Accommodation and Vergence Mechanisms in the Visual System

Edited by Ove Franzen Hans Richter Lawrence Stark

Springer Basel AG

Editors:

Prof. Dr. Ove Franzen Mid Sweden University ROdhakevagen 24 S-75652 Uppsala Sweden

Dr. Lawrence Stark University of California School of Optometry 485 Minor Hall Berkeley, CA 94720 USA

Dr. Hans Richter Department of Ophthalmology Karolinska Institute Huddinge Hospital S-14186 Huddinge Sweden

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Deutsche Bibliothek Cataloging-in-Publication Data Accommodation and vergence mechanisms in the visual system / ed. by Ove Franzen . . . -Basel; Boston; Berlin: Birkhauser, 2000

The publisher and editor can give no guarantee for the information on drug dosage and administration contained in this publication. The respective user must check its accuracy by consulting other sources of reference in each individual case.

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if not identified as such, does not imply that they are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations or free for general use.

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ISBN 978-3-0348-7588-2 ISBN 978-3-0348-7586-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-0348-7586-8

© 2000 Springer Basel AG Originally published by Birkhauser Verlag in 2000 Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp. TCF oc

Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 2000

987654321

Contents

Preface ............................................... ................................................................................. ix

Acknowledgements... .................. ........... ....... ... .......... ........... ...... ........ ............ ..................... x

Scientific Committee .................. ........... ........ .......... ............. ..... ....................... ................... xi

Opening address by the University Chancellor Stig Hagstrom .......................................... xii

Participants of the International Symposium at the Wenner-Gren Center, Stockholm ...... xiv

Part I CNS pathways, single unit, neural population and structural correlates of the accommodative system

L. E. Mays and P. D. R. Gamlin: Neuronal circuits for accommodation and vergence in the primate ...................................................................................................... .

J.W. Gnadt: Neural codes for three-dimensional space ..................................................... 11

K. Ohtsuka and A. Sato: Neuronal connectivity between the accommodative and active fixation systems ............ ............................................................................................. 21

J. T. Erichsen, W. Hodos and C. Evinger: The pupillary light reflex, accommodation and convergence: Comparative considerations .................................................................. 31

T. Bando, N. Hara, M. Takagi, H. Hasebe and H. Toda: Vergence eye movement and lens accommodation: Cortical processing and neuronal pathway .............................. 43

T. Takeda, H. Endo and K. Hashimoto: Research on dynamic accommodation using TDO III (Three Dimensional Optometer III) and MEG (Magnetoencephalography) ........ 51

H. Richter, J. T. Lee and J. V. Pardo: Neuroanatomical correlates of the near response: Voluntary modulation of accommodation in the human visual system ............................... 67

1. V. Pardo, S. R. Sponheim, P. Costello, 1. T. Lee, Y. Han and H. Richter: Functional neuroanatomy of the human nearIJar response of the visual system to blur cues: Fixation to point targets at different viewing distances ..................................................... 79

v

VI

O. Franzen, G. Lennerstrand, J. Pardo and H. Richter: Spatial contrast sensitivity and visual accommodation studied with VEP (Visual Evoked Potential), PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and psychophysical techniques .................. ................................... 91

Part II Autonomic nervous system, microfluctuations and resting state of accommodation

W. N. Channan: Accommodation and the through-focus changes of the retinal image .... lIS

B. Winn: Accommodative micro fluctuations: A mechanism for steady-state control of accommodation ................................................................................................................... 129

B. Gilmartin: Pharmacology of accommodative adaptation .............................................. 141

R. A. Tyrrell, M. A. Pearson and J. F. Thayer: Behavioral links between the oculomotor and cardiovascular systems ......................... ....................................................................... lSI

Part III Developmental/functional aspects of accommodation

L. Hainline: Development of accommodation and vergence in infancy ............................ 161

R. Held and J. Gwiazda: The accommodative response to blur in myopic children .......... 171

N. A. McBrien: The role of muscarinic antagonists in the control of eye growth and myopia .......................................................................................................................... 183

K. J. Ciuffreda, M. Rosenfield, 1. Mordi and Hai-Wen Chen: Accommodation, age and presbyopia .......................................................................................................................... 193

P.B. Kruger, S. Mathews, K. R. Aggarwaia, L. Stark, S. Bean, J. Lee and S. Cohen:

Chromatic stimulus for accommodation to stationary and moving targets ........................ 201

T. Yamada, K. Ukai and S. Ishikawa: Error signal detection and dynamics of accommodation .................................................. ................................................................. 213

L. W. Stark, C. Neveu and V. V. Krishnan: Mode switching in control of accommo-dation .................................................................................................................................. 225

B.C. Jiang: A modified control model for steady-state accommodation ............................. 235

L. Marran and C. M. Schor: Binocular accommodation .... ................................................ 245

VII

Part IV Health and clinical aspects of accommodation/vergence

J. Y gge: Vertical vergence - normal function and plasticity .............................................. 257

D. A. Owens, 1. T Andre and R. L. Owens: Predicting accommodative performance in difficult conditions: a behavioral analysis of normal variations of accommodation ......... 273

S. E. Morse, 1. C. Kotulak and 1. C. Rabin: The influence of oculomotor function on the optical correction for night myopia .................................................................................... 285

H. Ying and G. Lennerstrand: Effects of neck muscles proprioception on eye position and vergence movements ..... ............................................................................................... 293

I. Lie, R. Watten and K. I. Fostervold: Accommodationlvergenceljixation disparity and synergism of head, neck and shoulders .................................................................. ............. 303

K. Ukai, H. Oyamada and S. Ishikawa: Changes in accommodation and vergence following 2 hours movie viewing through bi-ocular head-mounted display .............. ........ 313

S. Ishikawa, K. Tsuchiya, N. Otsuka, T. Namba and K. Ukai: Development of myopia due to environmental problems. A possible interaction of anti-cholinesterase com-pounds examined by accommodative adaptation ............................................................... 327

Epilogue

B. Piccoli: Nearwork and visual well-being: A possible contribution of neuroscience ..... 341

Subject Index ................................................................................................................. 345

This volume is dedicated

to the memory of

Professor Ivar Lie and Professor Robert von Sandor.

IX

PREFACE

This conference was instigated by a combination of factors: The nature of the problem, the wide­

spread occupational epidemiology reported on eye symptoms and eye fatigue in the workplace,

and the organizers' awareness of the complexity of the scientific and clinical bases of knowledge

that might be usefully applied. The introduction of new methods into system neurobiology

provides new insights into how we receive and process information from the external world, and

act upon it. New, non-invasive methods have opened the way to direct observation of the human

brain in action.

Due particularly to the interaction between the visual and oculomotor requirements involved,

several clinical and scientific fields intersect when these issues are considered. To provide clear

vision the accommodative and pupillary mechanisms are used. To maintain binocularity, the ver­

gence oculomotor system, sensitive to fatigue, must attain congruence with accommodative

levels. This accommodation-vergence linkage was a focus of our symposium.

Many scientific disciplines could make a contribution through their own specialized know­

ledge --- the basic anatomy, physiology, and pharmacology of these neuromuscular systems; the

development of careful experimental studies that can approach subclinical aspects of oculomotor

vision stressed by artificial displays; appropriate animal and bioengineering models to prove or

falsify theories put forward in a clinical setting and to help elucidate the complexity of inter­

actions. Theoretical neurobiologists have developed methods and concepts for testing models of

neuronal networks and whole brain functions that have led to heuristic interactions between'

theory and experiment and also to an appreciation of the complex sensory mechanisms of the

visual cortex for processing blur. Thus, the thrust of the symposium was to attempt to unravel

these interconnected problems at many levels of analysis and to understand function in adults,

developing children and the aged.

Indeed, the issues raised by the papers and the discussions they inspired during the meeting

were very fruitful, which can be illustrated by just one example. In landmark research on primate

models for myopia development, Torsten Wiesel and Elio Raviola, from the Rockefeller Univer­

sity and Harvard Medical School, showed two different outcomes to an operatively produced

neonatal defect in two closely related species. Their results in terms of gene expression Were

exciting, and clinicians at the symposium could immediately understand that associated prob­

lems in man might not be the consequence of a single syndrome.

The symposium ended with the participants filled with enthusiasm for future work in their

own laboratories, and even more importantly, with a consciousness of the potential productivity

that is realized through informal contacts and collaboration.

Ove Franzen Hans Richter Lawrence Stark

x

Acknowledgements

This symposium was generously supported by grants from the Swedish Medical Research

Council, The Swedish Natural Science Research Council, The Wenner-Gren Center

Foundation for Scientific Research, the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees

(TCO) and the Mid Sweden University.

Scientific Committee

Ove Franzen, Uppsala, Sweden

I vars Lacis, Riga, Latvia

Gunnar Lennerstrand, Stockholm, Sweden

Bruno Piccoli, Milan, Italy

Hans Richter, Uppsala, Sweden

Robert von Sandor, Stockholm, Sweden

Clifton Schor, Berkeley, CA, USA

Yasuyoshi Watanabe, Osaka, Japan

XI

XII

The First International Symposium on

"AccommodationIV ergence Mechanisms in the Visual System"

Stockholm, September 16, 1996

University Chancellor Stig Hagstrom

National Agency for Higher Education

Ladies and Gentlemen. Dear Research Colleagues!

You are coming from all over the world. Therefore, it might not be appropriate to start by

wishing you a good morning since your biological clock may say something different.

It is a great pleasure for me to welcome you to Stockholm and to this wonderful day. I hope

that you will find some time to look around the city and its beautiful setting and surroundings.

Those of us who live here confess that we are biased when we say that Stockholm at this time

of the year is one of the most beautiful cities in the world. And we want to continue to be

biased in this respect.

Your theme for the symposium is certainly very adequate for this since the beauty we

experience of Stockholm comes through our visual sense.

However, your theme is also very adequate in many other ways. We all know what an impact

that modem information technology is having on our daily lives. Household words are now

Internet, World Wide Web, multimedia etc. Much of the progress in this field hinges on our

ability to create, manipulate, transmit and store pictures and images. In contrast to the word as

the carrier of information which can be understood by several senses, the image as the carrier

of information presupposes vision.

The possibility of using images in a large number of fields has the potential of revolutionising

areas like learning, pedagogy, creative arts, and many others. However, in order for us to fully

XIII

utilise and develop the image technologies we must have a better understanding how the

visual system is working and how we are making use of visual information.

With the development of modem high speed electronic networks we know that we can

transmit images so that the difference between virtual space and the real space is nearly zero.

There has been some suggestions that this would lead to a situation where we don't have to

meet physically person to person. I have no fear that this will happen. Sometimes such

predictions have a tendency to get the opposite effect. I don't think that the telephone

decreased the travelling. And I don't think that anybody has the experience that we are now

living in the paperless society, despite all our electronic ways of handling information. No,

there is no substitute for the personal meeting and therefore we are very glad that you came

here in person.

Large numbers of persons are now spending many hours reading textual material from such

electronic information networks in the workplace. The aim of "ergo-ophthalmology" is to

supply scientific knowledge to enable the creation of displays with which every employee can

be assured of maximum comfort and visual efficiency as well as the prevention of any

impairment related to visual work. Our question is not whether there are various

accommodative and other impairments of the eyes, but whether these impairments are caused

by or in some way connected to operator tasks. Our immediate goals are the development of

objective tests for such impairments so that careful epidemiological studies can ferret out such

possible connections and remediate visual comforts for persons involved.

However, the eye is not the only sensor for our vision. There is also a type of vision that is

created in our heads and when we interact together like in a symposium as you are having. I

want to encourage you to also use and develop that vision because that is what we all need in

a world of change and a world, not only filled with problems, but perhaps even more filled

with opportunities. Opportunities that we only see when we have the special vision of

discovering them.

Once again, let me add my warm welcome to you all to this symposium. Weare glad and

honoured that you have chosen to join us here. Have a wonderful, interesting, rewarding and

fruitful symposium and don't forget to use all your senses and visions to look around.

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1. Satoshi Ishikawa 2. Ove Franzen 3. Jose Pardo 4. Richard Held 5. Hans Richter 6. Birgitta Neikter 7. Bernhard Gilmartin 8. Kenneth Ciuffreda 9. Louise Hainline

10. Kazuhiko Ukai 11. Hiroshi Oyamada 12. Robert Owens 13. Clifton Schoor 14. Lawrence Stark 15. Tsunehiro Takeda 16. Lawrence Mays 17. Kenji Ohtsuka 18. Han Ying 19. Ivar Lie 20. Jan Ygge

21. Gunnar Lennerstrand 22. Ivars Lacis 23. Richard Tyrell 24. Jeffrey Andre 25. Jonathan Erichsen 26. Jim Gnadt 27. Torsten Wiesel 28. Neville McBrien 29. Philip Kruger 30. Agneta Rydberg 31. Takehiko Bando 32. Tetsuto Yamada 33. Waldemar Rojna 34. Roberto Bolzani 35. Barry Winn 36. Stephen Morse 37. Horika Otsuka 38. Kunihiko Tsuchiya 39. Neil Charman

Participants of the International Symposium at the Wenner-Gren Center, Stockholm

xv

The Contributors

K.R. Aggarwala Schnurmacher Institute for Vision Research State University of New York New York, N.Y. 10010, USA

Jeffrey T. Andre Department of Psychology Franklin & Marshall College P.O. Box 3003 Lancaster, P A 17604, USA

Takehiko Bando Department of Physiology and Ophthalmology Niigata University School of Medicine Asahi-machi, Niigata 951, Japan

S. Bean Schnurmacher Institute for Vision Research State University of New York New York, N.Y. 10010, USA

Neil Charman Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology Manchester, M60 1 QD, England

Hai-Wen Chen Department of Vision Sciences State University of New York State College of Optometry N.Y. 10010, USA

Ken Ciuffreda Department of Vision Sciences State University of New York State College of Optometry N.Y. 10010, USA

S. Cohen Schnurmacher Institute for Vision Research State University of New York New York, N.Y. 10010, USA

Patricia Costello Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit Psychiatry Service Veterans Affairs Medical Center Minneapolis, MN, USA and Division of Neuroscience Research Department of Psychiatry University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN, USA

H. Endo National Institute of Bioscience and Human Technology Human Informatics Department 1-1, Higashi, Tsukuba City Ibaraki 305, Japan Jonathan Erichsen Deptartment of Optometry and Vision Sciences University of Wales, Cardiff CardiffCFl 3XF, u.K.

C. Evinger Departments of Neurobiology and Behavior and Ophthalmology State University of New York Stony Brook, New York, USA

XVI

Knut Inge Fostervold Vision Laboratory Institute of Psychology University of Oslo po. Box 1094, Blindern N-0317 Oslo, Norway

Ove Franzen Department of Clinical Science Division of Ophthalmology Karolinska Institute Huddinge University Hospital 141 86 Huddinge, Sweden and Mid Sweden University Sundsvall, Sweden

P.D.R. Gamlin Department of Physiological Optics Vision Science Research Center University of Alabama Birmingham AL 35294-4390, USA

Bernard Gilmartin Department of Vision Sciences Aston University Birmingham B4 7ET, u.K.

Jim W. Gnadt Department of Neurobiology and Behavior State University of New York Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA

J Gwiazda New England College of Optometry Myopia Research Center Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA

Louise Hainline Infant Study Center Department of Psychology Brooklyn College Brooklyn, New York 11210, USA

Ying Han Department of Clinical Science Division of Ophthalmology Karolinska Institute Huddinge University Hospital 141 86 Huddinge, Sweden

N.Hara Department of Physiology and Ophthalmology Niigata University School of Medicine Asahi-machi, Niigata 951, Japan

H. Hasebe Department of Physiology and Ophthalmology Niigata University School of Medicine Asahi-machi, Niigata 951, Japan

K. Hashimoto National Institute of Bioscience and Human Technology Human Informatics Department 1-1, Higashi, Tsukuba City Ibaraki 305, Japan

Richard Held New England College of Optometry Myopia Research Center Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA

W. Hodos Department of Psychology University of Maryland College Park, Maryland, USA Satoshi Ishikawa Department of Ophthalmology School of Medicine Kitasato University Sagamihara Kanagawa 228, Japan

Bai-Chuan Jiang University of Houston College of Optometry Houston, TX 77204-6052, USA

1. C. Kotulak US. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory Ft. Rucker, AL 36362, USA

v. V. Krishnan University of California School of Optometry Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA

Philip Kruger Schnurmacher Institute for Vision Research State University of New York New York, N.Y. 10010, USA

1. Lee Schnurmacher Institute for Vision Research State University of New York New York, N.Y. 10010, USA

Joel T. Lee Division of Neuroscience Research Department of Psychiatry University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN, USA

Gunnar Lennerstrand Department of Clinical Science Division of Ophthalmology Karolinska Institute Huddinge University Hospital 141 86 Huddinge, Sweden

Ivar Lie Vision Laboratory Institute of Psychology University of Oslo P.O. Box 1094, Blindern N-0317 Oslo, Norway

L. Marran University of California School of Optometry Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA

S. Mathews Department of Ophthalmology Texas Tech. UH.S.C. Lubbock, Texas 79430, USA

Lawrence Mays Department of Physiological Optics Vision Science Research Center University of Alabama Birmingham AL 35294-4390, USA

Neville McBrien

XVII

Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences Cardiff University of Wales CardiffCFI-3XF, Wales, UK.

John Mordi Department of Vision Sciences State University of New York State College of Optometry N.Y. 10010, USA

Stephen Morse University of Houston College of Optometry Houston, TX 77204-6052, USA

Tatsuto Namba Department of Ophthalmology School of Medicine Kitasato University Sagamihara Kanagawa 228, Japan

Charles Neveu University of California School of Optometry Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA

Kenji Ohtsuka Department of Ophthalmology Sapporo Medical University Sapporo 060, Hokkaido, Japan

XVIII

Norika Otsuka Department of Ophthalmology School of Medicine Kitasato University Sagamihara Kanagawa 228, Japan

Alfred Owens Whitely Psychology Laboratories Franklin and Marshall College Lancaster, P A 17604, USA

Robert L. Owens Dr. Robert L. Owens & Associates Optometrists New Holland, Pennsylvania, USA

Hiroshi Oyamada Department of Physiology School of Medicine Niigata University Niigata 951, Japan

Jose V. Pardo Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit Psychiatry Service Veterans Affairs Medical Center Minneapolis, MN, USA and Division of Neuroscience Research Department of Psychiatry University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN, USA

M.A. Pearson Department of Psychology Clemson University Clemson, SC 29634-1511, USA

Bruno Piccoli Department of Occupational Health lCP Hospital University of Milan Milan, Italy

Ie. Rabin U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory Ft. Rucker, AL 36362, USA

Hans Richter Department of Clinical Science Division of Ophthalmology Karolinska Institute Huddinge University Hospital 141 86 Huddinge, Sweden and PET Center, Uppsala University Uppsala, Sweden

Mark Rosenfield Department of Vision Sciences State University of New York State College of Optometry N.Y. 10010, USA

A. Sato Department of Ophthalmology Sapporo Medical University Sapporo 060, Hokkaido, Japan

Clifton M. Schor University of California School of Optometry Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA

James Sheedy University of California School of Optometry Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

Scott R. Sponheim Department of Psychology University of Minnesota and Psychology Service Veterans Affairs Medical Center Minneapolis, MN, USA

Lawrence Stark University of California School of Optometry Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA

R. Takada Department of Physiology and Ophthalmology Niigata University School of Medicine Asahi-machi, Niigata 951, Japan

M. Takagi Department of Physiology and Ophthalmology Niigata University School of Medicine Asahi-machi, Niigata 951, Japan

Tsunehiro Takeda National Institute of Bioscience and Human Technology Human Informatics Department 1-1, Higashi, Tsukuba City lbaraki305, Japan

IF. Thayer Department of Psychology University of Missouri Columbia, MO 65211, USA

H. Toda Department of Physiology and Ophthalmology Niigata University School of Medicine Asahi-machi, Niigata 951, Japan

Kunihiko Tsuchiya Department of Ophthalmology School of Medicine Kitasato University Sagamihara Kanagawa 228, Japan

Richard A. Tyrrell Department of Psychology Clemson University Clemson, SC 29634-1511, USA

Kazuhiko Ukai Faculty of Social and Information Sciences Nihon Fukushi University Handa, Aichi 475, Japan

Reidulf Watten Vision Laboratory Institute of Psychology University of Oslo P.O. Box 1094, Blindem N-0317 Oslo, Norway

Torsten Wiesel Office of the President Rockefeller University New York, 10021-6399 N.Y., USA

BarryWinn Department of Optometry University of Bradford West Yorkshire BD7 IDP, England

Tetsuto Yamada Department of Ophthalmology School of Medicine Kitasato University Sagamihara Kanagawa 228, Japan

Jan Ygge Department of Clinical Science Division of Ophthalmology Karolinska Institute Huddinge University Hospital 141 86 Huddinge, Sweden

Han Ying Department of Clinical Science Division of Ophthalmology Karolinska Institute Huddinge Hospital 14186 Huddinge, Sweden

XIX