Address of the President Lord Adrian, O.M., at the Anniversary Meeting, 30 November 1955

Address of the President Lord Adrian, O.M., at the Anniversary Meeting, 30 November 1955Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, Vol. 144, No.917 (Mar. 13, 1956), pp. 431-440Published by: The Royal SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/82887 .

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Address of the President Lord Adrian, O.M., at the

Anniversary Meeting, 30 November 1955

Award of Medals, 1955

The COPLEY MEDAL is awarded to SIR RONALD FISHER, F.R.S. The rise of quantitative biology, which has been so noteworthy a feature of this century and especially of the past thirty years or so, has been due above all to the work of R. A. Fisher. The variability of living things posed problems and raised difficulties in the inter-

pretation of experimental and observational data which made necessary something beyond the methods of the physical sciences. They required in fact a new approach to inductive inference, and one which would provide means of drawing conclusions of assessable reliability from variable material often available only in small samples. It is to Fisher's combination of mathematical skill and biological insight that we owe the developments, both theoretical and practical, which have done so much towards solving this problem and so making biologists of virtually every kind quantitative in their experiments, their analysis, and, most important of all, their

thought. Faced with the agronomical problems of Rothamsted, whose staff he joined in

1919, Fisher began the remarkable series of statistical investigations which gave us the techniques described in Statistical methods, the tabular matter of Statistical tables (published with F. Yates) for facilitating their use, and the philosophy of

Design of experiments by which they may be understood, appreciated and extended. The outcome has not merely stood the test of time in those branches of biology with which he was immediately concerned, but has had an ever-widening influence which now extends even beyond the borders of biology itself. And in building the new

biometry, Fisher has given especially to the younger biologists a confidence and

quantitative outlook whose full effects we have still to see. While Fisher will always be associated chiefly with these developments in stati-

stics and biometry, it should not be forgotten that he has made outstanding contributions in the fields of genetics and evolution. He set us on the way towards the modern study of biometrical genetics, and his mathematical treatment of natural selection has provided the basis for much of our present studies of populations. His theory of the evolution of dominance introduced us to the notion of the modifi- cation by selection of gene expression, and we owe primarily to him the theory by which we came to understand the working of the Rhesus blood groups. He has, indeed, long been established internationally as well as nationally, as one of our

leading geneticists, than whom few have done more to further the understanding of evolutionary processes.

A ROYAL A MEDAL is awarded to SIR ALEXANDER TODD, F.R.S. Over a wide field

Todd has made distinguished original contributions to the chemistry of natural

products, more particularly in the field of compounds of physiological importance.

Vol. I44. B. (I3 March 1956) 28 [ 431 ]



Anniversary Address by Lord Adrian, P.R.S.

His remarkable contributions to knowledge and his brilliance as an investigator have been recognized internationally by both organic chemists and biologists.

Todd joined Sir Robert Robinson in 1931 and played an important part in in-

vestigations on the synthesis of anthocyanins. His earlier work included major contributions in the field of vitamin chemistry,

for example, in relation to the development of the structure of vitamin B1, and to its synthesis. Independent of Karrer and Fernholz, Todd established the structure of vitamin E and achieved a synthesis. More recently he has turned his attention to the vitamin B12 group, and his degradative and synthetical studies have recently made fundamental contributions to our knowledge of the nature of these substances.

Undoubtedly, Todd's most outstanding work in organic chemistry and bio-

chemistry is in the nucleic acid field. Inter alia, he has developed rational methods for the synthesis of natural purine and pyrimidine nucleosides and for their phos- phorylation to the nucleotides, including a synthesis of adenosine diphosphate and adenosine triphosphate. These results, among many others, have been achieved by a combination of theoretical knowledge and great experimental skill, aided by modern techniques.

Todd has been a pioneer in the chemistry of cannabinol, a series of complex bis-

isoquinoline alkaloids, insect pigments especially the colouring matter of Aphidae, kousso, and natural tropolones of mould origin.

Todd is a most capable investigator; he has made fundamental contributions to

organic chemistry and biochemistry and is recognized as a leader in these fields.

A ROYAL B MEDAL is awarded to Professor VINCENT BRIAN WIGGLESWORTH, C.B.E., F.R.S. Wigglesworth has increased our knowledge of almost every branch of insect

physiology, and in most cases his work has formed the starting point for other

investigators. His contributions to the understanding of those interwoven subjects- growth and cuticle structure-are of paramount importance. It was Wigglesworth who first resolved the epicuticular layer into its four components, showing both the chemical composition and the biological role of these layers, and we owe to him our

knowledge of the structure and functioning of the dermal glands. But the formation of the cuticle is inseparable from the study of growth, and following Kopec's first demonstration that hormones were involved in the growth process, the rest of this vast and complex subject belongs to Wigglesworth: the hormonal balance

giving rise to nymph or adult, the individual fields of organization in the epidermis, the mechanism of the parallel case of wound healing, and, most recently, the way in which various haemocytes enter into the process.

In the study of respiration, too, Wigglesworth has been a pioneer, and his recent studies on the migration of tracheoles and the effects of low oxygen tensions on tracheal organization have altered our entire concept of this subject.

He has done fundamental work on the digestion of blood meals by parasitic insects, and has demonstrated the formation of a peritrophic membrane in many species by secretion through an annular press. The detailed picture of the histo-

logical and chemical cycle of excretion through Malpighian tubules, and the secretory balance of salts and water in mosquitoes are also noteworthy.

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From the width of the field covered by his numerous researches, it can be said that Wigglesworth is the 'father' of insect physiology. He has realized the potenti- ality of the insect as a medium for physiological research, and carried that view into practice with a mastery of observational and experi mental methods.

The DAVY MEDAL is awarded to Professor H. W. MELVILLE, F.R.S. Melville

occupies a prominent position among those who have developed the extremely

important field of the chemistry of macro-molecular substances. He has made

many valuable contributions to the study of the mechanisms of the reactions in which such substances are formed, and has devised new experimental methods for the purpose.

His early work on the examination of the various explosion limits in mixtures of

phosphorus vapour and oxygen confirmed and extended important results bearing on the early development of the theory of chain reactions, especially the role of

diffusing atoms and radicals. With the discovery of deuterium he examined a number of reactions in which the replacement of hydrogen by deuterium contributed to the elucidation of the mechanism. His work on photochemical reactions sensitized with mercury vapour greatly advanced and clarified this problem.

With this background Melville took up the study of the more complex processes of polymerization, and to this field he has made important and lasting contributions. He devised new techniques for the study of the elementary processes which make

up the overall chain reaction, and he applied the device of the rotating sector to the determination of the lifetime of transient entities. This work has formed the basis of the quantitative study of free radical reactivity both for polymerization and oxidation systems and in many other reactions. Melville and his collaborators have also made valuable contributions to the methods of synthesis and study of new

polymeric systems, including recently the interesting group of 'black polymers'. Melville's achievements have contributed much to our knowledge of the intri-

cacies of chemical change, and his development of new methods and techniques for research have had an influence far beyond the confines of his own laboratory.

The SYLVESTER MEDAL is awarded to Professor E. C. TITCHMARSI, F.R.S. Titchmarsh's early work was in the theory of Fourier series and integrals. From this he passed on to a profound study of the special properties of the Riemann zeta function, a subject which he made very much his own over a period of many years. His systematic use of Fourier integrals, and in particular of Parseval's formula, led to formulae that would not have been suggested naturally by other methods, and these formulae proved to be remarkably fruitful for the development of new properties of the function.

Somre of his work on the order of magnitude of the zeta function was based on

developments of methods of estimating trigonometrical sums, due originally to Weyl and van der Corput. He applied these ideas to other problems also, and, in

particular, he effected significant improvements in the estimation of the error terms in lattice-point problems by extending van der Corput's method to double trigonometrical sums.

28-2

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His more recent work has been in the field of eigenfunction expansions associated with second-order differential equations.

He has also written a number of important treatises on the various fields within which he has worked.

The HUGHES MEDAL, is awarded to Professor H. S. W. MASSEY, F.R.S. Massey has added greatly to our knowledge of collision processes between electrons, neutral particles and ions.

His early work was concerned with elastic and inelastic collisions between electrons and atoms. With Bullard he was responsible for some of the early experiments demonstrating diffraction effects. He carried out and directed a large number of detailed calculations, and, in particular, he exploited the variational method with great thoroughness, and did much to give a pattern to the experimental results by emphasizing the significance of the near-adiabatic conditions.

He was the first to apply the theories of attachment and recombination to problems of the ionosphere, and he led the way in reviewing the results of the radio experimenters and in trying to explain them. The difficulties in the way of explana- tion led him to investigate and discuss a wide range of atomic and molecular processes possible in the upper atmosphere. His work, and that of his pupils, is far in advance of any other in this field and has revolutionized our ideas about atomic processes in the ionosphere. He is also the joint author of two important books on the subject of atomic collisions and of electronic impact phenomena.

A Royal Medal was awarded ten years ago to Sir Edward Salisbury for his contributions to botanical science. To-day if there were an appropriate medal we ought to give it to him for his contributions in a wider field, as Biological Secretary of the Royal Society. His term of ten years ends at this meeting. We shall all miss the wise counsel he has given the Society, and I count myself extremely fortunate to have held office with a colleague who has endeared himself to Officers and Fellows alike by his kindly understanding of our needs.

We rely on our Secretaries for much more than the supervision of meetings and publications, for they are constantly surveying our activities and must see to it that they are adapted to changing needs. Sir Edward's initiative has widened the scope of our meetings, he has maintained and extended our role in relation to the Common- wealth, and in the field of publications his care in the administration of the Parlia- mentary Grant-in-Aid has been largely responsible for the improved position enjoyed not only by ourselves but by many other societies as well.

On behalf of the Society, therefore, I thank Sir Edward Salisbury for the valuable service he has rendered to science during his tenure of office as Biological Secretary.

The past year has seen a development in scientific activity which may have great consequences for all of us, and I shall deal with it now because we are fortunate in having evidence of it at this meeting. I refer to the striking change which has come about in the field of international scientific effort. We have witnessed at Geneva a conference on the uses of atomic energy at which the experts from every country could exchange information in the atmosphere of genuine scientific co-

434




operation. The geophysicists, astronomers, meteorologists and geographers of

every nation have already taken the first steps in their combined operations for the International Geophysical Year, and our own advance party, led by Surgeon Lieutenant-Commander Dalgliesh, is already on its way to the Antarctic which is to be the scene of so much activity in 1957. In the less remote parts of the world, scientific delegations are now exchanging visits with an unaccustomed freedom, and we ourselves have been honoured during the past fortnight by the visit of the President of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences and his colleagues and by their

presence at our Anniversary Meeting to-day. We ought to think of our future rather than our past, but this is an occasion

when we cannot be blamed for recalling our long history. When Peter the Great was in London at the end of the seventeenth century he may well have attended some of the Society's meetings, but unfortunately the names of our visitors then were not recorded. In 1714, however, his fellow-countryman Prince Alexander de Menzicoff was admitted a Fellow of the Society, and the notice of his election was

signed by our President, Sir Isaac Newton. When we turn to the record of scientific achievements in the past year it is

more difficult to select those which would really justify the use of that overworked

epithet 'outstanding'. The passenger who is driven in a modern car along an open road will expect the milestones to recur every minute and will feel that something has gone wrong if they do not. In the past year nothing has gone wrong with the

progress of scientific research, in fact, the pace is faster than ever; but we are

already so used to it that we have come to think more of the danger signals than of the milestones. It is, of course, unfortunate that knowledge can be dangerous, and it would certainly be a disaster if this became an excuse for preferring ignorance, but the danger signals have already attracted world-wide notice and the Society will not need to be reminded of them.

The milestones may have attracted less notice than they deserve; each of us can think of important advances in the field he knows best, but there are two which deserve mention now because our own Fellows have made them and because they are signs of what is likely to be a new phase in our understanding of nature. I refer to the recent elucidation of the structure of two highly complex molecules, those of insulin and vitamin B12. Both these substances are formed in living cells and

play an important role in the vertebrate economy, insulin in sugar metabolism and B12 in the formation of the blood cells. Their existence has been known for many years, the use of the naturally occurring products has already saved a great many lives, and there is no immediate prospect of replacing the natural product with one made synthetically. But both are composed of very large molecules with a structure which has presented formidable problems to the chemist. The solution of these problems cannot fail to enlarge our understanding of biochemical events.

The insulin molecule has a weight of over 5 000 with two polypeptide chains of

unequal length linked by sulphur groups; it has taken Dr Sanger and his collaborators over ten years to map the entire structure. The molecule of B2 has one atom of cobalt and 63 of carbon. Dr Dorothy Hodgkin's X-ray analysis of the crystals has been a remarkable demonstration of the value of this method for mapping such

435




complex molecules; another example has been the research on haemoglobin which Dr Perutz has carried out at the Cavendish Laboratory under the inspiration of Sir Lawrence Bragg. On the other hand, we have Professor Todd's studies of the B12 group and of the nucleoproteins, as well as Sanger's of insulin, to show that the

organic chemist has not yet lost the power to work out his own salvation by classical methods.

The structural formula of these molecules seems terribly elaborate to those of us who are not within the pale. We can applaud such triumphs of chemistry, but they force us to realize how much the living cell must depend on the interplay of very large molecules in which the detailed arrangement of the atoms is of truly vital

importance. We may wonder how many such elaborate structures will have to be mapped

before we can see the way to general principles; though we are glad to have passed the stage when all that was known of the biochemistry of protoplasm was contained in the two words anabolism and katabolism.

At all events, since the difficulties now are largely technical it is a comfort to know that the attack on one technically arduous problem has always made it far easier to deal with others of the same order. The successful mapping of large molecules has needed courage and persistence as well as imagination, but the way to further maps will be made plainer. It is a comfort too to know that we can

confidently expect the unexpected, the advance which may give these problems a new turn. Yet, in spite of that, the biologist has little hope of escaping the immense variety of his material. Even when the molecular structures are mapped there will be the organisms to deal with, the vast range of plant and animal form and in the end the differences between one man and another.

Biology, however, is not the only field where there are large territories to be

explored in detail before we reach the next eminence. In fact, the present course of progress in natural science, rapid though it is, does not suggest that scientific research is likely to lose its present specialized character. The regions to be covered become greater and greater and most of them can only be dealt with by the

particular group of experts who know their way into the area. This brings me back again to an appropriate theme for our annual meeting,

namely, the role which our Society should play to fulfil its task of 'Improving natural knowledge'

At the end of his term of office it is to be expected that your President will have ceased to marvel at his presumption in accepting so exalted a position and will have had time to consider its responsibilities. He will not have had much time, for the work of the Society grows apace, though it should be added that the duties of the President are certainly less arduous than most people might suppose. IHe is

supported at every turn by the knowledge of a great society at his back and by the Council and the whole staff at Burlington House inspired by an Assistant Secretary with a genius for tactful and effective administration. In fact, the President is so well cared for that it is a wise regulation which sets a limit to his reign.

Fellows will not need to be told of the many fields of activity in which the Royal Society is now engaged. It dispenses grants, awards medals, publishes journals

436




and holds its scientific meetings; but I am convinced that the most important thing it does now is to exist and to perpetuate its existence by electing new Fellows.

Our meetings and periodicals are no doubt the best evidence of our existence, but they are scarcely essential to it. Indeed, their scope needs constant adjustment if they are not to be submerged in the present flood of scientific activity. Every subdivision of science has now begun to organize its special conferences and lectures. With so many subdivisions and so much to publish, the customary medium for

printed communications is either a journal devoted to one special field or one which will take the shorter papers and publish them with the least delay. I am not suggesting that our own meetings and journals could be abolished without

great loss, but rather that we should continue our policy of arranging some meetings where the specialist is encouraged to state his case before an audience of fellow- scientists who are not all fellow-specialists. That is certainly an important task.

In electing new Fellows, however, we perform a task which becomes more and more important as natural science expands and subdivides. It is essential to its

progress here that there should be a council of scientists of acknowledged reputation able to form an impartial judgement on the claims of every field and on the merits of those who work in them. Scientific issues are now of great concern to those who frame the laws and policy of the State, and there must be some independent body to advise on them.

Statesmen and lawgivers are not likely to need advice on the latest developments of scientific thought; they might get better advice from the younger generation who have been trained in modern ideas and techniques and are used to the present scale of laboratory work. What is needed, however, is not an Academy to pronounce on the controversial points of scientific theory but one with a reasonable knowledge of the direction in which research is leading.

As a society, we have never aspired to an organized control of scientific research; even in times of grave national emergency we have preserved our status as a private body willing to co-operate with the State but unwilling to forfeit our independence. It is, of course, true that the Fellows of the Society have always played a large part in directing research into fruitful channels, but they have done so as heads of laboratories, teachers and leaders of research teams. It is true also that we control funds entrusted to us by past benefactors and thati many of these funds must be used for the furtherance of particular branches of science. The value of the funds we hold now amounts to over a million pounds, and we have also to ad- minister yearly government grants of more than ?50000 for aiding scientific research, scientific publications and international activities. These sums, however, are small compared with the total which must be spent annually by any country dependent on machinery, and with the political system of this country it seems far better for the Royal Society to keep itself outside the State organization. The larger this becomes the more important will it be for us to maintain our status as an independent body of scientists whose chief aim is the advancement of knowledge.

It is neither necessary nor desirable for the Society to give any official ruling on scientific issues, for these are settled far more conclusively in the laboratory than in the committee room. This principle has been recognized by the Royal Society

437




since its foundation, and it was stated specifically in the advertisement to the Philo-

sophical Transactions in 1753. This points out 'that the certainty of the facts and the propriety of the reasonings contained in the several papers so published must still rest on the credit and judgement of their respective authors'. The advertisement goes on to say 'that it is an established rule of the Society, to which they will

always adhere, never to give their opinion, as a Body, upon any subject either of

Nature or Art, that comes before them'. And to make the position almost painfully clear the advertisement goes on 'And therefore the thanks, which are frequently proposed from the Chair, to be given to the authors of such papers as are read at their accustomed meetings, or to the persons through whose hands they have received them, are to be considered in no other light than as a matter of civility, in return for the respect shown to the Society by those communications'.

This stern insistence on our impartiality has not prevented us from issuing reports from time to time when the occasion seemed to demand them. There are, for

instance, the reports of the Food Committee during the 1914-18 war. But it has never been suggested that the Society assumed any other responsibility than that of choosing the committee of experts to draw up the report.

That, however, is the kind of obligation which the Royal Society should be

specially fitted to discharge. It is right that the State should obtain the best scientific advice on practical issues, and it must know where to turn for the best

panel of advisers. There are, of course, numerous societies to deal with particular fields, and some of these would be just as competent to nominate experts from their membership. But the fragmentation of science has left disputed borderlines as well as unclaimed territory, and if our Fellows have been properly chosen we should be able to justify the claim to represent all branches of science at the highest available level. Although we do not pronounce officially on matters of scientific

controversy we can say who are the leaders in any field and we know what sort of

people they are. If this were our only, or our principal, function it might seem to reduce our status

to that of a scientific employment agency; but the applications of science are now of such consequence that the State must be forced to spend more and more of its income on science and technology. With scientists in short supply it must expand research, teaching and development. It must be careful not to harness too many active investigators to desks in Whitehall or to the committee rooms of universities,

yet its administration must show an understanding of scientific needs. We cannot blame Government departments and Ministers for mismanaging scientific affairs if we are unwilling to assume our responsibility for aiding them.

How far then does our constitution and our present practice fit us for such

responsibilities? This year commemorates the death 200 years ago of a great political scientist, Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, a Fellow of the Royal Society who was renowned in every country for his analysis of the

principles of government. Montesquieu came to us from France and was impressed by the precautions against autocracy inherent in the British Constitution. It is true, that his praise of the liberal form of government developed in this island was linked with the suggestion that the weather had a great deal to do with it. He says:

438




'In a nation so distempered by the climate as to have a disrelish of everything, even of life, it is plain that the government most suitable to the inhabitants is that in which they cannot lay their uneasiness to a single person's charge.'

But his analysis of our laws made him conclude that we were, or at all events had the opportunity to be, the freest country in the world and that it is in our nature to defend our liberties from autocratic control.

I do not think the procedure for our election of new Fellows could be made more

representative than it is now. It may not be strictly democratic, for the election must be made by the existing Fellows, but we come from every field of iatural science and our ages vary within reasonable limits. At present our youngest Fellow is 31, and Council this morning authorized the dispatch of a letter conveying the

congratulations of the Society to our colleague, Dr Ridley, whose hundredth birthday falls on 10 December. We have to be constantly on the watch to avoid

neglecting the claims of scientists whose work cuts across the standard classification. But the machinery is elastic; I have seen it at work over a fairly long period and I have always been impressed by the individual capacity for honest judgement which goes to the formation of a collective opinion on scientific merit. It is certainly a responsibility which we do not take lightly, and it is right that it should occupy much of our time in the early months of the year. Whatever else we should be

doing this is time well spent. But nowadays the Society has many other things to do, and I am not sure that

we have evolved the system of self-government which enables us to give adequate consideration to all of them. Election to our Council must be governed by the need to keep a balanced representation of different branches of science. Council would soon become ineffective if its numbers were expanded to keep pace with

every new development, but with a body of only sixteen members, apart from the

Officers, to represent our 560 Fellows, it is naturally difficult for more than a small

proportion of them to gain any insight into the way in which our business is con- ducted. And for those who are chosen to serve on Council the volume of business to be decided must often seem far too great for meetings which can rarely last much longer than 1 hours and occur only twelve times a year. Naturally, a great deal of the work falls on the Secretaries who must be prepared with advice on

many of the matters which do not involve major issues, but even though Council is willing to accept this advice without lengthy discussion there are certain im-

portant decisions to be made at each meeting, and it is very difficult to find the additional time needed for the discussion of more general problems. With the

present growth of scientific effort, problems of general policy are bound to be in our minds, and I know that the President must often have seemed unduly repressive when there is a long agenda and the Council meeting must be over in time for the

Ordinary Meeting of the Society. I have no solution to offer which would not involve more time spent in com-

mittee rooms and less in our laboratories. That may be a burden which we must

accept. But I would urge the Society that it should act only as an adviser and should not be willing to accept the kind of detailed administrative work which it is sometimes asked to undertake. Our difficulties arise from the fact that our

439



Anniversary Address by Lord Adrian, P.R.S. Anniversary Address by Lord Adrian, P.R.S.

responsibilities have grown. We must be constantly on guard to see that we have the leisure to survey them.

My successor with his new Officers and Council will have troublesome decisions to face, but we need not fear that the Society will ever be in danger of becoming less representative of science as a whole or less important for that reason in the affairs of the country. Your President becomes increasingly aware of its importance as he learns the duties of his office. Some of them are onerous, but it would be absurd to suggest that he has a thankless task in representing our great and ancient Society. So, in conclusion, all that I need add is the earnest hope that my successor will find his position as enjoyable as I have found it during these past five years.

The motorneuron surface

By R. W. G. WYCKOFF, FOR. MEM. R.S. AND J. Z. YOUNG, F.R.S.

Department of Anatomy, University College, London

(Received 25 May 1955)

(Plates 24 to 28)

It is possible to reveal all the terminal boutons on the ventral horn cells of the spinal cord after fixation with formalin, mordanting (Weigert-Pal), embedding in carbowax and staining with haematoxylin or by a silver method. The boutons are more numerous than has been supposed and cover the greater part of the surface of the nerve cell body and dendrites.

Electron micrographs after osmium fixation show a thin membrane at the surface of the nerve cell body and dendrites. The boutons are closely apposed to this surface and are themselves covered by thin membranes. At the region of contact there is usually no separa- tion visible, with the relatively low magnification used, between pre- and post-synaptic membranes. The boutons contain many bodies that absorb electrons strongly and are presumably mitochondria.

The pre-synaptic nerve fibres are provided with relatively thick sheaths, except where they swell out to form boutons.

The protoplasm of glia cells fills up all the space between the neuronal elements. No large tissue spaces or intercellular matrix appear. Exchanges between the neurons and capillaries presumably take place through the glial protoplasm.

INTRODUCTION

The development of adequate methods for cutting thin tissue sections and improvements in techniques of fixation now make it possible to study the relations between the cells within the nervous system at the high resolutions of the electron micro-

scope; the detail thus seen is bewildering in its complexity. The present paper is a

preliminary statement of what these methods reveal as the immediate environ- ment of the neuron. The relation of the neuron to its surroundings has been chosen as a starting point for this description because of its importance for an understanding of nervous activity.

responsibilities have grown. We must be constantly on guard to see that we have the leisure to survey them.

My successor with his new Officers and Council will have troublesome decisions to face, but we need not fear that the Society will ever be in danger of becoming less representative of science as a whole or less important for that reason in the affairs of the country. Your President becomes increasingly aware of its importance as he learns the duties of his office. Some of them are onerous, but it would be absurd to suggest that he has a thankless task in representing our great and ancient Society. So, in conclusion, all that I need add is the earnest hope that my successor will find his position as enjoyable as I have found it during these past five years.

The motorneuron surface

By R. W. G. WYCKOFF, FOR. MEM. R.S. AND J. Z. YOUNG, F.R.S.

Department of Anatomy, University College, London

(Received 25 May 1955)

(Plates 24 to 28)

It is possible to reveal all the terminal boutons on the ventral horn cells of the spinal cord after fixation with formalin, mordanting (Weigert-Pal), embedding in carbowax and staining with haematoxylin or by a silver method. The boutons are more numerous than has been supposed and cover the greater part of the surface of the nerve cell body and dendrites.

Electron micrographs after osmium fixation show a thin membrane at the surface of the nerve cell body and dendrites. The boutons are closely apposed to this surface and are themselves covered by thin membranes. At the region of contact there is usually no separa- tion visible, with the relatively low magnification used, between pre- and post-synaptic membranes. The boutons contain many bodies that absorb electrons strongly and are presumably mitochondria.

The pre-synaptic nerve fibres are provided with relatively thick sheaths, except where they swell out to form boutons.

The protoplasm of glia cells fills up all the space between the neuronal elements. No large tissue spaces or intercellular matrix appear. Exchanges between the neurons and capillaries presumably take place through the glial protoplasm.

INTRODUCTION

The development of adequate methods for cutting thin tissue sections and improvements in techniques of fixation now make it possible to study the relations between the cells within the nervous system at the high resolutions of the electron micro-

scope; the detail thus seen is bewildering in its complexity. The present paper is a

preliminary statement of what these methods reveal as the immediate environ- ment of the neuron. The relation of the neuron to its surroundings has been chosen as a starting point for this description because of its importance for an understanding of nervous activity.

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Address of the President Lord Adrian, O.M., at the Anniversary Meeting, 30 November 1955

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