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hereunto 8ubscribed, on behalf of them-selves, and the other apothecaries, sur-

geon-apothecaries, and practitioners in

midwifery of England and Wales,. Showeth, That your petitioners form thegreat majority of the medical practitionersof England and Wales, and are, therefore,necessarily intrusted with the medicaland surgical care of the great mass of thepopulation of the kingdom.That neither of the above branches

of the profession can be practised withsafety, much less with benefit to the

i

community, nnless the practitioners ac-quire competent knowledge by some re-gular medical education.That there is no existing law to

prevent persons practising in either orboth the above branches without anyproper medical education ; and greatnumbers of persons, therefore, in everypart of the kingdom assume the characterand exercise the functions of the apothe-cary,surgeon-apothecary, and practitionerin midwifery, who are wholly ignorant,and utterly incompetent to the exerciseof the duties of the profession; the safetyand the health of the community are

thereby greatly endangered ; the generalcharacter of the profession disgraced andbrought into disrepute, and the interestsof your petitioners greatly injured.that in consequence of this degra-

dation of the character, and serious in-jury to the interest of the professions ofapothecary, surgeon apothecary, and

practitioner in midwifery, few appren-tices are now obtained, and the generalstate of the profession is progressivelybecoming worse.That the medical departments attached

to His Majesty’s army and navy, whichhave been principally supplied with

practitioners brought tip under thosemembers of the profession, have al-

ready suffered, and are likely still moreto suffer.That it is essential to the preservation

of the character of the profession, andto the interest of the community at large,that provision should be made for reme-dying the above evils.That your petitioners could not appJy

to this Honourable House upon a snb-

ject of such extensive tnflttence upon theinterests of the profession and public,without communicating with every partof the kingdom, and also particularlywith the College of Physicians, and thepublic bodies in any manner connectedwith the superintendance of the educa-tion of persons intended for the medi-cal profession, and have, from the na-ture, and extent, and unforeseen delaysof such intercourse) been unable to apply

to this Honourable House within th.period prescribed for presenting pe-titions.

Your petitioners, therefore, mosthumbly pray that leave may be givento present a petition for leave to bringin a Bill for the regulation of thepractice of apothecaries and surgeon-apothecaries, and practitioners in inid-wifery, under such regulations and

restrictions, and in such manner, as tothis Honourable House may seem

meet."

ABSTRACT

OF

BICHATS THEORY OF LIFE.

EVERY thing around living beings, ac-

cording to M. Bichat, tends constantlyto their destruction, and to this influencethey would necesi-ary yield, were theynot gifted with some permanent principleof reaction. This principle is their life,and a living system is necessarily alwaysengaged in the performance of functions,whose object it is to resist death. Life,according to Bichat, is the state of beingproduced by the possession and exerciseof what he calls the vital properties ; yethe does not always adhere with logicalstrictness to this definition, but ratheruses the term sometimes to designate thevital properties collectively, and this isperhaps the best and mot convenientsense. His essential doctrine however is,that there is no one single individual pre-siding principle of vitality, that animatesthe body, but that it is a collection ofmatter gifted for a time, with certaiapowers of action, combined into organs,which are thus enabled to act, and theresult is a series of functions, the con-nected performance of which constitutea living being. _

This is his view of life, considered. inthe most simple and general way. Butin carrying the examination farther, hepoints out two remarkable modification:of life, as viewed in different relations,one, common both to animals and vege.tables, the other peculiar to animals.

The vegetable exists entirely withinitself, and for itself, depending uponother substances only for the materials ofnutrition; the animal, on the contrary,in addition to this internal life, has ano-ther, by which he connects himself with

the objects about him, and maintains re-

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lations with them by the ties of mutualdependence. This affords a principleupon which to found a distinct classifica-tion of our functions. Those which wehave in common with the vegetable, whichare necessary only to onr individual bodilyexistence, are called the functions of orga-nic life, because they are common to allorganized matter; those, on the other hand,which are peculiar to animals, which inthem are superadded to the organic func-tions, are called the functions of animallife.

Physiologically speaking then, we have-two lives, the concurrence of whichenables us to live and move, and haveour being; both equally necessary tothe relations we maintain as human

beings; but not both equally necessaryto the existence of a living thing. By ourorganic life, food proper for our nutri-tion is first submitted to the operation ofdigestion, is then thrown into the circula-tion, undergoes in the lungs the changeswhich respiration is intended to effect, isthen distributed to the organs to be appliedtotheir nutrition ; from thence, after a cer-tain period, it is taken away by absorption,thrown again into the circulation, anddischarged at length from the system bymeans of the several exhalations andsecretions. This is the life by which all theparts of the body are kept in repair, it isthe life of waste and supply, necessarilysubservient to the performance of thosefunctions, which are the distinguishingcharacteristics of our nature, but not atall engaged in their performance itself. Byour animal life, on the contrary, we be-come related to the world about us ; thesenses convey to us a knowledge of theexistence of other things, besides our-aelves ; a knowledge of their capacitiesand quantities for producing pleasure or

pain ; we feel, we reflect, we judge, wewill, and react upon external things bymeans of the organs of loco-motion andvoice ; according to the result of thesemental operations, we become capable ofcommunicating and receiving pleasureand paiu, happiness and misery. In fact,by organic life we merely exist negatively ;and by animal life, that existence be-comes a blessing or a curse, a source ofenjoyment or of suffering. It is not atall pretended that this idea was originalwith Bichat. Most physiologists have hadsome faint glimmer of it, and others havemore distinctly recognized it under diffe-rent medications, and with a differenttitle. But he has made it peculiarly hisown, by the ingenious and novel man-ner in which he has stated, explained,and ittustrttted it, the detailed applicationhe has made of it to the various pheno-

mena of the living system, and the bean-tiful and almost poetical air which he has,by means of it, thrown around many ofthese phenomena.

In the first place, as he teaches us, thetwo lives differ, in some important re-spects, as to the organs by which theirfunctions are performed. Those of theanimal life present a symmetry of exter-nal form, strongly contrasted with theirregularity, which is a striking charac-teristic of those of organic life. In theanimal life every function is either per-formed by a pair of organs perfectly simi-lar in size and structure, situated oneupon each side of the median line of the

body, or else by a single organ dividedinto two perfectly symmetrical and simi.lar halves by that line. Thus the organsof sight and hearing, and of locomotion,are double and similar; the nerves of thebrain go off in corresponding pairs; theorgans of smell and taste, and the hair,are situated with a perfect regard to thislaw. The organs of the organic life, onthe contrary, present a picture perfectlvdifferent, they are irregularly formed andirregularly arranged ; the stomach isplaced without any regard to the medianline, and one half of it bears no resem-blance to the other ; the same is true ofthe liver, the spleen, and all the or-

ganic viscera. The heart, though a dou-ble organ, has its parts of irregular sizeand strength, the rest of the circulatingsystem presents a thousand irregularities,and the lungs a dissimilarity in the twosides of the thorax, in the division of theirlobes, and the quantity they contain. Thissymmetry of form is accompanied by acorresponding harmony in the functions ofthe organs of the animal life. The exact.ness and perfection of vision depend uponthe similarity of the impression transmittedby the two eyes to the brain ; if these im-pressions are dissimilar, vision will beimperfect in proportion ; hence we shutone eye when the power of the other isincreased by the interposition of a ten:!,and hence we squint when one eye isweaker than the other. The same is trueof all the senses, of the muscles of loco-motion, of the voice, and of the brainitself, if there is between the correspond-ing organs of the two sides, or the cor-responding halves of the organ any in.equality or dissimilarity, that is, if therebe any defect of symmetry, the conse-quence is an imperfection in the function.Upon this principle Bichat explains thedifference between different individualsin their capacities for distinguishing ac-curatJy the harmony of sounds. A goodear for music, as we express ourselves incommon language, is only the result of

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the possession of two perfectly symmetri-cal organs of hearing, which transmit tothe brain similar impi essions ; a had ear,on the contrary, is produced by any in-equality in the organs which transmit dis-similar and uneqnal impressions. Thus,when one, either of our eyes or ears, isdeprived of its usual degree of sensibility,we can hear or see mneh better by mak-ing use of that alone which is uninjured,than by making use of both. The sameremark is extended to the organs of smell-ing, tasting, and touching, and to thefunctions of the brain and muscles. Butnothing like this is true of the organiclife, to the regularity of whose operations,harmony and regularity of action is not anecessary condition.The functions of organic life are con-

stantly going on ; they admit of no inter-ruption, no repose ; whatever cause sus-pends the circulation or the respiration,destroys life. They form a necessaryand connected series which must be al-ways moving on in continued progression,from the beginning to the end of existence.But in those of the animal life the case iswidely different. They have intervals ofentire repose. The organs of this life areincapable of constant activity ; they be-come fatigued by exercise and require rest.This rest, with regard to any particularorgan, is the sleep of that organ ; and inproportion to the extent of the previousexercise and number of the organsfatigued, the state of repose will be par-tial or general. Upon this principleBichat founds his theory of sleep. Gene-ral sleep is the combination of the sleepof the particular organs. Sleep then isnot any definite state, but is a more or

less complete rest of the whole system,in proportion to the number of organswhich require repose. The most perfectsleep is that where all the functions ofanimal life,-the sensations, the percep-tions, the imagination, the memory, thejudgment, locomotion, and voice are sus-pended ; and the various forms of im-perfect sleep, exhibited in dreaming,somnambulism, &c., are all produced bythe wakefulnes of some particular organ.The two lives differ also in regard to

habit, the animal being much under itscontrol, the organic but slightly. In theanimal life, habit renders our feelings andsensations less intense, whilst it elevatesand perfects the power of judging. Theeye is no longer sensible of the presenceof objects to which it has become fami-liarized ; the ear takes no notice ofsotinds which are constantly repeated ;the other senses become hardened againstthe operation of agents which have oftenexcited them, but at the same time a ca-

pacity for forming an accurate judgmentwith regard to their qualities, has beengrowing more perfect. Thus a piece ofmusic gives us at first a feeling, a plea-sure, and nothing more; and if it be oftenrepeated, this feeling vanishes, but webecome capable of estimating the meritsof its arrangement and harmony. In the

organic life it is not so, respiration, cir-

culation, secretion, &c. are totally with-out the influence of habit, and thoughsome of the functions of this life mostintimately connected with those of theanimal, are in some measure under itsinfluence, yet, in a general way, a free.dom from this influence is a distinguishingcharacteristic of organic life.Every thing relating to the understand-

ing is the attribute of animal life, whilstthe passions, on the contrary, belong toorganic life, have their seat in its organs,influence them when excited, and are in-fluenced by the state of the organs. Therelation which the passions have so re-markable with the animal life, is inter-mediate, and not direct ; all the primaryphenomena produced by their excitement,are exhibited in the internal organs. Theheart is violently excited in anger, moremoderately in joy ; fear, sadness, grief,&c. produce an opposite effect. The lungsare equally affected, the respiration is

quickened or impeded, a sense of oppres-sion or suffocation is brought on accord-ing to the nature and degree of the pas-sion excited. In various emotions weexperience peculiar sensations in the

epigastrium ; a sharp pain, a sense offnlness, or sinking; in other cases moredecided effects are produced, a spasmo-dic vomiting, a copious secretion fromthe liver, or mucous membrane of the in-testines, or from the kidneys. All the dif-ferent gestures by which we attempt toexpress the intellectual and moral affec-tions, are so many proofs of the correct-ness of these views. If y ou wish to indi-cate any of the phenomena of the intel-lect, relating, for instance, to memory,perception, or judgment, we carry thehand spontaneously to thehead ; but if wewould express love, joy, sadness, hatred,&c., we involuntarily place it on the heartor stomach. We say a strong head, awell-organized head, to express the per-fection of the understanding; a goodheart, a feeling heart, to denote moral

perfection. Many of the phenomena ofdisease indicate the same relations be-tween the organic viscera and the moralaffections. In the disease of some or-

gans, the mind is cheerful and happy,taking a favourable view of things, andthis even when the disease lies at the very

root of existence, and, on the contrary,

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when some other organs are affected, itis invariably gloomy and apprehensive,anticipating the most fearful results, and,even in trivial complaints, looking for-wards to fatal consequences. The twolives differ also in the mode and epoch oftheir origin. The organic is in activityfrom the very first moment of conception;the animal enters into exercise only atbirth, when external objects offer to thenew individual means of connexion andrelation. In the foetal state, the economyis solely occupied in the formation andnutrition of the organs ; this is the pre-paratory state of existence. The organswhich are to perform the functions ofanimal life, are created and perfected,but they are not exercised. They are notaccessible to the operations of the agentswhose excitement is necessary to bringthem into action, and of course they re-main in a state of profound repose, untilthe stimulus of air, and afterwards offood, light, and sound, is applied to the

appropriated organs. At birth, then, agreat change takes place in the physiolo-gical state of man. His animal life is firstbrought into existence, and his organiclife becomes more fully developed andcomplicated, in order to accommodate it-self to the increased demands which thechange necessarily brings upon it. But tfrom this moment there is no change orimprovement in the functions of organiclife. They are as perfect in the infant asin the adult; they are not susceptible ofeducation. But in those of the animallife every thing depends upon the educa-tion they receive, at first feeble, imper-fect, and indistmct, they gradually be-come developed, and the direction givento this development, and the characterthey ultimately possess, depend in a greatmeasure upon the influence exercisedupon them by extrinsic circumstances.Differing thus in their origin and modes ofdevelopment, the two lives differ also inthe modes of their termination in death,when this takes place naturally, that is,at the extremity of old age. The animalis becoming gradually extinguished be-fore the organ has begun to fail. One Iafter another, its functions cease to beperformed; the eye becomes obscured,and ceases to feel, and to transmit theimpression of light; the ear becomes in-spnsible to the impression of sound ; theskin, shrivellpd, hardened, deprived inpart of its vessels, is capable but of anindistinct and obscure sensation ; the partsdependent upon it lose their vitality,that is, the beard and hair grow white andfall off. The intellectual functions followin the train of the sensations ; the percep-tion is blunted, the memory fails; the

judgment becomes infantile, and, at th,same time, the muscles under the mfiu-ence of the brain, viz. those of locomotionand of the voice, partake of the same de-crepitude. The old man moves with painand difficulty, and speaks with a tremb-ling voice. Seated near the fire, whichwarms him, he passes his days concen.trated within himself, estranged fromevery thing around him, deprived ofideas, of passions, and of sensations,speaking little, because induced by nomotive to break silence, happy in thefeeling that he still exists, when almostevery other one has quitted him. In acertain sense, then, the animal life diesfirst, and leaves the organic still going onin the discharge of its functions; the se-paration is more or less complete, andlasts for a greater or less length of timein different cases. Theoldnianmaycoii.tinue to breathe and digest for sometime after he has to all intents and pur.poses ceased to feel and to think; hecontinues to exist as a vegetable who notonger lives as an animal. Death, how-ever, at length seizes on the organic life.Gradually, and step by step, the vitalforces desert the different organs, diges.tion, secretion, &c. lancaibh ; the circu-tation and respiration are successivelyimpeded, and finally stop.

In considering the vital properties, inall his inquiries Bichat had constant re-gard to this grand division into the twolives, and he recognizes, in the functionsof each life, the exhibition of propertiespeculiar to itself; or at least propertiesmodified by the nature and relations ofthat life, to whose functions they are sub.servient. In the organic life, the organshave, in the first place, a sort of sensi.bility or perception, by which they be-come acquainted with the presence andqualities of the substances applied to

them; this is the organic sensibility. Theyhave then a property by which to re-actupon these substances, and excite in themmotion ; this is the organic contractility.It has two modifications, 1st. Where thecontraction is insensible, as in the ex-halents, capillaries, and secreting vessels;2d. Where the contraction is sensible,as in the heart, stomach, and intestines,and these are called respectively the in-sensible and sensible organic contrac-tility. In the organs of the animal life,there is also a sensibility by which theyare not only made capable of receiving theimpressions of an object and its quali-ties, but of transmitting that impressionto the sensorium ; and a contractilitywhich not only renders a part capable ofcontracting, but is, in the exercise of itspowers, under the entire control And

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direction of the brain. These propertiesare called the animal sensibility, and theanimal contractility.With Bichat, the properties of life were

all in all. The phenomena of the system,whether in health or disease, were allascribed to their operation. X

SMALL-POX AFTER VACCINATION.

IN No. 128, we presented the Annual

Report of the Physician of the Small-poxHospital. It appeared from this Report,that twelve cases of small-pox after vac-

cination proved fatal. This statement

proved so alarming to the Right hon.

Secretary of State for the Home Depart-

ment, that he referred the Report to the

National Vaccine Board, who examined

Dr. Gregory on these cases; and from

the subjoined statement of Dr. G.’s evi

dence, it will appear that all of them

were, in the Doctor’s opinion, vaccinated" unskilfully, carelessly, and imper-

fectly."" SIR,-In obedience to the orders of

Mr. Secretary Peel, the Board of theNational Vaccine Establishment proceed-ed without delay to consider the Reportof the Physician of the Small-pox Hospi-tal. The only part of that Report whichseemed important was that which statedthat twelve persons had died of small-

pox in the Small-pox Hospital, after vac-cinationTo authenticate this fact, if it were a

fact, the Board requested the attendanceof Doctor Gregory, the Physician of theSmall-pox Hospital, and author of the

Report ; and they believe that they can-not meet the wishes of the Right honour -able Secretary for information on thesubject, and for a refutation of the state-ment, if it could be refuted, better thanby subjoining the questions put to Doctor

Gregory, and the answers given by him.They were as follows:-

Q. When a person has been vacci.nated successfully and effectually, do younot expect to find a cicatrix indicationof this in the arm ?

A. Most certainly.

2. Will yon describe the characterof the cicatrix which marks a perfectvaccination ?

A. It shonld be very distinctly de-

fined, perfectly circnlar, with indenta-

tions, and of a size not larger than thatof a small wafer, or a sixpence.

Q. Did this characteristic mark of aperfect vaccination appear in the arm ofJohn Richardson ?

A. Certainly not; and with regard toall the rest of the twelve, excepting Wil-liam Johnson, the characteristic markwas wanting.

Q. Then you would have been jnsti-fied in concluding that their vaccinationhad been imperfect and ineffectual, suchas could not protect them against small-pox at any subsequent period of theirlives ?

.4. Such marks ought not to have beenreceived as evidence of the peculiar pro-tection of vaccination.

Q. In fact they might as well nothave been vaccinated at all.

-4. I believe as well not vaccinatedat all.

Q. Have you any other proofs to stateof their having been vaccinated previouslyto their taking the small-pox, of whichthey died?A. No other distinct proofs. They

all, meaning the twelve persons, had the. persuasion that they had been vaccinated.,

I am, &c.

HENRY HALFORD,

President of the Board of the NationalVaccine Establishment.

Henry Hobhouse, Esq.Under Secretary of State, &c. &c."