ACF SUSTAINABILITY FORUM TECHNICAL REPORT · 1 ACF SUSTAINABILITY FORUM TECHNICAL REPORT 2014. 12....

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ACF SUSTAINABILITY FORUM

TECHNICAL REPORT

2014. 12.

Edited by

Koji Sakai

Donguk Choi

Takafumi Noguchi

Asian Concrete Federation

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Table of contents

I. INTRODUCTION …. 5

II. STATUS OF CONCRETE CONSTITUENT PRODUCTION .… 7

1. India .… 7

2. Indonesia … 17

3. Japan … 21

4. Korea … 29

5. Mongolia … 36

6. Thailand … 40

III. STATUS OF PRODUCTION AND USE OF CONCRETE .… 44

1. Indonesia .… 44

2. Japan .… 46

3. Korea .… 48

4. Mongolia .… 50

5. Thailand .… 52

IV. STATUS OF CONSTRUCTION …. 53


2. Japan .… 55

3. Korea .… 57

4. Mongolia .… 58

5. Thailand .… 60

V. STATUS OF GHG EMISSION .… 63


2. Japan .… 67

3. Korea .… 70

4. Mongolia .… 72

5. Thailand .… 73

VI. STATUS, STRATEGIES AND TECHNOLOGIES OF

C&D WASTE UTILIZATION .… 75

1. India .… 75

2. Japan .… 82

3. Korea .… 89

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VII. MEASURES AND POLICIES ON SUSTAINABILITY .… 92

1. Japan .… 92

2. Korea .… 96

3. Thailand .… 100

VIII. BARRIERS TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABILITY .… 102


2. Japan .… 102

3. Korea .… 103

4. Thailand .… 104

IX. CONCLUSIONS … 106

APPENDICES

A. Results of the first questionnaire on sustainability

(Japan / Korea / Taiwan) … 107

B. Results of the second questionnaire on sustainability … 124

(Japan / Korea)

C. Price information on cement and concrete in Asia … 140

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ACF Sustainability Forum Meeting Log

1st meeting: April 22-23, 2011, Engineering Institute of Thailand,

Bangkok, Thailand.

2nd

meeting: November 3-4, 2011, Korea Science and Technology Center,

Seoul, South Korea.

3rd

meeting: April 11-12, 2012, India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, India.

4th

meeting: October 25, 2012, Amari Hotel, Pattaya, Thailand.

5th

meeting: March 8-9, 2013, Ho Chi Minh City University of

Technology, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.

6th

meeting: September 17-18, 2013, Petra Christian University,

Surabaya, Indonesia.

7th

meeting: May 9-10,, 2014, Mongolian University of Science and

Technology, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

8th

meeting: September 22, 2014, The-K Hotel, Seoul, South Korea.

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I. INTRODUCTION

Asian concrete society will play a key role to achieve global sustainable development

as the consumption of concrete drastically increases. It means that the reduction of resource

and energy consumption in Asia will be more and more significant. On the other hand, the

concrete industry is required to build the infrastructures and buildings necessary for the well-

being of Asian people by economic growth.

In 2010, the following ACF Sustainability Declaration was adopted in the ACF Taipei

meeting:

(1) ACF recognizes the importance of the Asian concrete society’s role in achieving

global sustainable development as the consumption of concrete keeps increasing.

(2) ACF realizes the need for sustainable development by reducing resource

consumption and carbon footprint in the life cycle of a concrete structure.

(3) ACF encourages the concrete industry to make efforts for the well-being of

human society by providing safe, serviceable, and environmental-friendly

structures.

(4) ACF promotes the concrete industry to employ the best technologies and make

technological innovation in the future for sustainable development.

(5) ACF informs the concrete industry and the public of the importance of concrete

structures in sustainable development.

(6) ACF collaborates on sustainable development with other international

associations in the concrete society.

Our great challenge is how to simultaneously satisfy the increased construction

demand and decreased environmental impact due to resource and energy consumption. Two

aspects should be considered. One is to know the current state by collecting fundamental data

in concrete and construction industry, to find the direction to achieve our challenge, and

develop sustainable concrete technologies. The other is to disseminate the latest concrete

technologies and systems through various opportunities including seminar and conference.

To clarify our challenge, ACF Sustainability Forum was founded in 2010 to realize

the ACF Taipei Sustainability Declaration. The forum meetings have taken place in Bangkok,

Seoul, New Delhi, Pattaya, Ho Chi Minh, Surabaya, and Ulaanbaatar. In each meeting, the

following issues have been discussed:

(1) concrete constituent production;

(2) construction;

(3) GHG emission;

(4) measures and policies for sustainability;

(5) new technologies; and

(6) barriers to promote sustainability.

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Based on the survey in each country and discussions in the forum, the state-of-the-art

report on concrete sustainability in Asian countries was written.

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II. STATUS OF CONCRETE CONSTITUENT PRODUCTION

1. INDIA

1.1 Cements

Indian Cement Industry, comprising 55 major players with 183 large cement plants,

together with 365 ‘mini’ cement plants (capacity limited to 600 tonnes per day (tpd)), is the

second largest in the world. Large cement plants contribute about 97 percent of total

production; amongst these, 20 companies account for 70 percent of the total production.

The total production capacity at the end of financial year 2013 – 14 (denoted by

FY14) was 375 million tonnes (MT) and the production about 300 MT. It includes about 6

MT produced by mini cement plants having total capacity of 11 MT per year. Thus, the

capacity utilisation at present is 80 percent, which has decreased from about 94 percent in

2006-07 and 88 percent in 2008-09 [1]. This is primarily due to lack of demand as a

consequence of stagnant economic growth in the recent years.

The capacity creation in the cement industry has been generally robust with CAGR of

10 percent or more, but somewhat subdued in recent time, due to the current economic

slowdown. As much as 243 MT of production capacity has been added in the last 18 years

(since 1996), out of which 159 MT has been added post FY07. The first corresponded to

favourable Government decision of decontrol, and the next was sequel to high GDP growth

in the early part of the decade. The trend can be seen in Figure 1.1; Table 1.1 gives

projections till FY17 and beyond, on the assumption of 10 percent GDP growth and

favourable demand from various driver sectors [1]. It allows for about 6 MT exports.

Figure 1.1 Installed capacity and production of cement (MT) in India till FY11 [1].

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Table 1.1 Projections (#) of cement demand and capacity (MT) in India [1]

Period Demand Capacity

FY12 247 338

FY13 272 350

FY 14# 300 375

FY15# 332 405

FY16# 368 440

FY17# 407 478

FY22# 710 811

FY27# 1237 1375

Technology-wise, most of the large cement plants are based on energy-efficient dry

process with five- or six- stage precalcinators and modern pollution control devices,

comparable to state-of-the-art plant elsewhere in the world. The average capacity is 1.7 MT

per year i.e. 5,150 tpd. The largest single-line kiln is of 8,000 tpd. The industry-wise, average

energy consumption is 80 kWh/t of electrical energy and 725 kCal/kg of thermal energy. The

best values obtained by a cement plant are 67 kWh/t and 667 kCal/kg; comparable to the best

in the world e.g. in Japan [1].

Fuel costs amount to 25 – 30 percent of the total production cost. Coal is the main fuel

for kilns and precalcinators in the cement plants. In spite of enormous coal deposits in India,

to meet the total requirement of 27.37 MT, nearly 9.27 MT coal was imported and 5.18 MT

of petcoke were used, the balance being met by indigenous supply. In spite of tremendous

interest in use of waste-derived fuels, only 0.35 MT of husk/municipal wastes/biomass were

used at present [2]. Waste heat recovery by co-generation of power is practiced by 12 cement

plants and more are coming forward. It is established that almost all 1 million tpy plants

(3,000 tpd) are suitable for recovery of 4 MW of electricity by this route, thereby making a

total potential of 600 MW [2].

Large cement plants are set up near limestone deposits and there is locational

imbalance in the country. Zone-wise detail of availability of cement grade limestone is given

in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Distribution of cement grade limestone deposits in India

Zones Estimated reserves (MT)

South 43,812

West 22,258

North 16,719

East 7,044

Total 89,833

For manufacture of cement, coal may have to be moved by up to 800 km and cement,

after manufacture, may have to be moved up to 1,000 km to the point of consumption. Split

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location plants, with grinding units near consumption centres, help in reducing overall cost of

transportation.

Figure 1.2 shows the location of cement plants in India; the details of cement plants in

a particular State can be seen by clicking on the same. Although the data are not up-to-date,

the map helps in identifying States, where cement manufacturing units are located. It should

be pointed out that major ‘clusters’ of cement plants are in Satna (Madhya Pradesh), Bilaspur

in Chattisgarh, Chandrapur (Maharashtra), Gulbarga (Karnataka), Yerraguntala and Nalgonda

in erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, and Chanderia in Rajasthan [2]. Significant capacities also exist

in Tamilnadu, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Odisha.

Figure 1.2 Cement map of India (Source www.cmaindia.org)

The major drivers of cement demand are shown in Figure 1.3. Projections of cement

demand made above are on the basis of large emphasis of the Government on housing and

infrastructure building. The current cement consumption in India is 202 kg per capita, which

is lower than about 280 kg worlds average and higher in developed economies. It allows for

positive forecasts of growth to be made.

Quality requirements of cement produced and marketed in India must conform to the

Standard Specifications of Bureau of Indian Standards. Quality and mass (in 50 kg bags) are

controlled by ISI Certification Scheme and Weights and Measures Act respectively. The list

of various Standards is given in Table 1.3.

http://www.cmaindia.org/

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Figure 1.3 Demand drivers for cement in India.

Table 1.3 Types of cement covered in BIS specifications

S. no. Generic

type

Description Reference

Ordinary Portland Cement

1 33 Grade IS: 269

2 43 Grade IS: 8112

3 53 Grade IS: 12269

4 Rapid Hardening IS; 8041

5 Sulphate Resisting IS: 12330

6 Low Heat IS: 12600

7 Hydrophobic Cement IS: 8043

8 White Cement IS: 8042

Blended and Composite Cements

9 Portland Slag Cement IS: 455

10 Portland Pozzolana Cement – Fly ash based IS: 1489- Part I

11 Portland Pozzolana Cement – Calcined Clay based IS:1489 – II

12 Masonry Cement IS: 3466

13 Supersulphated Cement IS: 6909

Special Cements

14 Oil Well Cement IS: 8229

15 High Alumina Cement for structural use IS: 6452

Among these, the major production is of only three varieties:

Ordinary Portland Cement – 25 percent

Portland Pozzolana Cement – Fly ash based – 66 percent

Portland Slag Cement – 9 percent

Thus, blended cements account for nearly 75 percent of total production. Unlike EN

197-1, multi-component cement compositions are not yet permitted, although presently under

considerations. Ternary blend cement compositions (comprising, OPC, Silica fume and fly

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ash/slag) are, however, conveniently used in concrete constructions for high performance,

high durability considerations [3].

1.2 Additions

1.2.1 Gypsum – mineral, chemical and marine

Mineral gypsum is obtained in India mainly from Rajasthan (82%), and to a smaller

extent, from J&K (14%) and Tamil Nadu. Out of 1,286 MT total mineral resources, 39 MT

are in ‘reserves’ category and the remaining 1247 MT in ‘remaining resources’ category. The

total recoverable reserves of mineral gypsum in India are estimated at 239 MT. Of the total

recoverable reserves, only 26 MT are of cement/paint grade. The annual production of

mineral gypsum is 4.35 MT. The total quantity mined is much short of the total requirement

of the Indian cement industry. Apart from this, in case the cement plant to be set up is at large

distance from the gypsum mines, the cost of transportation of mineral gypsum becomes very

high. Alternative sources of chemical gypsum, marine gypsum etc. is, therefore, resorted to.

The quality and impurities in alternate gypsum sources requires to be ascertained and

beneficiated prior to use. Chemical gypsum is in the form of phospho-, fluoro- and boro-

gypsum from chemical industries. Marine gypsum is obtained as by-product from production

of common salt. The recovery of by-product gypsum and marine gypsum taken together is

substantial and comparable with production of mineral gypsum. At present, the share of

mineral gypsum used in the Indian cement industry is smaller than that of chemical and

marine gypsum put together.

1.2.2 Blast furnace slag

Blast furnace slag (BFS) is obtained during manufacture of pig iron in blast furnaces,

while steel slag is obtained during steel manufacturing in steel melting shop. Often, the same

iron and steel manufacturing unit gives out both type of wastes. Granulation is achieved by

proper quenching and cooling, so as to ensure proper degree of vitrification of the slag.

Granulated blast furnace slag has established latent hydraulic material for manufacture of

Portland slag cement (PSC).

Indian BFS is generally rich in SiO2 and Al2O3 and poor in lime content, with

lime/SiO2 ratio less than 1. Amorphous nature of granulated BFS, microcrystalinity and

structural defects in the slag glasses result in appropriate reactivity and grindability. The glass

content in Indian granulated BFS is 90 percent or higher. This, together with chemical

composition ensuring hydraulic moduli conforming to the requirements of IS: 12089

(Specification for granulated slag for manufacture of Portland slag cement) ensure granulated

blast furnace slag being used in the manufacture of PSC in India without any reservation.

Granulated steel slag has higher Fe2O3 content – 16 to 23 percent, and is used up to 10

percent replacement of GBFS.

Other metallurgical Slags like copper, zinc, lead and electric arc furnace slags do have

latent hydraulic activity but are not one-to-one replacement of BF slag, and are not used in

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the Indian cement Industry. However, recent revision of IS Standard on cements which are

under consideration (October 2014) contemplate use of these up to 5 percent in cement

manufacture as ‘performance improvers’.

Depending upon the granulation facility, which were not provided in all the older steel

plants, granulated slag generally amounts to 318 – 399 kg per tonne of hot material. This was

15 to 40 percent of the total slag produced. As per 2012 estimate, nearly 10 million tonnes of

granulated blast furnace slag came out of Indian Iron and Steel industry and the whole of it

was used in cement manufacture [4]. Indian standard IS: 455 permit granulated slag content

in Portland slag cement to vary between 25 to 70 percent. The industry average is about 50

percent. Because granulated BF slag is harder to grind than Portland cement clinker, separate

grinding of slag and cement clinker, rather than inter-grinding, is preferred. This results in

bimodal particle size distribution. Ground granulated BF slag (GGBS) is sometimes directly

mixed in the concrete mixer with the other ingredients, especially when the required dose of

GGBS in the concrete mix is higher than what is in the commercially manufactured PSC.

1.2.3 Pulverised-fuel ash (fly ash, bottom ash)

In India during the period 2013-14 (FY14), thermal power plants, bulk of which are

coal fired, comprised 69 percent of total grid-connected power generation capacity of

2,43,029 MW. With plant load factor of 65 percent, total thermal power generation was

1,09,366 MW. In India, a 1,000 MW thermal power plant, on average, use 12,000 tonnes coal

per day and generates 4,200 tonnes of coal-fired residue per year. This works out to 170

million tonnes per year. Nearly 80 percent of this is fly ash, which, after collection in ESP’s,

is vented as flue gases. The balance 20 percent is coarser and falls at the bottom of furnaces is

called ‘bottom ash’. On this basis, it is estimated that the amount of fly ash generated in India

at present is nearly 135 MT per year and 35 MT of bottom ash. Besides, there are huge

mounds of dumped fly ash in ash ponds and lagoons.

Use of fly ash as pozzolana in cement manufacture and as replacement of cement in

concrete mixes is governed by IS: 3812 (Pulverised fuel ash - Specifications Part I for use as

pozzolana in cement, cement mortar and concrete). It defines fly ash as ‘pulverised fuel ash

extracted from flue gases by any suitable process such as by cyclone separator or electrostatic

precipitator’. It stipulates that only fly ash can be used in cement, mortar or concrete; bottom

ash, pond ash etc. are not permitted. It is estimated that nearly 40 percent of the fly ash

generated in India is used in cement manufacture.

Indian fly ashes have lower glass content (about 20 to 30 percent) than in some other

countries e.g. Japan, USA, and many European countries. IS: 1489 – Part I permits addition

of fly ash varying between 15 to 35 percent in the manufacture of Portland pozzolana cement

(PPC). About 30 percent is the Industry norm. Inter-grinding with cement clinker and

gypsum is preferred.

As mentioned before, use of bottom ash is not permitted. Recent research has

established the pozzolanic properties of bottom ash when ground to cement fineness,

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potential for its use in the manufacture of PPC, and as part replacement of cement and natural

sand in structural concrete [5]. It is hoped that the situation may be reviewed.

1.2.4 Silica fume

Silica fume is used in India as ingredient of high strength concrete, high performance

concrete, shotcrete for roof support in underground tunnel, and similar constructions. There is

no Silicon or Ferro-silicon alloy industry in India, so silica fume is imported primarily from

Norway, and also Iran, China, Bhutan etc. It is added at the concrete mixer; the usual dose is

@7 percent by weight of cement. The quality requirements are specified in IS: 15388

(Specification for silica fume). It is in line with ASTM C1240.

The total quantity used could not be ascertained, but, on the assumption that at least 5

percent of structural concrete in India is high performance concrete which uses silica fume,

about 0.40 million tonne per year is a reliable guess.

1.2.5 Other mineral admixtures

Indian Concrete Code IS: 456 permits use of rice husk ash and metakaolin as

alternative mineral admixtures in concrete. Among these, metakaolin has been used in lieu of

silica fume in high performance concrete. There are a few manufacturers, who produce

metakaolin by controlled calcinations of pure china clay and fine grinding. The exact quantity

used, which may not be very large, could not be ascertained. One indication is about 1,500

tonnes per year. An Indian Standard specification for Metakaolin for use as pozzolana in

hydraulic cement systems is under consideration of BIS and likely to be adopted soon.

1.3 Chemical Admixtures

Concrete Chemicals industry in India is well organised, with an enlightened Concrete

Chemicals Manufacturers’ Association (CCMA) in place. Most of the information below is

obtained by personal communications with senior members of CCMA. The industry has

recorded impressive growth, with total sales increasing from Indian Rupees (INR) 140

million in 2007 to INR 360 million in 2013 and projected between INR 750 – 770 million in

2018; i.e. net rise of about 17 percent per year during the period. (1US$ ≈ INR 60).

The entire range of concrete chemicals can be divided as:

Concrete admixtures (see details below)

Water proofing chemicals – Polyurethane based, bitumen based, polymers – SBR,

acrylic

Flooring compounds – Epoxy and floor hardeners, polyurethane coatings,

polyurea based

Chemicals for repair and rehabilitation – cementitious, polymer mortars, epoxy-

based resin mortars

Miscellaneous – Sealants, grouts, adhesives

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The share of each type is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Different types of concrete chemicals produced in India

Of particular interest to this Report, concrete admixtures occupy the largest share ~ 40

percent. Indian Standard IS: 9103 (Specification for Concrete Admixtures) covers the

following classes:

Accelerating admixtures,

Retarding admixtures,

Water-reducing admixtures,

Air-entraining admixtures, and

Superplasticizing admixtures.

In addition, viscosity modifying admixtures (VMA) are produced for use in self-

compacting concrete and as anti-washout admixtures. The respective shares are shown in

Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Share of different types of concrete admixtures

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Figure 1.5 shows that the majority share is of superplasticisers and WRSR, which

essentially are required for workability and slump retention under hot, humid ambient

conditions. The composition-wise break up is:

Naphthalene based – 80 percent,

PCE based – 10 percent,

Melamine – 1 percent, and

Lignosulphonate-based – 9 percent.

At the present time, structural concrete of grade M35 or above, high performance

concrete, concrete requiring workability of 100 mm slump or more, self-compacting concrete

use some chemical admixture or other. As a guess, such concrete comprise 20 to 25 percent of

the total volume. During 2013 – 14 (FY14), the total quantity of chemical admixtures used

was 0.45 million tonnes per year. There is potential to double the intensity of admixture use

in India in the coming years.

1.4 Aggregates

The requirement of coarse and fine aggregate for use in cement concrete, mortar and

plasters in India is very large. Corresponding to consumption of cement of 300 million

tonnes, total aggregate requirement of about 1,500 MT per year is a safe estimate. Only

aggregate from natural sources are allowed. The quality requirements are set in IS: 383

(Specification for coarse and fine aggregate from natural sources for concrete).

Coarse aggregate is derived from uncrushed gravel or stone which results from natural

disintegration of rock, or crushed gravel or stone resulting from crushing of gravel or hard

stone. Fine aggregate is conventionally obtained from natural disintegration of rock which

has been deposited by streams or glacial agencies. Of late, there is difficulty in obtaining

natural aggregates for constructions within economic distances. This is due to environmental

regulations which do not permit mining of rocks or dredging of sand from river beds.

Crushed sand is used after ascertaining the quality requirements, as permitted in IS: 383. Use

of lightweight aggregate (sintered fly ash, bloated clay), granulated blast furnace slag,

foundry waste sand, ceramic wastes, recycled concrete aggregate and bottom ash are

receiving attention [6].

REFERENCES

[1] Report of the Working Group on Cement Industry for XII Five Year Plan (2012 – 17),

Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion, Ministry of Commerce and

Industry, Government of India, December 2011.

[2] Cement Manufacturers’ Association (CMA), Annual Report 2012 -13.

[3] Mullick, A. K., Durability advantage of concrete with ternary cement blends and

applications in India, Proc., 2nd

International Conference on ‘Advances in Chemically-

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activated Materials’ (CAM 2014), Changsha, China, June 2014, RILEM Proceedings

PRO 92. pp. 320 – 335.

[4] Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), Indian Minerals Yearbook, 2011 (Vol. 11), 50th

Ed.,

Slag – Iron and Steel, Ministry of Mines, Government of India, October 2012.

[5] Mullick, A. K., Akash Jain, Anchit Lakhanpal and Krishna Murari, Pozzolanic

Properties and Utilisation of Bottom Ash in Cement and Concrete, Lead Paper, 6th

International Conference, Asian Concrete Federation, ACF 2014, Collection of

Invited Papers, Seoul, South Korea. Sept. 2014, pp. 76 – 81.

[6] Mullick, A. K., Alternatives to Natural Sand for Concrete and Mortar, One day

Seminar on ‘Alternatives to River Sand Sustainable Approach to Construction’, ICI

Goa Center, Goa, 28 Nov., 2014.

Contributor – Dr. A. K. Mullick,

Email: [email protected]

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2. INDONESIA

2.1 Cement: production by type, import & export volume, input materials, input

energy source (fuels)

Currently, there are nine major cement manufacturers in Indonesia, which form the

Indonesian Cement Association, i.e.: PT Semen Padang, PT Semen Gresik, PT Semen Tonasa,

PT Holcim, PT Indocement Tunggal Prakarsa, PT Semen Baturaja (Lafarge), PT Semen

Andalas Indonesia, PT Semen Kupang, and PT Semen Bosowa Maros. The first three

manufacturers form a strategic holding company called PT Semen Indonesia (Persero) Tbk,

with market share of over 43.8% and approximately of 41% share of total installed cement

capacity [1].

Table 2.1 Cement: domestic demand vs national capacity, 2013-2017 (unit: million tons) [1]

2013 2014f 2015f 2016f 2017f

Installed

capacity 68.0 71.5 82.2 97.8 100.8

Real production 55.2 62.2 69.9 78.2 85.7

Consumption 58.6 62.1 65.8 69.8 73.9

Surplus/(deficit) (-3.4) 0.1 4.1 8.5 11.7

Domestic

utilization 100% 100% 94% 89% 86%

Export 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Domestic

consumption

growth

5.5% 6% 6% 6% 6%

Note: f = forecast

Table 2.1 shows the total design capacity, production of major cement manufacturers

in Indonesia in 2013, and the forecasted figures till 2017. It shows also the level of

consumption and its growth. The total domestic cement consumption in Indonesia in 2013

was about 58.6 million tons. With total population of 240 million, the cement consumption

per capita in 2013 was about 229 kg/capita/year. This figure is considered very small

compared to other Asian countries, such as China, Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam and

Thailand. However, the domestic cement consumption growth is forecasted constantly high at

about 6% [1].

In the next five years, there will be additional in installed cement capacity, both from

the current players and from the new players. The increase from the current players is about

36.2 million tons; while from the new players is about 40.3 million tons. Out of the new

manufacturers are Siam Cement (Thailand), CNBM (China), Semen Merah Putih, Anhui

Conch Cement (China), Ultratech, Semen Puger, Semen Barru, Semen Panasia, and Jui Shin

Indonesia [1].

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Regarding types, out of about 46 million tons cement production per year in 2011,

54.5% was Portland Composite Cement (PCC), and 26.5% was Portland Pozzolan Cement

(PPC), with only 19% Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) type I, as revealed in Table 2.2. This

composition most probably will remain constant in the near future. The figures shown in

Table 2.2 confirm the fact that nowadays the types of cement we can obtain from market are

either PPC or PCC only (Fig. 2.1). To produce PPC, cement manufacturers utilize pozzolanic

materials such as industrial waste fly ash, while to produce PCC, the materials used including

natural pozzolan. Fly ash produced in one huge power plant in Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java,

is wholly taken by PT Semen Gresik (now is called PT Semen Indonesia).

Table 2.2 Cement production and types in 2011 (unit: tons) [2]

Cement manufacturer OPC Type I PCC PPC Total

Indocement 1,800,421 12,048,969 13,849,390

Holcim 1,450,228 6,182,553 7,632,781

Semen Gresik 2,252,050 7,539,472 9,791,522

Semen Padang 1,968,524 4,183,112 6,151,636

Semen Tonasa 232,122 3,636,582 3,868,704

Semen Bosowa Maros 64,537 2,086,589 2,151,123

Lafarge Cement Indonesia 580,803 1,570,320 2,151,123

Semen Baturaja 575,588 675,690 1,251,278

Semen Kupang -- -- -- --

Total 8,924,270 25,525,013 12,398,274 46,847,557

% 19.05% 54.49% 26.47% 100%

Figure 2.1 Bags of Portland Composite Cement (PCC) and Portland Pozzolan Cement (PPC)

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Table 2.3 CO2 emissions in cement processing [2]

Item Amount

CO2 in Limestone raw material 42 %

CO2 if 82% limestone used 0.3444 kg/kg material

Clinker to raw material ratio 0.66

CO2 produced from raw materials 0.53 kg/kg clinker

Plant specific heat consumption 3 GJ/ton

CO2 derived from fuels 0.37 kg/kg clinker approx.

Total CO2 emission 0.90 kg/kg cement

Since 2004, we have two Standards for Portland Pozzolan Cement (PPC) and Portland

Composite Cement (PCC). However, these two Standards offer wide range of pozzolan and

other materials to be included: i.e. from as low as 6% to 40% (for PPC) and from 6-35% (for

PCC). The real figures of the amount of pozzolanic and other materials used to partly

replaced clinker are not available at this moment. Most probably the amount of pozzolanic

and other materials used to produce PPC and PCC in Indonesia is not high enough to lower

the CO2 emissions from cement processing significantly, causing high CO2 emissions.

Table 2.3 summarizes the emissions produced from the cement processing in

Indonesia in 2011, released by the Indonesian Cement Association. The total CO2 emission

remains high at 0.90 kg/kg cement [2]. This figure does not really in line with the figures

shown earlier in Table 2.3 that only about 19% OPC produced, while the rest 81% is blended

cement. With the advance of blended cement production, the CO2 emission from cement

processing should be lower than the figure shown in Table 2.3.

2.2 Additions

2.2.1 Blast furnace slag and other steel slag (converter slag, electric furnace slag, etc.):

generation and utilization

To date, there is no data available on this matter. Indonesia only produces slag in

small amount.

2.2.2 Fly ash: generation and utilization including import and export

To date, there is no data available on this matter.

2.2.3 Bottom ash: generation and utilization

To date, there is no data available on this matter. FA and BA are considered as

hazardous materials. In most cases, BA is dumped into the landfill only.

2.2.4 Silica fume: generation and utilization including import and export

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To date, there is no data available on this matter. Indonesia only produce silica fume

in small amount.

2.2.5 Other mineral admixtures: pozzolan, micro silica, volcanic mud, etc.

To date, there is no data available on this matter.


To date, there is no data available on this matter. There is no chemical admixtures

association at this time being.

1.4 Aggregates

2.4.1 Coarse aggregates by type: natural, crushed, land, mountain, recycled

aggregate

The coarse aggregates used are mainly the crushed aggregate-type, and only in minor

cases (especially in remote areas) the natural gravel is used. The use of recycled aggregate is

still not common, and to date we still do not have any standard regulates the use of this type

of aggregate. There is no data available on the use of coarse aggregate in concrete production,

however it is estimated that the amount is about 174 million tons per year.

2.4.2 Fine aggregates by type: river, sea, land, mountain, recycled aggregate

The fine aggregates used are mainly of river type, whereas in some areas the

mountain-type sand is used. Sea sand is not allowed to be used, while the use of recycle

aggregate is still not common. There is no data available on the use of sand, however it is

estimated that the amount is about 110 million tons per year.

REFERENCES

[1] PT Semen Indonesia (Persero) Tbk., PT Semen Indonesia (Persero) Tbk. and the

Prospect of Indonesia Cement Industry, Slides, March 2014.

[2] www.asi.or.id (website of Indonesia Cement Association)

[3] Business Monitor International, Indonesia Infrastructure Report Q3 2014, Includes 10-

Year Forecasts to 2023, April 2014, London.

[4] AECOM, Asia Construction Outlook 2013, 2013.

[5] National Development Planning Ministry (Bappenas), ‘Indonesia Climate Change

Sectoral Roadmap (ICCSR)’, 2010, 1st Edition.

Contributor – Prof. Hardjito Djwantoro


http://www.asi.or.id/

21

3. Japan

3.1 Cement

There exist 30 cement plants owned by 17 companies located all over Japan as shown

in Fig. 3.1. Most of the cement plants are located along the coast. While many plants exist,

however, in the western parts, especially northern part of Kyusyu island and Yamaguchi

prefecture which are known for their rich limestone resources, 60% of cement is consumed

around Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka areas and therefore a large amount of cement is transported

from west to east.

Figure 3.1 Location of cement plants in Japan

After the World War II, the cement production increased in proportional to the

economic growth in 1960’s and 1970’s as shown in Fig. 3.2 [1]. The production of cement

reached the peak of around 100 million tons in 1996, and thereafter it decreased associated

with the reductions in construction projects. After 2010, the production volume has been

keeping the half of the peak. Around 10 million tons of cement is exported to all over the

world, i.e. Asia including China, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, etc., Middle East,

Oceania, Americas, Africa and Europe.

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) has been occupying 70-80% of total volume of

cement production in recent 20 years, the volume gradually decreased depending on the

increase of utilization of blended cements, especially blast furnace slag (BFS) cement in

which around 45% of OPC was replaced with BFS as shown in Fig. 3.3. On the other hand,

fly ash cement has not been produced constantly.

22

With the changes in kiln-type and other technological advances before 1990, thermal

energy consumption continuously decreased as shown in Fig. 3.4 [2]. Specific electric energy

consumption also decreased as shown in Fig. 3.5 mainly due to the introduction of the

classifier to the ball mill grinding system and replacement of the ball mill by the vertical mill

as a grinder of raw mixes and/or a pre-grinder of clinker [3]. However, improvement in

energy efficiency reached the limit.

Fig. 3.2 History of cement production in Japan [1]

Figure 3.3 Cement production by type in Japan

23

Figure 3.4 Thermal energy consumption in cement production in Japan [2]

Figure 3.5 Specific electric energy consumption in cement production in Japan [2]

Figure 3.6 Waste utilization in cement production in Japan [3]

24

Using alternative fuels such as plastic waste and sludge with organic components in

cement production reduced CO2 emission to a considerable extent. The utilization of waste

had been increasing as shown in Fig. 3.6 [3] but has also reached the limit in recent years.

3.2 Additions

3.2.1 Blast furnace slag [4]

Steel making plants are located from Tokyo and to the west, except the northernmost

big island, Hokkaido as shown in Fig. 3.7. Most of the steel making plants are located along

the coast. Blast furnace slag (BFS) is blended with ordinary Portland cement at cement plants.

Figure 3.7 Location of blast furnace slag plant in Japan

Figure 3.8 Generation of BFS by type in Japan

25

The ratio of water-smashing BFS, which is mainly used for blended cement, has been

increasing, and that of slow-cooled slag, which is used as coarse aggregate for concrete and

road has been decreasing as shown in Fig. 3.8. The crude steel production tends to increase

affected by the construction rush in economically buoyant China. Sale of water-smashing slag

in Japan has been decreasing, but its export has been increasing as shown in Fig. 3.9.

Figure 3.9 Utilization of BFS by application in Japan

3.2.2 Fly ash

Most of coal power plants are located along the coast all over Japan as shown in Fig.

3.10 [5]. But a very few plants are located around Tokyo, which causes unbalance between

supply and demand. There exist more coal power plants in the western part of Japan than in

the eastern part.

Figure 3.10 Location of coal power plant generating coal ash in Japan [5]

26

Generation of coal ash which is the source of fly ash has been increasing due to the

demand of electric power in Japan [6] as shown in Fig. 3.11. Increasing trend of fly ash

generation is expected to continue in view of the fact that the expected increase in the number

of coal power plants will increase the amount of resultant coal ash. Coal ash is not used for

blended cement in Japan but mainly used for cement raw material [7] as shown in Fig. 3.12.

Figure 3.11 Generation of coal ash by source in Japan

Figure 3.12 Utilization of coal ash by application in Japan

3.3 Aggregates

The production of aggregate for concrete soared during the period of high economic

growth, recording an all-time high of 949 million tons in 1990 [8] as shown in Fig. 3.13. In

27

recent years, crushed stone and crushed/pit sand have become major coarse and fine

aggregates, respectively, as good quality river sand and river gravel have become depleted.

The use of sea gravel and sea sand began in the mid-1960s, initially with insufficient

desalination, leading to premature deterioration of concrete structures particularly in western

Japan. Since the enforcement of a total chloride regulation, sea gravel and sea sand have been

thoroughly washed before use, but the extensive use of these aggregates caused exposure of

bedrock on the bottom of the sea, while causing the erosion of embankments and endangering

sand spits and fishing grounds.

Figure 3.13 Production of aggregate by type in Japan

Figure 3.14 Utilization of crushed stone by application in Japan

The utilization of crushed stone for all construction reached more than 400 million

tons from 1987 through 1997, and thereafter it continuously decreased as shown in Fig. 3.14.

28

The utilization in recent years are less than half those around 1990. The decrease is associated

with the reductions in construction projects especially for road and also affected by the green

procurement law which encourages constructors to use recycled concrete aggregate.

REFERENCES

[1] Japan Cement Association: Production, Sales, Consumption,

http://www.jcassoc.or.jp/cement/2eng/e_02a.html (2014.12.20)

[2] Japan Cement Association: Energy consumption for cement production,

http://www.jcassoc.or.jp/cement/2eng/e_01a.html (2014.12.20)

[3] Japan Cement Association: Use of wastes and by-products,

http://www.jcassoc.or.jp/cement/2eng/e_01d.html (2014.12.20)

[4] Nippon Slag Association: Iron and Steel Slag, 2013 (in Japanese)

[5] Japan Society of Civil Engineers: New utilization technologies of fly ash concrete

suitable for recycle oriented society: recommendations for design and construction of

fly ash concrete (draft), 2009 (in Japanese)

[6] Japan Coal Energy Center: National Survey Report on Coal Ash (Fiscal year 2012),

http://www.jcoal.or.jp/coalash7_24.pdf (2014.12.20)

[7] Japan Coal Energy Center: National Survey Report on Coal Ash (Fiscal year 2012),

http://www.jcoal.or.jp/bunya7_24.pdf (2014.12.20)

[8] Japan Crushed Stone Association: Aggregate Balance Sheet,

http://www.saiseki.or.jp/pdf/kotsuzai_table.pdf (2014.12.20)

[9] Housing Industry, Ceramics and Construction Materials Division, Manufacturing

Industries Bureau, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry: Year Book of Crushed

Stone Statistics

Contributor – Prof. T. Noguchi


29

4. KOREA

4.1 Cement

The cement manufacturers in South Korea produced 45.3 million tons of cement

clinker and 48.2 million tons of cement (Portland cement and blended Portland cement

combined), respectively, in 2011 as shown in Table 4.1, that summarizes the production of

cement between 1990 and 2011. Very small amount of cement was imported. Exported

amount was 5.5 million tons and 4.5 million tons of cement clinker and cement, respectively.

As the South Korean population was 50 million in 2011, the cement production was 0.96 ton

per capita while the consumption was 0.89 million ton per capita. The clinker factor is about

0.9 on average in Table 4.1 [1]. As of 2011, there are ten cement manufacturers in Korea as

summarized in Table 4.2 while two manufacturers are subsidized by transnational

corporations as shown. The ordinary Portland cement takes 79.5% and blended cement takes

20.5% of the total production, respectively, in Fig. 4.1. Blended cement in South Korea

typically utilizes blast furnace slag which is by product of steel manufacturing. Portland Type

I cement takes the 77% of all cement production and the production of Portland cement other

than Type I is only 2.5% of the total cement production in Korea as shown in Fig. 4.1.

Table 4.1 Status of clinker and cement production in South Korea (unit: 1,000 tons)

Year Clinker Cement Year Clinker Cement

1990 29,281 33,575 2001 47,393 52,046

1991 34,999 38,335 2002 50,048 55,514

1992 38,999 42,650 2003 51,575 59,194

1993 45,603 46,894 2004 48,251 54,330

1994 49,558 51,635 2005 43,071 47,197

1995 51,894 55,130 2006 42,723 49,199

1996 52,271 57,260 2007 46,293 52,182

1997 54,124 59,796 2008 46,795 51,653

1998 42,243 46,091 2009 44,774 50,126

1999 43,789 48,157 2010 44,853 47,420

2000 45,719 51,255 2011 45,281 48,249

Table 4.2 Cement manufacturers and amount of production in 2011 (unit: 1,000 tons)

Company Production Remarks Company Production Remarks

Tongyang 7,977 Sungshin 5,294

Ssangyong 11,198 Taiheiyo Halla 6,684 Lafarge

Hanil 6,020 Koryo 1,784

Hyundai 4,328 Hankook 1,397

Asia 3,117 Daehan 451

30

Figure 4.1 Cement production in South Korea in 2011

Blended cement in Korea mostly utilizes blast furnace slag (BFS). KS L 5210 (Blast

furnace slag cement) maintains three different classes of blast furnace slag cement, Type 1, 2,

and 3 depending on the BFS contents: 5 ~ 30% for Type 1, 30 ~ 60% for Type 2, and 60 ~

70% for Type 3. The most commonly found BFS content is 40%~45% [3].

4.2 Aggregates

About 75% of concrete by vol. is occupied by aggregates which means that an

immense amount of natural resources is being consumed to produce concrete in terms of

concrete aggregates. Aggregates are also used to produce asphalt concrete and concrete

products such as concrete piles. Like other countries, the supply of natural river gravel and

river sand is rapidly decreasing and others such as crushed stone and sea sand emerge as the

alternative source of the aggregate supply in South Korea.

Table 4.3 is the demand-vs.-supply plan established by the South Korean government

for the aggregates between 2009 and 2013. In 2013, the total demand is expected to be 244

million m3 while the planned supply is 256 million m

3. Both supply and demand slowly

increase with time in Table 4.3. Table 4.4 summarizes the supply plan of coarse aggregates

by type in South Korea. It is noted that natural aggregates are divided into four major types

depending on the source of the aggregates: river, sea, mountain, and land. For example, in

2013, the amount of coarse aggregate supply per type is 0.65, nil, 100.8, and 1.6 million m3

for the coarse aggregates supplied from river, sea, mountain, and land, respectively. Other

coarse aggregate types include recycled aggregate although the usage is not significant as

shown. Fig. 4.2 also summarizes the coarse aggregate supply plan between 2009 and 2013

that clearly shows that the mountain aggregates (crushed stone) which require more

production energy than the other types are the main source of supply. Table 4.5 and Fig. 4.3

also summarize the supply plan of the fine aggregates by type in South Korea. It can be seen

in Fig. 4.3 that two main sources of fine aggregate supply are sea sand and river sand [4].

31

Table 4.3 Demand vs. supply of aggregates in South Korea (Projection for demand and

supply plan for period: 2009~2013. unit: 1,000 m3)

Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Total Demand 216,254 229,194 236,250 241,215 244,137

Supply 234,725 240,654 248,061 253,278 256,344

Coarse

aggregate

Demand 122,400 129,724 133,718 136,528 138,182

Supply 131,625 135,874 140,067 143,021 144,753

Fine

aggregate

Demand 93,854 99,470 102,532 104,687 105,955

Supply 103,100 104,780 107,994 110,257 111,591

Table 4.4 Supply plan for coarse aggregates in South Korea (unit: 1,000 m3)

Type 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

River 706 840 653 666 652

Sea -- -- -- -- --

Mountain 93,387 95,647 98,880 100,341 100,795

Land 1,788 1,862 1,486 1,523 1,551

Recycled 8,968 10,281 10,966 11,873 12,740

Other 26,776 27,244 28,082 28,618 29,015

Total 131,625 135,874 140,067 143,021 144,753

Table 4.5 Supply plan for fine aggregates in South Korea (unit: 1,000 m3)

Type 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

River 25,860 24,457 24,831 25,762 26,189

Sea 33,249 36,123 38,011 41,369 42,370

Mountain 15,009 18,574 18,705 18,790 17,967

Land 8,955 8,943 8,855 9,012 9,202

Recycled 2,401 2,571 2,741 2,953 3,184

Other 17,626 14,112 14,851 12,371 12,679

Total 103,100 104,780 107,994 110,257 111,591

4.3 Additions

In South Korea, there are four industries that produce largest quantities of greenhouse

gases (GHG): cement manufacturing, steel making, heavy chemical, and coal-burning power

generation. In addition to GHG emission, the coal-burning power plants generate coal ashes

and the steel manufacturing generates steel slag in substantial quantities in South Korea that

need to be recycled for effective resources recirculation.

32

Figure 4.2 Supply plan of coarse aggregates in South Korea (2009 ~ 2013)

Figure 4.3 Planned supply of fine aggregates in South Korea (2009 ~ 2013)

4.3.1 Blast furnace slag

Korean steel makers produced a total of 68.5 million tons of steel in 2011: 42.1

million tons from blast furnace and 26.4 million tons from electric arc furnace. Two steel

makers, POSCO and Hyundai Steel, operate blast furnaces to produce crude steel while many

other producers operate only electric furnaces. The negative environmental impact including

GHG generation resulting from the operation of the blast furnace can be very large: for

example, 2.1 tons of CO2-eq. was generated per 1 ton of crude steel produced by POSCO in

2011 [5].

Blast furnace slag (BFS) is obtained by quenching molten iron slag from a blast

furnace with water spray, then dried and ground into a form of fine powder using additional

post treatment facilities. While the POSCO produced 37.3 million tons of crude steel in 2011,

33

significant quantity of BFS was also generated as well as the steel making slag (converter

slag) as shown in Fig. 4.4. Fig. 4.4 shows that 59% of the BFS was utilized by the cement

producers for the blended cement production. Fig. 4.4 also shows that 37% of BFS was

utilized for road and civil works while remainder was used as fertilizers, etc. Although the

BFS is mostly consumed in Korea, some minor amount is being exported to other country in

Asia. In contrast to BFS, the steel making slag is not utilized effectively due to technical

difficulties [6], [7].

Figure 4.4 Status of BFS and steel making slag generation and utilization by POSCO (2011)

4.3.2 Electric furnace slag

As about 20% of the steel slag is generated from electric arc furnaces in South Korea,

Korean Standard Association has recently developed a new standard on the use of electric arc

furnace oxidation slag as concrete coarse and fine aggregates in addition to existing standards

for the blast furnace slag. It is noted, however, that there are still technical concerns on the

potential volume expansion due to free CaO and free MgO in case of aggregates that have not

been through sufficient ageing process, and possible segregation problems due to high

specific gravity of the electric furnace slag [8].

4.3.3 Fly ash

The coal ash generation in South Korea was 8.36 million tons in 2009 (6.85 million

tons of fly ash and 1.51 million tons of bottom ash) that showed about 40% increase over the

amount generated in 2005 due to addition of new coal-burning power plants. The demand of

fossil fuels for the coal-fired power plant is still increasing in South Korea which indicates

that the amount of coal ash as by-product of the plant operation will also increase in the

future. In 2009, 68% of fly ash was recycled while the main usage was as the raw material for

cement (8.5%) and the mineral admixture for concrete (68%). It is mandatory in Korea to use

at least 10% fly ash replacement of cement when building a coal-fired power plant. Fly ash is

also used in new nuclear power plant constructions. As the target utilization of coal ash in

Korea is 75% in the immediate future, there is a need for further technological development

and systematic effort to achieve this target [9].

As the fly ash is typically used as cementitous substitution in South Korea, the quality

of fly ash is being controlled by related standard. Typical usage is 10~20% replacement of

34

cement by wt. although the ternary mixes that utilize both fly ash and blast furnace slag at the

same time is increasing due to recent increased supply of BFS (new blast furnaces of

Hyundai Steel) [10].

Figure 4.5 Utilization of fly ash in South Korea (2009)

4.3.4 Bottom ash

Bottom ash is also a by-product of coal-burning power plant. In 2009, 39% of bottom

ash was reused as raw material for cement and for the production of concrete products such

as concrete blocks. The remainder is usually disposed of in the coastal area close to the

source of the coal ash generation.

4.3.5 Silica fume

Silica fume is 100% imported in South Korea. It is mainly used to increase the

strength and durability of concrete. Unfortunately it is hard to find statistics in South Korea

regarding the amount of utilization at present.

REFERENCES

[1] 2011 Statistical yearbook for cement industry in Korea, Korea Cement Association,

2012.

[2] Korea Standard Association, Portland cement, KS L 5201, Seoul, South Korea, 2013.

[3] Korea Standard Association, Blast furnace slag cement, KS L 5210, Seoul, South

Korea, 2006.

[4] Ministry of land, transportation and maritime affairs, National 4th

aggregate supply

plan (2009 ~ 2013), 2008.

[5] POSCO, 2011 POSCO report – Global movement, 2012.

[6] Korea Standard Association, Blast furnace slag fine powder, KS F 2563, Seoul, South

Korea, 2004.

[7] Korea Standard Association, Blast furnace slag aggregate for concrete, KS F 2544,

Seoul, South Korea, 2002.

35

[8] Korea Standard Association, Electric furnace oxidation slag aggregate for concrete,

KS F 4571, Seoul, South Korea, 2007.

[9] Choi et al., Concrete and environment, Korea Concrete Institute, 2010.

[10] Korea Standard Association, Fly ash cement, KS L 5211, Seoul, South Korea, 2006.

Contributor – Prof. Donguk CHOI


36

5. MONGOLIA

5.1 Cement

The current capacity of the cement production is 470,000 tons per year by three

cement factories and four clinker grinding mill plants. Cement consumption by 2012 was

1.97 million tons and 1.5 million tons cement was imported from China. Cement

consumption per 1,000 persons is 162 tons a year in 2012. The forecasted consumption for

2016 is 4.5 million tons a year and Government agenda targeted that this demand will be

supplied domestically. Currently four cement plant projects are in construction stage and

going to supply cement into market from 2014. These plants have production capacity of 3.24

million tons and are Khutul Cement, Selenge aimag, MAK Khukh Tsav, Dornogovi aimag,

Germes Tsahiur, Dornogovi aimag and Monpolimet, Dornogovi aimag. Other three projects

of cement plants with capacity of 0.7 million in Khovd aimag and Bayan Ulgii aimag are in

their feasibility study [2].

Figure 5.1 Cement consumption and production trend (unit: thousand tons)

Raw materials consumption for the production of cement is shown in Table 5.1.

Currently cement production technology is shifting from wet technology to dry technology

reducing carbon emission and dusting. With this shift coal consumption for wet process (320-

340 kg/ton) shall be reduced to 180 kg/ton. In total 64 thousand tons of coal is saved in 2012

production. All new plants have dry technology and follow European standards [2].

37

Figure 5.2 Ongoing cement plant projects location and capacity

Table 5.1 Raw material consumption for 1 ton cement production

Materials per 1 ton Industrial total 2012

/tons/

Limestone 1.318 619 225

Clay 0.217 101 990

Gypsum 0.093 43 710

Fly ash 0.078 36 425

Coal 0.180 84 600

5.2 Fly Ash Generation and Utilization

96% of electricity production is from coal sources in Mongolia. Coal consumption in

year 2012 was 10.85 million tons and last twenty years' consumption trend is shown in Fig.

5.3 [5]. Total ash generation is more than 3.5 million tons assuming that one third weight

fraction of coal becomes ash [4]. Coal mostly utilized in thermal power plants in capital city

Ulaanbaatar is mainly from Shivee Ovoo and Baganuur mines and their ashes have been

identified as Class C fly ash due to high content of CaO produced from lignite or

subbituminous coals [4]. Currently research on utilization of fly ash in concrete is being

carried out in different institutions and companies and cement and concrete producers are

interested in this. Currently no exact number on actual utilization of fly ash is available. Fly

ash generation is going to increase in the future; more thermal power plants are planned and

some of them are in realization stage with the increasing demand in power production,

electricity export to China, oil shale processing and coal liquefaction plants.

38

Figure 5.3 Coal consumption trend of Mongolia 1980-2012 /million tons/


Currently in the market world known chemical admixture producers BASF, Sika are

competing with more economical Korean and Chinese brands. There is no collected data in

chemical admixture consumption only rough and unofficial data from National Concrete

Producer's Association is 200 tons a year in Ulaanbaatar.

5.4 Aggregates

No classified data on aggregate is available and only gross data for capital city

Ulaanbaatar is available. It is shown in Table 5.2 [6]. Most aggregate producers use Tuul river

basin as their production source. But Tuul river is the main source of capital city water supply

and due to last few years of vast booming of construction its ecological issue became hot

topic of debate within the Ulaanbaatar citizens and Government. In accordance with this

Ulaanbaatar Governor Ordinance A/293 dated by 18 April, 2014 “Temporary prohibition of

exploration and transportation of mineral resources within Capital city territory and

intensification of traffic control of heavy loaded trucks” was released. This ordinance from

aggregate producers within territory of Ulaanbaatar city: (1) companies that use natural

resources must build paved road and logistic center from own funding, (2) implement

environmental management plan, (3) mixer and truck wheel cleaning for ready-mixed plants.

Currently aggregate producers takes this ordinance as burden to their business.

39

Table 5.2 Aggregate consumption and production in Ulaanbaatar, 2012 (unit: thousand tons)

Year Consumption Production Supply

2010 1,164 1,164 100%

2011 2,340 2,340 100%

2012 3,249 3,249 100%

REFERENCES

[1] 'Mongolian Statistics Yearbook', Mongolian Statistics Office, 2013,

[2] 'Monthly Statistical Bulletin: Price of main consumer products', Mongolian Statistics

Office, 1-4th qrts, 2013,

[3] 'Annual Report of 2012', The Building Material Manufacturer’s Association of

Mongolia, UB, 2012,

[4] Dunil Pushpalal, O.Batmunkh, S.Munkhbaatar, G.Oyunbold, Hiroo Kashima,

'Making Concrete Stronger and Greener with Mongolian Fly Ash (Part 1)',

Proceedings of 12th International Concrete Conference, UB, Mongolia, 2013,

pp118-125

[5] from United States Energy Information Administration website

http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=mg#coal

[6] 'Construction Materials Supply and Demand in Ulaanbaatar', Study Report, The

Building Material Manufacturer’s Association of Mongolia, 2012,

[7] Info from Central Bank of Mongolia,

http://www.mongolbank.mn/documents/pricestability/day_news/barilga_subprogram

.pdf

[8] United portal of construction, www. barilga.mn

[9] Info from Central Bank of Mongolia, www.mongolbank.mn

[10] Damdin Dagvadorj, 'Low Carbon Development Strategy as an Integral Part of

National Green Development Concept in Mongolia', Climate Change Coordination

Office, Ministry of Environment and Green Development of Mongolia

http://www.adbi.org/files/2013.07.17.cpp.d2.s3.2.3.country.ppt.mongolia.pdf

[11] Ministry of Environment and Green Development of Mongolia website,

http://mne.mn/

Contributor – Prof. Duinkherjav Yagaanbuyant


http://www.mongolbank.mn/documents/pricestability/day_news/barilga_subprogram.pdf




http://www.mongolbank.mn/

40

6. THAILAND

6.1 Cement

Cement production in Thailand is clearly driven by global economic. From 2000, the

cement production increase from 16 million ton/year to the highest of 25.6 million ton/year in

2006 before falling down to about 20.2 million ton/year in 2008 due to the US Subprime

Economic Crisis in 2007 (Fig. 6.1). The reason for the dropping is because Thailand’s cement

production is strongly tiding up with the cement exporting (about 20 to 30% of total Portland

cement production are exported, Fig. 6.2). When the global demand declined, the production

decreased. However, since then the quantity has been climbing back slowly to about 27.9

million ton in the year 2012.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Portland Cement 16.0 17.5 19.6 19.1 20.9 23.7 25.6 22.1 20.2 21.1 23.4 23.5 27.9

Mixed Cement 8.96 10.0 11.1 12.5 14.0 13.3 12.9 11.5 10.9 10.3 10.5 10.3 10.3

Clinker 28.6 32.6 37.5 32.9 35.3 38.7 40.9 40.7 38.1 37.6 38.8 37.8 39.8

-

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

40.00

45.00

Qu

anti

ty (m

illi

on

ton

s)

Cement Production- Thailand

Source: The office of Industrial

Figure 6.1 Total clinker, Portland cement and mixed cement production

(Source: [1] National Statistic of Office, Thailand)

41

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Portland Cement 6.71 7.46 6.77 5.44 4.97 6.08 7.76 6.22 5.15 5.62 5.97 5.42 6.80

Mixed Cement 1.05 1.69 1.76 2.55 2.85 1.99 1.55 1.94 1.91 1.12 1.18 0.40 0.14

-

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

Qu

anti

ty (m

illi

on

ton

s)

Cement Export

Source: The office of Industrial Economy

Figure 6.2 Portland cement exporting

(Source: [1] National Statistic of Office, Thailand)

6.2 Aggregate

Coarse aggregate used in Thailand is mainly crushed limestone. Limestone is used in

two ways, first as a raw material for cement production and second as aggregate for concrete

production. Considering the aggregate, the consumption of crushed limestone aggregate is

clearly following the similar trend as of the cement production. The consumption used to be

up to about 83.4 million ton per year in 2007 before dropping to about 72.4 million ton in the

following year (Fig. 6.3).

-

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

20

11

20

12

Qu

anti

ty (

mill

ion

to

ns)

Limestone Consumptions

For cement

For aggregate

TotalSource: The office of Industrial Economy

Figure 6.3 Crushed limestone consumption

(Source: [2] Department of Primary Industries and Mines)

42

6.3 Fly Ash

The data on fly ash production, consumption and disposal is as shown in Fig. 6.4.

Most the fly ash in Thailand comes from 2 main sources: Mae Moh and BLCP power plants.

Both sources produce about 2.8-2.9 million tons of fly ash per year. Mae Moh production

alone is about 2.5 million tons which represent about 90% of the total production. The data

represented here in this reported come from the Mae Moh power plant alone. The total

production is constant at 2.5 million tons per year. But the utilization quantity fluctuates by

year and following the similar trend of that ready mixed concrete production (most fly ash are

utilized in ready mixed concrete industry).

Figure 6.4 Fly ash production, consumption and production (Mae Moh power plant only)

(Source: [3]

Electrical Generation of Thailand)

6.4 Silica fume

Silica fume utilizing in cement and concrete industry are as shown in Fig. 6.5. During

the last 4 to 5 years, most silica fume used in Thailand is produced locally, however the

utilizing amount is still small (ranging from 645 to about 1687 ton per year).

43

Figure 6.5 Silica fume consumption

(Source: [4] Elkem (Thailand) Co. Ltd.)

REFERENCES

[1] National Statistic of Office, Thailand

[2] Department of Primary Industries and Mines, Thailand

[3] Electrical Generation of Thailand

[4] Elkem (Thailand) Co., Ltd.

Contributor – Prof. Piti Sukontasukkul


44

III. STATUS OF PRODUCTION AND USE OF CONCRETE

1. INDONESIA

1.1 Ready-mixed Concrete

To date, Indonesia does not have any ready-mixed concrete association, and thus there

is no accurate report on the percentage of concrete produced in ready-mixed concrete. For big

projects, the use of ready mixed concrete is very common. However, for the small projects

(e.g. housing), casting can be carried out in mixed modes: ready-mixed for the elements

which need large amount of concrete (e.g. slab), and on-site mixing - whether by using small

mixer or manual mixing – for elements which require only small volume of concrete (e.g.

columns). The percentage of ready-mixed concrete is also vary from place to place, whereby

in the city the percentage is high/very high, and reduced in the rural areas. It is still widely

practiced, constructing houses and other small projects are carried out without supervision

from certified concrete technicians. In such cases, on-site mixing is normally practiced – with

or without small mixer – applying volume batching.

Information released by the largest cement producer in Indonesia, i.e. PT Semen

Indonesia (Persero) Tbk, may provide rough ideas on the status of concrete production in

Indonesia. In 2013, approximately 21% of cement consumption in Indonesia was demanded

by large concrete producers and supplied in bulk, while the bigger portion of approximately

79% was supplied in bags. Table 1.1 shows that ready-mixed concrete is only accounted for a

very low figure, i.e. about 12.6%. It shows also that retail or residential sector is the largest

consumer of cement in Indonesia [1]. These figures show that the practice of sustainable

development in Indonesia, especially in concrete production, remains a challenging issue.

Major decisions and policies should be taken to tackle the issue seriously; while at the same

time education and dissemination on the need to practice more responsible sustainable

development are to impose.

Table 1.1 Domestic cement consumption in 2013 [1]

Mode of delivery Use Percentage (%)

Bag Housing 71.10

Bag Cement-based industry 7.90

Bulk Ready-mixed (infrastructure) 12.60

Bulk Fabricator (precast, fiber cement, cement-based

industry) 7.15

Bulk Projects (mortar, render) 1.05

1.2 Precast Concrete

Recently there was a formation of Indonesian Precast and Pre-stressed Concrete

Association. The use of precast concrete is getting more popular. The most popular precast

concrete products are pile for foundation, power poles and railway sleepers. More drainage

45

projects are now utilizing precast concrete. Similar trend is also happening on the use of

precast concrete elements (especially wall) to construct high rise apartment buildings. Table

1.1 indicates that precast concrete production is still considered very low, less than 7%.

1.3 On-site Batch Plant

On-site batch plant is common only for huge projects. To date no data is available on

the percentage use of on-site batch plant. However, Table 1.1 provides indication that the use

of on-site batch plant to produce concrete is still very low.

1.4 On-site mixing

On-site mixing remains a popular mean of making concrete, especially to cast small

volume sections or elements such as columns. For small projects, for example housing, on-

site mixing is also a common practice. In rural areas, on-site mixing is still a popular

technique to cast concrete, applying volume batching. Table 1.1 shows that the biggest

consumption of cement is for housing or residential projects, it accounts for more than 70%.



46

2. JAPAN

There existed around 5,000 ready-mixed concrete (RMC) plants in 1992 all over

Japan but it has decreased into 3,500 in 2013. Production volume of RMC was almost 200

million m3 in 1990 at the peak but it has decreased into around 85 million m3 in 2010 [1][2]

as shown in Fig. 2.1. RMC was used for the construction of civil structures and buildings in

the approximate proportion of 3 part to 2 in 1980’s but 2 part to 3 in 2000’s [3] as shown in

Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.1 Production of RMC in Japan

Figure 2.2 Utilization of RMC by application in 2000 and 2012 in Japan

47

REFERENCES

[1] Economic Research Institute, Economic Research Association: Quarter-century of

Construction Materials Price Based on “Price Data for Construction Cost Estimating”,

Price Data for Construction Cost Estimating, 2003.11 (in Japanese)

[2] National Ready Mixed Concrete Association: Past Record of Shipment,

http://www.zennama.or.jp/3-toukei/nenji/pdf/suii.pdf (2014.12.20)

[3] National Ready Mixed Concrete Association: Past Record of Sectoral Shipment,

http://www.zennama.or.jp/3-toukei/gaiyou/index.html (2014.12.20)



48

3. KOREA

As of 2011, there are 751 ready-mixed concrete producers which operate 921 ready-

mixed concrete plants in South Korea. The production capacity is 520 million m3 but actual

production is only about 25% of the full capacity. There is an obvious over supply of the

production facility of ready-mixed concrete plants in South Korea. The production volume of

the ready-mixed concrete is 121 million m3 in 2011 which corresponds to only 23.3% of the

production capacity as shown in Table 3.1 that summarizes the status of ready-mixed

concrete production in Korea between 1990 and 2011 [11]. About 75% all concrete produced

is ready-mixed concrete while on-site batch plant production and precast concrete production

together constitute the other 25% in South Korea.

One potential problem in terms of sustainability is the use of relatively low-strength

concrete in South Korea. With the use of low-strength concrete, it is difficult to produce

durable concrete so the service life of a concrete structure can be reduced. Table 3.2

summarizes the strength classes of ready-mixed concrete (cylinder strength) produced in

2010 and it can be seen that the low strength classes of 21 MPa and 24 MPa (cylinder

strength) still dominate the market.

It is noted that the ready-mixed concrete industry is a large consumer of fly ash in

South Korea and it consumes about 70% all fly ash generated in South Korea. Table 3.3 is a

summary of the aggregate consumption related to the ready-mixed concrete production in

2010 that shows the statistics both for the coarse aggregates and the fine aggregates.

Table 3.1 Status of ready-mixed concrete (RMC) production in South Korea (1990 ~ 2011)

Year RMC

Production

(1,000m3)

Cement

consumed

(1,000t)

Aggregate

consumed

(1,000t)

Year RMC

Production

(1,000m3)

Cement

consumed

(1,000t)

Aggregate

consumed

(1,000t)

1990 58,415 17,817 73,019 2001 119,230 35,769 149,038

1991 81,130 25,150 101,413 2002 137,172 41,152 171,465

1992 87,217 27,037 109,021 2003 147,798 44,339 184,747

1993 91,071 28,232 113,839 2004 142,214 42,664 177,767

1994 106,592 33,043 133,240 2005 125,675 35,189 157,094

1995 114,731 35,567 143,414 2006 132,739 37,167 165,924

1996 125,806 39,000 157,257 2007 139,225 38,983 174,031

1997 133,197 42,623 166,496 2008 135,653 37,982 169,567

1998 96,084 31,227 120,105 2009 123,763 34,654 154,704

1999 95,974 31,192 119,968 2010 115,516 32,345 144,396

2000 109,081 35,452 136,352 2011 121,110 33,910 151,387

49

Table 3.2 Strength classes of ready-mixed concrete production (2010)

Strength ≤ 18 MPa 21 MPa 24 MPa 27 MPa ≥ 30 MPa

Percentage 14.2 38.6 31.0 7.6 8.7

Table 3.3 Aggregate consumption for the ready-mixed concrete production in percentage

(2010)

Source River Land Mountain Sea Blast

furnace

Others

Coarse aggregate 2.0 0.2 97.8 -- < 0.1 0.2 1)

Fine aggregate 23.9 12.2 1.1 29.1 -- 33.8 2)

Note: 1) recycled aggregates, etc.; 2) crushed fine aggregates, etc.

Figure 3.1 Amount of ready-mixed concrete production and associated consumption of

cement and aggregates between 1990 and 2011 (unit: 1,000 m3 for RMC, 1,000 tons for

cement and aggregates)

REFERENCES

[1] 2011 Statistical yearbook for ready-mixed concrete industry in Korea, Korea ready-

mixed Concrete Industrial Association, 2012.



50

4. MONGOLIA

4.1 Ready- mixed Concrete

Production amount of ready mixed concrete production is increasing dramatically last

three years resulting in several major Government decisions. First one is Road, Construction

and Urban Development Minister Decree of 2010 that prohibited job site concrete production.

This Decree has tremendous impact on both the quality of monolith concrete construction and

production amount of ready mixed concrete. Government Ordinance No. 193 dated by 22

December, 2012 “Custom and value added tax exemption on imported equipment for

construction material producers” gave also good opportunity to the concrete producers. The

current number of ready mix plants in Ulaanbaatar is more than eighty and almost no site

mixing or producing of concrete in Ulaanbaatar city. Ready mixed concrete production in

Ulaanbaatar is shown in Fig. 4.1 [6].

4.2 Precast concrete products

Only 8.3% of total concrete production is used for pre-cast concrete products in 2012

[6].

Figure 4.1 Ready mixed concrete production in Ulaanbaatar (Unit: thousand cubic meter)

REFERENCES

[1] 'Mongolian Statistics Yearbook', Mongolian Statistics Office, 2013,

[2] 'Monthly Statistical Bulletin: Price of main consumer products', Mongolian Statistics

Office, 1-4th qrts, 2013,

[3] 'Annual Report of 2012', The Building Material Manufacturer’s Association of

51

Mongolia, UB, 2012,

[4] Dunil Pushpalal, O.Batmunkh, S.Munkhbaatar, G.Oyunbold, Hiroo Kashima,

'Making Concrete Stronger and Greener with Mongolian Fly Ash (Part 1)',

Proceedings of 12th International Concrete Conference, UB, Mongolia, 2013,

pp118-125

[5] from United States Energy Information Administration website

http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=mg#coal

[6] 'Construction Materials Supply and Demand in Ulaanbaatar', Study Report, The

Building Material Manufacturer’s Association of Mongolia, 2012,

[7] Info from Central Bank of Mongolia,

http://www.mongolbank.mn/documents/pricestability/day_news/barilga_subprogram

.pdf

[8] United portal of construction, www. barilga.mn

[9] Info from Central Bank of Mongolia, www.mongolbank.mn

[10] Damdin Dagvadorj, 'Low Carbon Development Strategy as an Integral Part of

National Green Development Concept in Mongolia', Climate Change Coordination

Office, Ministry of Environment and Green Development of Mongolia

http://www.adbi.org/files/2013.07.17.cpp.d2.s3.2.3.country.ppt.mongolia.pdf

[11] Ministry of Environment and Green Development of Mongolia website,

http://mne.mn/







http://www.mongolbank.mn/

52

5. THAILAND

5.1 Ready-mixed Concrete

The amount of ready mixed concrete used in Thailand increases every year from 5.1

million ton in 2000 to about 12.3 million ton in 2004 (Fig. 5.1). However, during the year

2005 to 2011, due to the political crisis, the demand on ready mixed concrete dropped slightly

and remained unchanged for several years due to contraction of the construction sector.

Fig. 5.1 Ready-mixed concrete consumption

REFERENCES

[1] The office of industrial economy, Thailand.



53

IV. STATUS OF CONSTRUCTION

1. INDONESIA

1.1 Construction Volume: revenue, employment, etc.

Concrete is the most popular construction material, and thus the growth in

construction industry can directly be associated with the growth of concrete industry as well.

Fig. 1.1 shows the growth of construction and infrastructure industry in Indonesia – as a case

study -, whereby data from 2014 onwards were forecasted [3].

Although experiencing high level of inflation in the recent years, the real growth has

been high, averaging 7.74%/year from 2003-2009, with approximately equal proportion for

infrastructure and building construction. In 2014, the growth of construction and

infrastructure sector continues to slow down, underperform growth in 2012 and 2013,

especially due to the growing possibility for a significant change in political leadership in

Indonesia. The construction growth in 2014 is forecasted to be about 5.9% [3].

Figure 1.1 Indonesia construction and infrastructure industry data (2012-2017) [3]

The information presented in Fig. 1.1 might be conservative. From another report, it

was revealed that in 2012, construction spending in Indonesia was accounted for more than a

quarter of the country’s GDP at US$183.8 billion, whereby the infrastructure sector took the

biggest share at 48%, followed by non-residential sector at 38.1%, and residential sector at

13.8% [4]. The report also stated that the GDP growth is forecasted to be around 6% from

2012-2017.

54

Table 1.1 Construction sector employment data (2012-2017) [3]

2012 2013 2014f 2015f 2016f 2017f

Construction sector employment,

million 6.79 7.09 7.37 7.73 8.16 8.64

Active population, total, million 161.94 164.66 167.41 170.11 172.74 175.30

Construction industry employees

as % of total labor force 4.19 4.30 4.40 4.54 4.72 4.93

Table 1.1 presents data on the growth of construction industry employment from 2012

till 2017, whereby figures for 2014 onwards were forecasted. As the construction industry

continues to grow, so as the number and percentage of construction industry employees,

compared to the total active population [3].

1.2 Floor area by structural type (RC, SRC, steel, wood, masonry, etc.)

There is no data available at present.

1.3 Floor area by building type (residential, commercial, etc.)

There is no data available.



55

2. JAPAN

Construction investment reached the peak of 84 trillion yen (840 billion US$) in 1992

but has decreased into the half around 2010 [1] as shown in Fig. 2.1. Construction investment

as a percentage of the GDP was over 20% in 1970’s but has decreased into less than 10%

around 2010.

Figure 2.1 Construction investment in Japan

Figure 2.2 Floor space by structural type provided per year in Japan

56

Total floor space of buildings provided per year reached the peak 1990 but decreased

into 57% of the peak in 2007 as shown in Fig. 2.2. The status has continued, affected by the

economic downturn precipitated by the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy in 2008. Total floor

space of steel buildings is 1.4 to 1.8 times larger than that of reinforced concrete buildings as

shown in Fig. 2.2.

REFERENCES

[1] Construction Research and Statistics Office, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land,

Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism: Perspective of Construction Investment in

Fiscal Year 2013, 2013 (in Japanese)

[2] Statistics Bureau of Japan: www.stat.go.jp/data/chouki/zuhyou/09-06.xls (2014.12.20)



57

3. KOREA

The construction industry has traditionally been very important in South Korea. As of

2011, total revenue from construction industry is U$ 101 billion domestic and U$ 56 billion

from abroad, respectively. Construction industry is responsible for 6% of GNP while

construction-related direct employment is 8% and it is 14% including indirect employment.

Fig. 3.1 shows the status of construction in South Korea between 1997 and 2011. In Fig. 3.1,

it can be seen that the civil engineering work and building work take about 35% and 65% of

the total revenue, respectively, in 2011. (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport,

www.molit.go.kr)

25,261 17,323 21,216 25,858 39,034

47,231 43,787 53,278 49,604

37,702 44,984 41,857 41,833 42,123 45,153

20,365 22,247

25,347 23,764

29,519

34,769 34,950

45,845 38,084

27,536 29,012 29,251 30,349 27,741 26,298

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

Civil Engineering Project

Building Project

case

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

(a) Number pf projects

418 208 276 343 380

493 641 567 627 718

834 717

587 562 654

307

228 189

204 236

263

290 293

276 258

329 375

492 376

353

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

Civil Engineering Project

Building Project

Mil

ion

Do

llar

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

(b) Revenue

Figure 3.1 Status of construction in South Korea (1997 ~ 2011)



http://www.molit.go.kr/

58

4. MOGOLIA

Construction work amount is shown in Fig. 4.1 and classified data on building type is

shown in Fig. 4.2 [1]. From the Government several policy measurements are taken to

support construction industry. These are: (1) Government Ordinance No. 171 dated by 15

December, 2012 “Support program of construction materials’ production”; (2) Government

Ordinance No. 193 dated by 22 December, 2012 “Custom and value added tax exemption on

imported equipment for construction material producers”; (3) MOU of Mid-term program to

stabilize price of imported main consumer products was signed between Government and

Central Bank on 22 October, 2012. The last mid-term program has four subcomponents and

one of them is ‘Support of Construction Industry, Stabilize Housing Price’. Within the

framework of this subcomponent an allowance of 379 billion MNT for Construction

materials import, 800 billion MNT for housing supply, 265 billion for price of cement and

steel and 50 billion for new projects of construction materials was funded from Central Bank

in 2012-2014 [7]. Government policy measurements have positive impact on current

development rate of construction and price of main construction materials including cement

and steel.

Figure 4.1 Construction work total amount (unit: billion MNT)

59

Figure 4.2 Classification by building types, percentage of total of 2012



60

5. Thailand

5.1 Company, Workforce and Revenue

The latest data available related to construction company, work force and revenue are

in the year 2009 (Table 5.1). Since the data is updated every 5 years, therefore this is perhaps

the latest data available. The total revenue on construction related industry is about 2.83% of

the GDP (263.8 billion US Dollars in 2009).

Table 5.1 Construction company, employee and revenue (2009)[1]

Type Company Employee Revenue

(mil.US$)

Building 16,668 198,339 7,453

Road and railways 946 36,929 1,994

Infrastructure 660 10,458 544

Other civil works 69 2,908 143

Demolition 23 319 8

Site preparation 4,348 10,364 224

Electricity 1,985 24,909 1,142

Plumbing 506 6,945 278

Other equipment 233 4,050 197

Building finishing 3,073 19,194 509

Other specialist 848 20,735 646

Total 29,359 335,150 13,139

5.2 Construction Area

Construction areas are divided into two different kinds: residential and non-residential.

Each category also divided into new construction and renovation. The ratio between new

construction and renovation in Thailand is very low. Most of the construction areas are new

construction. As described before, due to political conflict, the growth of the construction

industry seems to be limited from the year 2005 to 2011 ranging from 55 to 58 million m2 per

year (Fig. 5.1(a)).

The non-residential area shows a leap increase in the year 2008 due to the beginning

of the several megaprojects related to mass transit in Bangkok and vicinity (Fig. 5.1(b)).

The area of residential area using concrete is average about 20 to 28 million m2 per

year which is considered to be about 33.6 to 47.3% of the total construction area (see Fig.

5.1(c) and Table 5.2).

61

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

New Construction 55,437,911 58,302,005 56,765,365 58,127,939 62,659,040 70,001,200

Renovation 3,848,889 2,523,421 4,055,271 2,638,160 7,520,957 4,702,621

Total 59,286,800 60,825,426 60,820,636 60,766,099 70,179,997 74,703,821

-

10,000,000

20,000,000

30,000,000

40,000,000

50,000,000

60,000,000

70,000,000

80,000,000

Residential Construction Area (sq.m)

(a)

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

New Construction 624,990 1,733,805 1,903,009 1,731,889 1,920,759 1,893,757

Renovation 23,078 35,506 31,845 28,416 19,789 23,581

Total 648,068 1,769,311 1,934,854 1,760,305 1,940,548 1,917,338

-

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

Are

a (s

q.m

)

Non-Residential Construction Area (sq.m)

(b)

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Series2 28,041,319 20,645,065 20,446,864 20,446,864 24,681,633 25,453,361

0

5,000,000

10,000,000

15,000,000

20,000,000

25,000,000

30,000,000

Are

a (s

q.m

)

Residential Construction Area using Concrete

(c)

Figure 5.1 Construction area: (a) Residential area, (b) Non-residential area, and (c)

Residential area using concrete [1]

62

Table 5.2 Summary on construction area [1]

Residential New Res Area

using Concrete

%

Year

New

Construction Renovation Total

2007 55,437,911 3,848,889 59,286,800 28,041,319 47.3

2008 58,302,005 2,523,421 60,825,426 20,645,065 33.9

2009 56,765,365 4,055,271 60,820,636 20,446,864 33.6

2010 58,127,939 2,638,160 60,766,099 20,446,864 33.6

2011 62,659,040 7,520,957 70,179,997 24,681,633 35.1

2012 70,001,200 4,702,621 74,703,821 25,453,361 34.07

REFERENCES

[1] National Statistic Office of Thailand



63

V. STATUS OF GHG EMISSION

1. INDONESIA

The central government, through the National Development Planning Ministry

(hereinafter BAPPENAS) recently published the Indonesia Climate Change Sectoral

Roadmap (ICCSR) which integrates climate mitigation into national development planning.

Climate mitigation has been thoroughly considered in this report [5]. The ICCSR elaborates

climate mitigation options in several sectors including forestry, energy, industry,

transportation and waste management.

ICCRS adopts the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for

National Greenhouse Gas Inventories for Industrial Processes And Product Use, especially

Mineral Industry namely Cement Industry (Section 2A.1). This policy has been adopted by

Indonesia central government and translated into National Industry Development Policy

formulated in 2008 which has been executed by the Ministry of Industry.

The stakeholders include of GHG inventories includes MARKAL model by BPPT,

Central Statistics Agency (BPS), Indonesian Cement Association (ASI), World Business

Council for Sustainable Development – Cement Sustainability Initiative and cement

manufacturers such as PT. Indocement, PT. Holcim Indonesia and PT. Semen Gresik

(recently is called PT Semen Indonesia (Persero) Tbk.).

The ICCSR has been one of the main instruments that guide new pathways and

become future basis for climate mitigation and adaptation policy to be integrated into series

of Mid-term Development Planning (MTDP) including the ongoing MTDP 2010-2014 and

the next three MTDPs. Apart from MTDP, the country’s Long-term Development Planning

(LTDP) for 2005-2030 also incorporated climate mitigation and adaptation as factors that

should be considered.

Figure 1.1 ICCSR 2010’s milestones of integrating CC, development and risk reduction [5]

64

There are at least four escalators of anticipatory adaptation measures to be made in the

next 20 years (Fig. 1.1). First is to have a science based vulnerability mapping nationwide by

2015 that leads to an established climate change information system namely Monitoring,

Reporting and Verification (MRV). Second, institutional capacity strengthened at national

level governance in 2015 towards a “climate-proof policymaking process and regulation” in

2020. ”Climate adaptation sensitive development policy” is expected to happen in 2025 and

by 2030 when the country should have reduced its climate risks in all development sectors

“through concerted efforts of public awareness, strengthened capacity, improved knowledge

management, and the application of adaptive technology as indicators of adaptation-proof

development”.

ICCSR 2010 provides four scenarios for CO2 reduction. First is business as usual or

without intervention. Second, CO2 reduction through energy efficiency scenario. Third, using

alternative fuels to reduce CO2 consumption at cement factories, and lastly, Blended-Cement

scenario. Each scenario has its own assumption of emission intensity (CO2/t cement). In this

paper, we will use the same emission intensity assumption. However, we corrected the

calculation from four scenarios of the ICCRS 2010 based on long term data from the Bureau

of Statistics from 1996-2011.

For business as usual, the emission intensity is 0.833t CO2/t-cement (with the

assumption 57% was contributed by the calcination process; heat production is about 32%

and electricity production is 11% of total GHGe). Annual growth of cements in Indonesia

during 1996-2011 is 5%. However, the 1998 financial crisis triggered shocks in cements

consumptions during 1998-2003. Figs. 1.2 and 1.3 show shocks in cements’ demands due to

financial crisis as the 1998 rate slumped -30.1% [5].

The central government, through National Development Planning Ministry

(hereinafter BAPPENAS) recently published the Indonesia Climate Change Sectoral

Roadmap (ICCSR) which integrates climate mitigation into national development planning.

Climate mitigation has been thoroughly considered in this report. The ICCSR elaborates

climate mitigation options in several sectors including forestry, energy, industry,

transportation and waste management.

ICCRS adopts the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for

National Greenhouse Gas Inventories for Industrial Processes And Product Use, especially

Mineral Industry namely Cement Industry (Section 2A.1). This policy has been adopted by

Indonesia central government and translated into National Industry Development Policy

formulated in 2008 which has been executed by the Ministry of Industry [5].

65

Figure 1.2 Cement consumption trend 1996-2011

Figure 1.3 Cement consumption growth year-on-year (past and scenarios)

The stakeholders include of GHG inventories includes MARKAL model by BPPT,

Central Statistics Agency (BPS), Indonesian Cement Association (ASI), World Business

Council for Sustainable Development – Cement Sustainability Initiative and cement

manufacturers such as PT. Indocement, PT. Holcim Indonesia and PT. Semen Gresik [5].

The ICCSR has been one of the main instruments that guide new pathways and

become future basis for climate mitigation and adaptation policy to be integrated into series

of mid-term development planning (MTDP) including the ongoing MTDP 2010-2014 and the

next three MTDPs. Apart from MTDP, the country’s long term development planning

(LTDP) for 2005-2030 also incorporated climate mitigation and adaptation as factors that

should be considered.

66



67

2. JAPAN

The total emissions of greenhouse gases in Japan were 1.209 billion tons (CO2

equivalents) in 2009 as shown in Fig. 2.1 [1]. That was 4.1% less than the total emissions of

1.261 billion tons in the base year stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol. Compared with the total

emissions in 2008, there was a 5.7% reduction, as the emissions from the industrial and other

sectors declined. One of the reasons behind the reduction in emissions from 2008 to 2009 is

that in 2009 there was continuous decline in demand for energy in the industrial and other

sectors due to the economic recession that followed the financial crisis that started in October

2008. In FY 2011, Japan’s total greenhouse gas emissions were 1.308 billion tons (CO2

equivalents), which was increase by 4.0% compared to the previous year due to the Great

East Japan Earthquake. Of all greenhouse gases emitted in Japan, carbon dioxide emissions

make up roughly 95% of the total.

Figure 2.1 Changes in total emissions of greenhouse gases in Japan [1]

A breakdown by sectors shows that the emissions for the industrial sector were 389

million tons, while that of the transportation sector were 229 million tons, the commercial

and other sectors were 218 million tons, and the emissions for the residential sector were 160

million tons [2] as shown in Fig. 2.2. The inner circle represents the share of direct emissions

from each sector (figures in round parentheses on the second row). The outer circle represents

the share of each final demand sector (figures on the first row). The cement industry is one of

the most energy-intensive industries and they made an effort to reduce energy consumption.

Carbon dioxide emissions from the cement industry in Japan were minimized thanks to the

previously mentioned energy saving and account for approximately 4% of its total emissions.

However, energetic origin specific CO2 emission in cement production during the period

between 1997 and 2009 (around 299kg-CO2/t-cement) slightly increased from that in 1990

68

(294.4kg-CO2/t-cement) [3] as shown in Fig. 2.3 due to 1) increase of private coal fired

power generation, 2) increase of energy consumption for crushing and transporting waste-

derived raw and fuel materials, and 3) decrease of factory utilization rate because of

decreased cement production.

Figure 2.2 CO2 emission by sector in 2009 in Japan

Figure 2.3 Specific CO2 emission in cement industry

The inner circle represents the

share of direct emissions from each

sector (figures in round parentheses

on the second row). The outer circle represents the

share of each final demand sector

(figures on the first row), correcting

emissions from power generation by

electric utility companies and

emissions from heat generation by

heat supply operators to final

demand sectors based on their

electric and heat consumption level.

69

REFERENCES

[1] Ministry of the Environment: Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-

Cycle Society and the Biodiversity in Japan 2011 - Chapter 1 Sustainability and

Quality of Life, http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2011/pdf/09_Chapter1-2.pdf

(2014.12.20)


Cycle Society and the Biodiversity in Japan 2011 - Part 2 Report on Each Sector's

Measures - Chapter 1 Establishing a Low Carbon Society,

http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2011/pdf/25_Pert2-1.pdf (2014.12.20)

[3] Japan Cement Association: Efforts to Address Global Warming in Cement Industry,

2013 (in Japanese)



70

3. KOREA

South Korea has joined the international effort to cope with the global climate change

by becoming a member of UNFCCC (United Nation Framework Convention for Climate

Change) in 1993. At present, Korea is the 8th

Green House Gas (GHG) emitting country

globally. In 2011, Korea emitted 698 million tons of GHGs while the emission increased by

4.5% over the previous year (per capita emission was 14 tons in 2011). In 2011, main cause

for the increased amount of GHG emission was the steel making and the coal-fired electric

power generation. Table 3.1 summarizes the status of GHG emission between 1990 and 2011.

Unfortunately the rate of increase in emission is also high as it is the third globally following

only China and India. These alarming statistics of GHG emission reflect the fact that heavily

industry-driven South Korean economy still continues to grow and, at the same time, there is

a clear need to actively seek balance among economic development and environmental

stewardship. (Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Research Center of Korea, www.gir.go.kr)

Table 3.1 Status of GHG emission in South Korea (unit: million CO2-eq. ton)

year GHG

emission

year GHG

emission

year GHG

emission

1990 296 1998 436 2006 575

1991 318 1999 477 2007 591

1992 344 2000 511 2008 605

1993 379 2001 530 2009 609

1994 409 2002 548 2010 668

1995 443 2003 559 2011 698

1996 488 2004 566 2012 --

1997 510 2005 570 2013 --

South Korean government is taking a series of political measures to reduce the GHG

emission. In 2008, the Korean government declared “Low Carbon Green Growth” as a new

60-year national vision and internationally committed a target GHG emission reduction of

30% from BAU (business-as-usual) by 2020. Beginning from 2012, the government is

enforcing “GHG and Energy Target Management” policy to major GHG emitting enterprises.

About 480 enterprises, so called “Controlled Entities” that altogether account for over 60% of

national GHG emission, are assigned a target reduction in terms of GHG emission and energy

consumption from the government annually. The Controlled Entities have to submit annual

performance report to the government while an entity can be penalized in case the targets are

not met. At present, the GHG emission reduction targets are 26.7% for coal-powered power

plants, 34.3% for transportation, 26.9% for buildings, and 8.5% for cement manufacturing

from BAU until 2020. In addition, beginning from 2015, the GHG Emission Trading will

commence in South Korea while most “Controlled Entities” is expected to be obliged to the

Emission Trading.

http://www.gir.go.kr/

71



72

4. MONGOLIA

GHG emission per capita is twice as much as world average and GHG emission per

1000 USD of GDP is ten times higher than world average reflecting cold climate as well as

inefficient use of resources [10]. The new government established after the 2012 Parliament

election announced that green development is a new concept of sustainable development of

the country and former Ministry Environment and Tourism was re-structured as the Ministry

of Environment and Green Development. Also the status of the ministry was upgraded and

now MEGD is one of key (core) ministries of the country. Climate Change Coordination

Office was established in 2010 under the direct supervision of Minister for Environment and

Green Development of Mongolia. Mongolia recently joined to the Agreement of

Establishment of Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) [11]. There are several donor

projects are taken place in reducing GHG emission but no official data is available related

with concrete and cement production.



73

5. THAILAND

- The total GHG produced in Thailand is shown in Table 5.1(a).

- The GHG based on industrial sector is shown in Table 5.1(b)

- The GHG based on gas type is shown in Table 5.1(c).

Table 5.1 Thailand greenhouse gases data

(a) Total GHG

Total GHG emissions excluding LUCF

(mil. ton of CO2-e)

Total GHG emissions including LUCF

(mil. ton of CO2-e)

381.94 379.44

(b) GHG by Sector

Energy

(mil. ton of

CO2-e)

Industrial

processes

(mil. ton

of CO2-e)

Agriculture

(mil. ton of

CO2-e)

Waste

(mil. ton of

CO2-e)

Land use and

forestry

(Net forest

conversion)

(mil. ton of CO2-

e)

Bunker

Fuels

(mil.ton

of CO2-

e)

244.04 19.66 60.56 9.9 -2.5 15.24

(c) GHG by gas type

Total CO₂

(excluding LUCF)

(mil. ton of CO2-e)

Total CH₄

(mil. ton of CO2-e)

Total N₂O

(mil. ton of CO2-e)

Total F-Gas

(mil. ton of CO2-e)

289.99 73.71 14.08 4.16

The CO2 emission per ton of cement in Thailand is decreasing slowly and gradually

every year in all categories. This is perhaps due to strong commitment of major cement

manufacturing companies to cut down CO2 emission. For the clinker category, the specific

gross CO2 emission per ton decreases from 875 kg/t to about 862 kg/t (from year 2008 to

2011). For the cementitious category, the differences between the clinker and cementitious

product range from 160 to 177 kg/t due to the use of supplementary materials in cement

products.

74

Figure 5.1 CO2 emission in cement production

REFERENCES

[1] GHG- Inventory, Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (Public

Organization)



75

VI. STATUS, STRATEGIES AND TECHNOLOGIES OF C&D WASTE

UTILIZATION

1. INDIA

1.1 Definition of C&D Waste

For the purpose of management of C&D Wastes in India, Construction and demolition

waste has been defined as waste which arises from construction, renovation and demolition

activities. Also included within the definition are surplus and damaged products and materials

arising in the course of construction work or used temporarily during the course of on-site

activities [1].

The various streams of wastes to be considered will include:

Excavated materials,

Tiles, brick, ceramics, asphalt concrete,

Plaster,

Glass,

Metal and steel,

Plastics,

Wood, asphalt, and

Concrete rubbles, etc.

However, C&D waste shall not include any hazardous waste as defined under

‘Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989’. C&D waste shall not include any

waste which may have any chance of getting contaminated with nuclear waste or exposed to

nuclear radiation. Special care shall be taken before demolition of any nuclear establishment

[2]. Material generated from de-silting activity is also excluded from C&D waste category as

it contains decomposed organic material and may also contain heavy metals and other toxic

materials.

1.2 Present Status

Management of C&D waste is a relatively new subject in India. In spite of sporadic

use for filling low-lying areas and some salvage attempts, there was no systematic approach.

The primary reason is absence of focused regulatory process and strict enforcement. The

applicable rule for management of municipal solid waste – ‘The Municipal Solid Waste

(Management & Handling) Rules, 2000’ has brief mentions about C&D waste, but there is no

separate rule for C&D wastes. The Local Authorities (municipal bodies) are mandated with

ensuring appropriate management of C&D waste. It is now (2014), that Ministry of

Environment and Forests (MOEF), Govt. of India, has taken up the task of framing separate

rules for the management of C&D Wastes [2].

76

Codes of practices for constructions by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Indian

Roads Congress (IRC) and others do not envisage use of building materials recycled from

C&D wastes, nor are there any specifications for such materials.

1.2.1 Amount of C&D waste generated

Even at the beginning, let it be admitted that adequate data on C&D wastes generated

in India are not available. Part of the reason of the above state of affairs is the other handicap

that C&D wastes are not dealt with as a separate entity, distinct from Municipal Solid Wastes

(MSW). There is no separate regulatory framework for management of C&D wastes.

In different countries, the estimate of quantity of C&D wastes is linked to that of

municipal solid wastes (MSW). A 2008 report of MOEF estimated the amount of MSW in

India to be 0.573 million metric tonne (MMT) per day. On that basis, the amount of MSW in

India will be about 210 Million tonnes per year [3, 4]. For total population of 1.2 billion, this

amounts to about 175 kg per capita per year; much lower than the World Bank estimate of up

to 1,000 kg per capita per year for Asian countries (2000 estimate) [1]. This would be the first

example of underestimate in this matter.

Two Reports by Government agencies have stated that C&D wastes in India amount

to nearly one-third of the total MSW [3, 4]. On that basis, the amount of C&D wastes can be

estimated to be nearly 70 million tonnes per year. Yet, the same Reports state the amount of

C&D wastes to be 10 – 12 million tonnes [3, 4]. There is, thus, a serious disconnect between

the two estimates in the same Reports.

That, a figure of 10–12 million tonnes of C&D wastes per year in India is gross

underestimate will be clear by comparison of data from other countries given in Table 1.1

below. The sources of information are also identified. Selected data of C&D waste generated

in some Asian countries obtained from Ref. 7 are shown graphically in Fig. 1.1.

Table 1.1 Amount of C&D wastes in various countries

Country Amount, MT per

year

Year Reference

Germany 223 2003 5

Australia 19 2008 - 09 6

China 200 2005 7

Japan 85 2000 7

-- 77 2012 8

S. Korea 61.7 2013 9

India 14.7 2001 7 (Quoting MOEF)

10 – 12 2012 3, 4

One of the main reasons for paucity of authentic data has been absence of regulatory

compulsions. It is hoped that, with promulgation of strict regulations and guidelines for

77

management of C&D wastes, as has been advocated in this Report, more accurate data on the

waste generated will be available with local bodies, who will issue permits for demolition as

well as new constructions.

1.2.2 Composition of C&D wastes

The composition of the wastes depends upon the type of construction. For example, if

a concrete bridge superstructure or flyover is demolished, the wastes will be almost entirely

concrete. On the other hand, demolition of old residential blocks may result in the wastes

comprising soil, masonry, brickwork, tiles, wood, metal, plastics etc. in addition to concrete.

Figure 1.1 Estimates of C&D wastes in some Asian countries (Ref. 7)

Estimates for the composition of typical demolition wastes in India have been made

by different agencies. These are shown in Table 1.2 [4].

Table 1.2 Estimates of composition of C&D wastes in India [4]

Components of C&D

wastes

Typical as per

TIFAC

MCD survey,

2004

Survey 2005 by

IL&FS

Soil/sand, gravel 36.0 43.0 31.5

Bitumen 2.0 - -

Metals 5.0 - 0.4

Concrete 23.0 35.0 -

Wood 2.0 - 1.5

Others 1.0 7.0 7.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

78

Based on TIFAC study, quantum of waste generated during Construction is of the

order of 35 kg /m2 of construction activity, while during demolition waste generated is about

350 kg /m2 of demolition. It is presumed that the data in Table 1.2 above essentially relate to

building demolition wastes. The data above indicate the proportion of concrete in demolition

wastes to vary from 23 to 35%. The proportion of soil varied between 31.5 to 43%. With

improvement in data collection as suggested above, more precise estimates of the

composition of C&D wastes will also be available.

1.3 Strategies

Strategies contemplated for proper management of C&D wastes in India include the

following:

Formulation and promulgation of separate rules for the management and handling

of Construction and Demolition wastes, by the Ministry of Environment and

Forests [2]. According to the rules being postulated, the generator would prima-

facie be responsible for appropriate storage and collection of C&D waste

generated, as directed / notified by the concerned local body in consonance with

these rules. The municipal/development authorities would make arrangements for

placement of appropriate containers (skips or other containers) and their removal

at regular intervals or when they are filled either through own resources or by

appointing private operators. The competent authority would get the collected

waste transported to appropriate site(s) for further processing and disposal either

through own resources or by appointing private operators, who would be the

authorized agency.

Meanwhile a number of urban local bodies (ULBs) have notified tenders for

management of C&D waste, especially, for setting up processing facility. In a

couple of cases, the projects have been awarded and even the project site handed

over to the BOT operator.

National standardization agency - Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), has been

requested to bring out specifications of construction materials obtained from

recycling of C&D wastes, as appropriate to different types of constructions and

permit their use in such constructions [10].

A number of ‘confidence building measures’ have been recommended [1].

Deliberations in national seminars and workshops have made detailed

recommendations, the details of which are available in the respective Proceedings

[11, 12].These include policy and financial incentives to make recycling and

reuse of C&D wastes viable. Increase in tax on disposal in landfills, preference

for purchase of waste-derived materials in constructions, allotment of land for

waste recycling plants, increase in permissible ‘floor space ratio’ and weightage

in ‘green rating’ of buildings are typical examples.

79

1.4 Technologies

The wastes originate from demolition of existing structures like old dwelling units,

pavements and industrial structures, new constructions and renovation and repairs. These are

required to be sorted out in separate categories:

Materials which can be recycled in waste recycling plants - concrete, stone,

blocks, tiles etc.;

Materials which can be disposed as scraps – metals, steel, aluminum, doors and

windows, frames etc.; and

Materials which can be disposed off by other methods – paint, asbestos, glass,

electrical etc.

The only working C&D waste Processing facility in India is at Burari, West Delhi,

which has capacity of 500 T waste materials per day. The C&D waste material after being

received at the plant is first segregated for being processed. The segregated C&D waste is

then screened through a grizzly to remove loose soil and muck. The screened material is

collected in the hand sorting section where bricks and concrete is separated. Bigger size

concrete boulders are broken by help of a rock breaker. Further size reduction is done by the

help of processing machines.

The central processing unit has mobile crushing units Rubble Master RM 60, with

capacity of 60 T per hour. Nearly 65 to 70% of the C&D waste received is soil, which cannot

be processed and perforce has to be used for landfill. To overcome this handicap, a wet

processing system known as the “Evowash System” has been installed. This wet processing

system extracts pure sand from the unprocessed soil as also, the end product will be clean soil

which can be used for landscaping etc.

The wet processing of the C&D waste with the Evowash system will be as under:

Collected C&D waste will be first screened through a +60 mm grizzly to remove

loose soil and muck.

Oversized screened material will be collected in the hand sorting section where

bricks and concrete are separated.

Segregated bigger size concrete boulders as well as mixed concrete will be

broken by help of rock breaker. Further size reduction will be done by the help of

processing machines.

For the wet process a total set of machinery consisting of Grizzly, Vibro Screens,

Evo Wash, Thickener etc, that is capable of segregating sand from mixed C&D

waste will be used.

The process flow of C&D waste recycling at the plant is as Fig. 1.2.

80

.

Figure 1.2 Flow chart of C&D waste recycling in Delhi.

1.4.1 Demolition

Selective demolition, which allows separation and sorting of materials is preferred. At

first, domestic wastes like furniture, appliances etc., metal components like window frames,

pipes etc., timber components, and other wastes like tiles, asphaltic materials, ceramic

products etc. are removed one by one. Brick walls are demolished, followed by concrete

structural members. Mounted hydraulic breakers, long reach excavators and wrecking balls

are used for demolition. Other equipment used includes hydraulic concrete splitters, hydraulic

concrete crushers and pulverisers, etc. For reconstruction of 50 years old, 4–9 story

residential blocks in metro cities, the portion to be demolished is isolated with diamond

cutting, the unwanted portion is demolished and concrete elements like columns, beam and

slab are crushed. Varieties of diamond sawing include wire saw, floor saw, hand saw, chain

saw, wall saw etc.

1.4.2 Size reduction and processing

Bucket crushers, crushing buckets and tracked crushers are used for on-site crushing.

Portable crushers, mobile jaw crushers and mobile cone crushers, semi-mobile impact

crushers, as well as stationary jaw crushers and cone crushers are used for size reduction at

the recycling plant. Screens are used for size separation. Specially designed washing plants

allow cleaner material to be obtained and the water used in the treatment can be recirculated.

More details are available in references [1] and [12].

Collection of C&D Waste

Weighbridge

Dry & Wet Processing

Landfill Road Making Sub Base Making Kerb stones/Paving

Blocks Blocks

Processed C&D Waste Silt & Loose Soil

81

REFERENCES

[1] Indian Concrete Institute, ‘Guidelines on recycling, use and management of C&D

wastes’, Report of the Technical Committee ICI/TC/05, October 2013.

[2] Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF), Govt. of India, The Construction and

Demolition Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2014, (under finalization).

[3] Report of the Committee to Evolve Road Map on Management of Wastes, MOEF,

Govt. of India, March 2010, 47 p.

[4] --------‘Construction & demolition (C&D) waste; collection, transportation and

disposal system’, Project Report for MCD, Delhi Solid Waste Management

Program, 38p. Prepared by IL&FS ECOSMART.

[5] -------- ‘Construction and demolition waste management in Germany’, Study by

ZEBAU GmbH, 22767 Hamburg, Germany, 27 October 2006, 82 p.

[6] Management of construction and demolition waste in Australia, Status Report, No.

5, Hyder Consulting, Melbourne, October 2011, 194 p.

[7] Asian Institute of Technology, ‘Report on reduce, reuse and recycle (3R) practices in

construction and demolition waste management in Asia’, Thailand, May 2008, 81 p.

[8] Noguchi, Takafumi, ‘Sustainable recycling of concrete structures’, Indian Concrete

Institute (ICI) Journal, April – June 2012, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 40 – 53.

[9] Choi, D. U., et al, ‘Technological aspects of construction and demolition waste

management’, Proc., International Workshop on ‘Construction and demolition

(C&D) Waste Recycling’, IIT Madras, Aug. 2013, pp. 1 – 13.

[10] Mullick, A. K., ‘Concrete with substitute ingredients – standardisation and initiatives

in India’, Creative concrete technologies for sustainable future, The 10th

International Symposium on ‘Advancement of cement and concrete industries’,

Korea Concrete Institute, KCI-C-13-003, Seoul, S. Korea, Dec. 2013, pp. 195 – 211.

[11] International Workshop on ‘Construction and demolition (C&D) waste recycling’,

ICI-CPWD-IIT Madras, Chennai, 5-6 August 2013, 151p.

[12] ICI-CPWD Symposium on ‘Technology and equipment for C&D waste recycling’,

New Delhi, 8-9 November, 2013, 88 p.

Contributor – Dr. A. K. Mullick,


82

2. JAPAN

Construction waste accounts for about 20% of the industrial waste generated and for

about 80% of illegal dumping. In the future, especially wastes from building debris are

expected to increase, as the buildings built in the boom after 1965 face refurbishment. The

amount generated, consists of concrete waste, asphalt concrete waste and construction site

wood, and accounts for about 90% of construction wastes [1] as shown in Fig. 2.1. Sources of

concrete waste were civil structures and buildings in the approximate proportion of 1 part to 1

in 2005 but 2 part to 3 in 2008 [2] as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.1 Changes in construction waste generation by type in Japan

FY2012 National total 72.7 million

83

Figure 2.2 Concrete waste generation by source in Japan

The recycling rate of concrete mass and asphalt concrete mass is greatly improved [2]

as shown in Fig. 2.3 following the “Rules on the Present Operations Concerning the Use of

Recycling Resources Involved in Public Works” prepared in 1991 (which was revised to as

the “Rules on the Obligation of Recycling” in 2006) and measures taken by each Regional

Development Bureau. The actual recycling rate of these articles in 2008 has already achieved

the target of 95%, which was regulated for 2010 by the Construction Material Recycling Act.

Figure 2.3 Changes in recycling rate of concrete in Japan

After a three-year study aiming at using demolished concrete as recycled aggregate

for concrete, the Building Contractors Society established “Draft standard for the use of

recycled aggregate and recycled concrete” in 1977. This standard required that the oven-dry

density and water absorption of recycled coarse aggregate be not less than 2.2g/cm3 and not

more than 7%, respectively, and those of recycled fine aggregate be not less than 2.0g/cm3

and not more than 13%, respectively. This was followed by researches and developments

under some projects promoted by the Ministry of Construction (1981-1985 and 1992-1996)

84

or semi-public research institutes, through which standards for recycled aggregate have been

established. Table 2.1 gives the quality requirements, showing the progressive improvement

in the qualities of recycled aggregate achieved by advances in the technology for producing

recycled aggregate, finally reaching a level comparable to natural aggregate. The Recycled

Aggregate Standardization Committee was set up in the Japan Concrete Institute in 2002,

which was tasked with formulating Japan Industrial Standards for recycled aggregate for

concrete. The committee established three standards as follows:

JIS A 5021 (Recycled aggregate for concrete. Class H, hereinafter RA-H)

JIS A 5022 (Recycled concrete using recycled aggregate, Class M, with

Annex (Recycled aggregate for concrete, Class M, hereinafter RA-M)

JIS A 5023 (Recycled concrete using recycled aggregate, Class L, with

Annex (Recycled aggregate for concrete, Class L, hereinafter RA-L)

Table 2.1 History of quality requirements for recycled aggregate

Year Formulator and Name of Standard Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate

Density (g/cm3) Absorption (%) Density (g/cm3) Absorption (%)

1977

Building Contractors Society

Draft standard for the use of recycled

aggregate and recycled concrete

2.2 or more 7 or less 2.0 or more 13 or less

1994

Ministry of Construction

Provisional quality standard for

reuse of concrete by-products

Type 1 - 3 or less - 5 or less

Type 2 - 5 or less - 10 or less

Type 3 - 7 or less -

1999

Building Center of Japan

Accreditation criteria of recycled aggregate

for building concrete

2.5 or more 3.0 or less 2.5 or more 3.5 or less

2000

Ministry of International Trade and Industry

TR A0006 (Low quality recycled aggregate

concrete)

7 or less 10 or less

2005 Japan Industrial Standards

Committee

Recycled aggregate for

concrete

JIS A 5021

(Class H) 2.5 or more 3.0 or less 2.5 or more 3.5 or less

2006 JIS A 5022

(Class M) 2.3 or more 5.0 or less 2.2 or more 7.0 or less

2007 JIS A 5023

(Class L) 7.0 or less 13.0 or less

Three types of recycled aggregate are classified by water absorption and oven-dry

density, each being recommended for concrete structures and segments as given in Table 2.2.

This classification urges a shift to a design system that permits the use of each class for

suitable structures and segments. High-quality recycled aggregate is suitable for structures

and segments requiring high durability and strength, while middle- to low-quality recycled

aggregate, which can be produced with minimal cost and energy or powdery by-products, is

suitable for other structures and segments.

The uses for concrete rubbles to be recycled are determined by the qualities of the

recycled material, such as density and water absorption, which vary depending on the

percentage of cement paste contained within or adhering to the surfaces of original aggregate,

and the quality of recycled aggregate depends on the production method. Fig. 2.3 [3] shows

general methods for producing recycled road bottoming, recycled aggregate for leveling

85

concrete (low-quality recycled aggregate), and recycled aggregate having qualities

comparable to those of natural aggregate and used for structural concrete (high-quality

recycled aggregate).

Table 2.2 Physical properties requirements for recycled aggregate

RA-H RA-M RA-L

Coarse Fine Coarse Fine Coarse Fine

Oven-dry density

(g/cm3)

not less

than 2.5

not less

than 2.5

not less

than 2.3

not less

than 2.2 －－

Water Absorption

(%)

not more

than 3.0

not more

than 3.5

not more

than 5.0

not more

than 7.0

not more

than 7.0

not more

than 13.0

Material passing 75

μm sieve (%)

not more

than 1.0

not more

than 7.0

not more

than 1.5

not more

than 7.0

not more

than 2.0

not more

than 10.0

Scope of

application

No limitations are put on the

type and segment for concrete

and structures with a nominal

strength of 45MPa or less

Members not subjected to

drying or freezing-and-thawing

action, such as piles,

underground beam, and concrete

filled in steel tubes

Backfill concrete, blinding

concrete, and leveling concrete

The JIS A 5021 includes the following policies and requirements:

Figure 2.3 General methods for concrete recycling [3]

Single toggle-type jaw crushers are generally used for the primary crushing of

demolished concrete into pieces 40 to 50mm in size regardless of the ultimate quality of

recycled aggregate. While the material is carried to the next process on a belt conveyor,

foreign particles such as wood/plastic chips and reinforcing steel/nails are removed manually

and with a magnetic separator, respectively. The materials then undergo various treatments

according to their uses. Impact crushers are used for secondary and tertiary crushing when

producing middle- and low-quality recycled aggregate. Other equipment in practical use for

producing middle- and low-quality recycled aggregate includes self-propelled or vehicle-

mounted jaw crushers and impact crushers that save the energy normally expended to haul

Demolished concrete rubbles

Jaw crusher

Impact crusher

Vibratory sieves

Road bottoming,

Backfilling

Cone crusher

Vibratory sieves

Vibratory sieves

L-class

recycled

coarse

aggregate

Heating tower

Aggregate scrubber

L-class

recycled

fine

aggregate

M- or H-class

recycled

coarse

aggregate

M- or H-class

recycled fine

aggregate

Powder

Vibratory sieves

Road bottoming L-class recycled aggregate M- or H-class recycled aggregate

86

Figure 2.4 Mechanical-scrubbing method (Eccentric tubular mill type) [4]

Figure 2.5 Mechanical-scrubbing method (Screw mill type) [3]

Figure 2.6 Heated-scrubbing method [5]

Concrete rubbles

Eccentric t

ubular mill

Motor

External cylinder

Scrubbing

Transmission gear Recovery

Cylinder hollow Input

Middle cone Ejection cone

Outlet Rotary blade

Recovery of

fine aggregate

Recovery of

coarse

aggregate

Sieve

Tube mill

By-product

powder

Fine

aggregate Coarse

aggregate

Bug filter

Heating device

filled with

concrete rubbles

Tube mill

87

the demolished concrete. Special equipment is necessary for efficient production of high-

quality recycled aggregate in order to minimize the adhering cement paste. Efficient

equipment for producing high-quality recycled aggregate have been developed in the past 15

years and put into practical use. Figs. 2.4 to 2.6 show representative types [3][4][5].

The first is a technique called mechanical-scrubbing, in which concrete rubbles are

scrubbed by one another using an eccentric tubular vertical mill or a screw mill to produce

recycled coarse aggregate by removing adhering cement paste. Fine aggregate is then

produced similarly from the recycled aggregate smaller than the specified size. Trial runs

revealed that recycled aggregate conforming to high-quality standard is obtained. On the

other hand, the percentage of recovery widely varied depending on the type of original

aggregate, and slight difficulty in producing high-quality recycled fine aggregate was found.

Virgin fine aggregate is therefore considered necessary when applying recycled aggregate

produced by this method to structural concrete. The use of recycled coarse aggregate

produced by this method is not classified as down cycling, as the quality of structural

concrete is assured. The second technology is called heated-scrubbing, in which concrete

rubbles is charged in a heating furnace and subjected to hot air to make the cement paste

brittle and weak. It is then scrubbed in a mill to separate cement paste from aggregate. The

heating temperature is around 300°C. The quality of recycled aggregate attains the high-

quality level, while the percentage of recovery is sufficiently high. The qualities of concrete

made using this aggregate are virtually the same as the original concrete. Though this

technique has acquired certain track records in the construction of actual structures, it

requires the availability of infrastructures that economically provide the heat sources

necessary for heating. Though the problems of the thermal-energy-induced environmental

impact and cost increase currently remain unsolved, this technique assures the quality of

structural concrete, avoiding down cycling, while forming a closed-loop in terms of the

resource circulation of concrete materials. It should be noted that the above two techniques

recover recycled aggregate, or a material, having the same quality as natural aggregate from

waste concrete. Though a significant amount of energy is input at the stage of treatment in the

production system, recycled aggregate is produced in a condition usable as parts for the same

product or for other products for which the same or higher performance is required. When

this condition is ensured, the material is in a condition that can be circulated (i.e. recyclable)

in a closed system.

REFERENCES


Cycle Society and the Biodiversity in Japan, 2014 (in Japanese)

[2] 建設副産物実態調査結果詳細データ

[3] Takafumi Noguchi, Ryoma Kitagaki, Masato Tsujino: Minimizing environmental

impact and maximizing performance in concrete recycling, Structural Concrete,

Vol.12, No.1, pp.36-46, 2011

88

[4] K. Yanagibashi, et al.: A new recycling process for coarse aggregate to be used for

concrete structures, Proceedings of RILEM International Symposium on

Environment-Conscious Materials and Systems for Sustainable Development, Japan,

2004

[5] H. Shima, et al.: New technology for recovering high quality aggregate from

demolished concrete, Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on East Asian

Recycling Technology, Japan, 1999



89

3. KOREA

3.1 Status of C&D Waste Generation

In 2006, the construction and demolition waste (C&D waste) took 51.4% of all wastes

generated in South Korea as shown in Fig. 3.1 (a). Area for possible landfill is getting scarcer

while the projection is such that the C&D waste generation will further increase in the next

20 years as many structures built in 1960s through 1980s during the economic boom period is

approaching the end of service life. [1]

The C&D wastes are divided into four different categories in South Korea: (1)

concrete including asphalt concrete, bricks, blocks, (2) non-combustible wastes other than

concrete, (3) combustible wastes, and (4) mixed wastes. Among the four categories of C&D

wastes, the first group takes 78% by wt. and needs active utilization as shown in Fig. 3.1 (b).

(a) All waste (b) C&D waste

Figure 3.1 Status of waste generation in South Korea (2006)

3.2 Laws on C&D Waste Management

In South Korea, the first law about waste management was “Waste Management Law”

enacted in 1986. The “Waste Management Law” included the establishment of the national

waste management plan and regulation of the permits and facilities for the waste treatment

companies. In 1992, “Law on Resource Saving and Acceleration of Reuse/Recycling” was

enacted to minimize the waste generation and maximize reuse/recycling toward realization of

a closed-loop resource recycling society. More recently, “Law on Acceleration of C&D Waste

Reuse/Recycling” was enacted in 2005 that especially emphasized sequential demolition of

C&D wastes and utilization of recycled aggregates from demolished concretes.

3.3 Utilization of demolished concrete

In 2009, 42.1 million tons of demolished concrete was generated. The effective

recycling rate was estimated to be 36%: recycled aggregates 2%, usage for the production of

concrete products such as concrete blocks 6%, usage as road sub-base material about 28%.

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The rate for higher-grade usage increased from about 23% in 2006 to 36% in 2008. [1]

In South Korea, concretes with 27 MPa and under strength class (cylinder strength)

can include recycled coarse aggregates (C.A.) up to 30% by wt. while lower strength

concretes with 21 MPa and under can include both recycled coarse and fine aggregates (F.A.)

up to 30% by wt. in total. Minimum quality of the recycled aggregates has been maintained

by KS F 2573. Density of the recycled C.A. should be at least 2.5 (same as natural C.A.)

while it is a little relieved to be at least 2.2 for the recycled F.A. (the density requirement is at

least 2.5 for the natural F.A.). Water absorption is max. 3.0% for the recycled C.A. while it is

max. 5.0% for the recycled F.A. [2] Research is currently under progress to raise the

replacement and strength limits.

Table 3.1 Quality requirements of normal vs. recycled aggregates

Required properties KS F 2526

Aggregates

for concrete

KS F 2573

Recycled aggregates

for concrete

C.A. F.A. C.A. F.A.

Physical

properties

Density (g/cm3)

≥ 2.5 ≥ 2.5 ≥ 2.5 ≥ 2.2

Water absorption (%) ≤ 3.0 ≤ 3.0 ≤ 3.0 ≤ 5.0

Stability (%) ≤ 12 ≤ 10 ≤ 12 ≤ 10

Abrasion (%) ≤ 40 -- ≤ 40 --

Particle shape (%) -- -- ≥ 55 ≥ 53

Hazardous

material

(%)

Silt ≤ 0.25 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 0.2 ≤ 1.0

% passing

0.08 mm

sieve

Abrasive use ≤ 1.0 ≤ 3.0 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 7.0

others ≤ 1.0 ≤ 5.0 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 7.0

Foreign

matters

Organic materials (% by vol.) -- -- -- ≤ 1.0

Inorganic materials (% by

wt.)

-- -- -- ≤ 1.0

Table 3.2 Method of application of recycled aggregates for concrete (KS F 2573)

Compressive

strength

Aggregates Typical usage

C.A. F.A.

21~27 MPa Natural coarse

aggregates and

recycled

coarse aggregates

Natural fine

aggregates

only

Column, girder, slab, load-

bearing wall, etc.

< 21 MPa Natural fine

aggregates

recycled fine

aggregates

Concrete block, road base,

filler material for concrete,

etc.

91

REFERENCES

[1] Lee, D.H., Waste recycling techniques development, LH Corp., final report, 2013.

[2] Korea Standard Association, Concrete Recycled Aggregate, Korea Standard

Association, KS F 2573, Seoul, South Korea, 2011.



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VII. MEASURES AND POLICIES ON SUSTAINABILITY

1. JAPAN

Today's environmental problems have surfaced as the increased loads on environment

resulting from daily social and economic activities. These problems feature a global scale and

a tremendous impact on future generations. The “Basic Environment Law”, enacted in 1993,

determined a new framework of environmental policies that cover the following measures for

preserving natural and global environment, as well as various anti-pollution regulations.

International cooperation on global environmental preservation

Promotion of the use of products that are effective in reducing environmental

loads

Economic measures (including the discussion on environmental tax)

Environmental education and seminars

Support of voluntary activities of private groups

The “Fundamental Law for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society” was

enforced in January 2001, with the aim of securing a material cycle in society by revising the

present state of our mass-production, mass-consumption, and mass-disposal society and the

lifestyles of people, to thereby establish “a sound material-cycle society” where consumption

of natural resources is curbed and the environmental load is decreased. This law provides

the following.

1) Objects subject to this law should be understood as “wastes, etc.” in an integrated

manner regardless of whether they are valuable or of no value and products

should be prevented from becoming wastes, etc.

2) The usefulness of generated wastes, etc. should be paid attention to and wastes,

etc. should be recognized as “recyclable resources” for them to thereby be subject

to cyclical use (reuse, recycling, and heat recovery).

3) Wastes that are not capable of cyclical use should be appropriately disposed.

The “Resources Effective Utilization Law” enforced in April 2001 specifies the

following business categories and the law imposes certain obligations on business operators

engaged in each business mentioned above and promotes their voluntary efforts to make

effective use of resources.

1) Business that should control the generation of or recycle by-products

2) Business that should use recycled resources and recycled parts

3) Products for which raw materials, etc. should be made rational use of

4) Products for the use of recycled resources or recycled parts should be promoted

5) Products that should have labels for promoting sorted collection

6) Products that should be collected and recycled by their manufacturers

7) By-products the use of which is promoted as recycled resources

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The “Green Purchasing Law” was enforced in April 2001 to promote and disseminate

products and services (eco-friendly goods) that contribute to reducing the negative impact on

the environment and to build a society with less burden on the environment. The law

encourages the public sector, including the government, (1) to promote the procurement of

eco-friendly goods including slag aggregate, blast furnace slag cement, fly ash cement, eco-

cement, pervious concrete, etc. and to (2) provide information on such goods. The law

obliges national governmental bodies to formulate green procurement policies and to follow

them. The law also requires the bodies to compile records of their purchasing and disclose

this information publicly.

The “Construction Materials Recycling Law” was enforced in May 2002, targeting

concrete mass, asphalt and concrete mass, and waste lumber disposed of at construction sites.

In fiscal 2008, the recycling rate of concrete mass and that of asphalt and concrete mass

increased to 97.3% and 98.4% respectively. The recycling rate of lumber disposed at

construction sites was 80.3% and the rate with reduction included is 89.4%, showing steady

recycling.

Fig. 1.1 [1] shows a system of policy measures to promote establishing a sound

material-cycle society in Japan.

With the advent of a declining population and a super-aging society, Japan faces the

demand to improve the living environment. While increasingly severe financial conditions in

the near future are expected, Japan also faces with major challenges in adjusting the renewal

costs for a urban infrastructure in accordance with the expansion of urban areas, and in

ensuring adequate investments in future urban development. In addition, the issues of global

warming have become serious. About 50% total CO2 emissions are attributed to socio-

economic activities in the cities-residential sector, business sector (e.g., offices and shops),

and transportation sector (roads, railways, etc.).

Consequently, there is a strong demand to advance the development of sustainable and

vibrant urban and regional areas that support the citizens, i.e. the development of a compact

city, where urban functions are accumulate in an area. Against these backgrounds, the “Low

Carbon City Act (Eco-City Act)” shown in Fig. 1.2 [2] was established as the first step in

bringing in new perspectives, such as a way of the declining birthrate and eco-friendly living

and livelihood of aging society, and to provide an environment where people and private

businesses work together for the development of a compact city. The “Low Carbon City Act

(Eco-City Act)” includes the certification system for low-carbon buildings. After a building is

certified as a low carbon building by the local government, the building is then eligible for

incentive systems, including the reduction of income tax, and the exclusion of floor-space

ratio for the areas pertaining to the facilities. In order to be certified as a low carbon building,

the building must take measures to contribute the low carbon city development in addition to

the reduction of energy consumption to be more than 10% (energy saving standard ratio) as

shown in Fig. 1.3 [2].

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Figure 1.1 Policy measures to promote establishing a sound material-cycle society [1]

95

Figure 1.2 Framework of Low Carbon City Act (Eco-City Act) [2]

Figure 1.3 Low carbon building [2]

REFERENCES

[1] Ministry of the Environment: Establishing a sound material-cycle society, Milestone

toward a sound material-cycle society through changes in business and life styles,

2010

[2] Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism: Is your city an eco-town? -

Let's start developing a compact city -, http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000996970.pdf

(2014.12.20)



96

2. KOREA

2.1 Cement

2.1.1 Reduction of GHG emission from cement industry

Cement manufacturers in South Korea produced 48.2 million tons of Portland cement

and blended Portland cement in 2011. While every Korean consumed about 1 ton of cement

per year, the GHG generation due to cement manufacturing was 37.6 million CO2-eq tons (or

6.2% of national emission total). The cement manufacturers have been assigned a target GHG

emission reduction of 8.5% by 2020 by the South Korean government by “GHG and Energy

Target Management” policy. The strategies of the Korea Cement Association to achieve this

target are summarized as follows:

(1) Cementitious substitution in Portland cement

The cement production consists of Portland cement (79.5%) and blended Portland

cement (20.5%) as shown in Fig. 5.1. The clinker factor is about 0.9 that is higher

than the world average of 0.85 as the use of cementitious substitution in Portland

cement allowed by existing KS L 5201 (Portland cement) was only 5%. A

modified cement standard KS L 5201 now permits the use of up to 10%

substitution that consists of 5% replacement using blast furnace slag or fly ash

and additional 5% substitution using limestone powder starting from 2013. It is

expected that the cement production using the new cement standard will help

reduce the GHG emission by about 4%. Use of recycled materials such as coal

ash, used molding sand, sludge, steel-making slag (converter slag), and blast

furnace slag, as cement raw materials has also been increasing.

(2) Blended cement

Cement manufacturers plan to increase the blended cement production from 20%

at present to 28% by 2020 to further reduce the GHG emission by 3%.

(3) Electric power generation using waste heat

About 1% reduction of GHG emission is expected by adopting this strategy.

(4) Use of alternative fuels for cement kiln

Alternative fuels that have been utilized included used tires, plastics, and oils

which consisted about 13% of all kiln fuels. Although the use of used oil has been

recently prohibited due to inclusion of heavy metals, the increased utilization of

used plastic will help reduce the GHG emission by 1%.

(5) Use of energy efficient equipment

In Korea, all cement kilns are energy efficient New Suspension Preheater (NSP)

type. Therefore it is difficult to further improve on the energy efficiency of the

cement kilns. It is possible to use more energy efficient common equipment such

as motors, etc. to further cut down on the GHG emission.

97

(6) PLC

Research on Portland limestone powder cement (PLC) is also under progress. The

objective is to achieve mechanical and rheological characteristics similar to

Portland cement and proper durability using the PLC that contains 10~15%

limestone powder. With the use of 10% PLC in the future, it is expected to

achieve 1% GHG emission reduction.

2.1.2 Cement standard

The cement production peaked at 59.2 million tons in 2003. The production volume

has decreased since 2003. The fact that the cement production is decreasing and that the

cement industry accounts for about 6% of national greenhouse gas emissions called for a new

cement standard to improve the competitiveness of the cement industry. Existing cement

standard (KS L 5201 Portland cement) has been revised and a new version was announced in

2013. Before the current revision, KS L 5201 allowed only 5% replacement of cementitious

substitution such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, and/or pozzolan. New KS L 5201 now permits

the use of up to 10% substitution that consists of 5% replacement using blast furnace slag or

fly ash and additional 5% substitution using limestone powder with at least 80% CaCO3

contents. [2]

2.2 Concrete

Efforts to reduce environmental impact from ready-mixed concrete production

includes use of cementitious substitution such blast furnace slag and fly ash, use of recycled

aggregates, and environmental management of production facility.

2.3 Lifecycle-based Approach

2.3.1 LCI database

Lifecycle inventory data (LCI data) is an important step of lifecycle analysis (LCA)

that can be used for the LCA of building and civil engineering structures. The Korea LCI

database has been constructed under auspices of Ministry of Environment and Ministry of

Knowledge and Economy for the last decade. The database consists of about 360 industrial

products that include cement and ready-mixed concrete (www.klcidb.or.kr). The APESS

consists of a LCA program module and the LCI database. It has been constructed under

auspice of Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs (www.apess.or.kr). The database

currently consists of about 100 construction-related industrial products and includes the

structural shapes, reinforcement, natural aggregates, recycled aggregates, transportation of

ready-mixed concrete, ready-mixed concrete construction, structural steel construction, and

etc.

Table 2.1 summarizes some LCI data related to manufacturing of cement, aggregates,

ready-mixed concrete, structural steel shapes, and deformed reinforcement. The LCI data in

http://www.klcidb.or.kr/

http://www.apess.or.kr/

98

Table 2.1 cover the industrial processes starting from the acquisition of the raw materials to

the completion of the manufacturing process and do not include transportation of the finished

products (cradle to gate). Table 2.2 shows the example LCI data for transportation of the

ready-mixed concrete and for the construction of a typical medium-rise RC residential

structure. The transportation-related data show the energy consumption (light oil for truck)

and emission of the GHGs as a result of delivering 1 m3 of ready-mixed concrete to a

construction site for 1-km travel distance (two-way trip). The next data set in Table 2.2 shows

the construction-related (formwork, shoring, concrete placement and consolidation, curing,

reinforcement, formwork removal, and etc.) energy consumption (light oil and electricity) and

emission of the GHGs that correspond to the construction of a unit floor area (1 m2) of a

typical medium-rise apartment building in Korea constructed using the ready-mixed concrete.

Although the construction data is shown here as a preliminary example, the data suggest the

possibility of a broader LCI study in the future encompassing construction of various types of

concrete structure.

Table 2.1 LCI data on manufacturing cement, concrete, and other key construction materials

Item Energy

consumption

(MJ)

Emission

Unit CO2 SOx NOx Dust

Portland cement, type 1 9.70 kg/kg 0.931029 0.000662 0.001026 0.000143




Coarse aggregate 159.07 kg/m3 11.14629 0.036993 0.028069 0.002512

Fine aggregate 50.88 kg/m3 3.57609 0.009924 0.014715 0.000933

RMC, 21 MPa 5,886.05 kg/m3 409.9810 0.144448 0.616014 0.072232

RMC, 24 MPa 5,973.29 kg/m3 419.5721 0.144436 0.624387 0.073628

Wide flange 5.44 kg/kg 0.387744 0.001185 0.000877 0.000130

Deformed rebar, SD30 5.26 kg/kg 0.385676 0.001015 0.000859 0.000114

Deformed rebar, SD40 5.41 kg/kg 0.396250 0.001053 0.000893 0.000118

Table 2.2 LCI data example on transportation of ready-mixed concrete and construction

Item Energy

consumption

(MJ)

Emission

Unit CO2 SOx NOx Dust

Transportation 1)

9.49 kg/m3 0.660308 4.297x10

-8 0.007874 0.000425

Construction 2)

9,192.75 kg/m2 187.0055 0.108033 0.311987 0.041007

Note: 1) transportation of 1 m3 of ready-mixed concrete for a distance of 1 km using an

agitator truck (6 m3 capacity); 2) construction of RC medium-rise residential structures

typical in Korea while input/output data shown have been calibrated to correspond to

construction of unit floor area.

2.3.2 EDP and Carbon Labeling

The EDP (Environmental declaration of products) is the Type III environmental

declaration following ISO 14025 that evaluates the amount and type of input (i.e. natural

99

resources) used and the output (i.e. environmental pollutants) discharged during life cycle of

the products. Korea maintains about 600 EDP and carbon labeling of general industrial

products including some construction products (e.g. ready-mixed concrete).

2.4 Rating System

With the increased focus on sustainability, Korean Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and

Transport and Ministry of Environment jointly developed and launched a Green Building

Certification system in 2010. The rating system is applicable both for the new construction

and major renovations. This rating system can be used on a voluntary basis for the buildings in

the private sector, but the major public buildings including the governmental offices, schools,

and post offices with a floor area of over 10,000 m2 must acquire a green certification. The

certification is divided into 9 categories as follows:

1) Land use

2) Transportation and accessibility

3) Energy efficiency

4) Material and resource efficiency

5) Water use efficiency

6) Mitigation of environmental negative impact

7) Operation and maintenance

8) Biological environment

9) Indoor environmental quality

2.5 Building Standard Construction Specification

The Architectural Institute of Korea, in the recent revision of the Building Standard

Construction Specification in 2013, stipulates that the constructor submit to the client an

environmental management report that consists of four categories as follows:

1) Plan for GHG emission and energy consumption reduction;

2) Plan for efficient use of resources (including recycling plan of the industrial by-

products and C&D wastes);

3) Water management plan; and

4) Environmental management plan at construction site



100

3. THAILAND

Sustainability policies for Thailand consist of (1) national strategic plan and (2)

climate change master plan [1]

.

The national strategic plan began in the year 2008 to 2012 consisted of 6 strategies as

follow:

Strategy 1. Build Capacity to adapt and reduce vulnerabilities to climate change

impacts;

Strategy 2. Promote GHG mitigation activities based on sustainable development;

Strategy 3. Support R&D to better understanding climate change, its impacts and

adaptation and mitigation options;

Strategy 4. Create awareness and participation of problem solving on climate

change;

Strategy 5. Build capacity of relevant personnel and institutions and establish a

framework of coordination and integration; and

Strategy 6. Support international cooperation to achieve the common goal of

climate change mitigation and sustainable development.

However, at the end of year 2012, the climate change master plan begins to play an

important role on Thailand climate change policies. The master plan is a long term plan

consists of 3 strategies (extended from 2012 to 2050). Target greenhouses gas reduction is

31.7% in the year of 2050 (based on climate change plan).

• Strategy 1: Adaptation for coping with the negative effects of climate change

• Strategy 2: Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and increase of greenhouse

gas sinks

• Strategy 3: Strengthening the capacity of human resources and institutions and to

manage the risks from the effects of climate change and cross cutting issues.

Table 3.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and percent reduction for projection scenarios [1]

The strategic plans on the industry processes part which related to cement industry are

shown below. The plans are to promote the use of substitute materials such as fly ash and

101

pozzolan in cement and the use of carbon capture and storage technology.

Table 3.2 Thailand Climate Plan: Industrial Processes Part [1]

Sector Mitigation Measure Assumptions and Factors

Industrial

processes

Clinker substitution Using substitution materials—such as fly ash, ground

blast furnace slag, and natural pozzolan—for calcium

carbonate. The substitution will start in 2012 with

100% substitution during 2031–2050.

Promoting high-

efficiency

technology for iron

industry

New technology—integrated blast furnace basic

oxygen furnace—will be used in 2015. In 2025 this

will be a “best available technology” measure.

Carbon capture and

storage (CCS)

CCS will begin to be used in the cement industry in

2020–2030 (about 21% of cement plants). All cement

facilities will use CCS during 2031–2050 (as

prescribed in the plan of WBCSD/IEA 2009).

REFERENCES

[1] Limsoonthorn, T., National Strategy on Climate Change: Modeling and Data

Application, Data-Democracy Workshop on Climate Change, June 2010, Thailand



102

VIII. BARRIERS TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABILITY

1. INDONESIA

With the total population in 2014 more than 250 million, Indonesia right now is the

fourth largest country in the world, in terms of population rank. This number is accounted for

about 3.5% of the global population. Construction industry continues to grow, along with the

growth in population. Other important milestones and trends include: Land acquisition bill

has been passed by parliament in December 2011 followed by the implementing regulation in

April 2012 to support the certainty of infrastructure projects; the trend of a stronger

residential market as well as high-rise building still continues in 2014; and rising

infrastructure spending from the implementation of the government’s Master Plan for

Acceleration and Expansion of Indonesia’s Economic Development 2011-2025 (MP3EI).

From the view point of population, Indonesia should play important role in practicing

more responsible sustainable development. However, lack of awareness on the importance of

practicing sustainable development is still a major barrier. Increasing people awareness on a

certain issue is a process of changing mindset, and in this case, education might be the best

alternative solution. Promoting the need to practice sustainable development should be

immersed in school and university’s curriculum, as well as in various seminars and

workshops for professionals and practitioners.

To date, fly ash and bottom ash are still considered as hazardous materials in

Indonesia. Efforts have been concerted to attract the authority attention to re-look at the

policy, yet it is still unsuccessful. Paradoxically, fly ash has been widely used in ready-mixed

concrete industries, as well as in cement manufacturers, while bottom ash is normally sent

into landfill. Taking fly ash and bottom ash out of the hazardous materials list will surely

elevate research and promotion of the use of these waste products, including fly ash of the

low quality, to further enhance the greenship of construction materials.

Right now, we still do not have any scheme to better promote the practice of

sustainable development in construction industry, e.g. tax reduction scheme for green

building. More, we still do not have any active concrete institute. A proper concrete institute

may play important roles in educating engineers and other practitioners on the

implementation of sustainable development in the field.

2. JAPAN

To promote the concept of sustainability in concrete sector and expand utilization of

concrete toward establishment of low carbon and sound material-cycle society in Japan, there

exist several barriers in the social morphology, in the population composition, in the

government and also in the concrete sector itself. Japan has been suffering from a decrease

in the number of working people especially in construction industries and in rural areas due

to rapid aging of the population resulting from the decline in the birth rate. It causes a

103

difficulty in recruiting top-class personnel into the concrete sector. The Japanese government

launched a policy “From concrete to people” in 2000s but the present government changed its

policy into constructing resilient structures after the disaster in 2011. However it has been

promoting utilization of timber rather than concrete for building construction. Concrete sector

including cement companies has been conservative, and neither positive nor active in

promoting environment-oriented products and construction. To overcome these negative

barriers, concrete sector has to investigate optimum utilization of concrete in reducing energy

consumption in building and develop low carbon concrete, and then appeal for the excellent

aspect of concrete in sustainability.

3. KOREA

3.1 Government-led (one-sided) Green Initiatives

In South Korea, the issue of sustainability has been rather unilaterally advocated by

the government. All major green policies such as “Low carbon Green Growth Law” and

“GHG and Energy Target Management” have also been enacted and strongly pursued by the

government. There is, in general, lack of public interest and knowledge toward sustainability.

3.2 Lack of Education on Sustainability

Average South Koreans should be more keen to the importance of sustainability

through education. It is important that such education begin as early as possible and as

broadly as possible. For example, in South Korea, the government is recently recommending

a course on sustainability at the high school level. It is also desired that every freshmen

entering the university take a course on sustainability and then most major courses in

engineering contain sustainability as one of the core educational subjects.

3.3 Conflict of Interest: economic development vs. environmental conservation

It should be kept in mind that the economic development usually has the priority over

the environmental conservation in most societies and South Korea is no exception. As South

Korean economy is still developing fast, it is not easy to give environmental issues priority to

the other issues including sustainability.

3.4 Development of Environmental-friendly Design code, Specification, LCI Data

(1) New design codes, standards, and specifications, such as performance based

design, need to be developed that easily allow the use of industrial by-products

and wastes.

(2) LCA can be an effective tool in sustainability. But to develop LCI database and

related LCA technologies take a long time and large sum of monetary resources.

For example, South Korean government took a decade to develop about 400 LCI

database, but to be able to fully benefit from such database, much more need to

be developed and the database still need to be regularly updated.

104

(3) Development of reliability-based methods for prediction of the service life of

concrete and concrete structures so that the concrete structures be designed to

have long service lives and the generation of demolished concrete be minimized.

3.5 Lack of Technical Prowess

Many innovative technologies need to be developed which drastically reduce the

environmental impact of cement and concrete including cement production and production of

recycled aggregates. Also the global warming should be positively taken as an opportunity to

develop innovative technologies, new area of research and new jobs, and establish new

businesses rather than a threat through education.

4. THAILAND

Lack of Financial Incentives

Even though a number of incentives are provided for renewable energy and

energy efficiency projects, they may not overcome the financial investment of

some projects, where the investment cost is very high.

Need for Resource Management

Local resources and abandoned materials can become valuable when there are

increasing demands for such resources.

Such a situation can create a conflict for the resources.

Low Civil Society Involvement

Current policies, measures and actions do not create a commitment to reducing

greenhouse gas emission from civil society. Thus, it may be useful to promote

greenhouse gas reductions by providing incentives (such as providing financial

incentives for reducing electricity consumption) and facilitating

environmentally friendly behaviors (placing recycling points close to

communities).

Inconsistent Policy Implementation

Several well-planned policies and programs are implemented and provide many

benefits. However, sometimes these policies and programs are interrupted

during implementation by political issues.

Low political stability is one cause of inconsistent policy implementation in

Thailand.

Low Level of Research and Development

The level of research and development for new clean and green technologies

concerning climate change is low. Most clean and green technologies,

105

especially sophisticated technologies, are deployed in the country through

technology transfer and quite costly.

Mobilization of Clean and Green Technologies for Commercial Purposes

Some research and development activities are domestically undertaken on a

pilot scale and have the potential to alleviate environmental problems.

However, some fail to be adopted commercially because manufacturers do not

see the market potential (do not create the supply) and government agencies do

not promote and support the emergence of technologies (do not create the

demand).

Low Awareness of Green Building

Green building awareness is still low in Thailand. Most entrepreneurs of

designated buildings only concern themselves with energy efficiency and

energy management in buildings, and do not pay attention to other aspects of

green buildings, such as building maintenance.

No Green Building Concept for Small Buildings and Condominiums

The green building concept for new large buildings and new homes has

developed and been modified over the years to suit Thailand’s climate. But the

green building concept and guidelines for small buildings and residential

complexes have yet to be developed. Thus, it is difficult for entrepreneurs to

apply green building concepts to small buildings.

106

IX. CONCLUSIONS

Since the establishment of ACF Sustainability Forum (SF) in 2010, eight meetings

were held in six ACF member countries. Great efforts were made to write the first report by

member countries. This is the first step to know the status of concrete industry in Asian

countries.

The economic growth in Asia is very significant. It is obvious that the driving force is

the development of infrastructures. The investment for infrastructure development will

continue to increase. However, it became clear from the survey by questionnaires for ACF SF

report that it is difficult to indicate the activities of concrete and construction industries by

data. In the developed countries like Japan and Korea, there exists sectoral association in

concrete-related industries. They are collecting their fundamental data. However, it seems

that it is very limited in other countries. Without knowing the current situation, we cannot

take any action for sustainable development.

There is no doubt that concrete is the essential materials for developing sustainable

society. On the other hand, concrete production and construction activity cause the

environmental impacts, including CO2 emission. In order for concrete and construction

industries to develop advanced technologies for reducing environmental impacts, it is

necessary to perceive the current circumstances.

The ACF SF will clarify the essence of sustainability in concrete construction of Asian

countries, and then take necessary actions towards the solution of problems through its

continuous activity. It will be a challenging work.

107

APPENDIX A

RESULTS OF THE FIRST QUESTIONNAIRE ON SUSTAINABILITY

108

Japan

109

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC CONCRETE

MATERIALS ALL OVER THE WORLD 2010 - JAPAN

1. General information

Q1 Your name

( M. OYADO )

Q2 Your country

( JAPAN )

Q3 Your type of business

( <institution of research or education> )

Q4 Answered date

2010 (year)

Jan (month)

2 (day)

if you use fiscal year (FY) in the following question, choose the starting/ending month

Apr. starting month

Mar. ending month

2. Cement

Q5 How many cement plants are there?

32 (approx.)

Q6 Kinds and ratio of major cements (Percentage based on total production)

(1) Ratio of Portland cement and blended cement

71% Portland cement

21% Blended cement

8% Others

(2) Details in Portland cement (Percentage based on total production of Portland cement)

92% NPC (Ordinary, type I)

7% HPC (High early strength or Rapid hardening, type III)

1% MPC (moderate heat, type II)

0% LPC (low heat, type IV)

0% SRPC (Sulfate Resistance, type V)

NOTE:All types in parenthesis are corresponded to the definitions in ASTM C 150

(3) Details in blended cement (Percentage based on total production of blended cement)

96% Portland slag cement

0% Portland fly ash cement

0% Portland pozzolan cement

4% other blended cement

110

(4) If other blended cement is used,

kind of the admixtures…

Q7 Demand and Supply for Total Cement (Mton/y)

67.6 Production Total

0 Import Total

50.5 Consumption Domestic

10.9 Consumption Export

Q8 Demand and Supply for Ordinary Portland Cement (Mton/y)

44 Production


Q9 Demand and Supply for Major Blended Cement

(1) Kind of Major Blended Cement…

( <Portland slag cement> )

(2) Production (Mton/y)

13.6

(3) Domestic consumption (Mton/y)

12.1

Q10 Cement Sales by Customer (Mton/y)

23.1 Building Construction

11.7 Civil Engineering (Dams, Sewege, Water supply, Agliculture etc.)

5.3 Transportation (Railways, Roads, Bridges etc.)

6.7 Concrete Products Manufacture

3.7 other

Q11 Energy Consumption

(1) Specific Thermal Energy consumption (GJ/t-cement) *

2.8 including alternative fuels

2.5 excluding alternative fuels

*Coal: 25.95MJ/kg

(2) Specific Electric Power consumption (kWh/t-cement)

104.5 including waste heat power generation

94.6 excluding waste heat power generation

(3) Waste Materials Used in Cement Industry…

29.5 Total (Mton/y)

448 Total (kg/t-cement)

(4) Typical wastes used

<Coal ash>

Q12 Are there any comments or notes in answering the question about cement?

Anzai, Date: Tue, 23 Mar 2010 10:45:39

+0900

111

3. Aggregate

Q13 Kind and amount of aggregate

24% piedmont or plateau gravel

66% crushed limestone

3% river dredged aggregate

4% sea dredged sand

4% else

Q14 Are there any comments or notes in answering the question about aggregate?

4. Chemical Admixtures

Q15 How much of chemical admixture is used?

Amount of chemical ad is 450x10^3 ton/year,

when assuming to be 1% of weight of domestic sales of cement .

Q16 Are there any comments or notes in answering the question about chemical admixture?

Oyado, data from Noguchi, JCI symposium, 2010.7

5. SCM (Supplemental Cementitious Material)

Q17 Amount of consumption of SCM (Supplemental Cementitious Material) (ton)

4,000,000 Blast-furnace slag

5,764,000 Fly ash

(slight) Silica fume

(slight) Expansive additive


Oyado, data from Noguchi, JCI symposium, 2010.7

6. Concrete Production

Q19 Ratio of concrete mixing type

RMC (Ready Mixed Concrete)

Precast concrete

On-site job concrete

among them….

What kind of structures are constructed by on-site mixed concrete?

< Building Construction >

< Civil Engineering (Dams, Sewege, Water supply, Agliculture etc.) >

< Transportation (Railways, Roads, Bridges etc.) >

<else>

appurtenant works

Q20 Quality Control

112

(1) Are there any regulation to limit maximum water content?

<yes>

(2) Are there any regulation to limit maximum chloride?

<yes>

in case of <yes>, choose regulation system from among <alternatives>

( <regulate as mass of Cl in 1m3 of concrete> )

(3) Are there any regulation to prevent ASR (Alkali silica reaction of aggregate) ?

<yes>


( <chemical method> & <mortar bar method> )


Q19 amount of RMC=86x10^6m3

(Kurita, Date: Mon, 26 Jul 2010 17:52:06

+0900)

Other Q= Oyado, 2010.11

7. Construction circumstances

Q22 Annual construction work starting (m2)

(1) Newly-constructed floor area (construction work starting)

113000000 (m2) (approx.)

(2) - Among them, reinforced concrete building

(3) - Among them, steel building

(4) - Among them, timber building

(5) - Among them, masonry building

(6) - Among them, other building

Q23 Annual construction orders received

(1) Construction Orders Received (total)

4.07E+13 (approx.) JPY (currency unit ...expressed in local currency)

(2) Construction Orders Received (in the field of CIVIL ENGINEERING; ex: lifeline or

transportation)


(3) Construction Orders Received (in the field of ARCHITECT; ex: housing or building)



Q22,23=Kurita, Date: Mon, 26 Jul 2010

17:52:06 +0900

Q23(2)=ordered mainly by government

Q23(3)=ordered mainly by private companies

113

Korea

114


MATERIALS ALL OVER THE WORLD 2010 – KOREA


Q1 Your name

( Hasun JEONG )

Q2 Your country

( KOREA )



Q4 Answered date

2010 (year)

Dec (month)

30 (day)


Jan. starting month

Dec. ending month

2. Cement


11 (approx.)

( 2009 )



81% Portland cement

19% Blended cement

( 2009 )


99% NPC(Ordinary, type I)

0% HPC(High early strength or Rapid hardening, type III)

MPC(moderate heat, type II)

0% LPC(low heat, type IV)

SRPC(Sulfate Resistance, type V)

( 2009 )

NOTE:All types in parenthesis are corresponded to the definitions in ASTM C 150



Portland fly ash cement

115

Portland pozzolan cement


( 2009 )



50,130,000 Production Total

830,000 Import Total

48,500,000 Consumption Domestic

4,570,000 Consumption Export

( 2009 )


40,220,000 Production

37,750,000 Consumption Domestic

( 2009 )



( <Portland slag cement> )

( 2009 )


8,720,000

( 2009 )


8,720,000

( FY 2009 )


Building Construction

Civil Engineering (Dams, Sewege, Water supply, Agliculture etc.)

Transportation (Railways, Roads, Bridges etc.)

Concrete Products Manufacture

other




excluding alternative fuels

*Coal: 25.95MJ/kg

( 2009 )


105 including waste heat power generation

116

excluding waste heat power generation

( 2009 )


14,400,000 Total (Mton/y)


( 2007 )


<Coal ash>

<waste tire, waste plastic, waste oil>

( 2009 )


Total waste material above include blast furnace slag of 7,500,000 ton

3. Aggregate





14% sea dredged sand

else

land aggregate 4.6 crushed stone 24

( 2009 )




230,000 t

( 2009 )


AE agent 70%

superplasticizer 20%

( 2009 )



5,500,000 Blast-furnace slag

3,100,000 Fly ash

2,000 Silica fume

3,200 Expansive additive

117

( 2010 )




74% RMC (Ready Mixed Concrete)

8% Precast concrete

18% On-site job concrete

among them….



< Building Construction >


< Transportation (Railways, Roads, Bridges etc.) >

<else>

(…data of )

Q20 Quality Control


<yes>

( 2010 )


<yes>

( 2010 )


( <as mass of Cl in 1m3 of concrete> )

( 2010 )


<yes>



( 2010 )



Q22 Annual construction work starting (m2) See next questionnaire in Appendix B



118







119 (approx.) trillion Won (currency unit ...expressed in local currency)

( 2009 )

(2) Construction Orders Received (in the field of CIVIL ENGINEERING; ex: lifeline or

transportation)


( 2009 )



( 2009 )


119

Taiwan

120


MATERIALS ALL OVER THE WORLD 2010 - TAIWAN


Q1 Your name

( Yin-Wen Chan )

Q2 Your country

( Taiwan )



Q4 Answered date

2011 (year)

Oct (month)

25 (day)


Jul. starting month

Jun. ending month

2. Cement


10 (approx.)

( year 2010 )



100% Portland cement

0% Blended cement

0% Others

( year 2010 )


90% NPC (Ordinary, type I)

0% HPC (High early strength or Rapid hardening, type III)

10% MPC (moderate heat, type II)

0% LPC (low heat, type IV)

0% SRPC (Sulfate Resistance, type V)

( year 2010 )

NOTE: All types in parenthesis are corresponded to the definitions in ASTM C 150



0% Portland fly ash cement

0% Portland pozzolan cement


( year 2010 )

121



16.3 Production Total

2.5 Import Total


7.2 Consumption Export

( year 2010 )


16.3 Production

12 Consumption Domestic

( year 2010 )




0

( year 2010 )


0

( year 2010 )


8.4 Building Construction

1.2 Civil Engineering (Dams, Sewege, Water supply, Agliculture etc.)

1.2 Transportation (Railways, Roads, Bridges etc.)

1.2 Concrete Products Manufacture

Other

( year 2010 )




excluding alternative fuels

*Coal: 25.95MJ/kg


112 including waste heat power generation

excluding waste heat power generation


0.4 Total (Mton/y)



<Coal ash>


122

3. Aggregate





sea dredged sand

16% else

( year 2010 )




6Mton

( year 2010 )




4.5M Blast-furnace slag

3.0M Fly ash

Silica fume

Expansive additive ( year 2010 )




95% RMC (Ready Mixed Concrete)

4% Precast concrete

1% On-site job concrete

among them….



( year 2010 )

Q20 Quality Control


<yes>

( year 2010 )


<yes>

( year 2010 )


( <as mass of Cl in 1m3 of concrete> )

( year 2010 )

123


<yes>



( year 2010 )



Q22 Annual construction work starting (m2)


31,174,000 (m2) (approx.)

( year 2010 )


23,227,000 (m2) (approx.)

( year 2010 )


4,869,000 (m2) (approx.)

( year 2010 )


~0 (m2) (approx.)

( year 2010 )


~0 (m2) (approx.)

( year 2010 )


steel-reinforced concrete building

2,767,000 (m2) (approx.)

( year 2010 )



(2) Construction Orders Received (in the field of CIVIL ENGINEERING; ex: lifeline or transportation)



124

APPENDIX B

RESULTS OF THE SECOND QUESTIONNAIRE ON SUSTAINABILITY

125

Japan

126

Cement

1 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the cement industry? If

any, please put the organization’s name in parentheses.

Yes ( Japan Cement Association )

2 If your answer to the question #1 is YES or if the data are available from other sources,

please provide the statistical data value by category that are available among those listed

below.

Production Volume: Total ( 56.1) mil. MTN

Portland cement ( 38.2) mil. MTN

ordinary ( 34.7) mil. MTN

high-early-strength ( 2.7) mil. MTN

moderate-heat/low-heat ( 0.9) mil. MTN

other (sulfate resistant, etc. ) ( 0.0) mil. MTN

Blended cement ( 12.4) mil. MTN

portland blast-furnace slag cement ( 11.5) mil. MTN

portland fly-ash cement ( 0.2) mil. MTN

other (etc. ) ( 0.7) mil. MTN

Other (for exported clinker, etc. ) ( 5.4) mil. MTN

Import Volume: Total ( ) mil. MTN

Portland cement ( ) mil. MTN

ordinary ( ) mil. MTN

high-early-strength ( ) mil. MTN

moderate-heat/low-heat ( ) mil. MTN

other ( ) ( ) mil. MTN

Blended cement ( ) mil. MTN

portland blast-furnace slag cement ( ) mil. MTN

portland fly-ash cement ( ) mil. MTN


Other ( ) ( ) mil. MTN

Export Volume: Total ( 10.0) mil. MTN











Usage Volume: Total ( 41.0) mil. MTN







127





Volume of input materials for cement production (for Portland cement)

Total ( 57.1) mil. MTN

Limestone ( 42.4) mil. MTN

Clay ( 0.2) mil. MTN

Silica ( 2.6) mil. MTN

Iron oxide ( 0.8) mil. MTN

Gypsum ( 1.3) mil. MTN

By-product/Waste (BS, FA, etc. ) ( 8.9) mil. MTN

Other (limestone blended ) ( 1.0) mil. MTN

Volume of input energy for cement production (for Portland cement)

Total ( 4.35) mil. MTN

Oil ( 0.60) mil. MTN

Coal ( 3.75) mil. MTN

Gas ( ) mil. m3

Purchased electricity ( 1.09) mil. KWH

By-product/Waste ( ) ( 1.20) mil. MTN

Other (etc. ) ( 0.0) mil. MTN

Addition (by-product)

3 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the admixture

industry? If any, please put the organization’s name in parentheses by admixture

category.

Blast-furnace slag Yes (Nippon Slag Association)

Fly-ash Yes (Japan Fly Ash Association & Japan Coal Energy Center)

Silica fume Yes ( ) No

Other Yes (Japan Mining Industry Association)

4 If your answer to the question #3 is YES or if the data are available from other

sources, please provide the statistical data value by category that are available

among those listed below.

Blast-furnace slag: production volume ( 24.9) mil. MTN

import volume ( ) mil. MTN

export volume ( 8.0) mil. MTN

usage volume ( 15.6) mil. MTN

for blended cement ( 7.5) mil. MTN

for aggregate (2.9+1.9) mil. MTN

other ( 3.3) mil. MTN

Fly-ash: production volume ( 10.1) mil. MTN

(Coal ash) import volume ( ) mil. MTN

export volume ( ) mil. MTN


for cement feedstock ( 6.8) mil. MTN

for blended cement ( 0.3) mil. MTN


Silica fume: production volume ( 0.0) mil. MTN

128

(1989) import volume ( 0.022) mil. MTN

export volume ( 0.0) mil. MTN

usage volume ( ) mil. MTN

for blended cement ( ) mil. MTN

other ( ) mil. MTN

Other ( ): production volume ( ) mil. MTN




for cement feedstock ( ) mil. MTN


for aggregate ( ) mil. MTN

Chemical Admixture

5 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the chemical

admixture industry? If any, please put the organization’s name in parentheses.

Yes ( ) No




Air-entraining admixture: production volume ( ) mil. MTN




Water-reducing admixture: production volume ( ) mil. MTN




Air-entraining and water-reducing admixture:

production volume ( ) mil. MTN




High-range water-reducing admixture:





AE high-range water-reducing admixture:









Aggregate

129

7 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the aggregate


category.

Gravel/Sand Yes (Japan Sand and Gravel Association, Ministry of Economy,

Trade and Industry)

Crushed stone/Crushed sand Yes (Japan Crushed Stone Association,

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry)

Other Yes (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry)




Gravel/Sand: production volume ( 118) mil. MTN



usage volume ( 118) mil. MTN

aggregate for concrete ( ) mil. MTN

aggregate for roads ( ) mil. MTN

other ( ) mil. MTN

Crushed stone/Crushed sand:

production volum ( 179.0) mil. MTN




aggregate for concrete ( 95.2) mil. MTN

aggregate for roads ( 60.5) mil. MTN


Other (Recycled aggregate):

production volume ( 16.6) mil. MTN




aggregate for concrete ( 0.1) mil. MTN

aggregate for roads ( 16.5) mil. MTN

other ( ) mil. MTN

Other (Lightweight aggregate + Slag aggregate):

production volume ( 14) mil. MTN



usage volume ( 14) mil. MTN

aggregate for concrete ( ) mil. MTN

aggregate for roads ( ) mil. MTN

other ( ) mil. MTN

Aggregate (total):

aggregate for concrete ( 278) mil. MTN

aggregate for roads ( 112) mil. MTN

Concrete

9 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the concrete industry? If

any, please put the organization’s name in parentheses.

130

Yes (National Ready-mixed Concrete Industrial Association, Ministry of Economy,

Trade and Industry)


please provide the statistical data value by category that are available among those listed

below.

Production volume: Ready mixed concrete ( 86.0) mil. m3

plant mixing ( ) mil. m3

field mixing ( ) mil. m3

Precast concrete ( ) mil. m3

Usage volume by use: for building construction ( 49.2) mil. m3

(limited to RMC) for civil engineering work ( 36.8) mil. m3

other ( ) mil. m3

Information on the construction industry and buildings

11 Is there any organization that is compiling the data on the amount of construction

investment? If any, please provide the organization’s name.

Yes

Organization：Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

12 Do you have or are you able to obtain the data on the amount of construction investment?

Yes

Amount of construction investment：59,229 billion yen

13 Is the amount of construction investment divided into the investment amount for new

civil engineering structures and buildings and for existing ones (maintenance cost)?

Yes

Amount for new structures：45,036 billion yen

Maintenance cost：14,193 billion yen

14 Is the amount of construction investment divided into the investment amount for

civil engineering structures and for buildings?

Yes

Amount for civil engineering structures：10,926 billion yen

Amount for buildings：37,179 billion yen

15 Is the data on the working population of all industries available?

Yes

Entire working population：62.82 million people

16 Is the data on the working population of the construction industry available?

Yes

131

Construction industry working population：5.2 million people

17 Is the data on the total floor space of the building construction started in the following

years available?

Yes

Total floor space 2000： (194.5 million)m2

2001： (178.9 million)m2

2002： (171.0 million)m2

2003： (176.5 million m2

2004： (182.8 million)m2

2005： (185.7 million)m2

2006： (187.6 million)m2

2007： (157.2 million)m2

2008： (151.4 million)m2

2009： (113.2 million)m2

2010： (122.3 million)m2

18 Is the data on the total floor space of the building construction started in 2000

through 2010 available by structural category?

Yes (2010) Reinforced concrete structure： (23.3 million)m2

Steel structure： (37.6 million)m2

Steel-reinforced concrete structure： (2.9 million)m2

Wooden structure： (48.8 million)m2

Masonry structure： (0.1 million)m2

Other： (0.5 million)m2

Measures/Policies/System/Attitude

19 Measures and policies on sustainability

19.1 Is there any law or system that is introduced in order to create a sustainable

society (reducing global warming, resource recycling, waste processing,

pollution control, constructing long-lived buildings etc.)?

19.2 What are the measures and policies that you think would be necessary in the

future?

20 Barriers to promote sustainability

20.1 Is there any problem putting above mentioned law(s)/system(s) into effect?

20.2 What would be the barriers to implement the measures and policies

necessary in the future?

21 What is your understanding about the industrial contribution for sustainability

and industrial social responsibility?

132

21.1 Cement manufacturing industry

21.2 Concrete manufacturing industry

21.3 Construction industry

Thank you very much for your kind cooperation with our questionnaire.

133

Korea

134

Cement

1 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the cement industry?

If any, please put the organization’s name in parentheses.

Yes ( Korea Cement Association ) No


please provide the statistical data value by category that are available among those

listed below.

Production Volume (2010): Total (47.420 ) mil. MTN

Portland cement (39.321 ) mil. MTN

ordinary (38.376 ) mil. MTN

high-early-strength (0.046 ) mil. MTN

moderate-heat/low-heat (0.646 ) mil. MTN

other ( ) (0.253 ) mil. MTN

Blended cement (8.099 ) mil. MTN





Import Volume: Total (0.772 ) mil. MTN











Export Volume: Total (2.762 ) mil. MTN











Usage Volume: Total ( ) mil. MTN






135






Volume of input materials for cement production

Total (71.695 ) mil. MTN

Limestone (62.390 ) mil. MTN

Clay(clay, agalmatolite, etc.) (1.194 ) mil. MTN

Silica(quartzite, molding sand etc.) (2.003 ) mil. MTN

Iron oxide

(converter slag, copper slag etc.) (1.279 ) mil. MTN

Gypsum

(natural gypsum, desulfurized gypsum, refined gypsum etc)

(2.051 ) mil. MTN

By-product/Waste

(fly ash, sludge etc.) (2.198 ) mil. MTN

Other (pumice stone) (0.580 ) mil. MTN

Volume of input energy for cement production

Total ( ) mil. MTN

Oil (0.017 ) mil. MTN

Coal (4.063 ) mil. MTN

Gas ( ) mil. m3

Purchased electricity (5.233 ) mil. KWH

By-product/Waste

(used plastic, used tire etc.) (1.192 ) mil. MTN

Other (P/coke) (0.356 ) mil. MTN

Admixture (by-product)

3 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the admixture


category.

Blast-furnace slag

Yes

( Korea Iron & Steel Association, Individual steel makers: POSCO, Hyundai

Steel )

Fly-ash

Yes

( Individual coal-fired power plants: KOSEP, KOSPO, KOMIPO, EWP, WP etc.)

Silica fume Yes ( ) No

Other Yes ( ) No



listed below.

Blast-furnace slag (2008):

production volume (10.228 ) mil. MTN



136

usage volume (10.228 ) mil. MTN

for blended cement (7.098 ) mil. MTN

for aggregate (2.628 ) mil. MTN

other (0.502 ) mil. MTN

Fly-ash (2009):

production volume (6.843 ) mil. MTN

import volume (0.791 ) mil. MTN

export volume (- ) mil. MTN

usage volume (4.646 ) mil. MTN

for cement feedstock (0.509 ) mil. MTN

for blended cement (3.438 ) mil. MTN

other – ready mixed concrete, etc.

(0.699 ) mil. MTN

Silica fume: production volume ( ) mil. MTN





other ( ) mil. MTN





for cement feedstock ( ) mil. MTN


for aggregate ( ) mil. MTN

Chemical Admixture

5 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the chemical

admixture industry? If any, please put the organization’s name in parentheses.

Yes ( ) No



listed below.

Air-entraining admixture: production volume ( ) mil. MTN




Water-reducing admixture: production volume ( ) mil. MTN




Air-entraining and water-reducing admixture:





High-range water-reducing admixture:




137


AE high-range water-reducing admixture:









Aggregate

7 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the aggregate


category.

Gravel/Sand

Yes

( Korea Aggregate Association,Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime

Affairs - MLTM )

Crushed stone/Crushed sand Yes ( MLTM )

Other Yes ( MLTM )



listed below.

Gravel/Sand: production volume (47.71 ) mil. M3

import volume (- )

export volume (- )

usage volume (43.65 ) mil. M3

aggregate for concrete (39.37 ) mil. M3

aggregate for roads ( )

other ( )

Crushed stone/Crushed sand:

production volum (88.39 ) mil. M3

import volume (- )

export volume (- )


aggregate for concrete (51.62 ) mil. M3


other ( )

Other (recycle, dredging etc.) :

production volume (90.37 ) mil. M3

import volume (- )

export volume (- )


aggregate for concrete ( )


other ( )

138

Concrete

9 Is there any organization that is compiling the statistical data on the concrete industry?

If any, please put the organization’s name in parentheses.

Yes

( Korea Federation of Readymixed Concrete Industry Co-operatives,

Korea Ready Mixed Concrete Industry Association )



listed below.

Production volume: Ready mixed concrete (2009) (113.970) mil. m3

plant mixing ( ) mil. m3

field mixing ( ) mil. m3

precast concrete ( ) mil. m3

Usage volume by use: for building construction ( ) mil. m3

for civil engineering work ( ) mil. m3

other ( ) mil. m3

Information on the construction industry and buildings

11 Is there any organization that is compiling the data on the amount of construction

investment? If any, please provide the organization’s name.

Yes

Organization：( Construction Association of Korea )

12 Do you have or are you able to obtain the data on the amount of construction

investment?

Yes

Amount of construction investment (2009)：168 billion U$

13 Is the amount of construction investment divided into the investment amount for new

civil engineering structures and buildings and for existing ones and maintenance cost?

Yes Amount for new structures：

Maintenance cost：

No

14 Is the amount of construction investment divided into the investment amount for civil

engineering structures and for buildings?

Yes Amount for civil engineering structures：

Amount for buildings：

No

15 Is the data on the working population of all industries available?

Yes Entire working population：25,257,000 persons

139

16 Is the data on the working population of the construction industry available?

Yes Construction industry working population：1,789,000 persons

17 Is the data on the total floor space of the building construction started in the following

years available?

Yes Total floor space

2001： (64,486,111)m2

2002： (106,458,756)m2

2003： (108,964,904)m2

2004： (91,279,734)m2

2005： (84,187,000)m2

2006： (84,870,000)m2

2007： (96,659,000)m2

2008： (75,194,000)m2

2009： (71,251,000)m2

2010： (82,484,000)m2

18 Is the data on the total floor space of the building construction started in 2000 through

2010 available by structural category?

Yes

Measures/Policies/System/Attitude

19 Measures and policies on sustainability

19.1 Is there any law or system that is introduced in order to create a sustainable

society (reducing global warming, resource recycling, waste processing, pollution

control, constructing long-lived buildings etc.)?

19.2 What are the measures and policies that you think would be necessary in the

future?

20 Barriers to promote sustainability

20.1 Is there any problem putting above mentioned law(s)/system(s) into effect?

20.2 What would be the barriers to implement the measures and policies necessary in

the future?

21 What is your understanding about the industrial contribution for sustainability and

industrial social responsibility?

21.1 Cement manufacturing industry

21.2 Concrete manufacturing industry

21.3 Construction industry

Thank you very much for your kind cooperation with our questionnaire.

140

APPENDIX C

PRICE INFORMATION ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE IN ASIA

(AS OF DEC. 2014)

India: Price of Products

Material unit Price INR Price USD

Concrete, M20 1m3 6,000 100

Cement 1tonne 5,000 – 6,000 83 - 100

Steel 1tonne 40,000 650

Aggregate 1m3 1,000# 16.7#

# - depends upon lead distance

Indonesia: Price of Products

Material unit Price IDR Price USD

Concrete, 25 MPa 1m3 800,000 64

Cement 1ton 1,200,000 96

Steel 1ton 8,500,000 680

Aggregate

- river sand

1m3 150,000 12

Aggregate

- crushed gravel

1m3 250,000 20

Japan: Price of products

Material unit Price JPY (in Tokyo) Price USD

Concrete 1m3 12,800 106

Cement 1ton 10,300 85

Steel 1ton 81,000 672

Aggregate 1m3 4,200 35

141

Republic of Korea: Price of products

Material unit Price KR Price USD

Concrete 1m3 52,000-70,000 50-65


Steel 1ton 805,000 735

Aggregate 1m3 15,000 13.7

Mongolia: Price of products

Material unit Price MNT Price USD

Concrete 1m3 117,500-177,000 65-100


Steel 1ton 1,960,000 1091

Aggregate 1m3 16,000 9

Thailand: Materials Price

Material unit Price (Baht) Price (USD)

Portland Cement 1ton 2200-2500 66.60-75.68

Fine Aggregate

Coarse Sand 1m3 456.67 13.83

Fine Sand 1m3 475.00 14.38

Coarse Aggregate

20-25 mm 1m3 552.00 16.71

26-50 mm 1m3 552.00 16.71

Concrete:

140 ksc 1m3 2,430.00 73.57

180 ksc 1m3 2,470.00 74.78

210 ksc 1m3 2,510.00 75.99

240 ksc 1m3 2,550.00 77.20

280 ksc 1m3 2,630.00 79.62

300 ksc 1m3 2,680.00 81.14

320 ksc 1m3 2,740.00 82.95

350 ksc 1m3 2,810.00 85.07

142

Steel

SR24 Dia-6 mm 1ton 20,793.80 629.53

Dia-9 mm 1ton 19,934.67 603.52

Dia-12 mm 1ton 20,013.20 605.90

Dia-15 mm 1ton 19,874.20 601.69

Dia-19 mm 1ton 19,894.20 602.29

Dia-25 mm 1ton 19,894.20 602.29

SD30 Dia-12 mm 1ton 19,489.00 590.03

Dia-16 mm 1ton 19,293.00 584.09

Dia-20 mm 1ton 19,293.00 584.09

Dia-25 mm 1ton 19,293.00 584.09

Dia-28 mm 1ton 19,241.25 582.53

SD40 Dia-10 mm 1ton 20,200.00 611.55

Dia-12 mm 1ton 19,413.33 587.74

Dia-16 mm 1ton 19,224.50 582.02

Dia-20 mm 1ton 19,224.50 582.02

Dia-25 mm 1ton 19,224.50 582.02

Dia-28 mm 1ton 19,224.50 582.02

Dia-32 mm 1ton 19,700.00 596.41

Source: Ministry of Commerce, Construction Materials Price (December 2014)

Exchange rate: Bank of Thailand - as of Decemeber 29, 2014: 33.0307 Baht per 1USD

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