Présentation PowerPointThe FOUNDING of Organizational
Success?
Employ the most Valid & Reliable Assessment Tools in order to
Select the Right People!!!
WHO are the Right People?
The HIGH PERFORMING People!!!
Individual Job Performance
Overall job performance is a two-dimensional construct which
consists of task performance and contextual performance (Borman
& Motowidlo, 1993; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996)
task performance: the degree of fulfilment of the essential
technical activities/duties that differ across jobs→ the technical
aspects of the job predicted better by mental abilities and
extremely strongly by GMA
contextual performance (organizational citizenship behavior-OCB):
the degree of engagement into behaviours supporting the
organizational socio-psychological environment in which the
technical aspects of the job are put forward (personal,
organizational support & conscientious initiative: Coleman
& Borman, 2000)→ the contextual aspects of the job predicted
better by personality: strongly by conscientiousness & less
strongly by emotional stability
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Job Performance…
job performance in the vast majority of the cases is measured
according to supervisor ratings
supervisor ratings in the vast majority of the cases refer only to
task performance
(overall) job performance suppose to refer to both task &
contextual performance but it is widely accepted that contextual
performance is largely underrepresented if present at all
as a result personality as a predictor of job performance tends to
be underestimated in the literature and especially in the most
recent meta-analyses
be aware that when it comes to behavior prediction, lower order
traits (facets) outscore significantly higher order traits at the
level of the Big 5
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
The Founding for Recruiting, Assessing & Selecting High
Performing People?
Job Analysis: the scientific (systematic) study and assembly of all
the facts about a job; that is all information related to the
duties, tasks, responsibilities, relationships, outcomes, and work
environment of a particular job including salary and benefits,
working hours and conditions. The results of job analysis are job
description and job (person) specification which are the major
constituents of a realistic job preview
job analysis ought to be based upon the previously conducted
organizational analysis which concludes all the different jobs that
are needed, including how they are inter-related, for an
organization to fulfill its purpose according to the strategy being
pursued
Job Description is practically the primary conclusion of job
analysis in the form of a detailed written statement of all the
required information about a given job
Job (Person) Specification is the primary conclusion with reference
to the specific KSAO’s of the “right” person for the job: which
selection/assessment tools to use?
KSAOs are the job-related Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other
characteristics that a person needs to possess for high job
performance; typically two major categories – technical and
behavioral
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Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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ASSESSMENT CENTERS can be designed to measure many different types
of job related skills and abilities, but are often used to assess
interpersonal skills, communication skills, planning and
organizing, and analytical skills. The assessment center
typically consists of exercises that reflect job content and types
of problems faced on the job. For example, individuals might
be evaluated on their ability to make a sales presentation or on
their behavior in a simulated meeting. In addition to these
simulation exercises, assessment centers often include other kinds
of tests such as cognitive ability tests, personality inventories,
and job knowledge tests. The assessment center typically uses
multiple raters who are trained to observe, classify, and evaluate
behaviors. At the end of the assessment center, the
raters meet to make overall judgments about peoples performance in
the center .
Advantages
Disadvantages
Have been demonstrated to produce valid inferences for a number of
organizational outcomes (e.g., promotion rates). Can reduce
business costs by identifying individuals for hiring, promotion or
training who possess the needed skills and abilities. May be viewed
positively by test takers who see the close relationship between
the test and the job. Can provide useful feedback to test takers
regarding needed training and development. Focus more heavily on
behavior demonstration than simply assessing characteristics. Use
trained raters. Are typically less likely to differ in results by
gender and race than other types of tests.
Can be costly to create and administer. Require more labor (e.g.,
assessors, role-players, etc.) to administer than most other
methods. Require more time to administer than most other methods.
Can be difficult to keep calibrated or standardized across time and
locations.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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Biographical Data: the content varies widely, and may include such
areas as leadership, teamwork skills, specific job knowledge and
specific skills (e.g., knowledge of certain software, specific
mechanical tool use), interpersonal skills, extraversion,
creativity, etc. Biographical data typically uses questions about
education, training, work experience, and interests to predict
success on the job. Some biographical data instruments also ask
about an individuals attitudes, personal assessments of skills, and
personality.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Can be administered via paper and pencil or computerized methods
easily to large numbers. Can be cost effective to administer. Have
been demonstrated to produce valid inferences for a number of
organizational outcomes (e.g., turnover, performance). Are
typically less likely to differ in results by gender and race than
other types of tests. Does not require skilled administrators. Can
reduce business costs by identifying individuals for hiring,
promotion or training who possess the needed skills and abilities.
May lead to individuals responding in a way to create a positive
decision outcome rather than how they really are (i.e., they may
try to positively manage their impression or even fake their
response). Do not always provide sufficient information for
developmental feedback (i.e., individuals cannot change their
past). Can be time-consuming to develop if not purchased
off-the-shelf.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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Cognitive ability tests typically use questions or problems to
measure ability to learn quickly, logic, reasoning, reading
comprehension and other enduring mental abilities that are
fundamental to success in many different jobs. Cognitive
ability tests assess a persons aptitude or potential to solve
job-related problems by providing information about their mental
abilities such as verbal or mathematical reasoning and perceptual
abilities like speed in recognizing letters of the alphabet
Advantages
Disadvantages
Have been demonstrated to produce valid inferences for a number of
organizational outcomes (e.g., performance, success in training).
Have been demonstrated to predict job performance particularly for
more complex jobs. Can be administered via paper and pencil or
computerized methods easily to large numbers. Can be cost effective
to administer. Does not typically require skilled administrators.
Can reduce business costs by identifying individuals for hiring,
promotion or training who possess the needed skills and abilities.
Will not be influenced by test taker attempts to impression manage
or fake responses.
Are typically more likely to differ in results by gender and
race than other types of tests. Can be time-consuming to develop if
not purchased off-the-shelf.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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Integrity tests assess attitudes and experiences related to a
persons honesty, dependability, trustworthiness, reliability, and
pro-social behavior. These tests typically ask direct
questions about previous experiences related to ethics and
integrity OR ask questions about preferences and interests from
which inferences are drawn about future behavior in these areas.
Integrity tests are used to identify individuals who are likely to
engage in inappropriate, dishonest, and antisocial behavior at
work.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Have been demonstrated to produce valid inferences for a number of
organizational outcomes (e.g., performance, inventory shrinkage
difficulties in dealing with supervision). Can reduce business
costs by identifying individuals who are less likely to be absent,
or engage in other counterproductive behavior. Send the message to
test takers that integrity is an important corporate value. Are
typically less likely to differ in results by gender and race than
other types of tests. Can be administered via paper and pencil or
computerized methods easily to large numbers. Can be cost effective
to administer. Does not require skilled administrators.
May lead to individuals responding in a way to create a positive
decision outcome rather than how they really are (i.e., they may
try to positively manage their impression or even fake their
response). May be disliked by test takers if questions are
intrusive or seen as unrelated to the job.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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Selection Interviews vary greatly in their content, but are often
used to assess such things as interpersonal skills, communication
skills, and teamwork skills, and can be used to assess job
knowledge. Well-designed interviews typically use a standard set of
questions to evaluate knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
qualities required for the job. The interview is the most commonly
used type of test. Employers generally conduct interviews either
face-to-face or by phone.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Are expected and accepted by many job applicants. Provide an
opportunity for a two-way exchange of information. Provide a
measure of skills such as oral communication skills not measured
via paper and pencil or computerized tools. Have been demonstrated
to produce valid inferences for a number of organizational
outcomes, if properly developed and administered Can reduce
business costs by identifying individuals for hiring, promotion or
training who possess the needed skills and abilities. Are typically
less likely to differ in results by gender and race than other
types of tests.
May be affected by different kinds of rating errors and biases by
interviewers. Are often more time-consuming to administer than
paper and pencil or computerized tools. May be practically less
useful when a large number of individuals must be evaluated because
of administration time. Can be costly to train interviewers. May be
difficult to keep interviewers calibrated and the interview process
standardized. May lead to individuals responding in a way to create
a positive decision outcome rather than how they really are (i.e.,
they may try to positively manage their impression or even fake
their response).
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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Job knowledge tests typically use multiple choice questions or
essay type items to evaluate technical or professional expertise
and knowledge required for specific jobs or professions.
Examples of job knowledge tests include tests of basic accounting
principles, A+/Net+ programming, and blueprint reading.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Have been demonstrated to produce valid inferences for a number of
organizational outcomes, such as job performance. Can reduce
business costs by identifying individuals for hiring, promotion or
training who possess the needed skills and abilities. Are typically
less likely to differ in results by gender and race than other
types of tests. May be viewed positively by test takers who see the
close relationship between the test and the job. Will not be
influenced by test taker attempts to impression manage or fake
responses. Can provide useful feedback to test takers regarding
needed training and development.
May require frequent updates to ensure test is current with the
job. May be inappropriate for jobs where knowledge may be obtained
via a short training period. Can be costly and time-consuming to
develop, unless purchased off-the-shelf.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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Personality tests » most commonly assessed personality traits
in work settings are extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to
new experiences, optimism, agreeableness, service orientation,
stress tolerance, emotional stability, and initiative or
proactivity. Personality tests typically measure traits related to
behavior at work, interpersonal interactions, and satisfaction with
different aspects of work. Personality tests are often used to
assess whether individuals have the potential to be successful in
jobs where performance requires a great deal of interpersonal
interaction or work in team settings.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Have been demonstrated to produce valid inferences for a number of
organizational outcomes. Can reduce business costs by identifying
individuals for hiring, promotion or training who possess the
needed skills and abilities. Are typically less likely to differ in
results by gender and race than other types of tests. Can be
administered via paper and pencil or computerized methods easily to
large numbers. Can be cost effective to administer. Does not
require skilled administrators.
May contain questions that do not appear job related or seem
intrusive if not well developed. May lead to individuals responding
in a way to create a positive decision outcome rather than how they
really are (i.e., they may try to positively manage their
impression or even fake their response). May be problematic for use
in employee selection if the test is one used to diagnose medical
conditions (i.e., mental disorders) rather than simply to assess
work-related personality traits.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
The Five Factor Model (FFM) or the Big 5 of Personality: NEO PI-R
Test
The NEO PI-R is a measure of the five major domains of personality
as well as the six facets that define each domain. Taken together,
the five domain scales and thirty facet scales of the NEO PI-R
facilitate a comprehensive and detailed assessment of normal adult
personality. The NEO PI-R is recognized internationally as a gold
standard for personality assessment. Today, reputable developers of
personality tests for the occupational market will as a matter of
course publish data on the relationship of their tests with the
five factor model using one form or another of the NEO as the
benchmark. The total amount of recent data from high level academic
journals concerning the NEO PI-R underpins its quality.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
The Five Factor Model (FFM) or the Big 5 of Personality: NEO PI-R
Test
Extraversion: quantity and intensity of energy directed outwards
into the social world
Warmth: interest in and friendliness towards others
Gregariousness: preference for the company of others
Assertiveness: social ascendancy and forcefulness of
expression
Activity: pace of living
Positive Emotion: tendency to experience positive emotions
Openness to Experience: the active seeking and appreciation of
experiences for their own sake
Fantasy: receptivity to the inner world of imagination
Aesthetics: appreciation of art and beauty
Feelings: openness to inner feelings and emotions
Actions: openness to new experiences on a practical level
Ideas: intellectual curiosity
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Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
The Five Factor Model (FFM) or the Big 5 of Personality: NEO PI-R
Test
Neuroticism (Emotional Stability-R): identifies individuals who are
prone to psychological distress
Anxiety: level of free floating anxiety
Angry Hostility: tendency to experience anger and related states
such as frustration and bitterness
Depression: tendency to experience feelings of guilt, sadness,
despondency and loneliness
Self Consciousness: shyness or social anxiety
Impulsiveness: tendency to act on cravings and urges rather than
reining them in and delaying gratification
Vulnerability: general susceptibility to stress
Agreeableness: the kinds of interactions an individual prefers from
compassion to tough mindedness
Trust: belief in the sincerity and good intentions of others
Straightforwardness: frankness in expression
Compliance: response to interpersonal conflict
Modesty: tendency to play down own achievements and be
humble.
Tender mindedness: attitude of sympathy for others.
Conscientiousness: degree of organization, persistence, control and
motivation in goal directed behaviour
Competence: belief in own self efficacy
Order: personal organization
Achievement striving: need for personal achievement and sense of
direction
Self Discipline: capacity to begin tasks and follow through to
completion despite boredom or distractions.
Deliberation: tendency to think things through before acting or
speaking.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Extraversion
Extraverts are more susceptible to rewards and to social
attention
Introverts dislike loud noises, large social gatherings and suffer
from overstimulation
Advantages of Extraverts
Are better leaders: extraversion is best predictor of leadership,
especially leader emergence
Perform better in jobs emphasizing social skills and social
interactions: people managers, service, sales, etc.
Perform better in jobs that are competitive: real estate agent,
lawyer, barber/stylist
Disadvantages of Extraverts
More impulsive: higher levels of absence and accidents, more likely
to engage in risky behavior due to sensation- and
excitement-seeking and more likely to have accidents—at work and
elsewhere (higher traffic fatalities)
Less likely to perform well in jobs that require long attention
spans or where work is routinized
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Openness to Experience
(Declines with Age)
Advantages of Open People
Cope better with organizational change
Have higher adaptability
Higher levels of counterproductive behaviors and accidents
Lower commitment to their employers
Are not happier or better job performers (in most types of
jobs)
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Neurotism
Better able to detect threats in environment
Less likely to take unnecessary and foolish risks
Disadvantages of Neurotics
Lower life satisfaction and job satisfaction
Increased levels of anxiety, stress mental and physical illness as
well as mortality
Heightened susceptibility to depression
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Conscientiousness
Advantages of Conscientious People
Are better job performers probably due to higher self-regulation
and engagement into goal setting
Live relatively longer
Higher leader effectiveness
Higher integrity
Disadvantages of Conscientious People
Deal poorly with unplanned change: If operating rules or conditions
change, conscientious individuals struggle
Learn less during initial stages of learning
When combined with low agreeableness, may be interpersonally
difficult
Less creative
Agreableness
Advantages of Agreeable People
Are those people most desired as romantic partners, friends, team
members, etc.
Function well in teams (better followers)
Have fewer work and non-work conflicts
Are less likely to engage in counterproductive work behaviors
Disadvantages of Agreeable People
Particularly susceptible to leniency errors
Conflict-avoidant
Types of Employement Tests (APA)
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Work samples & Simulations typically focus on measuring
specific job skills or job knowledge, but can also assess more
general skills such as organizational skill, analytic skills, and
interpersonal skills. Work samples and simulations typically
require performance of tasks that are the same or similar to those
performed on the job to assess their level of skill or competence.
For example, work samples might involve installing a telephone
line, creating a document in Word, or tuning an engine.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Have been demonstrated to produce valid inferences regarding
ability to perform the job. Can reduce business costs by
identifying individuals for hiring, promotion or training who
possess the needed skills and abilities. Are less likely to differ
in results by gender and race than other types of tests (depends on
particular skills being assessed). May be more accepted by test
takers due to the obvious link between the test and the job. Less
likely to be influenced by test taker attempts to impression manage
or fake responses. Can be used to provide specific developmental
feedback. Can provide test takers with a realistic preview of the
job and the organization.
Does not assess aptitude to perform more complex tasks that may be
encountered on the job. May not assess the ability to learn new
tasks quickly. Often not conducive to group administration. May
require some level of job knowledge and therefore may be
inappropriate for jobs where knowledge may be obtained via a short
training period. May be difficult to keep updated. May be expensive
to administer. May be time consuming to develop and to administer.
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Unstructured vs. Structured Interviews
selection interviews differ primarily with reference to how much
structured they are in their content
in unstructured interviews different candidates are evaluated
“blindly” upon non-previously rated answers to non-previously
standardized questions neither in content, nor in number while the
duration also fluctuates; unfortunately this is the most common
type of interviews and in the vast majority of the cases in the
form of a CV-based (biographical) interview, where the candidate is
questioned upon relevant education and/or job experience of the
past---it points to the fact that not any form of job analysis has
been conducted and/or concluded
in structured interviews there is standardized content and
duration, that is specific questions that have an array of
pre-rated possible answers within a specific time limit; all
candidates are evaluated upon possible pre-rated answers when asked
the very same questions within the same time limit---it points to
the fact that some form of job analysis has been conducted and
concluded
obviously unstructured interviews compared with structured ones
suffer primarily from inferior reliability which puts a first low
upper limit to its predictive validity with reference to job
performance; secondarily its content which is most probably not
based upon a job analysis further restricts its predictive validity
with reference to job performance
Inter-rater (agreement) reliability is 0.37 for unstructured vs.
0.67 for structured interviews
Predictive validity is 0.20 for unstructured vs. 0.56 for
structured interviews
Salgado (1999)
Behavioral vs. Situational
Structured Interviews
behavioral interviews contain questions based upon some form of job
analysis which are behaviorally “anchored” with reference to how
the candidate has behaved in the past, when faced with the same or
similar circumstances; the basic principle is that the best
predictor of future behavior is past behavior
However the latest evidence on personality trait development reveal
that personality does change and at least for some people quite
significantly. Thus future behavior might be strikingly different
from past behavior; this fact not only questions the validity of
behavioral interviews but also highlights ethical concerns
situational interviews contain questions also based upon some form
of job analysis (usually employing the Critical Incidents
Technique-CIT), but which in contrast are hypothetically “anchored”
with reference to how the candidate at the best of his/her
knowledge up to date would behave in response to a hypothetical job
scenario; the principle here is more in line with the latest
evidence on personality development and thus more valid and ethical
compared with that of behavioral interviews
Predictive validity is 0.51-56 for behavioral vs. 0.43-0.45 for
situational structured interviews while both provide significant
incremental validity beyond GMA and personality testing
Taylor & Small (2002)
The Best Predictors of Job Performance
GMA is by far the best predictor of both Overall & Task
Performance (higher for high complexity jobs) but conscientiousness
& em. stability provide significant incremental validity
Population Estimation for GMA 0.734 (0.760 for training
performance)
Population Estimation for Conscientiousness 0.332 (0.367) &
Emotional Stability 0.100 (0.106)
Population Estimation for all the 3 predictors combined 0.770
(0.804)
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
The Best Predictors of Job Performance…
these results are reported in the Schmidt et al. (2008) study and
are based upon mean meta-analytical correlations (both US and
European-Union meta-analyses) corrected for measurement error both
in predictor and the criterion as well as for both direct and
indirect range restriction (GMA: 8 meta-analyses for both job and
training performance; Con: 6 and 3 respectively; ES: 5 and 3
respectively)
due to the inadequacy of the validity data for incorporating
contextual performance, job performance in this study has to be
considered to reflect rather task performance than contextual
performance
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
The Best Predictors of Job Performance…
Another earlier study of Le, Oh, Shaffer and Schmidt (2007),
employing the population coefficient of GMA for medium complexity
jobs drawn from the Hunter, Schmidt and Le (2006), the population
coefficient of structured job interviews from the meta-analysis of
McDaniel et al.1994) and the population coefficient of
conscientiousness from the meta-analysis of Barrick & Mount
(1991), provided an estimation of the combined predictive validity
(in terms of job performance) of all the three predictors which
came up to a level of about 0.77
it is important to highlight that the widely known and accepted
moderation effect of job complexity to the relationship of GMA with
job performance as well as the generalizability of the predictive
validity of GMA (US meta-analyses) has been also verified by EU
meta-analyses (cf. Salgado et al., 2003a; Salgado et al.,
2003b)
Notable is though the fact that in the EU Salgado et al. (2003b)
meta-analysis of the relationship of GMA with both job and training
performance across various occupations, the highest operational
value (0.67: slightly higher than the value obtained in general for
high complexity jobs-0.64) was obtained for the managerial
occupation (note that this value is not corrected, and thus is
probably underestimated, for the downward bias in predictor-job
performance relationships caused by range restriction because this
methodology was developed later on).
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Person-Environment Fit
in the Kristof-Brown et al. (2005) meta-analysis relationships with
overall performance were weak (<0.2) and comparable for
Person-Job (0.20), Person-Group (0.19), and Person-Supervisor fit
(0.18), while the relationship with Person-Organization fit was
substantially smaller (.07).
contextual performance was more strongly correlated with both P-O
(0.27) and P-G fit (0.23) but remain at a low-moderate level
both P-O and P-J fit had comparable strong effects (concurrent and
predictive) on affective outcomes, both pre-entry such as
organizational attraction (0.48 vs. 0.46) and intent to hire (0.61
vs. 0.66) & post-entry such as job satisfaction (0.44 vs.
0.56), organizational commitment (0.51 vs. 0.47) and intent to quit
(0.35 vs. 0.46)
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Person-Environment Fit…
a more recent meta-analysis that of Winfred et al. (2006) estimated
a correlation of P-O Fit with overall performance at the level of
0.15 which however was found to be non-generalizable
Legal Concerns are raised by Winfred et al. (2006) for the cases
where selection decisions are founded upon P-E Fit since the
correlation with overall job performance appears to be very weak
and even non-generalizable
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Job Experience as a Predictor…
the meta-analysis of McDaniel, Schmidt & Hunter (1988) reveals
that when job experience is considered only and strictly in terms
of duration of tenure, in the same or a similar job, its
correlation with job performance is considerable only in the very
early career (for very low levels of tenure) while the general
population coefficient is 0.32
higher correlation for jobs that place low levels of cognitive
demands on employees, that is for low complexity jobs (e.g.
administrators & assistants, than for high complexity jobs
(e.g. managers & professionals)---that is 0.39 vs. 0.28
and degrading further later on, up to a point of tenure, where it
falls bellow 0.2; after 9 years of tenure in high complexity jobs
and 12 years for low complexity jobs
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Job Experience as a Predictor…
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September
2009
Training Performance vs. Job Performance
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