advance parking sys

8/12/2019 advance parking sys

1/76


2/76

9

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system is a special-purpose computersystem designed to perform one or a fewdedicated functions, often with real-time computingconstraints. It is usually embedded as part of acomplete device including hardware and mechanical parts. In contrast, a general-purpose computersuch as a personal computer, can do many different tasks depending on programming. Embeddedsystems control many of the common devices in use today .Since the embedded system is dedicatedto specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product, orincreasing the reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefitingfrom economies of scale.

Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations liketraffic lights, factory controllers, or the systemscontrolling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontrollerchip, tovery high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not an exactly defined term, as many systems have someelement of programmability. For example,Handheld computers share some elements withembedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power them butare not truly embedded systems, because they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Embedded systems span all aspects of modern life and there are manyexamples of their use. Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems fromtelephone switches for the network tomobile phones at the end-user. Computer networking usesdedicated routers and network bridges to route data.

Characteristics:

1. Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purposecomputer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer


3/76

10

met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performancerequirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.

2. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist ofsmall, computerized parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. Forexample, the Gibson Robot Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, butthe overall purpose of the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an embeddedsystem in an automobile provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself.

3. The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware, and is usually stored inread-only memory or Flash memory chips rather than a disk drive. It often runs with limitedcomputer hardware resources: small or no keyboard, screen, and little memory.

CPU platforms:

Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories: ordinary microprocessors(P) and microcontrollers (C), which have many more peripherals on chip, reducing cost and size.

Contrasting to the personal computer and server markets, a fairly large number of basicCPUarchitectures are used; there are Von Neumann as well as various degrees of Harvard architectures, RISC as well as non-RISC and VLIW; word lengths vary from 4-bit to 64-bits and beyond (mainlyin DSP processors) although the most typical remain 8/16-bit. Most architectures come in a largenumber of different variants and shapes, many of which are also manufactured by several differentcompanies.

ASIC and FPGA solutions:

A common configuration for very-high-volume embedded systems is thesystem on a chip (SoC), an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), for which the CPU core was purchased andadded as part of the chip design. A related scheme is to use afield-programmable gate array (FPGA), and program it with all the logic, including the CPU.

Peripherals:

Embedded Systems talk with the outside world via peripherals, such as
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson_Robot_Guitarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson_Robot_Guitarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson_Robot_Guitarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLIWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLIWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLIWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_arrayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_arrayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_arrayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLIWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson_Robot_Guitar


4/76

11

Serial Communication Interfaces (SCI): RS-232, RS-422, RS-485 etc Synchronous Serial Communication Interface: I2C, JTAG, SPI, SSC and ESSI Universal Serial Bus (USB) Networks: Ethernet, Controller Area Network , LAN networks, etc Timers: PLL(s), Capture/Compare and Time Processing Units Discrete IO: aka General Purpose Input/output (GPIO) Analog to Digital/Digital to Analog (ADC/DAC)

Tools: As for

other software, embedded system designers usecompilers, assemblers, and debuggers to developembedded system software. However, they may also use some more specific tools:

In circuit debuggers or emulators Utilities to add a checksum or CRC to a program, so the embedded system can check if the

program is valid. For systems usingdigital signal processing, developers may use a math workbench such as

MATLAB, Simulink , MathCad, or Mathematica to simulate the mathematics. They mightalso use libraries for both the host and target which eliminates developing DSP routines asdone in DSPnano RTOS and Unison Operating System.

Custom compilers and linkers may be used to improve optimization for the particularhardware.

An embedded system may have its own special language or design tool, or addenhancements to an existing language such as Forth or Basic.

Another alternative is to add aReal-time operating system or Embedded operating system, which may have DSP capabilities like DSP nano RTOS.

Software tools can come from several sources:

Software companies that specialize in the embedded market Ported from the GNU software development tools
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-422http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-422http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-422http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-485http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-485http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-485http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I2Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I2Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I2Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controller_Area_Networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controller_Area_Networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controller_Area_Networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LonWorkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LonWorkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LonWorkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Processing_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Processing_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Processing_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Purpose_Input/Outputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Purpose_Input/Outputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Purpose_Input/Outputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language#Assemblerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language#Assemblerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language#Assemblerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debuggerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debuggerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_redundancy_checkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_redundancy_checkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_redundancy_checkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLABhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLABhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathCadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathCadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unison_Operating_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unison_Operating_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unison_Operating_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_%28programming_language%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_%28programming_language%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_%28programming_language%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_Stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_Stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_Stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_Stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_%28programming_language%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unison_Operating_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPnano_RTOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathCadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLABhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_redundancy_checkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debuggerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language#Assemblerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Purpose_Input/Outputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Processing_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LonWorkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controller_Area_Networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I2Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-485http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-422http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232


5/76

12

Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded processor is a close relative to a common PC processor

As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating systems are

migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cell phones, personal digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these systems, an open programmingenvironment such asLinux, NetBSD, OSGi or Embedded Java is required so that the third-partysoftware provider can sell to a large market.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSGihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSGihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_Javahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_Javahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_Javahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSGihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellphone


6/76

13

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OFADVANCED CAR PARKING SYSTEM

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Now days in many multiplex systems there is a severe problem for car parking systems.There are many lanes for car parking, so to park a car one has to look for the all lanes. Moreoverthere is a lot of men labor involved for this process for which there is lot of investment. So the needis to develop a system which indicates directly which parking slot is vacant in any lane. The projectinvolves a system including infrared transmitter and receiver in every lane and a LED & LCDdisplay outside the car parking gate. So the person entering parking area can view the LED displayand can decide which lane to enter so as to park the car.

Conventionally, car parking systems does not have any intelligent monitoring system.Parking lots are monitored by human beings. All vehicles enter into the parking and waste time forsearching for parking slot. Sometimes it creates blockage. Condition become worse when there aremultiple parking lanes and each lane have multiple parking slots. Use of automated system for car parking monitoring will reduce the human efforts. Display unit is installed on entrance of parking lo

which will show LEDs for all Parking slot and for all parking lanes. Empty slot is indicated by therespective glowing LED.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM


7/76

14

2.3 DESCRIPTION

Whenever the mains are switched on, the LCD displays the message parking space for 2

vehicles. The number indicates the maximum capacity of park in this project. Whenever a car

comes in front of the gate, the IR signal gets disturbed and the microcontroller will open the gate byrotating the stepper motor. The gate will be closed only after the car leaves the second IR pair sincethe microcontroller should know whether the car left the gate or not. Now the microcontrollerdecrements the value of the count and displays it on LCD. In this way, the microcontrollerdecrements the count whenever the car leaves the park and displays it on LCD.

If the count reaches 0, i.e. if the park is completely filled, the microcontroller will displayNO SPACE FOR PARKING on LCD. And now if any vehicle tries to enter the park, the gate will

not be opened since there is no space. If any vehicle leaves the park, the controller will increment

the count and allows the other vehicles for parking.

2.4 APPLICATIONS

1. Shopping malls2. Railway / Bus stations

AT89S52

Micro

Controller

PowerSupply

0

20

40

60

80

100

1st Q tr 2nd Qtr 3 rd Q tr 4 th Q tr

East

West

North

LCDIR Tx-1

DCmotor

Drivercircuit

IR Tx-2

IR Tx-n

Ledindicators


8/76

15

2.5 ADVANTAGES

3. Avoid manual work4. accurate5. low cost6. time saving


9/76

16

CHAPTER 3

AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER

3.1 AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER:

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4 Kbytesof Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM). The device is manufacturedusing Atmels high -density non-volatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry

standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to bereprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer. By combining aversatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerfulmicrocomputer, which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embeddedcontrol applications.

3.1.1 FEATURES OF MICROCONTROLLER:

Compatible with MCS-51TM Products 8 Kbytes of In-System Reprogram able Flash Memory- Endurance: 1,00Write/Erase Cycles Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-Level Program Memory Lock


10/76

17

256 x 8-Bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Three 16-Bit Timer/Counters Eight Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes

3.2 PIN CONFIGURATION :


11/76

18

Figure 3.1 pin configuration of AT89S52 microcontroller

3.2.1 LOGIC SYMBOL:


12/76

19

Figure 3.2 logic symbol of AT89S52

3.3 MEMORY ORGANIZATION:

The 89C52 micro controller has separate address for program memory and data memory.The logical separation of program and data memory allows the data memory to be accessed by 8-bit

address, which can be quickly stored and manipulated by an 8-bit CPU. Nevertheless, 16-bit datamemory address can also be generated through the DPTR register. Program memory (ROM,EPROM) can only be read, not written to. There can be up to 64k bytes if program memory thelowest 4k bytes of program are on chip. In the ROM less versions, all program memory is external.The read strobe for external program is the PSEN (program store enable). Data memory (RAM)occupies a separate address space from program memory the lowest 128 bytes of data memory areon chip. Up to 64 bytes of external RAM can be addressed in the external data memory space. In the

ROM less version, the lowest 128bytes of data memory are on chip. The CPU generates read andwrite signals, RD and WR, as needed during external data memory access.

External program memory may be combined if desired by applying the RD and PSENsignals to the inputs of an AND gate and using the output of the gate as the read strobe to theexternal program/data memory.


13/76

20

3.3.1 DATA MEMORY :

FF FFFF

80 AND

7F

B B0000

SFRS DIRECT

ADDRESSING ONLY

DIRECT ADDRESSING

ONLY

64K BYTESEXTERNAL


14/76

21

3.3.2 PROGRAM MEMORY:

FFFF FFFF

1000

FFF

0000 0000

The 128 byte of RAM are divided into 3 segments

a). Register banks 0 3 (00 1FH)

b). Bit addressable area (20H 2FH)

c). Scratch pad area (30H 7FH)

If the SP is initialized to this area enough bytes should be left aside to prevent

SP data destruction.

3.4 SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS:

3.4.1 A & B REGISTERS:

They are used during math and logically operations. The register A is alsoused for all data transfers between the micro controller and memory. The B register isused during multiplication and divided operations. For other instructions it can betreated as another scratch pad register.

60k Bytes

External

4k BytesInternal

64k

Bytes

External


15/76

22

3.4.2 PSW (PROGRAM STATUS WORD): It contains math flags; user flags F0 and register select bits RS1 and

RS0 to determine the working register bank.

3.4.3 STACK AND STACK POINTER:

Stack is used to hold and retrieve data quickly. The 8 bit SP is incremented before data is stored during PUSH and CALL executions. While the stack may resideany where in on-chip RAM, the SP is initialized to 07H after the stack to begin atmanipulated as a 16 bit register or as two independent 8 bit registers.

3.4.4 PC (PROGRAM COUNTER):

It addresses the memory locations that program instructions are to be fetched.It is the only register that does not have any internal address.

3.4.4 FLAGS:

They are 1 bit register provided to store the results of certain programinstructions. Other instructions can test the conditions of the flags and make the

decisions accordingly. To conveniently address, they are grouped inside the PSW andPCON.

The micro controller has 4 main flags: carry(c), auxiliary carry (AC), overflow (OV), parity (P) and 3 general-purpose flagsF0, GF0 and GF1.

3.4.5 PORTS

All ports are bi-directional; each consists of a latch, an output driver and aninput buffer. P0, P1, P2 and P3 are the SFR latches ports 0, 1, 2 and 3 respectively.The main functions of each port are mentioned below.

Port0: input/output bus port, address output port and data input/output port.

Port1: Quasi-bi-directional input/output port.Port2: Quasi-bi-directional input/output port and address output port.


16/76

23

Port3: Quasi-bi-directional input/output port and control input/output pin.

3.4.6 SBUF (SERIAL BUFFER):

The microcontroller has serial transmission circuit that uses SBUF register to

hold data. It is actually two separate registers, a transmit buffer and a receive bufferregister. When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to transmit buffer, where it is held forserial transmission and when it is moved from SBUF, it comes from the receive buffer.

3.5 TIMER REGISTER: Register pairs (TH0, TL1), (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit counter registers for

timer/counters 0 and 1. 3.5.1 CONTROL REGISTERS:

SFRs, IP, TMOD, SCON, and PCON contain control and status bits for the

interrupt system, Timers/counters and the serial port.

3.5.2 OSCILLATOR AND CLOCK CIRCUIT:

This circuit generates the clock pulses by which all internal operations aresynchronized. For the microcontroller to yield standard baud rates, the crystalfrequency is chosen as 11.059MHz.

3.5.3 RESET:

The reset switch is the RST pin of the microcontroller, which is the input to aSchmitt trigger. It is accomplished by holding the RST pin HIGH for at least twomachine cycles while the oscillator frequency is running the CPU responds bygenerating an internal reset.

3.5.4 TIMERS/COUNTERS:

A micro controller has two 16- bit Timer/Counter register T0 and T1

configured to operate either as timers or event counters. There are no restrictions onthe duty cycle of the external input signal, but it should be for at least one fullmachine to ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes. Timers0 and 1 have four operating modes: 13-bit mode, 16 bit mode, 8 bit auto-reloadmode. Control bits C/t in TMOD SFR select the timer or counter function. MODE 0: Bothtimers in MODE0 are counters with a divide by 32 pre-scalar. The timer register

is configured as a 13 bit register with all 8 bits of TH1 and the lower 5-bit of


17/76

24

TL1.The upper 3 bits of TL1 are in determinate and should be ignored. Setting therun flags (TR1) doesnt clear the register or the registers.

MODE 1 :Mode 1 is same as mode 0, except that the timer register is run with all 16

bits. The clock is applied to the combined high and low timer registers. An overflowoccurs on the overflow flag. The timer continues to count.

MODE 2:

This mode configures the timer register as an 8 bit counter (TL1/0) withautomatic reload. Overflow from TL1/0 not only sets TF1/0, but also reloads TL1/0with the contents of TH1/0, which is preset by software. The reload leaves

unchanged.

MODE 3:

Mode 3 is used for application that requires an extra 8 bit timer or counter.Timer 1 in mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is same as setting TR0. Timer 0its mode 3 establishes TL0 and TL1 as two separate counters. TL0 uses the timer0control bits C/T, GATE, TR0, INT0 and TF0. TH0 is locked into a timer function and

over the use of TR1 and TR2 from timer 1. Thus TH0 controls the timer 1 interrupts.

3.6 INTERRUPTS:

The micro controller provides 6 interrupt sources, 2external interrupts, 2 timer interrupts and a serial port interrupt and a reset. Theexternal interrupts (INT0 & INT1) can each be either level activated or transitionactivated depending on bits IT0 and IT1 in register TCON. The flags that actuallygenerate these interrupts are IE0 & IE1 bits in TCON.

TF0 and TF1 generate the timer 0 & 1 interrupts, which are set by a roll overin their respective timer/counter registers. When a timer interrupt is generated the on-chip hardware clears the flag that generated it when the service routine is vectored to.

The serial port interrupt is generated by logical OR of R1 & T1. Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when service routine is vectored to. In fact, the service routine itself


18/76

25

determines whether R1 & T1 generated the interrupt, and the bit is cleared in thesoftware.

Upon reset, all interrupts are disabled, meaning that none will be responded to by the micro controller if they are activated. The interrupts must be enabled bysoftware in order for the micro controller to respond to them.

3.7 SERIAL INTERFACE:

The serial port is full duplex, i.e. it can transmit and receive simultaneously. Itis also receive buffered which implies it can begin receiving a second byte before a previously byte has been read from the receive register. The serial port receives andtransmits register and reading SBUF accesses a physically separate receive register.

This serial interface had four modes of operation:MODE 0:

In this mode of operation the serial data enters and exists through RXD.TXDoutputs the shift clock. Eight data bits are transmitted/ received, with the LSB first,the baud rate is fixed at 1/12 of the oscillator frequency. Reception is initialized bythe condition RI-0 and REN=1.

3.8 BAUDRATE CALCULATIONS:

Baud rate in mode 0 is fixed. Mode 0 baud rate=oscillator frequency/12 (1 machine cycle=12 clock. cycles) The baud rate in mode 2 depends on the value of SMOD bit in PCON

Register. SMOD=0, baud rate= (1/64) x oscillator frequency. SMOD=1baud rate= (1/32) oscillator frequency.

I.e. mode 2 baud rate= [2(POW) SMOD/64)] x oscillator frequency. In the modes 1 and 3, timer 1 over flow rate and the value of SMOD

determines the baud rate. Baud rate of mode 1 and 3 = [(2(POW) SMOD/32)]x timer 1 over flow rate.

The timer 1 interrupt should be disabled in this application.

3.9 PROGRAM MEMORY LOCK BITS:On the chip are three lock bits, which can be left un-programmed (u)

or can be programmed (p) to obtain the additional features listed in the table below.


19/76

26

When lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pin is sampled and latchedduring reset.

If the device is powered up with out a reset, the latch initializes to a randomvalue, and holds that value until reset is activated. It is necessary sthat the latchedvalue of EA be in agreement with the current logic level at that pin in order for the

device to function properly.


20/76

27

CHAPTER 4

IMPLEMENTATION OF HARDWARE

4.1 LCD (Liquid Cristal Display)

Introduction:

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of anynumber of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector.Each pixel consists of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two

transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystals between them, light passingthrough one would be blocked by the other. The liquid crystal twists the polarizationof light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the other.

A program must interact with the outside world using input and outputdevices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most commondevices attached to an controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDsconnected to the contollers are 16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual

information. LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, areinexpensive, easy to use, and it is even possible to produce a readout using the 5X7dots plus cursor of the display. They have a standard ASCII set of characters andmathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0). For a 4-bit data bus it onlyrequires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines(RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4). When the LCDdisplay is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not interfere with the

operation of the microcontroller.


21/76

28

Features:

(1) Interface with either 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor.

(2) Display data RAM

(4) Character generator ROM

-matrix character patterns.

(6). Character generator RAM

dot-matrix patterns.

(8).Display data RAM and character generator RAM may be

Accessed by the microprocessor.

(9) Numerous instructions

(10) .Clear Display, Cursor Home, Display ON/OFF, CursorON/OFF,

Blink Character, Cursor Shift, Display Shift.

(11). Built-in reset circuit is triggered at power ON.

(12). Built-in oscillator.

Data can be placed at any location on the LCD. For 161 LCD, the addresslocations are:


22/76

29

Fig : Address locations for a 1x16 line LCD

Shapes and sizes:


23/76

30

Even limited to character based modules,there is still a wide variety of shapes andsizes available. Line lenghs of 8,16,20,24,32 and 40 charecters are all standard, in

one, two and four line versions.

Several different LC technologies exists. supertwist types, for example, offer

Improved contrast and viewing angle over the older twisted nematic types. Some

modules are available with back lighting, so so that they can be viewed in dimly-litconditions. The back lighting may be either electro -luminescent, requiring a highvoltage inverter circuit, or simple LED illumination.

Electrical blockdiagram:


24/76

31

Power supply for lcd driving:

PIN DESCRIPTION:

Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins(two pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections).

Fig: pin diagram of 1x16 lines lcd


25/76

32

CONTROL LINES:

EN :

Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you aresending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line islow (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. Whenthe other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimumamount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), andend by bringing it low (0) again.

RS :

Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treatedas a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). WhenRS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which sould be displayed on the screen.For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.

RW :


26/76

33

Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information onthe data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program iseffectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") isa read command. All others are write commands, so RW will almost always be low.

Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode ofoperation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referredto as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

Logic status on control lines:

E - 0 Access to LCD disabled

- 1 Access to LCD enabled

R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD

- 1 Reading data from LCD

RS - 0 Instructions

- 1 Character

Writing data to the LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to low

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low

Read data from data lines (if it is reading)on LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to high


27/76

34

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low

Entering Text:

First, a little tip: it is manually a lot easier to enter characters and commands in

hexadecimal rather than binary (although, of course, you will need to translatecommands from binary couple of sub-miniature hexadecimal rotary switches is asimple matter, although a little bit into hex so that you know which bits you aresetting). Replacing the d.i.l. switch pack with a of re-wiring is necessary.

The switches must be the type where On = 0, so that when they are turned tothe zero position, all four outputs are shorted to the common pin, and in position F,all four outputs are open circuit.

All the available characters that are built into the module are shown in Table 3.Studying the table, you will see that codes associated with the characters are quoted in

binary and hexadecimal, most significant bits (left -hand four bits) across the top, andleast significant bits (right -hand four bits) down the left.

Most of the characters conform to the ASCII standard, although the Japaneseand Greek characters (and a few other things) are obvious exceptions. Since these

intelligent modules were designed in the Land of the Rising Sun, it seems only fair

that their Katakana phonetic symbols should also be incorporated. The more extensiveKanji character set, which the Japanese share with the Chinese, consisting of severalthousand different characters, is not included!

Using the switches, of whatever type, and referring to Table 3, enter a fewcharacters onto the display, both letters and numbers. The RS switch (S10) must beup (logic 1) when sending the characters, and switch E (S9) must be pressed for each

of them. Thus the operational order is: set RS high, enter character, trigger E, leave RS


28/76

35

high, enter another character, trigger E, and so on.

The first 16 codes in Table 3, 00000000 to 00001111, ($00 to $0F) refer to theCGRAM. This is the Character Generator RAM (random access memory), which can

be used to hold user-defined graphics characters. This is where these modules reallystart to show their potential, offering such capabilities as bar graphs, flashing symbols,even animated characters. Before the user-defined characters are set up, these codeswill just bring up strange looking symbols.

Codes 00010000 to 00011111 ($10 to $1F) are not used and just display blank

characters. ASCII codes proper start at 00100000 ($20) and end with 01111111($7F). Codes 10000000 to 10011111 ($80 to $9F) are not used, and 10100000 to11011111 ($A0 to $DF) are the Japanese characters.

4.2 (IR) INFRARED TECHNOLOGY

Introduction:

Technically known as "infrared radiation", infrared light is part of the electromagnetic

spectrum located just below the red portion of normal visible light the opposite end toultraviolet. Although invisible, infrared follows the same principles as regular light and can bereflected or pass through transparent objects, such as glass. Infrared remote controls use thisinvisible light as a form of communications between themselves and home theater equipment,all of which have infrared receivers positioned on the front. Essentially, each time you press a button on a remote, a small infrared diode at the front of the remote beams out pulses of lightat high speed to all of your equipment. When the equipment recognizes the signal as its own,it responds to the command.

But much like a flashlight, infrared light can be focused or diffused, weak orstrong. The type and number of emitters can affect the possible angles and range yourremote control can be used from. Better remotes can be used up to thirty feet awayand from almost any angle, while poorer remotes must be aimed carefully at thedevice being controlled.

The light our eyes see is but a small part of a broad spectrum of electromagneticradiation. On the immediate high energy side of the visible spectrum lies the


29/76


30/76

37

FEATURES:

Wave length is 940 nm

Chip material =GaAs with AlGaAs window

Package type: T -1 3/4 (5mm lens diameter)

Matched Photo sensor: QSD122/123/124

Medium Emission Angle, 40

High Output Power

Package material and color: Clear, untainted, plastic

Ideal for remote control applications

Emitter/Detector Alignment:

Good alignment of the emitter and detector is important for good operation, especially if

the gap is large. This can be done with a piece of string stretched between and in line withLED and phototransistor. A length of dowel or stiff wire could be used to set the alignment.Another method that can be used for longer distances is a laser pointer shone through one ofthe mounting holes.

For best results the height of the "beam" should be at coupler height and at an angle acrossthe tracks. The emitter could also be mounted above the track with the phototransistor placed between the rails in locations such as hidden yards. Placing the emitter and detector at an

angle would again be helpful.


31/76

38

Emitter/Detector Alignment Methods

A sample infrared remote controle setup:


32/76

39

Infrared Receiver (Pickup)

This device picks up the infrared signal from your remote control just like a TV or VCR.It encodes the infrared signal into a signal suitable for transmission. Receivers must belocated in the room you wish to use the remote control. The wire from the receiver to theconnecting block needs at least three available conductors and can be several hundred feetlong. Both quad wire and category 5wire work fine. See our IR receivers here.

Connecting Block

This is simply a place for all the parts to plug in or connect to. Connecting blocks areusually classified based on the number of outputs (how many IR emitters can connect to the

block) Amplified connecting blocks can generally support more outputs. All connecting blocks can support many IR receivers wired in parallel. Connecting blocks are usually locatednear the equipment that is to be controlled, along with the power supply and emitters. See ourconnecting blocks here.

Infrared Emitters

IR Emitters generally "stick" onto the front of the device you want to control.Therefore you need one emitter for each device. "Dual" emitters have two emitters and one plug, so they only take up one jack of the connecting block. "Blink" emitters blink visibly aswell as infrared, so they are easier to troubleshoot. All emitters come with long cords andextra double-stick tape. "Blast" style emitters, where one emitter blinks into several devices,are usually less reliable but can be used when the environment is tightly controlled and

Applications:

Infrared Filters

Night vision

Thermography

Other imaging

Tracking

Heating

Communications


33/76

40

Spectroscopy

Meteorology

Climatology

Astronomy Art history

Biological systems

Photobiomodulation

Health hazard

4.3 L293,L293D(QUADRUPLE HALF H-DRIVERS)

Introduction:

The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 isdesigned to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to36 V. The L293D is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mAat voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loadssuch as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply applications. All inputs are TTL

compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a Darlingtontransistor sink and a pseudo- Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, withdrivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN. When anenable input is high, the associated drivers are enabled, and their outputs are activeand in phase with their inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers aredisabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state. With the properdata inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for

solenoid or motor applications.

Features:

Featuring Unitrode L293 and L293DProducts Now From Texas Instruments

Wide Supply-Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36 V Separate Input-Logic Supply
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photobiomodulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photobiomodulation


34/76

41

Internal ESD Protection

Thermal Shutdown

High-Noise-Immunity Inputs

Functionally Similar to SGS L293 andSGS L293D

Output Current 1 A Per Channel(600 mA for L293D)

Peak Output Current 2 A Per Channel(1.2 A for L293D)

Output Clamp Diodes for InductiveTransient Suppression (L293D)

Pin diagram:

Description:

On the L293, external high-speed output clamp diodes should be used forinductive transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is providedfor the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The L293and L293D are


35/76

42

block diagram:

Logic diagram:


36/76

43

Applications:

Audio Automotive Broadband Digital control Military Optical networking Security Telephony Video & Imaging Wire less

4.4 DC MOTOR

Introduction:

A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DCdesigns are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearinmotor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushedand brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create anoscillating AC current from the DC source -- so they are not purely DC machines in a strictsense.


37/76

44

Types of dcmotors:

1. Brushed DC Motors

2. Brushless DC motors

3. Coreless DC motors

Brushed DC motors:

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor

with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotorconsists of a coil wound around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to theneed for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higherspeeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. This limits

the maximum speed of the machine. The current density per unit area of the brusheslimits the output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes electricalnoise. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itselfis subject to wear and maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is acostly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. there are three types of dcmotor 1. dc series motor 2. dc shunt motor 3. dc compound motor - these are also twotype a. cummulative compound b. deffercial compounnd


38/76

45

Brushless DC motors:

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushlessdesign. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgearassembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.

Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often usea permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall

effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics.The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued bythe signals from the Hall effect sensors. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronousmotors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized classof brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phaseconnections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. Thesemotors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configuredwith the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelists as outrunnermotors.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, asin computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printersand photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, runningmuch cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.

Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can besignificantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator.Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without acommutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitivedevices like audio equipment or computers.


39/76

46

The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide aconvenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications.In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.

The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to

precise speed control. Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them

better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparkinggenerates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm tooccupants' health.

Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and aregenerally used to get rid of unwanted heat.

They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment thatis affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to manykilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electricvehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

Coreless DC motors:

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that theiron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windingsof the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless DC motor, aspecialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration,these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can takethe form of a winding-filled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket surroundingthe stator magnets, or a flat pancake (possibly formed on a printed wiring board)

running between upper and lower stator magnets. The windings are typicallystabilized by being impregnated with Electrical epoxy potting systems. Filled epoxiesthat have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. These systems arehighlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm. Typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180C (Class H) UL File No. E 210549.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formedfrom copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much morerapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true


40/76

47

if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is nometal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often becooled by forced air.

These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives andare still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like radio-controlled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation, medicaldevices, etc.

4.6 POWER SUPPLY

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system

that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is

Ground next row

Read all columns

Key pressin

Find which key is pressed

Get scan code from table

return

no

yes


41/76

48

called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electricalenergy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others

This power supply section is required to convert AC signal to DC signal andalso to reduce the amplitude of the signal. The available voltage signal from the mainsis 230V/50Hz which is an AC voltage, but the required is DC voltage(no frequency)with the amplitude of +5V and +12V for various applications.

In this section we have Transformer, Bridge rectifier, are connected seriallyand voltage regulators for +5V and +12V (7805 and 7812) via a capacitor (1000F) in

parallel are connected parallel as shown in the circuit diagram below. Each voltageregulator output is again is connected to the capacitors of values (100F, 10F, 1 F,0.1 F) are connected parallel through which the corresponding output(+5V or +12V)are taken into consideration.

Circuit Explanation


42/76

49

1) Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit toanother through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in thefirst circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magneticfield induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). By adding aload to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the transformer, thustransferring energy from one circuit to the other.

The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their

respective windings:

Basic principle

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can

produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magneticfield within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil(electromagnetic induction). By changing the current in the primary coil, it changesthe strength of its magnetic field; since the changing magnetic field extends into thesecondary coil, a voltage is induced across the secondary.

A simplified transformer design is shown below. A current passing throughthe primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils arewrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron; this ensuresthat most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are within theiron and pass through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil.


43/76

50

An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core

Induction law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from

Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in thesecondary coil and equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If theturns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the

product of the magnetic field strength B and the area A through which it cuts. Thearea is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core,whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary.Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils inan ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transformer3d_col3.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transformer3d_col3.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transformer3d_col3.svg


44/76

51

Taking the ratio of the two equations forV S andV P gives the basic equation forstepping up or stepping down the voltage

Ideal power equation

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the

transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition ismet, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power.

Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS

giving the ideal transformer equation

Pin-coming = IPVP = Pout-going = ISVS

giving the ideal transformer equation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transformer_under_load.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transformer_under_load.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transformer_under_load.svg


45/76

52

If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (V S > V P ), then the current is decreased

(stepped down) ( I S < I P ) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this formulais a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (V S > V P ), then the current is decreased(stepped down) ( I S < I P ) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this formulais a reasonable approximation.

The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.For example, if an impedance Z S is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil,it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of

This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Z P of the primary circuitappears to the secondary to be

Detailed operation

The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and

the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit.

Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligiblereluctance with two windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of thecore. The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; sincethe ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing currentis negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field.


46/76

53

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) acrosseach winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associatedvoltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of thetransformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as itdoes in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF". Thisis due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such thatit will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

2) Bridge Rectifier

A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge

configuration that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity ofinput voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion ofalternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridgerectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input,resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a center-tapped transformer design, but has two diode drops rather than one, thus exhibiting reduced efficiency over acenter-tapped design for the same output voltage.

Basic Operation

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive withrespect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right alongthe upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower one.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diode_bridge_alt_1.svg


47/76

54

When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, currentflows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lowerright one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what issometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioningwhen batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has itswires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that might occurwithout this circuit in place).

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier wasalways constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage

and current ratings.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diode_bridge_alt_2.svg


48/76

55

Output smoothing (Using Capacitor)

For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave

bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be important because the bridge alone supplies an output voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude (see diagram above).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diode_bridge_smoothing.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rectified_waves.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diode_bridge_smoothing.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rectified_waves.png


49/76


50/76

57

pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to besensitive to supply voltage noise.

The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and currentwhen the load on the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothingcapacitor, both the voltage and the current waveforms will be greatly changed. Whilethe voltage is smoothed, as described above, current will flow through the bridge onlyduring the time when the input voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage. Forexample, if the load draws an average current of n Amps, and the diodes conduct for10% of the time, the average diode current during conduction must be 10n Amps.This non-sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in

the AC supply.

In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output of a bridge, the bridge diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurswhen the power is turned on at the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fullydischarged. Sometimes a small series resistor is included before the capacitor to limitthis current, though in most applications the power supply transformer's resistance isalready sufficient.

Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choketends to keep the current (rather than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relativelyhigh cost of an effective choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is notemployed in modern equipment.

Some early console radios created the speaker's constant field with the current

from the high voltage ("B +") power supply, which was then routed to the consumingcircuits, (permanent magnets were considered too weak for good performance) tocreate the speaker's constant magnetic field. The speaker field coil thus performed 2 jobs in one: it acted as a choke, filtering the power supply, and it produced themagnetic field to operate the speaker.

3) Voltage Regulator


51/76

58

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automaticallymaintain a constant voltage level.

The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family ofself-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is avery popular choice for many electronic circuits which require a regulated powersupply, due to their ease of use and relative cheapness. When specifying individualICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a two-digit number, which indicates theoutput voltage the particular device is designed to provide (for example, the 7805 hasa 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line is positive voltageregulators, meaning that they are designed to produce a voltage that is positive

relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which arecomplementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used incombination to provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit,if necessary.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TrO3 packages are alsoavailable from some manufacturers. These devices typically support an input voltagewhich can be anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up toa maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and can typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps ofcurrent (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).


52/76

59


53/76

60

CHAPTER 5

IMPLEMENTATION OF SOFTWARE

5.1 KEIL SOFTWARE

Installing the Keil software on a Windows PC

Insert the CD-ROM in your computers CD drive

On most computers, the CD will auto run, and you will see the Keilinstallation menu. If the menu does not appear, manually double click on theSetup icon, in the root directory: you will then see the Keil menu.

On the Keil menu, please select Install Evaluation Software. (You will not

require a license number to install this software).

Follow the installation instructions as they appear.

Loading the Projects

The example projects for this book are NOT loaded automatically when you installthe Keil compiler.These files are stored on the CD in a directory/Pont. The files are arranged bychapter: for example, the project discussed in Chapter 3 is in the directory/Pont/Ch03_00-Hello.

Rather than using the projects on the CD (where changes cannot be saved), pleasecopy the files from CD onto an appropriate directory on your hard disk.


54/76

61

Note: you will need to change the file properties after copying: file transferred fromthe CD will be read only.

Configuring the Simulator

Open the Keil Vision2

Go to Project Open Project and browse for Hello in Ch03_00 in Pont and open it.


55/76

62

Go to Project Select Device for Target Target1


56/76

63

Select 8052(all variants) and click OK

Now we need to check the oscillator frequency:

Go to project Options for Target Target1


57/76

64

Make sure that the oscillator frequency is 12MHz.


58/76

65

Building the Target

Build the target as illustrated in the figure below

Running the Simulation

Having successfully built the target, we are now ready to start the debug session andrun the simulator.

First start a debug session


59/76

66

The flashing LED we will view will be connected to Port 1. We therefore want toobserve the activity on this port


60/76

67

To ensure that the port activity is visible, we need to start the periodic window

update flag


61/76

68

Go to Debug - Go

While the simulation is running, view the performance analyzer to check the delaydurations.


62/76

69


63/76

70

Go to Debug Performance Analyzer and click on it

Double click on DELAY_LOOP_Wait in Function Symbols: and click Define button


64/76

71

5.2 SOURCE CODE

;***********SOURCE CODE****************************************;*************** CAR PARKING SYSTEM *****************;********************************************************; P3.6 AND P3.7 RECEIVERS OF ENTRY AND EXIT SENSORS RESP.; P1.0,P1.1,P1.2 AND P1.3 STEPPER MOTOR A,B,C AND D COILS; P2 LCD DATA PINS; P3.0,P3.1 AND P3.2 ARE RS,R/W AND EN PINS OF LCD RESP.

ORG 00H

SETB P3.6 ; MAKING P3.6 AS I/P PINSETB P3.7 ; MAKING P3.7 AS I/P PINMOV R6,#10 ; VEHICLE CAPACITY OF PARK

;******* LCD INITIALISATION ****************************

MOV DPTR,#COMMBACK1 : CLR A

MOVC A,@A+DPTRJZ NEXTACALL COMN


65/76

72

ACALL DELAYINC DPTRSJMP BACK1

;****** LCD INITIAL MESSAGE DISPLAY ******************** NEXT : MOV DPTR,#MESG4

ACALL BACK2ACALL DELAY1

MOV A,#0C0HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV DPTR,#MESG5ACALL BACK2ACALL FORDELAYACALL FORDELAY

MOV A,#01HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV A,#82HACALL COMN

ACALL DELAYMOV DPTR,#MESG6ACALL BACK2MOV A,#0C5HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV DPTR,#MESG7ACALL BACK2ACALL FORDELAYACALL FORDELAY

MOV A,#01HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV A,#81HACALL COMNACALL DELAY

MOV DPTR,#MESGACALL BACK2

MOV A,#0C0H


66/76

73

ACALL COMNACALL DELAY

MOV DPTR,#MESG1

ACALL BACK2MOV A,#0C4H


MOV A,#'1'ACALL DATAWRTACALL DELAYMOV A,#'0'ACALL DATAWRTACALL DELAY

;*********** CHECKING FOR VEHICLE ENTRY OR EXIT ********

BACK : JNB P3.6,ENTRYJNB P3.7,EXIT

SJMP BACK

;*********** OPENING THE GATE FOR VEHICLE ENTRY ********

ENTRY : MOV R7,#10MOV A,#66

ACALL RUNACWDEC R6MOV A,#0C4HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV A,R6 ; DISPLAYING CURRENT

CAPACITYANL A,#0F0HORL A,#30HACALL DATAWRTACALL DELAYMOV A,#0C5HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV A,R6ANL A,#0FHORL A,#30HACALL DATAWRT


67/76

74

ACALL DELAY1

STAY : JNB P3.6,STAYACALL DELAY1

ACALL DELAY1STAY1 : JB P3.7,STAY1 ; FOR EXIT GATE HIGH TO LOWSTAY2 : JNB P3.7,STAY2

ACALL FORDELAYMOV R7,#10

MOV A,#66ACALL RUNCW

CJNE R6,#00,BACK

MOV A,#01ACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV A,#82HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV DPTR,#MESG2ACALL BACK2

MOV A,#0C4H

ACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV DPTR,#MESG3ACALL BACK2

STAY4EXIT : JB P3.7,STAY4EXIT ; WAITING FOR EXIT OF VEHICLEMOV A,#01


MOV A,#81HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV DPTR,#MESGACALL BACK2MOV A,#0C0HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV DPTR,#MESG1ACALL BACK2ACALL DELAY


68/76

75

EXIT : MOV R7,#10MOV A,#66

ACALL RUNACW

INC R6MOV A,#0C4HACALL COMNACALL DELAYMOV A,R6MOV B,#10DIV ABORL A,#30HACALL DATAWRTACALL DELAYMOV A,#0C5HACALL COMNACALL DELAY

MOV A,BORL A,#30HACALL DATAWRT

STAY3 : JNB P3.7,STAY3ACALL DELAY1

STAY4 : JB P3.6,STAY4STAY5 : JNB P3.6,STAY5

ACALL FORDELAYMOV R7,#10

MOV A,#66ACALL RUNCW

LJMP BACK

FORDELAY:ACALL DELAY2ACALL DELAY2

ACALL DELAY2ACALL DELAY2



ACALL DELAY2ACALL DELAY2ACALL DELAY2


69/76

76

RET

RUNACW: CLR P1.0SETB P1.1

SETB P1.2CLR P1.3ACALL DELAY1

CLR P3.0SETB P3.1


SETB P1.0SETB P1.1CLR P1.2CLR P1.3ACALL DELAY1

SETB P3.0SETB P3.1CLR P3.2

CLR P3.3ACALL DELAY1

SETB P1.0CLR P1.1CLR P1.2SETB P1.3ACALL DELAY1


CLR P1.0CLR P1.1SETB P1.2SETB P1.3ACALL DELAY1


70/76

77

CLR P3.0CLR P3.1SETB P3.2

SETB P3.3ACALL DELAY1

DJNZ R7,RUNACWRET

RUNCW: CLR P1.0SETB P1.1


CLR P3.0SETB P3.1SETB P3.2CLR P3.3ACALL DELAY1

CLR P1.0

CLR P1.1SETB P1.2SETB P1.3ACALL DELAY1

CLR P3.0CLR P3.1SETB P3.2SETB P3.3ACALL DELAY1


SETB P3.0CLR P3.1CLR P3.2SETB P3.3


71/76

78

ACALL DELAY1

SETB P1.0SETB P1.1

CLR P1.2CLR P1.3ACALL DELAY1

SETB P3.0SETB P3.1CLR P3.2CLR P3.3ACALL DELAY1

; MOV P1,A; RR A; ACALL DELAY1

DJNZ R7,RUNCWRET

COMN : MOV P2,ACLR P1.7

CLR P1.6SETB P1.5

ACALL DELAYCLR P1.5RET

DATAWRT:MOV P2,ASETB P1.7

CLR P1.6SETB P1.5ACALL DELAYCLR P1.5RET

BACK2 : CLR AMOVC A,@A+DPTRJZ NEXT1ACALL DATAWRTACALL DELAYINC DPTRSJMP BACK2

NEXT1 : RET


72/76

79

DELAY : MOV R2,#20HERE1 : MOV R3,#255HERE2 : DJNZ R3,HERE2

DJNZ R2,HERE1

RETDELAY1: MOV R2,#40HERE3 : MOV R3,#255HERE4 : DJNZ R3,HERE4

DJNZ R2,HERE3RET

DELAY2: MOV R2,#255HERE5 : MOV R3,#255HERE6 : DJNZ R3,HERE6

DJNZ R2,HERE5RET

COMM : DB 38H,0CH,01,06,84H,00MESG4 : DB "WIN KIT",0MESG5 : DB "LEARNING IS FUN",0MESG6 : DB "CAR PARKING",0MESG7 : DB "SYSTEM",0

MESG : DB "PARKING SPACE",0MESG1 : DB "FOR VEHICLES",0MESG2 : DB "NO SPACE FOR",0MESG3 : DB "PARKING",0

END


73/76

80

CHAPTER 6

RESULT ANALYSYS

Kit photo


74/76

81

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION & FUTURE IMPLEMENTATION

The system ADVANCED CAR PARKING SYSTEM is successfullydesigned and tested as per the requirement of atomize car parking to avoid manualwork and manual mistakes.

In this project we have add webcam Purpose of providing survilance andmore security at the parking areas. Which is very useful to find the unauthorizedvehicles and thefted vehicles.


75/76

82

Bibliography:

The 8051 Micro controller and Embedded Systems

Muhammad Ali MazidiJanice Gillispie Mazidi

The 8051 Micro controller Architecture, Programming & Applications

Kenneth J.Ayala

Fundamentals of Micro processors and Micro computers

B.Ram

Micro processor Architecture, Programming & Applications

Ramesh S.Gaonkar

Electronic Components

D.V.Prasad

References on the Web:

www.national.com www.atmel.com www.microsoftsearch.com www.geocities.com
http://www.national.com/http://www.national.com/http://www.atmel.com/http://www.atmel.com/http://www.microsoftsearch.com/http://www.microsoftsearch.com/http://www.geocities.com/http://www.geocities.com/http://www.geocities.com/http://www.microsoftsearch.com/http://www.atmel.com/http://www.national.com/


76/76

Date post:	03-Jun-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	sudhakar5472
View:	219 times
Download:	0 times

advance parking sys

Documents