoia concerning witchcraft led to inquisitions that
led to thousands of trials and sometimes executions
Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
• Peace of Augsburg did not recognize Calvinism
• War began in Holy Roman Empire (1618) as a fight
between Hapsburg emperors and Protestant nobles in
Bohemia
• Germany was ravaged. 15 to 20% of the civilian
population dies
• Richelieu and Mazarin fear the Hapsburgs so France
(which was Catholic) joins the Protestant side!
• War ended in 1648 with Peace of Westphalia- as a
result, German states could choose their own religion.
The Holy Roman Empire disbanded & Germany would not
reunite for 200 years.
Gustavus
Adolphus
English Civil War
• Puritans want Church of England to be more Protestant
• Charles I believes in the divine right of kings.
Parliament does not. Also, Charles tries to add more ritual
to the Church. Puritans consider this a return to
Catholicism.
• 1628- Petition of Rights- King can not pass taxes
without consent of Parliament. Charles accepts and then
changes his mind.
• 1642- Civil war breaks out. King’s supporters=
Cavaliers; Parliament’s supporters= Roundheads
• Oliver Cromwell and his “new model army” lead
Parliament to victory
Oliver
Cromwell
English Civil War contd’
• Cromwell, purges Parliament of anyone who does not
support him and has Charles I executed. This is a BIG
deal. Why?
• Cromwell abolished the monarchy and House of Lords
and declares England a republic or commonwealth.
However, he rules as a military dictator and dissolves
Parliament.
• Monarchy is restored. Charles II becomes king
• Charles has no children. His brother James becomes
King and he’s Catholic.
Glorious Revolution
• William and Mary are invited to invade England
• 1689- William and Mary accept throne, but Parliament
is given the right to make laws and levy taxes via the
English Bill of Rights
• English Bill of Rights
- King cannot raise an army without Parliament’s
consent
- Right of citizens to bear arms
- Trial by jury if accused of a crime
• The EBoR laid the foundation for a limited or
constitutional monarchy
JAMES II WILLIAM OF ORANGE
Central and Eastern European Absolutism
• Prussia and Austria emerge as powers
• Frederick William laid basis for the Prussian state
• Hapsburgs create Austrian empire
Frederick William
Central and Eastern European Absolutism
• What was the problem the Hapsburgs faced?
• Maria Theresa becomes Empress and has to face years of
war beginning with the War of the Austrian Succession
• Seven Years War= the real 1st World War?; territory doesn’t
change
MARIA THERESA
Central and Eastern European Absolutism
• Hohenzollern family build up the German state of Prussia
• Prussia was a rigidly controlled military society; standing army
that was the best in Europe
• Frederick the Great made reforms but was extremely
aggressive in foreign affairs
Frederick the Great
Peter the Great and Russia
• Ivan the Terrible expands Russian power but his son
was too weak to rule. Romanov family takes over.
• Peter the Great “Westernized” Russia (made it more like
Europe w/ Western culture and etiquette)
• Created Navy and drafted peasants for 25 year stints in
the army
• Needed a sea port so he fought with Sweden and
gained land where he built St. Petersburg.
Peter the Great
Golden Age of Literature
• Writing reaches new heights between 1580 -1640
• William Shakespeare- genius who combined
extraordinary language skills with deep insight into human
psychology. Often considered the greatest writer in the
English language.
• Miguel de Cervantes- wrote Don Quixote, which is
viewed by many as the first true novel
Shakespeare
Cervantes
Scientific Revolution and
Enlightenment
Main Ideas
• 1550-1800
- Ideas laid the foundation for a modern worldview
based on rationalism and secularism
- Enlightenment intellectuals advocate individual rights,
paving the way for the rise of democracy
- Man’s concept of his place in the universe changes
- New philosophies bring about social change
Background
• “Natural Philosophers” did not make observations but
relied on ancient authorities (especially Aristotle). This
slowly began to change as
• Technical problems stimulated scientific activity
• Printing Press spread new ideas
What’s Changing?
• Systematic doubt
• Sensory Verification/Empiricism
• Separation of Sciences/specialization
• view of the “clockwork” universe
3
Universes (Two of
which could get you
burned at the stake)
Ptolemaic Universe
• geocentric- Earth centered
• universe is a series of concentric spheres
• the spheres move around the Earth
Copernican Universe
• Heliocentric- sun centered
• believed the sun contained God
• Humans are no longer the “center” of the universe
Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer,
physician, classical scholar, translator, Catholic
cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, and
economist. Astronomy was just a hobby for
him…….and he changed the world through it!
Keplerian Universe
• Heliocentric- sun centered
• paths of orbit are elliptical instead of circular
• perfectly predicted planetary motions
Galileo Galilei
• Provided the Empirical discoveries
that clinched the Copernican-Keplerian
view of the universe
• used the telescope to systematically
study the heavens, realizing the moon
was not gaseous (saw mountains), and
discovering planets (moons) orbiting
Jupiter
• was charged with heresy by the
Catholic church
Number Systems
Calculate this:
MDMCXLVII x CCCLXXIII
Exactly.
- Roman numerals were difficult to deal with
- The adoption of Arabic numerals (which were actually
Hindu) in the Middle Ages enabled the calculations which
led to Ptolemy’s model being overthrown
Rene Descartes
Philosopher,
Mathematician,
Tutor,
Mercenary,
And……….
Inventor of the Matrix!
Descartes’ Ideas
• Descartes’ “demon”- How do you know a demon is not
tricking you into believing this is all real?
• Cogito Ergo Sum- “I think therefore I am”
- the only thing man can really be sure of is his
existence
• Dualism- mind vs. matter
• Reason=chief form of knowledge= Rationalism
Sir Isaac Newton
Newton
• Published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
(Principia Mathematica)
• Defined three laws of motion that governed the universe
• Universal law of gravitation= every object in the universe is
attracted to another object by gravity (this explains the
elliptical orbits of the planets)
• Invented calculus (along with Leibniz)
***BY THE WAY, IS MATH INVENTED OR DISCOVERED?***
Francis Bacon
• Philosopher Francis Bacon most responsible for Scientific
Method
• He emphasized inductive reasoning – making
generalizations about nature from observation &
experiments organized to test a hypotheses (educated
guess)
The Enlightenment
• 18th century philosophical movement built on Scientific
revolution
• Philosophical Characteristics:
- The universe is fundamentally rational, that is, it can
be understood through the use of reason alone
- Truth can be arrived at through empirical observation,
the use of reason, and systematic doubt
- Human society is governed by natural laws just like
the Newtonian physical universe
- Human beings can be improved through education
and the development of their rational facilities
- Religious doctrines have no place in the
understanding of the physical and human worlds
Philosophes
• Means= “Philosopher”
• Not all were French and few were actually philosophers
• Central ideas:
- Progress- human history is a history of progress
- Deism- God created the world, but is not involved in
its everyday affairs (Watchmaker)
- Tolerance- religious tolerance does not just include
tolerance among Christian religious sects/denominations
but other religions as well
French Philosophers
• Denis Diderot
– Edited a 28-volume
collection of knowledge
(Encyclopedia) published
in 1751
– Instrumental in spreading
ideas of the Enlightenment
French Philosophers
• Baron de Montesquieu
– Studied governments, identified
3 types (republics, despotism, &
monarchies)
– Argued government works best
through separation of powers
controlled by checks and
balances
French Philosophers
• Voltaire
– Best known for criticism of
Christianity & what he saw as its
lack of “religious toleration”
– He championed deism – believed
the world is like a clock that God
created and set according to natural
laws, and then let to run without
God’s intervention (free will)
John Locke
• Author of Two Treatises of Government
(1690)
• Said man is born with natural rights of life,
liberty, and property
• To establish these rights, man and
government must establish a “social contract”
where man respects govt. and govt. protects
rights
• If contract broken= man can overthrow
govt.
• Ideas were key to American Revolution
John Locke
• Greatly influenced
Enlightenment with his “theory
of knowledge.”
– Argued man is born with a mind
that is tabula rasa (blank slate)
– Knowledge comes to mind via 5
senses (sight, touch, smell,
taste, sound)
Adam Smith
• Founder of modern economics
• Authored Wealth of Nations(1776)
• Smith, along with French Physiocrats, argued for “laissez-faire” (let it be) economic policy –government should not interfere with free market
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Wrote The Social Contract
(1762)
– Members of a society agree
to be governed by general
will of the people or society
as whole
• Wrote novel Emile (1761)
– Education should nurture, not
restrict children’s natural
instincts
Mary Wollstonecraft
• Considered founder of European and American movement for women’s rights
• Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women(1792)– Argued women were as
rational as men & criticized those who believed women ought to be ruled by men, equal rights
Social World of Enlightenment
• Largely reserved for urban upper class & literate
elite
• Printed works (books, magazines, daily papers)
spread ideas and serve as topics of discussion,
especially in salons of wealthy homeowners
Religion in the Enlightenment
• Most philosophes attacked Christian
churches, however, most were
believers
• One new religious movement was
Methodism
– John Wesley – stressed importance of
God’s grace in attaining salvation,
stressed importance of hard work
• Methodists played important role in
abolishing slave trade in early
1800’s
Enlightenment
Impact on Culture
• Architecture:
– European monarchs
created new kind of
architecture by early 18th
Century – rococo
– Previous style of baroque
emphasized grandeur
and power but rococo
emphasized grace,
charm, and gentleness
Baroque
Rococo
Enlightenment
Impact on Culture
• Music:
– Johann Sebastian Bach
• Mass in B Minor
– George Frederick Handel
• Messiah
– Franz Joseph Haydn
• The Creation
– Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
• Symphonies, operas
Enlightened Absolutism
• Philosophers believed in natural rights
for all people, therefore, they tried to
influence & encourage monarchs to
rule in an Enlightened manner
(enlightened despots)
– Enlightened Absolutism = refers to rulers
who supposedly made reforms based on
the Enlightenment – (debated among
historians)
• Examples: Prussia, Austria, and
Russia
Voltaire meeting with Frederick the Great
Prussia
• Frederick William I
– Made Prussia an 18th Century power
– Maintained efficient bureaucracy that
honored obedience to the king
• Frederick II “The Great”
– One of Europe’s most cultured kings
– Abolished torture, except for treason &
murder
– Granted limited free speech, free press,
religious toleration
“The Soldier King”
Austria
• Maria Theresa
– Centralized the Austrian Empire
• Joseph II
– Abolished serfdom & death penalty
– Recognized equality before the law
– Religious toleration
– Not all reforms well received – why?