ADVANCED MARITIME COMMAND AND CONTROL (ADVANCED …

NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMAND

NAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-878 (New 01-15)

FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION

ADVANCED MARITIME COMMAND

AND CONTROL (ADVANCED MC2)

MARITIME PATROL AND

RECONNAISSANCE (MPR) STAGE

2015

Distribution: This instruction is cleared for public release and is available electronically via Chief of Naval Air Training Issuances Website, https://www.cnatra.navy.mil/pubs-pat-pubs.asp.

iii

FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION

FOR

ADVANCED MARITIME COMMAND AND CONTROL (ADVANCED MC2)

MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE (MPR) STAGE

P-878

iv

LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES

Dates of issue for original and changed pages are:

Original...0...13JAN15

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INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY

The following changes have been previously incorporated in this manual:

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SAFETY/HAZARD AWARENESS NOTICE

This course does not require any special safety precautions other than those normally found on

the flight lines.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES .................................................................................................. iv

INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY ...............................................................................................v SAFETY/HAZARD AWARENESS NOTICE .......................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... vii TABLE OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................x

CHAPTER ONE – THE MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE

COMMUNITY AND MISSION OVERVIEW ....................................................................... 1-1 100. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1-1 101. MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE MISSIONS ............................ 1-1 102. MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CHARACTERISTICS ........... 1-1

103. MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CREW INFORMATION ...... 1-6

CHAPTER TWO – AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM ..................................... 2-1 200. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 2-1 201. AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM .......................................................... 2-1

CHAPTER THREE – INVERSE SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR AND SYNTHETIC

APERTURE RADAR SENSOR OVERVIEW ....................................................................... 3-1 300. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 3-1

301. INVERSE SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR ....................................................... 3-1 302. SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR ......................................................................... 3-3

CHAPTER FOUR – SURFACE SEARCH OVERVIEW ..................................................... 4-1 400. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 4-1

401. MISSION AND SENSORS ....................................................................................... 4-1 402. PROCEDURES AND TACTICS .............................................................................. 4-1 403. MISSION CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................... 4-7

CHAPTER FIVE – SURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION ........................................... 5-1 500. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 5-1 501. SURFACE MERCHANT TYPES ............................................................................. 5-1 502. SURFACE COMBATANT TYPES .......................................................................... 5-8 503. RIGGING PROCEDURES ...................................................................................... 5-21

CHAPTER SIX – LITTORAL SURVEILLANCE OVERVIEW ......................................... 6-1 600. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 6-1

601. LITTORAL OPERATIONS ...................................................................................... 6-1

602. LITTORAL OPERATIONS FACTORS ................................................................... 6-2 603. TERMINOLOGY AND CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................... 6-3 604. CONSTRAINTS AND STANDOFFS IN LITTORAL ENVIRONMENTS ............ 6-4

CHAPTER SEVEN – MISSION LOG KEEPING ................................................................. 7-1 700. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 7-1 701. MISSION LOG KEEPING ........................................................................................ 7-1

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CHAPTER EIGHT – INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE........................ 8-1 800. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 8-1 801. ELECTRONIC WARFARE OVERVIEW ................................................................ 8-1

CHAPTER NINE – RADAR PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION TO ELECTRONIC

WARFARE ................................................................................................................................. 9-1 900. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 9-1 901. RADAR AND PULSE OVERVIEW ........................................................................ 9-1 902. SCANNING AND BEAMS ...................................................................................... 9-2 903. ANTENNA FUNCTION AND CAPABILITIES ..................................................... 9-6

904. DOPPLER EFFECT AND RADARS ....................................................................... 9-9 905. MODULATION TYPES ......................................................................................... 9-10

CHAPTER TEN – ELECTRONIC SUPPORT MEASURES AND EMITTER

COLLECTION FUNDAMENTALS ...................................................................................... 10-1 1000. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 10-1 1001. ELECTRONIC SUPPORT MEASURES AND EMITTER COLLECTION .......... 10-1

CHAPTER ELEVEN – OCEANOGRAPHY OVERVIEW ................................................ 11-1 1100. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 11-1

1101. FUNDAMENTALS OF OCEANOGRAPHY ......................................................... 11-1 1102. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE OPERATIONS – TERMS & CONCEPTS ...... 11-7 1103. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE OPERATIONS – SONAR EQUATIONS ..... 11-13

1104. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE OPERATIONS – OCEANIC CONDITIONS 11-16

CHAPTER TWELVE – SONOBUOY OVERVIEW ........................................................... 12-1 1200. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 12-1 1201. SONOBUOY DEVICE DEFINITIONS .................................................................. 12-1

1202. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SONOBUOY CHARACTERISTICS ........................... 12-7 1203. SPECIAL PURPOSE SONOBUOY CHARACTERISTICS ................................ 12-19

CHAPTER THIRTEEN – SUBSURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION THEORY .... 13-1 1300. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 13-1

1301. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE AND MISSIONS ............................................. 13-1 1302. SUBMARINE CHARACTERISTICS..................................................................... 13-4 1303. SUBSURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION BASICS ....................................... 13-7

CHAPTER FOURTEEN – MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE

COORDINATED OPERATIONS .......................................................................................... 14-1 1400. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 14-1 1401. TERMINOLOGY .................................................................................................... 14-1

1402. AIRCRAFT AND AIRSPACE ................................................................................ 14-4 1403. COMMAND AND COORDINATION ................................................................. 14-11 1404. MISSION PLANNING .......................................................................................... 14-13 1405. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE ........................................................................ 14-16

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CHAPTER FIFTEEN – MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CREW

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND MULTITASKING ................................................... 15-1 1500. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 15-1 1501. IMPORTANCE OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ................................. 15-1

1502. COMPONENTS OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ................................ 15-1

APPENDIX A – GLOSSARY .................................................................................................. A-1

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TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Missions of the P-3, P-8, and EP-3 Aircraft..................................................... 1-1

Figure 1-2 Curtiss HS-1L ..................................................................................................... 1-2 Figure 1-3 P-2 Neptune ........................................................................................................ 1-3 Figure 1-4 P-3 Orion............................................................................................................. 1-4 Figure 1-5 B-17E ................................................................................................................... 1-5 Figure 1-6 EP-3E Aries II .................................................................................................... 1-5

Figure 1-7 Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Deployment Sites ................................ 1-6 Figure 1-8 P-3 Crew Composition ....................................................................................... 1-7 Figure 1-9 EP-3 Crew Composition .................................................................................... 1-8 Figure 1-10 P-8 Crew Composition ....................................................................................... 1-9

Figure 2-1 Automatic Identification System Modes and Functions................................. 2-1 Figure 2-2 Automatic Identification System Purposes ...................................................... 2-2

Figure 3-1 Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR Characteristics ..................................... 3-2 Figure 3-2 Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR Generated Image ................................. 3-2 Figure 3-3 P-3C Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR Field of Regard .......................... 3-3

Figure 3-4 Synthetic Aperture RADAR Characteristics .................................................. 3-4 Figure 3-5 P-3C Synthetic Aperture RADAR Field of Regard ........................................ 3-5

Figure 3-6 Strip Map ............................................................................................................ 3-6 Figure 3-7 Spot Map ............................................................................................................. 3-7

Figure 4-1 Detection Range Equations ............................................................................... 4-1 Figure 4-2 Visual Search Parameters ................................................................................. 4-2

Figure 4-3 Bar Scan Search Technique .............................................................................. 4-3 Figure 4-4 Expanded Square Search Technique ............................................................... 4-4

Figure 4-5 Sector Search Technique ................................................................................... 4-5 Figure 4-6 Maritime Air Support Briefing Form (9-Line) ............................................... 4-7 Figure 4-7 Weather Planning Rules of Thumb .................................................................. 4-9

Figure 5-1 Appearance Groups ........................................................................................... 5-1

Figure 5-2 Hull Types for Appearance Groups 2 and 3 .................................................... 5-3 Figure 5-3 Merchant Ship Hull Types by Appearance Groups ....................................... 5-3 Figure 5-4 Merchant Ship Crane Types ............................................................................. 5-4

Figure 5-5 Merchant Ship Funnel Types ............................................................................ 5-4 Figure 5-6 Merchant Ship Gantry ...................................................................................... 5-5

Figure 5-7 Merchant Ship King Post Types ....................................................................... 5-5 Figure 5-8 Merchant Ship Mast Types ............................................................................... 5-6

Figure 5-9 Upright Sequence Coding Example ................................................................. 5-7 Figure 5-10 Merchant Ship Bow Types ................................................................................ 5-7 Figure 5-11 Merchant Ship Stern Types .............................................................................. 5-8 Figure 5-12 Aircraft Carrier ................................................................................................. 5-9 Figure 5-13 Cruiser .............................................................................................................. 5-10 Figure 5-14 Destroyer ........................................................................................................... 5-11

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Figure 5-15 Frigate ............................................................................................................... 5-12

Figure 5-16 WASP Class Amphibious Assault Ship ......................................................... 5-13 Figure 5-17 TARAWA Class Amphibious Assault Ship ................................................... 5-14

Figure 5-18 SAN ANTONIO Class Amphibious Transport Dock Ship .......................... 5-15 Figure 5-19 AUSTIN Class Amphibious Transport Dock Ship ....................................... 5-16 Figure 5-20 Dock Landing Ship .......................................................................................... 5-17 Figure 5-21 Amphibious Command Ship ........................................................................... 5-18 Figure 5-22 Small Amphibious Ship ................................................................................... 5-18

Figure 5-23 Patrol Boat ........................................................................................................ 5-19 Figure 5-24 Minesweeper ..................................................................................................... 5-20 Figure 5-25 Auxiliary Ships ................................................................................................. 5-21 Figure 5-26 Full Rig Procedure ........................................................................................... 5-22 Figure 5-27 Quick Rig Procedure ....................................................................................... 5-23

Figure 6-1 Minimum Operational Safe Altitude Calculation ........................................... 6-3

Figure 6-2 Territorial Standoff Update Requirements ..................................................... 6-5

Figure 7-1 Mission Log Symbology Identification............................................................. 7-2 Figure 7-2 Sample Mission Log ........................................................................................... 7-4

Figure 7-3 K-Factor Log ...................................................................................................... 7-5 Figure 7-4 System Accuracy Check Results ....................................................................... 7-5

Figure 8-1 Electromagnetic Spectrum ................................................................................ 8-1 Figure 8-2 Electronic Warfare Subdivisions ...................................................................... 8-2

Figure 8-3 Electromagnetic Disciplines .............................................................................. 8-3

Figure 9-1 Pulse Repetition Interval and Pulse Duration/Pulse Width ........................... 9-2 Figure 9-2 Scan Duration Terms ......................................................................................... 9-3

Figure 9-3 Mechanical and Electronic Scanning Characteristics .................................... 9-3 Figure 9-4 Circular Scan ...................................................................................................... 9-4 Figure 9-5 Helical Scan ........................................................................................................ 9-4

Figure 9-6 Sector Scan ......................................................................................................... 9-5 Figure 9-7 Scan Type Classifications .................................................................................. 9-5

Figure 9-8 Staggered Pulse Repetition Interval Types.................................................... 9-12

Figure 10-1 Ground and Sky Waves ................................................................................... 10-2

Figure 10-2 Propagation Paths ............................................................................................ 10-3 Figure 10-3 Atmospheric Factors ........................................................................................ 10-4

Figure 10-3 Atmospheric Factors (cont.) ............................................................................ 10-5

Figure 11-1 Vertical Temperature Structure Segments ................................................... 11-3 Figure 11-2 Isovelocity ......................................................................................................... 11-5 Figure 11-3 Positive Velocity ............................................................................................... 11-5 Figure 11-4 Negative Velocity .............................................................................................. 11-6 Figure 11-5 Snell’s Law Graph ........................................................................................... 11-7 Figure 11-6 BT Profile/Sound Velocity Profile .................................................................. 11-8

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Figure 11-7 Sound Velocity Profile Parts Definitions ....................................................... 11-9

Figure 11-8 Sound Velocity Profile Parts ........................................................................... 11-9 Figure 11-9 Spherical and Cylindrical Spreading Losses ............................................... 11-11

Figure 11-10 Passive Sonar Equation Variables ................................................................ 11-14 Figure 11-11 Range Prediction and Figure of Merit ......................................................... 11-15 Figure 11-12 Ocean Topography......................................................................................... 11-17

Figure 12-1 Sonobuoy Classes and Types .......................................................................... 12-1

Figure 12-2 Sonobuoy Basic Subassemblies ....................................................................... 12-2 Figure 12-3 Sonobuoy Descent and Deployment Times .................................................... 12-3 Figure 12-4 Submarine Buoy Launch ................................................................................. 12-4 Figure 12-5 Sonobuoy Electronic Function Select ............................................................. 12-4 Figure 12-6 Electronic Function Select Settings and Performance Data ........................ 12-5

Figure 12-7 AN/SSQ-53F Command Function Select Commands and Selections ......... 12-6 Figure 12-8 Cartridge Actuated Device .............................................................................. 12-7

Figure 12-9 Directional Frequency Analysis and Recording Buoy .................................. 12-8

Figure 12-10 SSQ-53F Sonobuoy Electronic Function Select ............................................ 12-9 Figure 12-11 DICASS Power Output by Sonar Channels and Frequencies ................... 12-10 Figure 12-12 DICASS Continuous Wave Pulse Modes and Durations ........................... 12-10

Figure 12-13 Directional Command Activated Sonobuoy System Buoy ......................... 12-11 Figure 12-14 SSQ-62E Command Function Select Commands and Selections .............. 12-12

Figure 12-15 SSQ-62E DICASS Command Signal Generator Commands/Responses .. 12-13 Figure 12-16 SSQ-110A Sonobuoy Stages .......................................................................... 12-14 Figure 12-17 Improved Extended Echo Ranging Detonation .......................................... 12-15

Figure 12-18 ADAR Echo Detonation and MAC Program .............................................. 12-16 Figure 12-19 SSQ-101 Planar Array ................................................................................... 12-16

Figure 12-20 AN/SSQ-101 Command Function Select Commands and Selections ....... 12-17 Figure 12-21 Multi-Static Active Source Sonobuoy .......................................................... 12-18

Figure 12-22 SSQ-125 Command Function Select Commands and Selections .............. 12-19 Figure 12-23 Bathythermograph Sonobuoys ..................................................................... 12-20 Figure 12-24 Expendable Mobile Anti-Submarine Warfare Training Target MK 39 .. 12-21

Figure 12-25 Signal Underwater Sound Device ................................................................. 12-21

Figure 13-1 Plotting Target’s Course ................................................................................. 13-8 Figure 13-2 Plotting Target’s Track ................................................................................... 13-9 Figure 13-3 Dead Reckoning Trace Symbology............................................................... 13-10

Figure 13-4 Plotting Relative Range and Bearing ........................................................... 13-11 Figure 13-5 Bearing Tracking ........................................................................................... 13-12

Figure 13-6 Active Tracking Pattern ................................................................................ 13-13

Figure 14-1 Officer in Tactical Command Organizational Chart ................................... 14-2 Figure 14-2 Threat Warning Codes .................................................................................... 14-2 Figure 14-3 Weapon Control Statuses ................................................................................ 14-3 Figure 14-4 Engagement Zones ........................................................................................... 14-4 Figure 14-5 Force Joining Terminology ............................................................................. 14-6 Figure 14-6 Carrier Strike Group Airspace Control ........................................................ 14-7

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Figure 14-7 Expeditionary Strike Group Airspace Control ............................................. 14-9

Figure 14-8 Operational Levels ......................................................................................... 14-10 Figure 14-9 Minimum Lateral or Vertical Separation Regulations at Low Altitude .. 14-11

Figure 14-10 Lateral and Vertical Separation Rules ........................................................ 14-11 Figure 14-11 Checksum Digits............................................................................................. 14-12 Figure 14-12 Force Standard Position ................................................................................ 14-13 Figure 14-13 Operational Tasking Messages ..................................................................... 14-14

Figure 15-1 Overcoming Barriers to Good Decision Making........................................... 15-3

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THE MPR COMMUNITY AND MISSION OVERVIEW 1-1

CHAPTER ONE

THE MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE COMMUNITY AND MISSION

OVERVIEW

100. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide information about the missions, characteristics, and

aircraft crews of the Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance (MPR) community. This chapter

presents the MPR community organization, structure, and geographic distribution, along with

community roles, missions, historical background, and associated terminology.

101. MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE MISSIONS

The MPR community missions include Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW); Anti-Surface Warfare

(ASUW); Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (C4I); Intelligence,

Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR); Mine Warfare (MIW); Mobility (MOB); and strike

group support. The MPR community missions also include Strike (STK), Maritime Interdiction

Operations (MIO), counter-drug interdiction, Search and Rescue (SAR), fleet Indications and

Warnings (I&W) support, Sensitive Reconnaissance Operations (SRO), and Freedom of

Navigation Operations (FONOP). Missions in support against illegal operations, Fleet Support

Operations (FSO), Logistics (LOG), Non-Combat Operations (NCO), and Missions of State

(MOS) are also supported by the MPR community.

P-3, P-8, and EP-3 Missions

The P-3, P-8, and EP-3 aircraft have specific roles in MPR community support. Figure 1-1 lists

the missions of the P-3, P-8, and EP-3 aircraft.

P-3 and P-8 Missions EP-3 Missions

ASW Strike group support MOB

ASUW STK SAR

C4I MIO FONOP

ISR Counter-drug interdiction I&W

MIW SAR SRO

MOB Anti-piracy

Figure 1-1 Missions of the P-3, P-8, and EP-3 Aircraft

102. MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CHARACTERISTICS

The Operational Squadrons for the Patrol (VP) community consist of squadrons located in

Jacksonville, Kaneohe Bay, and Whidbey Island. The VP Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS) is

located in Jacksonville. Whidbey Island also currently serves as the base of one Operational

Squadron for the Fleet Air Reconnaissance (VQ) community.

CHAPTER ONE ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

1-2 THE MPR COMMUNITY AND MISSION OVERVIEW

Patrol Community History

The P-3 and P-8 aircraft were born out of a long, rich history of Navy patrol aircraft that began

during World War I. Since that time, ASW has been the center of the VP aircraft’s warfare

ability. The P-3’s versatile capabilities have included responding to surface and subsurface

threats, SAR, and in recent decades, overland surveillance.

During World War I, VP aircraft were used as spotting aircraft for destroyers, aiding in the attack

of enemy targets. Later in the war, patrol aircraft introduced the first capability to perform strafe

and bombing against enemy naval assets. The Curtiss HS-1L (shown in Figure 1-2) began

flying in 1918, conducting anti-submarine patrols from Naval Air Stations (NASs) on the East

Coast as well as the Panama Canal Zone. This aircraft provided a bird’s-eye view of submarine

threats, allowing its crewmembers to visually spot periscopes, snorkels, and surfaced

submarines.

Figure 1-2 Curtiss HS-1L

World War II brought about the growth of VP aircraft capabilities, improving endurance, crew

composition, weapon load, and sensors. During this period, the presence of PBY Catalinas

enhanced the VP community’s mission support. PBY Catalinas were flying boats used for ASW,

patrol bombing, convoy escorts, SAR missions (especially air-sea rescue), and cargo transport.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER ONE


Along with the first air-deployed sonobuoys, sensors introduced for naval aircraft included

RADAR, acoustic processing, Electronic Support Measures (ESM), and the Magnetic Anomaly

Detector (MAD). Patrol aircraft vastly increased their ability to conduct attacks with better

weapon capabilities and increased weapon payloads, including machine guns, bombs, and

torpedoes.

After World War II, improved Soviet technology resulted in a growing threat from nuclear

powered submarines, which required an improved ASW platform. The P-2 Neptune (shown in

Figure 1-3) was introduced in 1947 and improved upon the PBY’s RADAR, ESM, and MAD. It

also provided more updated acoustic processor sensors and an increased weapon’s payload of

bombs, mines, torpedoes, rockets, and twin .50-caliber machine guns mounted in its nose.

Figure 1-3 P-2 Neptune

The P-3 Orion (shown in Figure 1-4) replaced the P-2 in 1962; giving crews further improved

sensors and weapon payloads. It also provided four engines, instead of two, increasing the

aircraft’s on-station endurance. The first big operational test of the P-3 came in October 1962

when its upgraded sensor technology was used to detect Soviet submarine and ship movements

during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Over the decades, the P-3 Orion has experienced numerous upgrades to its existing sensors plus

the introduction of additional sensors, such as Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR (ISAR) and



Infrared (IR) cameras. The P-3’s weapons load out has also seen the addition of the Maverick,

Harpoon, and Standoff Land Attack Missile-Expanded Response (SLAM-ER) missiles.

Figure 1-4 P-3 Orion

In the Post-Cold War era, focus has shifted from the nuclear submarine threat to the abilities of

third-world nations to acquire diesel submarine technology. During Operation ENDURING

FREEDOM and Operation IRAQI FREEDOM, P-3s flew over Iraq and Afghanistan, providing

Real-Time (RT) ISR to ground troops engaged in combat. The growing need for surveillance

has called for improved surveillance sensors, such as ESM, Synthetic Aperture RADAR (SAR),

and Electro-Optical (EO) cameras with enhanced IR capabilities.

For the past 50 years, the P-3 has been in high demand, whether conducting ASW over the ocean

or ISR in the desert. In late 2012, the P-8 Poseidon, an aircraft built on a Boeing 737 platform,

started to replace P-3 squadrons at a rate of one per year.

Fleet Air Reconnaissance Community History

The history of the VQ community began in World War II as a result of Sir Winston Churchill’s

Wizard War, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Radiation Laboratory’s

development of RADAR systems and countermeasures, and the Naval Research Laboratory’s

(NRL) airborne intercept receiver experiments. The history of the VQ community continued

with B-17E (shown in Figure 1-5) airborne electronic missions and the Black Cats squadron,

leading to the intercept of Japanese RADAR in June 1943. Early Black Cat planes lacked

RADAR Direction Finding (DF) capability, so pinpointing the signal could not be accomplished.



Figure 1-5 B-17E

Early electronic aircraft included the Martin P-4M Mercator, Lockheed EC-121 Constellation,

Douglas EA-3B Skywarrior, and Lockheed EP-3B Orion/EP-3E Aries II (shown in Figure 1-6).

Figure 1-6 EP-3E Aries II



Deployment and Detachment Sites

MPR aircraft deploy and detach to anywhere in the world. Figure 1-7 provides just some

locations of the MPR deployment and detachment sites.

Figure 1-7 Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Deployment Sites

103. MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CREW INFORMATION

Naval Flight Officers (NFOs) on P-3 and P-8 aircraft are responsible for all phases of the

mission. NFOs on EP-3 aircraft have various data management responsibilities. The different

crew compositions of the P-3, P-8, and EP-3 support the specific mission requirements of each

aircraft.

P-3 and P-8 Naval Flight Officer Responsibilities

The responsibilities of P-3 and P-8 NFOs include navigation and communication, mission

effectiveness, mission planning, and tactical crew coordination. They are also responsible for

sonobuoy deployment, weapons employment, and Emissions Control (EMCON).

EP-3 Naval Flight Officer Responsibilities

The responsibilities of EP-3 NFOs include coordinating data collection, fusing special data and

ESM data, and releasing information outside the aircraft.



P-3 Crew Composition

The P-3 crew typically consists of 11 members, including three pilots, two NFOs

(navigator/communicator and tactical coordinator), two flight engineers, three sensor operators

(two acoustic and one non-acoustic), and one in-flight technician.

Figure 1-8 depicts the P-3 crew composition.

Figure 1-8 P-3 Crew Composition

EP-3 Crew Composition

The EP-3 tactical crew typically consists of 22 or more members, including three pilots, three

NFOs (navigator/communicator, tactical evaluator, and senior tactical evaluator), two flight

engineers, one in-flight technician, and ESM and other sensor operators (Science & Technology

[S&T] and Electronic Warfare [EW]).

(Off-duty pilot or flight engineer)



Figure 1-9 depicts a typical EP-3 crew composition.

Figure 1-9 EP-3 Crew Composition

P-8 Crew Composition

The P-8 tactical crew typically consists of nine members including three pilots, two NFOs (co-

tactical coordinator and tactical coordinator), and four sensor operators (two acoustic and two

non-acoustic).



Figure 1-10 depicts the typical P-8 crew composition.

Figure 1-10 P-8 Crew Composition




AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM 2-1

CHAPTER TWO

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

200. INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides information about the Automatic Identification System (AIS), including its

components, capabilities, purposes, limitations, and users, to support MPR operations.

201. AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

AIS is a system that provides a vessel’s position and data to other vessels and shore stations.

AIS also facilitates communication of vessel traffic management and navigational safety data

from designated shore stations to vessels. This maritime digital broadcast system continually

exchanges voyage and vessel data among network participants over a VHF Radio Frequency

(RF), in support of regional and global Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) requirements.

The Navy AIS program collects open source AIS data broadcast from AIS transceivers on

commercial shipping vessels. This open source AIS data, combined with other government

intelligence and surveillance data, is used by Navy aircraft, ships, and submarines to improve

navigation safety, and is integrated into the Common Operational Picture (COP) to enhance

Situational Awareness (SA). AIS data collected by Navy platforms is also aggregated within the

MDA/AIS, Sensor/Server (MASS) capability at several operational shore sites. The MASS then

provides the data to unclassified and classified users in support of MDA efforts, with particular

focus on improving the Nation’s maritime security.

Components

Ship-installed AIS units consist of one VHF transmitter, two VHF Time Division Multiple

Access (TDMA) receivers, one VHF Digital Selective Calling (DSC) receiver, and standard

marine electronic communications links to shipboard display and sensor systems.

Capabilities

AIS is used for maritime ships. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Performance

Standards for the AIS requires that the AIS be capable of functioning in multiple modes. Figure

2-1 lists the various AIS modes and their functions.

AIS Mode Function

Ship-to-ship Assist in collision avoidance

Ship-to-shore Means for littoral states to obtain

information about a ship and its cargo

Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) tool

Figure 2-1 Automatic Identification System Modes and Functions

CHAPTER TWO ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

2-2 AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

While the introduction of AIS for commercial ships and many other types of vessels has been

under way for several years, the primary focus of most initiatives has been to provide improved

ship-to-shore identification, mainly for enhanced traffic management. The VTS in many major

ports and waterways has relied on RADAR surveillance, when available, for identifying and

locating vessels. AIS technology can detect targets not visible on RADAR and reduces the need

for radio communications among ships and shore stations.

Purposes

AIS is intended to enhance safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation, and

protection of the marine environment. The purposes of AIS, depicted in Figure 2-2, include

helping identify vessels, assisting in tracking, simplifying information exchange (e.g., reducing

verbal mandatory ship reporting), and providing additional information to assist in SA.

Each vessel provides and receives identification, position, course, heading, and speed data of the

reporting vessels. In addition, each vessel receives information on the other vessel’s port data

and hazards in the area.

Aircraft equipped with AIS receivers are capable of displaying an AIS-transmitting surface

vessel’s position and amplifying information. Aircraft only receive AIS data from vessels

transmitting. Vessels do not receive aircraft information, because aircraft are only receiving data

from AIS-transmitting vessels and not transmitting their own information.

Figure 2-2 Automatic Identification System Purposes

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER TWO

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM 2-3

Limitations

AIS suffers from limitations common to all transponder-based tracking technology. The system

is not fail-safe, so if the equipment is not operating, the carrying vessel simply disappears from

the surveillance picture without notice. The system requires the cooperation of the vessels being

tracked; therefore, a decision not to carry the required equipment, or to disable or otherwise turn

it off, prevents the vessel from being tracked by AIS. Additionally, not all vessels are equipped

with AIS. Within VTS areas of responsibility, transponder-based tracking must be supported by

an active surveillance capability and a sorting process, which can correlate vessels identified by

transponders with those detected by other means. Information received from AIS may be subject

to misinterpretation, and the integrity of the static data, including the data that displays the

identity of the carrying vessel, is not assured. This data is entered manually by an operator, so

the entries can be changed at will or can have errors.

Users

Some vessels are mandated to use AIS. Self-propelled vessels of 65 feet (ft) or more in length,

other than fishing or passenger vessels in commercial service and on international voyage must

use AIS. Passenger vessels of 150 gross tonnage and those certified to carry more than 150

passengers-for-hire are required to use AIS. AIS also is mandatory on tankers, regardless of

tonnage; towing vessels in commercial service of 26 ft or more in length and more than 600

horsepower; and vessels other than passenger vessels or tankers of 50,000 gross tonnage or more.

CHAPTER TWO ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

2-4 AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM


ISAR AND SAR SENSOR OVERVIEW 3-1

CHAPTER THREE

INVERSE SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR AND SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR

SENSOR OVERVIEW

300. INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the characteristics, basic functions, and theory related to ISAR and SAR

systems in order to support MPR operations.

301. INVERSE SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR

ISAR is a RADAR that detects Doppler shifts induced by target motion. The change in

frequency caused by individual motion and/or the motion of the target is known as the “train

whistle” effect. The “train whistle” effect is a phenomenon in which a train moving toward a

person is higher-pitched due to wavelength compression (hence frequency increase), and as the

train passes the person and moves away, the sound is lower-pitched due to wavelength expansion

(hence frequency decrease). At different RADAR azimuth angles, differences in Doppler shift

exist between the aircraft and the target.

Theory

ISAR utilizes targeted ship movement coupled with return RADAR imaging from various points

on the ship. These points each have Doppler shifts that are directly proportional to their distance

from the ship’s axis of rotation and create an image depicted on the RADAR display. Operators

can use Doppler shifts to improve the angular resolution of the RADAR imaging in directions

transverse to the ship’s axis of rotation.

Characteristics

ISAR relies on the motion of the targeted ship to generate a two-dimensional image of range

versus Doppler image. By processing short aperture times, ISAR generates continuous images

that correspond in real time to target motion. The ISAR image is generated by measuring the

Doppler content of many range increments on the target and displaying these results on a range-

Doppler map. An example of ISAR Characteristics is depicted in Figure 3-1.

CHAPTER THREE ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

3-2 ISAR AND SAR SENSOR OVERVIEW

Figure 3-1 Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR Characteristics

ISAR generates images of selected surface ship targets, enabling the operator to classify ships.

ISAR is not affected by weather, such as cloud cover. An example of an ISAR generated image

is pictured in Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2 Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR Generated Image

Field of Regard

ISAR Field of Regard (FOR) is the area in which RADAR can detect surface targets. The ISAR

FOR is 240° for the P-3C. ee Figure 3-3.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER THREE


Figure 3-3 P-3C Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR Field of Regard

Aircraft Parameters

Parameters for ISAR vary depending on the aircraft but the grazing angle from the vessel to the

aircraft is typically low. This does not necessarily mean the altitude is low however. The best

aspect for ISAR is from the target’s quartering bow or stern. The worst aspect is abeam the

target.

Other Features

Typical ISAR resolutions include normal, high, and ultra-high. When the ISAR mode is utilized

on the RADAR, the RADAR antenna is stopped and search-lighted at an azimuth angle

command by the operator.

302. SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR

SAR is a Doppler signal-processing technique used to generate true, recognizable, two-

dimensional images of a selected stationary surface target or land area.



Theory

While ISAR relies on the motion of the target to generate the Doppler frequency shift, the SAR

mode relies on the RADAR platform motion to create the relative movement and resulting

Doppler frequency shift. The SAR mode is particularly useful for imaging large land areas and

stationary surface targets.

Successive sets of Doppler signals are compared, and the resulting data is displayed as an image,

rather than merely as a plan or profile view. By processing short aperture times, SAR generates

continuous images. SAR images display how the objects in the image were, not how they

currently exist.

Characteristics

SAR generates images of stationary surface targets or land areas without over flying a target

area. SAR is not affected by weather, such as cloud cover. See Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4 Synthetic Aperture RADAR Characteristics

Field of Regard

SAR FOR is the area in which RADAR can detect targets. For the P-3C, the SAR FOR

commences + 60° relative to the aircraft’s heading. Each FOR encompasses 60°. See Figure

3-5.



Figure 3-5 P-3C Synthetic Aperture RADAR Field of Regard

Aircraft Parameters

Parameters for SAR are dependent on the aircraft but typically consist of a high grazing angle

and fast ground speed.

Sub-Modes

Strip Map is a sub-mode of SAR. In the Strip Map sub-mode, the RADAR continuously

generates images centered along an imaginary line on the ground known as the Scene Center

Line (SCL). This SCL, which is parallel to the aircraft ground track at selection of image start,

requires only that the scene-start point be within a 60°-sector on either side of the aircraft.

Strip mapping uses a fixed pointing direction of the RADAR. The actual antenna remains

pointed at the same angle while the aircraft flies by a ground target. Figure 3-6 depicts a Strip

Map scan.



Figure 3-6 Strip Map

Spot Map is another SAR sub-mode. In the Spot Map sub-mode, the RADAR continuously

generates images centered about a fixed point on the surface, called the Scene Reference Point

(SRP). The RADAR generates and displays an image of the scene as long as the area selected is

within a 60°-sector on either side of the aircraft.

Spot mapping steers the RADAR to keep on a ground target longer, which allows for a higher

resolution of RADAR imagery. The actual antenna is steered to constantly point toward a

ground target.



Figure 3-7 depicts a Spot Map scan.

Figure 3-7 Spot Map

Strip Map provides four mode resolutions, and Spot Map provides five operator-selectable mode

resolutions. These mode resolutions are denoted as R1 – R5, with R1 being the highest

resolution and R5 the lowest resolution.

Other Features

SAR uses a precision targeting feature, which provides very precise target coordinates for

designated targets visible within a Spot Map or Strip Map SAR image. The operator can

designate and store target data in a target library.

SAR uses a point-to-point measurement feature, which allows the operator to calculate range and

bearing between two user-defined points within a SAR image. With range, the value measured

in yards is the distance from the anchored point to the movable second point. Bearing is the

measurement in degrees referenced to true north and is from the anchored point to the movable

second point.




SURFACE SEARCH OVERVIEW 4-1

CHAPTER FOUR

SURFACE SEARCH OVERVIEW

400. INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides information about the fundamental concepts of a surface search, as well as

capabilities of the aircraft and technology involved with a surface search.

401. MISSION AND SENSORS

The mission of Surface Search Coordination (SSC) is to provide reconnaissance and surveillance

in support of the maritime commander’s objectives. Sensors on board MPR aircraft provide

support to SSC missions. SSC’s four main objectives are:

1. Search – Survey the area and find contacts.

2. Locate – Find a specific target or targets within the area of operations.

3. Track – Monitor an identified target’s location and activity.

4. Attack – Execute an electronic or conventional attack on an identified target.

The SSC sensors for MPR aircraft consist of RADAR (SAR and ISAR), EO/IR camera, and

ESM.

402. PROCEDURES AND TACTICS

Detection range equations, overt and covert RADAR tactics, the use of search pattern techniques,

and SSC reporting formats all contribute to SSC procedures.

Detection Range Equations

A detection range equation is an equation that calculates the range at which RADAR, ESM, or

visual searches can theoretically detect targets. Figure 4-1 presents detection range equations for

each detection sensor.

Detection Sensor Detection Range Equation

RADAR RRADAR (NM) = 1.23 √Aircraft Altitude in ft

ESM RESM (NM) = 1.5 √Aircraft Altitude in ft

Visual RVisual (NM) = 1.05 √Aircraft Altitude in ft

Figure 4-1 Detection Range Equations

CHAPTER FOUR ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

4-2 SURFACE SEARCH OVERVIEW

RADAR, Electronic Support Measures, and Visual Horizons

Each detection method has inherent limitations due to obstructions.

The RADAR horizon is the limit of the reach of the RADAR signal and the curvature of the

Earth. Weather, obstacles, interference from other aircraft, and/or ground object reflection may

obstruct RADAR waves.

The ESM horizon is the limit of the reach of signals to the ESM and the curvature of the Earth.

Interference from other aircraft or contacts may obstruct the ESM’s capability to detect signals.

The visual horizon is the limit of visual range. Weather conditions may obstruct visual range.

RADAR Overt and Covert Tactics

A decision to use covert or overt RADAR tactics is dependent on the goals of the mission.

RADAR overt tactics are used when concealment is not needed, desirable, or practical. RADAR

overt tactics are used when a contact must be gained quickly. Aircraft RADAR can be used

freely in an overt situation.

RADAR covert tactics are used to prevent detection of the RADAR unit. These tactics are

designed to deny the enemy continuous intelligence concerning the RADAR unit and may force

the enemy to use their active sensors. RADAR covert tactics can also be used to deceive an

enemy. In a covert situation, aircraft RADAR use is minimal or non-existent.

Visual Search Pattern Techniques

The visual search pattern techniques employed during a surface search rely on platform

capabilities, limitations, and environmental factors. Optimal visual search is conducted at

altitudes ranging from 200 – 3000 feet AGL. Figure 4-2 provides recommended search altitudes.

Search Object Terrain Recommended Altitudes

Individuals

Raft of 1 – 6 individuals

Boats less than 15 feet long

Water 200 – 500 feet AGL

Boats longer than 15 feet long

Rafts of six individuals or more

Aircraft

Water 1000 – 3000 feet AGL

Distress signals Night (all types) 1500 – 2000 feet AGL

Figure 4-2 Visual Search Parameters

Bar scan, expanded square, and sector search are three types of visual search patterns.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER FOUR


A bar scan search technique is performed by traveling in an up-and-down pattern at regularly

spaced intervals throughout the search area. The column spacing is dependent on aircraft

altitude as it relates to visual detection range.

Figure 4-3 depicts the bar scan search technique.

Figure 4-3 Bar Scan Search Technique

The expanded square search technique is another search pattern used for visual detection. It

results in a search pattern that expands an increasingly larger square from the last known position

of the target, known as the “datum.” The steps of the expanded square search technique are:

1. Travel from the datum for a distance equal to twice the calculated visual range. Do this for

the first two legs. Finish each leg with a 90° turn in the same direction.

2. Increase the leg length by a factor of two after every two legs. Finish each leg with a 90°

turn in the same direction.



The expanded square search technique is depicted in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4 Expanded Square Search Technique

The sector search technique is a third search pattern used for detection. This technique results in

a search covering sectors within the 360 degrees surrounding the datum. The steps for

conducting a sector search technique are as follows:

1. At the middle point of a leg, fly over the datum of the target within a circular area.

2. At the end of each leg, make two turns to position the search line 120° from the previous

leg.

3. After every three legs, shift the pattern 30° to the right and repeat the previously described

pattern.



The sector search technique is depicted in the Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5 Sector Search Technique

Electronic Support Measures Search Procedures

ESM search procedures rely heavily on the signal targeted (if known), Electromagnetic (EM)

wave propagation, ESM horizon, and ESM sensor capabilities/limitations. These and other

factors must be understood in order to properly place the aircraft in the ESM Line-of-Sight

(LOS).

ESM search procedures include triangulation and intersection of spatially displaced bearings.

The aircraft is placed in an orbit perpendicular to the target area with an orbit leg length long,

enough to allow for an adequate bearing swing to facilitate direction-finding equipment. A good

starting point is a 100-NM leg, which when traveling at 5 NM per minute, should allow four

lines of bearing, assuming a line of bearing is generated every 5 minutes (min).

Altitude is an important variable of the ESM search. A rule of thumb is detection range

increases as altitude increases. However, a lower altitude may be more desirable to help reduce

the clutter of undesirable signals.



Surface Contact Report

The Surface Contact Report provides details about a vessel or contact of interest. This report

provides sections for completing information on the following numbered lines:

1. Contact/Track #

2. Position (Latitude and Longitude [LAT/LONG])

3. Course/Speed

4. Ship Type

5. Ship Name/Hull #

6. Ship Flag

7. Time (Zulu)

In addition to the previous seven sections, the Surface Contact Report ends with a Remarks

section, which includes information such as deck activity, cargo, and homeport (if known). In

the absence of a Ship Name/Hull # for section 5, a description (e.g., hull type, upright sequence,

distinct features, etc.) should be passed in the report. Keep in mind that formats may differ

depending on area of responsibility (AOR). Check message traffic for specific formats.

Maritime Air Support Briefing Form (9-Line)

A Maritime Air Support (MAS) Briefing Form (9-Line) provides a format that streamlines the

passing of target information. It consists of sections for Airspace Controller information, as well

as sections with other pertinent information on the following numbered lines:

1. Initial Point (IP)

2. Heading (Bearing)/Offset

3. Distance (Range)

4. Target Elevation

5. Target Description (mandatory read back)

6. Target Location (mandatory read back)

7. Type Mark, Code (if applicable)

8. Location of Friendlies or Neutrals/Position Marked by (mandatory read back)



9. Egress

The Remarks section finishes the MAS 9-Line and is also a mandatory read back item. The

MAS 9-Line should be read in groups of three without transmitting line numbers. Maritime

Patrol and Reconnaissance Aircraft (MPRA) have adapted a new similar format known as Strike

Coordination and Reconnaissance (SCAR). An example of an MAS 9-Line is depicted in Figure

4-6.

Figure 4-6 Maritime Air Support Briefing Form (9-Line)

403. MISSION CONSIDERATIONS

Mission success requires the consideration of issues that may affect the mission’s goals and

objectives. Mission considerations include Probability of Detection (Pd) and factors affecting

search functions.



Probability of Detection

The Pd is contingent on a number of factors, including sensor sweep width, coverage factor, and

frequency of cover. It is also contingent on the duration of the mission, the type and behavior of

the target, time late, and last known position. Other factors affecting Pd include operator

performance and environmental and geographic characteristics.

Limits to the reach of RADAR signals exist. Radio waves usually travel in a straight line and

may be obstructed by weather clutter, shadowing, interference from other aircraft, and/or ground

clutter.

Factors Affecting Search Functions

The effectiveness of search functions may be dependent on various environmental factors. Poor

weather conditions affect target search and identification, targeting, and post-mission

assessment. Sensor effectiveness is impacted by sea state and winds, water temperature, time of

day, and visibility and ceiling.

The sea state and wind conditions may affect detection, targeting, and weapon effectiveness.

Strong surface winds can generate rough seas (high sea states) that complicate low-altitude

acquisition of surface targets by creating RADAR clutter. Sea spray can reduce or negate the

capabilities of the EO/IR systems for low-altitude operation. Ships in heavy seas can pitch

vertically as much as 30 feet or more in addition to having a roll component. Large vessel pitch

and roll during heavy sea states can have a significant impact on a weapon’s effectiveness

against ships.

Radical changes in water temperature (shallow versus deep water) can affect thermal imaging

systems for EO/IR.

Time of day is another factor affecting EO/IR search capabilities and visual targeting. Searching

for objects without the benefit of full daylight can be challenging.

Visibility and ceiling affect EO/IR targeting and search capabilities.



Figure 4-7 provides weather-planning rules of thumb.

Weather Planning Rules of Thumb

Good weather > 8000 ft ceiling (3 statute miles [sm] visibility)

In most cases provides adequate target acquisition for

EO/IR weapons

Poor weather < 8000 ft ceiling (3 sm visibility), but > 300 ft ceiling (1 sm

visibility)

May limit search and targeting capabilities

Adverse weather < 300 ft ceiling (1 sm visibility)

Limited to nonvisual or standoff attacks (fixed wing)

Figure 4-7 Weather Planning Rules of Thumb




SURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION 5-1

CHAPTER FIVE

SURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION

500. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide information about surface target identification, as it

relates to MPR operations. This chapter presents the information necessary to identify and

describe merchant ships, combatant ships, and rigging procedures.

501. SURFACE MERCHANT TYPES

Merchant ships are generally civilian vessels. To positively identify a vessel as a merchant ship,

it must be classified by appearance group, hull type, and upright sequence. A merchant ship can

be identified quickly and accurately using these features and the proper reference material.

Appearance Groups

The appearance group of a merchant ship is based on the size and shape of the vessel, as well as

the location of the superstructure. The appearance group features are defined by the function of

the vessel. Merchant ships can be identified as belonging to one of three general appearance

groups. Appearance groups are depicted in Figure 5-1.

Appearance Group 1 is the large superstructure group. This includes ships whose superstructures

exceed one-third of their overall length. Passenger ships are generally found in this group.

Appearance Group 2 is the composite superstructure group. This includes ships whose

superstructures are found amidships, occupy less than one-third of the overall length of the

vessel, appear small, and appear block-like. Appearance Group 2 ships are likely to be cargo

vessels.

Appearance Group 3 is the stack aft group. This includes ships with funnels located within the

aft third of the ship. If the superstructure exceeds one-third of the ship’s overall length, the ship

will then be in Appearance Group 1.

Figure 5-1 Appearance Groups

CHAPTER FIVE ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

5-2 SURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION

Hull Types

The hull type of a merchant ship is based on its hull profile and appearance group. Appearance

Group 1 has only one hull type. Ships in Appearance Groups 2 and 3 are identified by the

profiles of their hulls and locations of their islands.

A deck spanning the width of the ship, but not extending from bow to stern, forms a raised

portion called an island. An island may be found in the bow, amidships, stern, or in a

combination of these locations and is numbered according to its position from bow to stern.

Deckhouses are not considered raised and thus are not called islands. Deckhouses are structures

built on deck level but do not extend the full width of the ship.

A hull is considered raised (island) if any section of the hull, except the superstructure, rises

above the weather deck. Bulwarks are not considered raised (islands). A bulwark is the stake of

shell plating that is found above the weather deck. It is designed to keep the deck dry and guard

against losing deck cargo and personnel overboard. A raise (island) is generally 2 – 3 meters

high. A bulwark is generally about 1 meter (m) high.

There are 11 hull types in Appearance Groups 2 and 3. The dash in a hull type represents a well

between the islands.

Hull types and definitions are listed in Figure 5-2.

Hull Type Hull Definition

Flush Deck A ship with a single weather deck extending from bow to stern is

considered a flush deck ship. Ships in Appearance Groups 2 and 3 are

included in this category.

Raised 1 A ship with an island at the bow is a raised 1 ship. Ships in Appearance

Groups 2 and 3 are included in this category.

Raised 1-2 A ship with an island at both the bow and amidships is a raised 1-2 ship.

Ships in Appearance Groups 2 and 3 are included in this category.

Raised 1-3 A ship with an island at both the bow and stern is a raised 1-3 ship. Ships

in Appearance Groups 2 and 3 are included in this category.

Raised 1-2-3 The common three-island, well-deck type ship is a raised 1-2-3. Ships in

Appearance Groups 2 and 3 are included in this category.

Raised 1-Long

2-3

A three-island, well-deck type ship with a long center island is a raised 1-

long 2-3 ship. Ships in Appearance Group 2 are included in this

category.

Raised 12-3 A ship with a continuous island from the bow to amidships, a well, and

an island astern is a raised 12-3 ship. Ships in Appearance Groups 2 and

3 are included in this category.

Raised 1-23 A ship with an island at the bow, a well, and a continuous raised island is

a raised 1-23 ship. Ships in Appearance Groups 2 and 3 are included in

this category.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER FIVE


Hull Type Hull Definition

Raised 2 A ship with an island amidships is a raised 2 ship. Ships in Appearance

Group 2 are included in this category.

Raised 2-3 When the deck does not extend to the amidships section, it is a raised 2-3

ship. Ships in Appearance Group 3 are included in this category.

Raised 3 There are ships that have an enclosed superstructure at the stern of the

ship. The first two-thirds of the deck are flush, and the main deck is

raised. Such ships are called raised 3. Ships in Appearance Group 3 are

included in this category.

Figure 5-2 Hull Types for Appearance Groups 2 and 3

Figure 5-3 shows the appearance groups and their corresponding hull types.

Figure 5-3 Merchant Ship Hull Types by Appearance Groups

Upright Sequence

The sequence of uprights on a merchant ship is based on the arrangement of the various

structures and devices that are located throughout the vessel. The uprights located on merchant

ships include cranes, funnels, gantries, king posts, and masts. Upright sequences are depicted in



Figures 5-4 through 5-8.

A crane is an upright structure commonly found on merchant ships. A crane is a cargo-handling

device. The whole unit, which pivots about its base, is usually capable of rotating 360º.

Figure 5-4 Merchant Ship Crane Types

Funnels are structures on a ship used to provide an exhaust for smoke. No distinction is made

between the shapes of funnels on merchant ships. Funnels are not coded if they are so small that

they are difficult to see, such as the small pipes found on some motor ships. Though extremely

rare, a few ships still exist with funnels that resemble king posts. Such funnels are coded if they

appear after the king post. Funnels paired athwartships are coded as a single funnel.

Figure 5-5 Merchant Ship Funnel Types



A gantry is a shipboard structure that typically spans the width of a ship and has a box-like

shape. It has the ability to traverse fore and aft along the ship’s deck line, stopping over cargo

holds.

Figure 5-6 Merchant Ship Gantry

A king post is an upright with cargo-handling devices attached to it. Since king posts are

designed for handling cargo, they are located at the forward or aft end of a hatch. King posts

may be arranged singly or in pairs.

Figure 5-7 Merchant Ship King Post Types



A mast is a post that has no cargo-handling gear. Masts are found on the deck, bridge, and/or the

funnel of merchant ships.

Figure 5-8 Merchant Ship Mast Types

Upright sequences are coded in order to give quick referencing of a ship’s devices and structures.

The upright sequence code letters are deciphered as follows:

1. C – Crane

2. F – Funnel

3. H – Gantry

4. K – King post

5. M – Mast

The presence of uprights is denoted by the letters in the order they are located on the ship,

starting at the bow. Figure 5-9 is an example of a coded upright sequence.



Figure 5-9 Upright Sequence Coding Example

Bow Types

Bow types can assist in the identification of merchant ships. Merchant ship bow types and their

characteristics (Figure 5-10) are as follows:

1. Straight, plumb, or vertical – These bow types offer the most resistance to the sea and are

the oldest bow types.

2. Raking or sloping and curved & raking – These bow types vary greatly in bow angle.

Clipper or cable bows fall into this category.

3. Maier – This bow type has an outward bow curve. It is completely rounded and does not

sit on the water.

Figure 5-10 Merchant Ship Bow Types



Stern Types

Stern types can also assist in the identification of merchant ships. The stern types of merchant

ships include counter sterns, which are hooked and curved inward; cruiser sterns, which are

butted and straight, rounding only at the bottom; and spoon sterns, which are angled

significantly. The spoon stern type is a particular feature of German or Russian-built ships.

Figure 5-11 depicts the stern types of merchant ships.

Figure 5-11 Merchant Ship Stern Types

502. SURFACE COMBATANT TYPES

A surface combatant is a ship whose purpose is to engage enemy ships in naval warfare.

Combatants may be identified by some of the same features as merchant ships.

Aircraft Carriers, Cruisers, Destroyers, and Frigates

Aircraft carriers (CVNs), cruisers, destroyers, and frigates all fall into the combatant ship

category. Examples of combatant ships are depicted in Figures 5-12 through 5-22.

Aircraft carriers, which are generally the largest warships afloat, are the major offensive surface

ships of the U.S. fleet. A high freeboard and expansive and uncluttered flight deck are the

characteristics that give an aircraft carrier a distinctive appearance. On many carriers, the

superstructure is usually offset to the starboard side of the flight deck and is the only prominent

feature of the flight deck.



Figure 5-12 Aircraft Carrier



Cruisers (CGs) are multi-mission surface combatants capable of supporting carriers, battle

groups, and amphibious forces. They can also operate independently. Tall, solid towers

amidships instead of separate pole masts and cylindrical stacks are the trend in modern cruisers.

These amidships towers often incorporate various combinations of masts, stacks, and other

superstructure elements. A helicopter pad is often present in the stern area.

Figure 5-13 Cruiser



Destroyers (DDGs) are versatile, multi-purpose warships of moderate size. Guided-missile

destroyers are multi-mission warships that perform Anti-Air Warfare (AAW), ASUW

operations, and ASW operations. Destroyers typically feature two large stacks with a

considerable rake, a light mast; superimposed gun mounts forward, ASW gear aft, and torpedo

tubes topside. A helicopter pad is often present in the stern area.

Figure 5-14 Destroyer



Frigates (FFGs) fall into the general category of smaller major combatants whose offensive

weapons and sensors are used for a particular warfare role, such as screening support forces and

convoys. Frigates usually have only one gun mount, while the aft armament often consists of

ASW and/or AAW weaponry. A helicopter pad is often present in the stern area.

Figure 5-15 Frigate

Amphibious Ships

Amphibious ships are designed to move combat personnel and equipment ashore. These ships

include assault, command, transport dock, dock landing, and small amphibious ships.

An amphibious assault ship can be identified by its large, box-like superstructure and

resemblance to an aircraft carrier. Amphibious assault ships are designed to land forces on



hostile shores. While an amphibious assault ship may resemble an aircraft carrier, its primary

role is not to operate fixed wing aircraft. It may use helicopters dedicated to ferrying troops and

equipment ashore. The amphibious assault ship classes used by the United States Navy (USN)

are WASP (Landing Helicopter Dock [LHD]) and TARAWA (Landing Helicopter Assault

[LHA]).

The WASP class amphibious assault ships are the largest amphibious ships in the world. They

are the first to be specifically designed to accommodate the AV-8B Harrier, the Landing Craft

Air Cushion (LCAC) hovercraft, and a full range of Navy and Marine helicopters, conventional

landing craft, and amphibious assault vehicles to support a Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) of

2000 Marines.

Figure 5-16 WASP Class Amphibious Assault Ship

\



The TARAWA class amphibious assault ships have the general profile of an aircraft carrier with

the superstructure on the starboard side. They can support a 35-aircraft complement that

includes the AV-8B Harrier and the AH-1, CH-53E, and CH-46D/E helicopters.

Figure 5-17 TARAWA Class Amphibious Assault Ship

An amphibious transport dock ship can be identified by weaponry forward and a flight deck aft.

This warship embarks, transports, and lands elements of a landing force for expeditionary

warfare missions. The ship’s primary use is as a landing craft, although it has a limited airborne

capability. An amphibious transport dock ship has helicopter landing pads, fold-down ramp gate

at the stern, topside cranes, and other machinery. The amphibious transport dock ship (LPD)

classes used by the USN are SAN ANTONIO and AUSTIN.



The SAN ANTONIO class amphibious transport dock ship is a multi-mission ship designed to

accommodate all elements of the landing capability of the United States Marine Corps (USMC).

It is designed to support embarking, transporting, and landing elements of a Marine landing force

in an assault by helicopters, landing craft, and amphibious vehicles.

Figure 5-18 SAN ANTONIO Class Amphibious Transport Dock Ship



The AUSTIN class amphibious transport dock ship is used to transport and land Marines,

equipment, and supplies by embarked landing craft or amphibious vehicles augmented by

helicopters during an amphibious assault.

Figure 5-19 AUSTIN Class Amphibious Transport Dock Ship



Dock landing ships are designed to support amphibious operations. Dock landing ships transport

and launch amphibious craft and vehicles with their crews and embarked personnel. They are

mainly used to carry LCACs and Marines.

Figure 5-20 Dock Landing Ship



An amphibious command ship can be identified by its visible electronic gear.

Figure 5-21 Amphibious Command Ship

A small amphibious ship is characterized by the ramp extending from the forward part of the

ship.

Figure 5-22 Small Amphibious Ship



Minor Combatant Ships

There are numerous types of minor combatant ships, such as patrol boats and minesweepers.

Figures 5-23 and 5-24 show examples of minor combatant ships.

A patrol boat’s primary mission is patrol and interdiction surveillance in support of littoral

operations. Many of the newer patrol boats are armed with missiles and some are equipped with

hydrofoils or air cushions.

Figure 5-23 Patrol Boat



Minesweepers are capable of finding, classifying, and destroying moored and bottom mines.

Figure 5-24 Minesweeper



Auxiliary Ships

There are many types of auxiliary ships that perform various duties. Auxiliary ships, including

oilers and repair ships, are constructed in various sizes and configurations unique to their roles.

Many auxiliary ships, especially those used for replenishment and repair, have a variety of cranes

and booms on deck. An example of an auxiliary ship is pictured in Figure 5-25.

Figure 5-25 Auxiliary Ships

503. RIGGING PROCEDURES

Rigging is the process by which an aircraft and its crewmembers identify a surface contact by

flying near the contact in a non-threatening manner (e.g., not crossing the contact’s bow).

Usually, the aircrew takes photographs to record the position of the contact. Rigging is

dependent on the time available, threat conditions, and the commander’s intent. Rigging is

typically performed at a low altitude.

Classification and Identification

Rigging aids with the classification and identification of surface contacts. Classification of a

surface contact, as provided in a theater ship recognition guide, includes category (e.g., merchant

or combatant), type (e.g., patrol craft or destroyer), and class (e.g., TICONDEROGA class or

ARLEIGH BURKE class). Identification of a surface contact includes hull number, name, and

flag. The identification is typically derived from EO systems or rigging.



Full Rig Procedure

In a full rig, the aircraft crewmember takes multiple pictures of the surface vessel from various

angles, concentrating on the quartering, beam, and stern areas of the vessel. A full rig provides

the maximum detail gathered about a surface contact. A full rig procedure is usually flown in a

time-permissive, low-threat environment. Figure 5-26 depicts a full rig procedure.

Figure 5-26 Full Rig Procedure



Quick Rig Procedure

In a quick rig, the aircraft crewmember takes pictures of the surface vessel’s stern, beam, and

quartering angle, if possible. A quick rig procedure is usually flown in a time-restrictive

environment. Figure 5-27 depicts a quick rig procedure.

Figure 5-27 Quick Rig Procedure




LITTORAL SURVEILLANCE OVERVIEW 6-1

CHAPTER SIX

LITTORAL SURVEILLANCE OVERVIEW

600. INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides information regarding the basics of littoral surveillance for support of

MPR mission operations. Littoral surveillance terminology and sensor techniques are also

provided. In addition, information is presented regarding constraints and standoffs in littoral

environments.

601. LITTORAL OPERATIONS

Littoral operations are any operations that take place on or relate to a coastline and/or shoreline

region. These operations occur within direct control of and are vulnerable to the striking power

of naval expeditionary forces. Littoral operations are important to MPR mission operations

including projection of onshore power, protection of Naval forces and commercial shipping,

assurance of open lines of communication, and execution of strategic sealift operations, such as

control or interdiction of Sea Lines of Communications (SLOC), affecting littoral objectives.

The key to littoral warfare is to obtain and maintain battlespace dominance near the coastline and

inland. Littoral operations may be conducted with non-acoustic sensors such as RADAR,

EO/IR cameras, ESM, and Tactical Common Data Link (TCDL) capabilities.

Littoral surveillance provides vital information to warfare commanders to better understand the

environment in which enemy firepower my project from the coastal regions. Today’s battlefield

involves naval operations heavily within littoral environments vice the open ocean operations

(blue water Navy) typical during the cold war.

The littoral regions present a very difficult environment due to the close proximity of land, which

creates detection challenges for RADAR (land clutter), IR (large background heat source), ESM

(high EM activity), and acoustic sonar (shallow water with high ambient noise). Classification

challenges include large numbers of false targets and increased levels of shipping traffic.

Friendly surface ships have a much harder time acquiring enemy ships in a littoral environment.

For example, the detection of fast patrol boat with a surface search RADAR may be detected

from over 11NM out in an open ocean; however, near a beach this detection may not occur until

less than 5NM. Therefore, it is paramount that naval air assets report immediately the detection

of enemy surface vessels, especially when near friendly forces. Patrol boats remain one of the

greatest threats to a friendly ship when operating near enemy coasts. Their characteristics are

small, fast, and heavily armed; therefore, the patrol boat is hard to detect, can hide along the

shore, sprint into position, and fire multiple anti-ship weapons. The patrol boat is a fragile

platform that can be easily destroyed due to limited defensive weaponry and countermeasures.

The diesel submarine is extremely hard to detect due to its quiet propulsion system. The ability

to detect the diesel submarine in shallow water becomes even harder. Shallow water in littoral

environments provide high shipping density which raises the ambient noise, and the environment

provides high reverberation (sound scattering) that limits the use of active sonar sensors.

CHAPTER SIX ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

6-2 LITTORAL SURVEILLANCE OVERVIEW

The littoral warfare environment is asymmetric in nature and opponents cannot win a

conventional force-on-force battle. When friendly forces operate near littoral environments,

operations incur greater risks due to difficult detection capabilities, difficult classification

environments, and reduced reaction time. Littoral surveillance provided by MPR is key to

successful operations of naval forces near coastal regions.

602. LITTORAL OPERATIONS FACTORS

A number of man-made and natural factors may affect the collection of target information in a

littoral environment. Some of these factors are Electronic Intelligence (ELINT), the geographic

environment, and land-based structures.

Factors Affecting Target Collection

ELINT is intelligence that is derived from EM non-communication transmissions by

unsuspecting recipients or users. This includes the interception of RADAR emissions, which

may be used to identify an opponent’s electronic order of battle. The ELINT factors affecting

target collection in a littoral environment may include signal jamming or interference. Natural

objects, such as terrain formations, or natural occurrences, such as precipitation, may generate

clutter or undesirable signal returns that may mask a target.

Geographic factors that may hinder target collection in a littoral environment include non-

intentional interference from sea, littoral, and ground clutter. Other factors that may interfere

with target collection include weather, noises, sea disturbances, or terrain that may cause

diffraction, refraction, or cluttering. Atmospherics, which include EM radiation produced by

natural phenomena, such as lightning, may also disrupt littoral environment target collection.

Regions with high clutter density include littoral areas, roads, and meteorological zones.

Landmark structures and related factors also may contribute to target collection interference. A

shipborne RADAR operating in a littoral environment may observe clutter echoes that are

mainly due to landmark structures such as mountains, shores, and buildings.

Maritime Intelligence

Due to the nature of maritime operations, maritime intelligence must embrace both the air and

land environments. The principal focus for maritime intelligence is shared SA through real time

and near real time fusion of multiple intelligence sources. In the maritime environment, there is

a heavy reliance on technical intelligence gathering capabilities as well as a reliance on other

national agencies or allies.

EO/IR and Synthetic Aperture RADAR sensors and imagery transfer systems provide real time

information, such as TCDL, to airborne, ground, and sea-based units, intelligence systems, and

other agencies. This information can be used to support Intelligence Preparation of the

Battlespace (IPB) and future targeting, which will enable Command and Control (C2) nodes and

strike assets to delay, disrupt, and destroy enemy ground forces, including Time-Sensitive

Targets (TSTs).

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER SIX


603. TERMINOLOGY AND CONSIDERATIONS

When operating in a littoral environment, an NFO is required to carry a Tactical Pilotage Chart

(TPC) or Operational Navigation Chart (ONC) with suitable obstacle annotations. These charts

are used to measure and plot Minimum Operational Safe Altitude (MOSA) and required

standoffs.

Minimum Operational Safe Altitude

In order to maintain a safe distance from obstacles while operating in a littoral environment,

determination of MOSA is important. MOSA is defined as an altitude 1000 feet above the

highest obstacle within 30 NM of the aircraft.

For determining whether MOSA is applicable, the NFO draws a series of 30 NM circles around

various spot obstacle elevations on the chart (or tactical display). In instances where these

circles intersect, the circle around the higher elevation takes precedence. During the course of a

mission, the aircraft can move in and out of the various 30 NM range circles. MOSA procedures

do not apply until an obstacle is within 30 NM of the aircraft (per NATOPS).

In a littoral environment, the reference for MOSA is the nearest point of land. To calculate

MOSA, find the highest obstacle (or nearest point of land), round up to the nearest 100 feet, and

add 1000 feet. An example of a MOSA calculation is provided in Figure 6-1.

Figure 6-1 Minimum Operational Safe Altitude Calculation

When operating below MOSA and within 30 NM of obstacles, Dead Reckoning Traces (DRTs)

and Navigation (NAV) Log annotations are optional. Below MOSA and within 30 NM of land,

the crew shall use a 1:500,000 (TPC) or 1:1,000,000 (ONC) scale chart with suitable obstacle

depictions. The aircraft Dead Reckoning (DR) and fix position are plotted every 15 and 30 min,

respectively. The NAV Log fix annotation is only required hourly.



Fix and DR plotting requirements in a coastal environment include the following:

1. Fix the aircraft every 60 min.

2. Perform DR every 30 min.

3. Plot the fix or DR on the chart.

4. Log the completed fix and K-Factor.

5. Log DR in the mission record section.

Standoffs

A threat standoff is an invisible barrier defined at a specific distance from the threat. Maximum

threat range and Closest Point of Approach (CPA) are included in a threat standoff.

A territorial standoff is an invisible barrier detailing an area of controlled territory, which may

not be crossed without authorization.

604. CONSTRAINTS AND STANDOFFS IN LITTORAL ENVIRONMENTS

When operating in a littoral environment, territorial and airspace constraints apply. Within

standoff areas, operations are required to follow specified procedures. The airspace constraint

recognized by the international community is a 12 NM territorial standoff. Flight operations

within or a requirement to cross territorial airspace requires diplomatic clearance.

Closest Point of Approach

While planeside, the aircrew shall coordinate and brief all applicable mission standoffs and the

CPA. When operating in a MOSA environment, the CPA should be considered for territorial

and threat constraints.

NOTE

To ensure crew safety, a CPA range shall be identified prior to

entering MOSA. The crew shall consider aircraft closure

speed/turn radius, navigation error, and surrounding lower terrain.

If the CPA is reached, the navigator shall announce the safe

heading and MOSA, and the crew shall immediately turn and

climb above MOSA.

Standoffs

For a geopolitical standoff, the distance of the standoff from the landmass is measured, and the

latitudes and longitudes are plotted and logged.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER SIX


When operating in a territorial standoff environment, Intercommunications System (ICS) updates

are required at 10 NM, 5 NM, and every mile inside 5 NM. The call shall include range and

bearing to the standoff, whether the aircraft is closing or opening the standoff, and the suitable

safe heading. Territorial standoff update requirements are pictured in Figure 6-2.

Figure 6-2 Territorial Standoff Update Requirements

Threat standoff scenarios within a littoral environment follow the same procedures that apply to

territorial standoff scenarios.

Minimum Operational Safe Altitude

When operating near a coastline, the bearing and range to MOSA are always given to the nearest

point of land. The MOSA call shall include the following information:

1. MOSA altitude

2. Bearing and range

3. Whether opening or closing

4. Safe heading

If operating within 10 NM of the required standoff, it is recommended to update MOSA

information at every fix and DR interval.




MISSION LOG KEEPING 7-1

CHAPTER SEVEN

MISSION LOG KEEPING

700. INTRODUCTION

Key preflight and in-flight data are entered on the Navigation and Communication Log. The

importance of mission log keeping is covered in this chapter. Mission log symbology and event

entry requirements are also identified.

701. MISSION LOG KEEPING

Mission Log entries will vary depending on the mission type and Area of Responsibility (AOR).

Whether the mission is Littoral Surveillance, Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), Anti-Surface

Warfare (ASUW), providing support for a transiting Strike Group, a training flight, or even a

Search and Rescue mission, the mission logs are legal record of the mission and are used for

mission reconstruction. After some missions, the NFO and crew will create a Post Mission

Product (PMP) and draft Naval Messages for release. The PMP is given to the Commodore of

the Air Wing for dissemination throughout the Department of Defense. Wing Commanders

might sometimes provide the crew with a standardized mission log. Each Sensor Operator on the

Aircraft will be responsible for his or her Sensor specific logs. All of the logs will be collected at

the end of the mission and used to create the various post-mission products for dissemination.

Accurate log keeping and standardized practice are imperative for MPR aircrews.

The Navigation and Communication Log records both tactical and non-tactical data that are used

for mission support. This log, which consists of preflight and in-flight sections, serves as a legal

record of the mission and is used for mission reconstruction. The Mission Record, K-Factor

Log, and a space for Systems Accuracy Check (SAC) results are included in the Navigation and

Communication Log.

Mission Log Symbology

Mission log symbology acts as a type of shorthand and is used to identify notable mission events.

The benefits of using symbology include the ability to enter events quickly and use space

efficiently. Pertinent mission log symbology is identified in Figure 7-1.

CHAPTER SEVEN ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

7-2 MISSION LOG KEEPING

Figure 7-1 Mission Log Symbology Identification

Mission Record Event Entries

The mission events that are annotated in the Mission Record include the following items:

1. Preflight HF/UHF radio checks, including frequency, mode, and station

2. Result of crew preflight

3. Operations program (OPs) initialization

4. Engine start

5. Air Traffic Control (ATC) clearance

6. Taxi clearance, runway, altimeter, and fuel

7. Mark at the numbers

8. Takeoff

9. Significant ATC clearances

10. Out report, frequency, and agency

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER SEVEN


11. Conditions of flight as set by the pilot

12. SAC and any discrepancies

13. DR positions

14. Hourly fixes

15. ATC position reports, frequency, and station

16. Phone patch (es), frequency, station, and content

17. Significant in-flight events, such as weather, engine shutdown, and equipment

malfunctions

18. Tactical communications, content, frequency, station, and QSL time

19. Weapon drops, types, and settings

20. MAD mark(s)

21. Rigging events and the name(s) of the vessel(s)

22. Significant ESM contact(s)

23. RADAR contact(s), range, and bearing

24. Buoy drop(s), life/depth settings for the initial buoy of each type and after row/pattern

completion

25. On Station (ONSTA)/Off Station (OFFSTA)

26. Land

27. On deck report

28. Signature



Figure 7-2 depicts a sample Mission log.

Figure 7-2 Sample Mission Log

K-Factor Log

Any mission event where the accuracy of the aircraft’s navigation may be called into question is

entered in the K-Factor Log. Entries in this section of the Navigation and Communication Log

facilitate the comparison of fix positions with the outputs of various navigation systems.

Columns are provided to log the time, positions of fixes, Global Positioning System (GPS) and

computer data, inertials 1 and 2, and remarks. For Mark On Top (MOT), K-Factors should be

zero for all sources, if not, resolve the issue before takeoff. Figure 7-3 shows an example of a

K -Factor log.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER SEVEN


Figure 7-3 K-Factor Log

System Accuracy Check Results

SACs are required prior to On Station (ONSTA) arrival and as soon as practicable after Off

Station (OFFSTA). These checks monitor the accuracy of the inertials, airspeed, and Horizontal

Situation Indicators (HSIs). Upon completion of the SAC, ensure headings and True Airspeed

(TAS) are within tolerance. An example of system accuracy check results is depicted in Figure

7-4.

Figure 7-4 System Accuracy Check Results




INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE 8-1

CHAPTER EIGHT

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE

800. INTRODUCTION

This chapter covers the fundamentals of EW. Unclassified EW concepts and terminology are

also presented.

801. ELECTRONIC WARFARE OVERVIEW

EW involves the use of various frequencies of the EM spectrum to distribute EW information

into the Electromagnetic Environment (EME). EW provides a means of conducting and

circulating Information Warfare (IW).

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The EM spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of EM radiation from an object.

Frequency bands ranging from RFs at the low end to x-ray and gamma-ray frequencies at the

high end compose the EM spectrum. The EM spectrum can be expressed in terms of energy,

wavelength, or frequency as shown in Figure 8-1.

Figure 8-1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Environment

The EME is the portion of the EM spectrum that is used to distribute information with respect to

EW. Other EM sources in the region must be considered when attempting to exploit or utilize a

specific RF signal in the EME. The EME is essentially the sum of Electromagnetic Interference

(EMI), Electromagnetic Pulses (EMPs), Hazards of EM Radiation to Ordnance (HERO), and

CHAPTER EIGHT ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

8-2 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE

natural phenomena such as the effects of lightning and precipitation static (p-static) or

environmental effects (i.e., a type of static produced in airborne radio equipment by rain, snow,

hail, and/or dust particles).

Military Operations and the Electromagnetic Environment

Military operations in the EME involve a wide range of activities including EW, Electronic

Protection (EP), and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) studies. These activities require an

understanding of the exploitation of EM energy. EW refers to any action involving the use of the

EM spectrum to control the spectrum or attack an enemy.

EW can be subdivided into Electronic Attack (EA), Electronic Protection (EP), and Electronic

Warfare Support (ES) as shown in Figure 8-2.

EW

Subdivision Description

EA Involves the use of EM energy, directed energy, or anti-radiation weapons

to attack personnel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading,

neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability. EA is considered a

form of fires and includes EM jamming (e.g., Counter-Remote Controlled

Improvised Explosive Devices [RCIED] and standoff jamming), EM

deception, directed energy, anti-radiation weapons, and expendables (e.g.,

flares and active decoys).

EP Involves actions taken to protect personnel, facilities, and equipment from

any effects of friendly or enemy use of the EM spectrum that degrades,

neutralizes, or destroys friendly combat capability. EP includes spectrum

management, EM hardening, and EMCON.

ES The action taken to detect and intercept sources of EM energy for the

purpose of threat recognition. ES provides near real time information to

supplement other ISR information. ES includes threat warning,

information collecting to support other EW functions, and direction

finding.

Figure 8-2 Electronic Warfare Subdivisions

Electromagnetic Environmental Effects (E3) refers to the impact of the EME upon the

operational capability of military forces, equipment, systems, and platforms. Equipment and

systems that operate using the principles of electromagnetism are characterized by EM

vulnerability. Once subjected to E3, equipment and systems that operate within or as part of the

EM spectrum may suffer degradation, thereby rendering them incapable of performing the

designated mission. E3 encompasses all EM disciplines, including those found in Figure 8-3.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER EIGHT

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE 8-3

EM Discipline Description

EMC Studies the unintentional generation, propagation, and reception of

EM energy with reference to the unwanted effects. EMC aims to

ensure that equipment items or systems will not interfere with or

prevent each other’s correct operation through spurious emission

and absorption of EMI.

EMI The disturbance that affects an electrical circuit due to either EM

induction or EM radiation emitted from an external source.

EM vulnerability Refers to the characteristics of a system that cause it to suffer a

definite degradation as a result of having been subjected to a

certain level of E3.

EMP An abrupt pulsing burst of EM radiation that usually results from

high-energy explosions, especially a nuclear explosion, or from a

suddenly fluctuating magnetic field. The resulting rapidly

changing electric and magnetic fields may couple with

electrical/electronic systems to produce damaging current and

voltage surges.

EP Involves actions taken to protect personnel, facilities, and

equipment from the effects of friendly or enemy use of the EM

spectrum that degrades, neutralizes, or destroys friendly combat

capability.

EM radiation

hazards to personnel,

ordnance, and

volatile materials

This discipline includes safeguarding from RF produced by radio

or RADAR transmitters that can cause electro-explosive devices in

ordnance systems to activate prematurely.

Natural phenomena

effects of lightning

and p-static

Protection is provided from natural phenomena such as lightning,

p-static, or other particles in the atmosphere striking the antenna

and surfaces of an airplane.

Figure 8-3 Electromagnetic Disciplines

Information Warfare

IW is a concept that uses the management of information technology to gain a competitive

advantage over an opponent. IW may involve the use of EW in which tactical information is

collected via ES. Another means of IW occurs when propaganda is distributed to demoralize or

misinform an opponent. Psychological warfare is also a type of IW that may be employed

against an adversary.

In IW, EW has many purposes. It may be used to jam radio transmissions, collect intelligence,

or disable logistics and/or enemy communication networks. Intelligence that is collected for ES

purposes is processed for further exploitation by the appropriate personnel within the intelligence

community. This processing occurs after meeting the operational commander’s ES

requirements.

CHAPTER EIGHT ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

8-4 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE

In the intelligence community, ES is achieved by assets tasked to search for, intercept, identify,

and locate or localize sources of intentional or unintentional radiated EM energy. ES tasking is

intended to respond to an immediate operational requirement and supports this intent by

recognizing immediate threats and avoiding threats. ES tasking assists with targeting, homing,

and planning activities and provides support for conducting future operations.

RADAR PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE 9-1

CHAPTER NINE

RADAR PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE

900. INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents information about RADAR and EW. An overview of RADAR theory,

functionality, components, capabilities, and terms is also presented. The relationship between

the Doppler Effect and RADARs is discussed. In addition, frequency modulation types are

introduced.

901. RADAR AND PULSE OVERVIEW

RADAR uses pulses of radio energy to determine object characteristics such as range, direction,

altitude, and speed. Other forms of RADAR such as the ISAR/SAR in an MPR aircraft use

relative motion (ISAR uses motion of the target and SAR uses motion of the aircraft) to provide

distinctive long-term coherent-signal variations that are exploited to obtain high-resolution two-

dimensional imagery.

Basic RADAR Theory

The electronics principle on which RADAR operates is very similar to the principle of sound-

wave reflection. Shouting in the direction of a sound-reflecting object will cause an echo. By

knowing the speed of sound in the air and the strength of the returning echo, the distance and

general direction of the object can be estimated.

RADAR uses EM energy pulses in a method similar to sound reflection. The RF energy is

transmitted to and reflects off an object. A small portion of the reflected RF energy returns to

the RADAR. This returned energy is called an echo. The time required for a return echo can be

converted to an approximate distance if the speed of light is known.

Radio Frequency

Frequency is defined as the number of complete wave cycles per unit of time for any form of

wave motion, such as the number of cycles per second of an alternating current. The number of

cycles per second is a unit of measurement defined as a Hertz (HZ).

RF is one of the prime factors controlling many RADAR system capabilities. A RADAR

system’s operational frequency not only impacts its theoretical range and potential use, but also

has a direct impact on the size of certain RADAR components such as antennas and waveguides.

Higher RFs typically result in RADARs with shorter ranges but higher target update rates.

Pulsed-RADAR

The Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) of a pulsed-RADAR system is the number of pulses

generated in 1 second (sec). PRF is measured in pulses per second.

CHAPTER NINE ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

9-2 RADAR PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION TO ELECTRONIC WARFARE

Once the RADAR emits a pulse, a sufficient length of time must elapse to allow any echo signals

to return and be detected by the RADAR receiver before the next pulse is transmitted.

Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI) is the time between the start of one pulse and the beginning of the

next pulse. Pulse Duration (PD) is the time required by a RADAR system to transmit a burst of

energy. PD is commonly referred to as Pulse Width (PW) and is usually measured in

microseconds. Figure 9-1 depicts PRI and PD/PW.

Figure 9-1 Pulse Repetition Interval and Pulse Duration/Pulse Width

902. SCANNING AND BEAMS

In order to cover a wide area with a narrow beam, the RADAR needs to perform a series of

scans. Scanning is the process of directing the beam through a space search pattern in order to

locate a target or contact of interest.

Beam Width

Beam Width (BW) is the area in degrees filled with RF energy in both the horizontal and vertical

axis. As BW decreases, signal gain increases due to better beam focusing.

Currently, no RADAR system can cover 360º in azimuth and elevation to detect targets. Wide

BWs result in good coverage but poor angular resolution. Narrow BWs provide much greater

accuracy with a significant reduction in the instantaneous look area.

Scan Duration

Antenna type is matched to RADAR function. Each type of antenna produces different beam

shapes. The various antennas need to scan in diverse ways. This includes both scan methods

and Scan Duration (SD). SD is expressed in either hertz or in revolutions per minute.

SD can be divided into scan period, Antenna Rotation Period (ARP), rotation rate, and Scan Rate

(SR).

ADVMARC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER NINE


Figure 9-2 defines the SD terms.

SD Term Definition

Scan period The time taken (expressed in seconds) to complete a scan

pattern and return to the starting point

ARP Another way of expressing scan period that is used when

describing circular scanning RADARs (e.g., E-2C APS-145)

Rotation rate Number of complete scans in 1 min (expressed in revolutions

per minute) that is used when describing circular scanning

RADARs

SR Number of complete scans in 1 min or per second that is

used when describing non-circular scanning RADARs

Figure 9-2 Scan Duration Terms

Beam Scanning

RADAR systems use basic mechanical and electronic beam scanning methods. In both

mechanical and electronic beam scanning, the beam is moved in various ways. These two

methods can be combined to produce compound scan patterns, such as circular and raster scan

patterns, and are used in certain acquisition RADARs. During mechanical scanning, the beam is

maneuvered via mechanical means. Electronic scanning can instantaneously position a beam

anywhere within a sector and the beam position can be changed in microseconds. Figure 9-3

lists characteristics of mechanical and electronic scanning.

Mechanical Scanning Electronic Scanning

The entire antenna is moved in the

desired pattern.

The beam is switched between a set of

feeder sources.

The energy feed source is moved relative

to a fixed reflector.

The phasing between elements in a multi-

element array is varied.

The reflector is moved relative to a fixed

source.

The amplitude and phase difference

between received signals in a multi-

element array is compared.

Figure 9-3 Mechanical and Electronic Scanning Characteristics

Scan Pattern/Scan Type

A scan pattern/Scan Type (ST) refers to the repetitious motion of a RADAR beam through space

in search of a target or contact of interest. Circular, helical, and sector are scan patterns/STs.

Examples of scan patterns are shown in Figures 9-4 through 9-6.

A circular scan is a pattern in which an antenna beam describes a circle in space. A circular

scan, which is commonly used in Early Warning (EW) and search RADARs, is distinguished by

regular intervals between target illumination.



Figure 9-4 Circular Scan

A helical scan is a pattern in which the elevation is raised slowly while the beam rotates more

rapidly in azimuth. A helical scan returns to its original position at the completion of the cycle.

Figure 9-5 Helical Scan

Sector STs include bidirectional, unidirectional, and vertical. In the bidirectional sector scan, the

RADAR transmits a signal as the antenna moves in both directions through a fixed point (e.g.,

ground mapping). A 360º movement occurs in unidirectional sector scanning, and transmission

only occurs in the sector of interest (e.g., Airborne Warning and Control System [AWACS]).

Vertical sector scanning is used in height-finding RADARs with narrow elevation BWs.



Figure 9-6 Sector Scan

ST can be subdivided into classifications. Figure 9-7 defines ST classifications.

ST

Classification Definition

Alpha (A) Circular scan (most common form of mechanical scanning)

Bravo (B) Horizontal two-way search pattern

Charlie (C) Vertical two-way search pattern

Victor (V) Undetermined two-way search pattern

Delta (D) Referred to as a steady scan (radiates a beam at a fixed point from

a RADAR system)

Foxtrot (F) Conical scan that rotates a feed horn around an axis within a

parabolic dish in a circular motion at a rapid rate, usually from

10 – 100 hertz

Circular and

Sector (M)

Mechanical circular scan integrated with an electronic vertical

scan

Papa (P) Beam direction controlled electronically and moved almost

instantaneously from one position to another

Romeo (R) Mechanical circular scanning RADAR integrated with any other

pattern or combination of scans

Sierra (S) RADAR beam confined to a specific sector that is less than 180º,

scanning in a single direction in the vertical sector plane

Tango (T) RADAR beam confined to a specific sector that is less than 180º,

scanning in a single direction in the horizontal sector plane,

resembling a sector scan with increased SR, but the unidirectional

scan only radiates in one direction

Juliet (J) Raster scan that covers a rectangular-shaped sector by scanning

back and forth while changing levels (angle of elevation) after

each sweep

Figure 9-7 Scan Type Classifications



903. ANTENNA FUNCTION AND CAPABILITIES

Search RADARs

A search RADAR is designed to provide an extensive picture of contacts in order to warn of

approaching air threats (air defense) or surface threats (coastal defense). Search RADARs

typically use circular, sector, or electronic scans. They may be one-dimensional (range only),

two-dimensional (2D) (bearing and range), or three-dimensional (3D) (bearing, range, and

elevation).

Search RADARs generally have a low frequency, low illumination rate, large scan volume, and

high transmitter power. Examples of search RADARs are EW, Surface Search (SS), Airborne

Early Warning (AEW), Navigation (NA), and Height Finder (HF).

RADAR Function Codes

RADAR function codes define the functionality of RADAR systems aboard the platform it is

installed on (air, naval, and ground). The following list provides RADAR function codes and

definitions, as applicable:

1. Anti-Aircraft (AA)

2. Airborne Search and Bombing (AB)

3. Airborne Intercept (AI) – Airborne RADAR that is found on fighter-type aircraft and used

to detect, track, and lock onto another aircraft. Most AI RADARs have multiple modes, target

acquisition, target tracking, and fire control. Since these RADARs generally are designed for

shorter ranges, they have low power output. They are characterized by high RF, short emitter

times, short illumination rates, small scan volumes, and complex STs. These RADARs

determine bearing, range, azimuth, and speed of the target to provide target location to the fire

control system.

4. Airborne Reconnaissance and Mapping (AM)

5. Air Traffic Control (AT)

6. Beacon/Transponder (BN)

7. Controlled Approach (CA)

8. Controlled Intercept (CI) – A CI RADAR, which is part of an air defense system and

commonly used by military controllers on the ground, provides target positional data to vector

defense aircraft to hostile or unknown targets. The CI RADAR is similar to and can function as

an EW RADAR but generally has a shorter Maximum Range (Rmax). This RADAR is commonly

used when the intercepting aircraft does not have an AI RADAR or is not within aircraft

RADAR detection range.



9. Coastal Surveillance (CS) – CS RADAR is a type of search RADAR designed to provide

information about ship movement for the purpose of coastal defense. CS RADAR is used to

provide detection, classification, and identification of various maritime contacts, generally in the

littoral environment.

10. Early Warning (EW) – EW RADAR is any search RADAR system used for the long-range

detection of potential threats in order to alert defenses as early as possible before they reach their

weapons release range. Design characteristics of typical EW RADARs include high power, wide

beams, long PD, low PRF, and slow circular or sector scans to enhance detection range. They

may be 2D or 3D. If 2D, they are generally collocated with Height Finding RADARs.

11. Fire Control (FC) – FC RADAR is designed to provide information (mainly target azimuth,

elevation, range, and velocity) to a fire-control system (usually unguided weapons such as Anti-

Aircraft Artillery [AAA]) in order to calculate a firing solution and provide information on how

to direct weapons so that they hit the target. FC RADARs typically emit a narrow, intense beam

of energy to ensure accurate tracking information and to minimize the chance of losing track of

the target. FC RADARs usually incorporate two or more of the following: EW, Target

Acquisition, Target Tracker, Missile Guidance, and Target Illumination.

12. Height Finding (HF)

13. Multifunction (MF) – MF RADARs, which replace numerous conventional and

independent sensors, are designed for the most challenging environments and missions,

including long-range volume search, fire control-quality tracking, and Ballistic Missile Defense

(BMD).

14. Missile Guidance (MG)

15. Missile Homing (MH) – MH RADAR refers to the fact that the missile itself responds to

some form of energy radiated or reflected from a target. Active homing occurs when both the

source of energy used to illuminate the target and the receiver of the reflected energy are co-

located on the missile. In semi-active homing, the transmitter that illuminates the target is

located externally while the receiver remains on the missile. In passive homing, the missile uses

energy radiating from a target to direct itself.

16. Navigation (NA)

17. Navigation/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) (ND)

18. Range Only (RO)

19. Surface Search (SS) – SS RADAR is a navigation and surveillance system that is

configured mostly for ship-based applications. This RADAR provides 360º (circular scan)

detection (range and bearing) of surface contacts and low-flying aircraft. The Rmax is limited by

the RADAR horizon. Design characteristics of typical SS RADARs include high RFs to allow

for reflection from small targets; narrow PDs to allow good Range Resolution (RR) and



accuracy; high PRFs provides maximum illumination of targets; and wide, vertical beams permit

pitch-and-roll and detection of low-flying targets.

20. Target Acquisition (TA) – The function of TA RADAR is to acquire aerial targets either by

independent search, or more commonly, from the direction of a search RADAR. Once the target

is acquired, the RADAR transfers the positional data to other RADARs (such as tracking

RADARs). TA RADARs are characterized by higher target illumination rates, smaller search

volumes, and moderate transmitter power. They typically use circular, sector, or raster scans.

21. Target Illumination (TI) – TI RADARs illuminates a target and allows the missile to ride

its illuminating beam for its control in the direction of flight.

22. Target Tracker (TT) – TT RADAR continuously monitors a target while computers

continuously calculate target location, direction, and speed. The tracking range of TT RADAR

is generally short with high range and azimuth resolution.

23. Unknown (UN)

RADAR Terminology and Calculations

Understanding RADAR functionality involves comprehending RADAR terminology and

calculations.

RADAR recovery time is the amount of time it takes a RADAR system to switch from transmit

to receive modes.

Duty cycle is the ratio of the PD to PRI, or the ratio of the on time to the total time. Duty cycle

is used to calculate peak and average power of a RADAR system. The following formulas

apply:

PD ÷ PRI = duty cycle

PD × PRF = duty cycle

Boresight is the direction an antenna is designed to point without being slewed in any direction.

Main lobe is the primary or maximum gain point of an antenna or simply the lobe containing the

maximum power.

RR is a RADAR’s capability to distinguish between two or more targets on the same line of

bearing, but at slightly different ranges.

Azimuth angle is the angular distance from a reference point (usually the aircraft centerline) in

degrees.

Bearing Resolution (BR) is the ability of a RADAR to distinguish between targets that are close

together in bearing. The degree of BR depends on RADAR BW and the range of the targets.



Rmax is the theoretical maximum distance that a returning target’s echoes can be received and

displayed before the next transmitted pulse is sent. The following formula applies:

Rmax = (Speed of light (c) x PRI)

2

Minimum Range (Rmin) is the theoretical minimum distance that a returning target’s echoes can

be received and displayed before the next transmitted pulse. The most important factors that

affect Rmin are PD and recovery time. The distance EM energy travels in 1 microsecond (µsec) is

328 yards (yd.). The following formulas apply:

Rmin= PW + recovery time

2 × 328 yd

A RADAR range mile is the amount of time it takes for a RADAR pulse to travel 1 NM, reflect

off a target, and return to the antenna. Since it takes 6.18 µsec for an RF pulse to travel 1 NM

and two-way travel is involved, 1 RADAR range mile = 2 x 6.18 µsec = 12.36 µsec . A RADAR

range mile is usually expressed in microseconds.

904. DOPPLER EFFECT AND RADARS

For RADARs, the Doppler Effect is the difference between the transmitted and received

frequency caused by the relative motion between a RADAR and a target. The Doppler Effect

results in a frequency shift up (in the case of a closing target) or down (in the case of an opening

target), based on the radial velocity of the target within the beam. The frequency shift resulting

from the Doppler Effect allows for a direct and highly accurate measurement of a target’s

velocity relative to the transmitter.

Continuous Wave RADAR

A Continuous Wave (CW) is an EM wave of constant amplitude and frequency that is used to

carry information by being modulated. CW RADAR uses the Doppler Effect to obtain desired

information about a target of interest.

CW RADAR has advantages and disadvantages. Some advantages of CW RADAR include

improved velocity, closing rates, and range (when the transmitted RF is modulated). CW

RADAR disadvantages include the inability to determine the range of targets and differentiate

between targets when they lie along the same bearing line and are traveling at the same speed. It

is also incapable of handling multiple targets. CW RADAR cannot locate stationary or slow-

moving targets, which a pulsed-RADAR can detect.

Pulse Doppler RADAR

Pulse Doppler RADAR determines the speed of a moving target by measuring the Doppler

frequency shift in the target’s return signal. Pulse Doppler RADAR can determine target

presence, range, and direction. AI, FC, and missile seeker are RADAR functions frequently

using Pulse Doppler RADAR techniques.



Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR

Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR uses an internally generated reference signal and has a definite

phase relationship between two energy waves, such as a transmitted wave and a reference

frequency. The phase of the transmitted signal is measured against the phase of the reference

signal to detect the Doppler shift.

The advantages of Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR include unambiguous range measurements

and lack of ground clutter. The disadvantages of Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR include

multiple harmonic blind speeds and the reliance of frequency phase shift measurements on target

movement.

Non-Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR

Non-Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR saves the frequency of a stationary return as a reference in

order to detect the amount of Doppler shift from a target return. The advantages of Non-

Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR include high PRFs and unambiguous blind speeds. The

disadvantage on Non-Coherent Pulse Doppler RADAR is ambiguous range measurements.

RADAR Function Estimate

With the application of suitable processing techniques, it is possible to determine ST, duration

illumination, and scan mode. With this information, a reasonable estimate of a RADAR’s

function can be determined.

905. MODULATION TYPES

Modulation is the variation of a property of an EM wave or signal, such as its amplitude,

frequency, or phase, in order to encode information on the carrier wave. FM conveys

information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. AM conveys

information over a carrier wave by varying the amplitude while frequency remains constant.

Phase Modulation (PM) is a form of modulation that represents information as variations in the

instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. The overall modulation type common to RADARs is

pulsed. Intrapulse and interpulse are the types of pulsed modulation.

Intrapulse Modulation

In intrapulse modulation, instead of the pulse being a burst of RF energy at a given carrier

frequency, the pulse is a burst of RF energy at a carrier frequency that varies in phase, frequency,

and amplitude. Use of intrapulse modulation spreads the frequency spectrum, which makes

RADAR significantly harder to jam. The types of intrapulse modulation include Amplitude

Modulation On the Pulse (AMOP), Frequency Modulation On the Pulse (FMOP), and Phase

Modulation On the Pulse (PMOP).

AMOP uses a change of amplitude during the transmission of a pulse and is seen when pulse

characteristics are analyzed. The types of AMOP are intentional and unintentional. Intentional



AMOP is used by many IFF signals as an identification code and may be used to apply a binary

number to the transmitted pulse for the purpose of identification by the receiving set. The most

common type of AMOP is unintentional. Unintentional AMOP may be seen when two signals

beat together and the beat frequency produces AMOP.

FMOP uses a change of frequency during transmission of a pulse. Linear frequency changes and

discrete frequency steps are the most common types of FMOP. FMOP is primarily used in the

transmission of beam position movement and compression techniques.

PMOP is a signal that has constant peak amplitude through the duration of the pulse, but the

phase angle relative to that of the continuous carrier is changed at regular intervals or in a set

pattern. Phase changes are used as a coding format in pulse compression systems. These codes

enable the system’s receiver to have a better Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio and a higher probability

of target detection at Rmax. PMOP can have as few or as many phase changes as necessary for

the intended use.

PMOP has certain advantages over other modulation types. It improves velocity resolution, and

the compromise between RR and power improves targeting at the RADAR system’s Rmax.

PMOP provides greater power efficiency because less power is required than a pulse-RADAR to

achieve the same Rmax. Additionally, the width of bandwidth transmission in PMOP makes

jamming more difficult.

NOTE

Modulation On the Pulse (MOP) RADAR uses an intentional

change in the frequency or phase of the carrier’s pulse while the

pulse is being transmitted.

Interpulse Modulation

Interpulse modulation is applied to a RADAR signal that is transmitted at varied intervals from

the fixed PRI of conventional RADAR. Stagger is a variation in PRIs that occurs during

interpulse intervals or after a period of time. Staggered PRIs are usually used to reduce blind

speeds. A staggered pulse train is a train of pulses where two or more precise interpulse intervals

are alternated in a patterned or random sequence. In a staggered pulse train, the sequence may

contain more than one of several intervals before repeating.

Simple sequence, complex sequence, random sequence, and pseudorandom sequence are types of

staggered PRIs.



Figure 9-8 provides definitions of the types of staggered PRIs.

Type of Staggered PRI Definition

Simple sequence The total number of staggered PRIs in the sequence

is seven or less, and the pattern is easily

discernible.

Complex sequence The total number of staggered PRIs in the sequence

is more than seven.

Random sequence The sequence occurs in an unpredictable, non-

repetitive order.

Pseudorandom sequence The sequence repeats itself after a period of time

that can range from several seconds to several days.

Figure 9-8 Staggered Pulse Repetition Interval Types

Jitter

A jittered PRI is a pulse train in which the PRI value is switched randomly within the bounds of

a maximum and a minimum PRI value, but it can assume any value between these limits. Jitter

can be either intentional or unintentional. Intentional jitter is used to prevent range gate stealers

from locking onto a PRF. Unintentional jitter is a form of modulation that can come from a wide

variety of sources (e.g., timing-related errors).

Dwell and Switch

Dwell and switch are the periodic switching of a fixed sequence of two or more discrete values.

An example of dwell and switch is a RADAR transmitting pulses at a constant dwell time and

switching its PRI for the next dwell time. Dwell and switch is sometimes confused with

staggered PRIs. The advantages of dwell and switch include the reduction of range ambiguities,

range eclipsing, and blind speeds.

ESM AND EMITTER COLLECTION FUNDAMENTALS 10-1

CHAPTER TEN

ELECTRONIC SUPPORT MEASURES AND EMITTER COLLECTION

FUNDAMENTALS

1000. INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents ESM fundamentals. ESM terminology, equipment, capabilities, and

limitations also are presented. In addition, factors affecting emitter collection are discussed.

1001. ELECTRONIC SUPPORT MEASURES AND EMITTER COLLECTION

Radio waves move through different mediums in the atmosphere as transmission occurs. Like

light and heat waves, the atmosphere can influence radio waves through reflection, refraction,

and diffraction. Ground waves and sky waves are two types of radio waves that have unique

characteristics.

Radio Waves

While radio waves traveling in free space have little outside influence affecting them, radio

waves traveling through the Earth’s atmosphere are affected by varying conditions. The

influence exerted on radio waves by the Earth’s atmosphere in the form of reflection, refraction,

and diffraction complicates the relatively simple process of transmitting radio waves. These

complications are due to the lack of uniformity within the Earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric

conditions vary with altitude and geographic location. The time of day or year and the seasons

are also factors that may also affect atmospheric conditions.

Ground waves are one of two principal ways in which EM (radio) energy travels from a

transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. Ground waves are radio waves that travel near the

surface of the Earth. Ground waves include surface waves and space waves.

Sky waves are radio waves that are reflected back to Earth from the ionosphere. The ionosphere

is the region of the atmosphere that extends from about 30 miles (mi) to about 250 mi above the

surface of the Earth. Sky waves, often called ionospheric waves, are radiated in an upward

direction and return to Earth further from the point of origin because of refraction from the

ionosphere. This form of propagation is relatively unaffected by the Earth’s surface and can be

used to propagate signals over great distances. Usually the HF band is used for sky wave

propagation. Figure 10-1 depicts ground and sky waves.

CHAPTER TEN ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

10-2 ESM AND EMITTER COLLECTION FUNDAMENTALS

Figure 10-1 Ground and Sky Waves

Ionospheric Effects

The ionosphere is named appropriately because it consists of several layers of electrically

charged gas atoms called ions. Ions are formed by a process called ionization. Ionization occurs

when high-energy ultraviolet light waves from the Sun enter the ionospheric region of the

atmosphere, strike a gas atom, and knock an electron free from its parent atom.

When a radio wave is transmitted into an ionized layer, refraction, or bending, of the wave

occurs. Refraction is caused by an abrupt change in the velocity of the upper part of a radio

wave as it strikes or enters a new medium. The amount of refraction that occurs mainly depends

on factors such as the density of ionization of the layer, the frequency of the radio wave, and the

angle at which the wave enters the layer.

Propagation Paths

The propagation path is the path that a refracted wave follows to the receiver, depending on the

angle at which the wave strikes the ionosphere (See Figure 10-2). After the RF energy of a given

frequency enters an ionospheric region, there are various paths this energy might follow. The

energy may reach the receiving antenna via two or more paths through a single layer of the

ionosphere. The energy may also reach the receiving antenna over a path involving more than

one layer through multiple hops between the ionosphere and the Earth or by any combination of

these paths.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER TEN


Figure 10-2 Propagation Paths

When the angle at which the wave strikes the ionosphere is relatively low with respect to the

horizon, the waves only slightly penetrate the ionosphere, and the propagation path is long.

When the angle of incidence is increased, the waves penetrate deeper into the ionosphere, and

the range of these waves decreases. When a certain angle is reached, the penetration of the

ionosphere and rate of refraction are such that the wave is first returned to Earth at a minimal

distance from the transmitter.

RADAR Horizon/Line-of-Sight

There are limits to the reach of RADAR signals. At the frequencies normally used for RADAR,

radio waves usually travel in a straight line, but the Earth is curved. This concept is the RADAR

Horizon/LOS. Due to the curvature of the Earth, an aircraft may not be detected if it is below the

RADARLOS, which is tangent to the Earth’s surface.

Emitter Collection Factors

There are multiple factors that can impact emitter collection, including clutter, atmospherics,

noise, EMI, and weather.

Clutter refers to actual RF returns or spurious echoes that may mask the target. Sources of

clutter may include both natural and man-made objects. Some of the natural objects that create

clutter include the ground, sea, rain, snow, hail, and other forms of precipitation, as well as

sandstorms and animals (especially birds). Man-made objects such as buildings or towers may

cause unintentional clutter. Chaff decoys are a source of intentional man-made clutter.



Atmospherics occur when the RF signal is at the mercy of the atmosphere, which causes a

variety of potential factors that may impact emitter collection. These factors are defined and

illustrated in Figures 10-3 and 10-3 cont.

Atmospheric Factor Definition

Attenuation Loss of signal strength due to atmospheric

absorption, scattering, and spreading of the

wave front, increases as frequency increases.

Diffraction Bending around an object; decreases as

frequency increases

Refraction Change in direction/velocity of RF when

moving between mediums (changes in density)

Figure 10-3 Atmospheric Factors

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER TEN


Atmospheric Factor Definition

Reflection Bouncing energy off an object; mirror-like

(equal to angle of incidence)

Ducting Trapping of an RF wave between two layers

of the atmosphere or between an atmospheric

layer and the Earth

Figure 10-3 Atmospheric Factors (cont.)

Signal noise that derives from an internal signal source (i.e., suboptimal electronic components

and mismatches in the electronic design) may have an impact on emitter collection. Signal noise

typically displays as a target return on the RADAR receiver at a time when no actual RADAR

return has occurred.

EMI can result in annoying or impossible operating conditions. Man-made sources of EMI

include oscillators, communications transmitters, and radio transmitters specifically designed to

generate RF energy. Natural sources of EMI include energy released by thunderstorms,

snowstorms, cosmic sources, and the Sun.

Weather systems, such as thunderstorms, may cause clutter and EMI that affect the performance

of the emitter collection.




OCEANOGRAPHY OVERVIEW 11-1

CHAPTER ELEVEN

OCEANOGRAPHY OVERVIEW

1100. INTRODUCTION

This chapter covers the basic fundamentals of oceanography. Terms and concepts as they relate

to ASW operations are discussed. Sonar equations and oceanic conditions relative to ASW

operations are also presented.

1101. FUNDAMENTALS OF OCEANOGRAPHY

Understanding the fundamentals of how sound travels in water is important for successful ASW

operations. The characteristics of seawater, such as temperature, salinity, and pressure as well as

the impact of solar radiation on the ocean’s surface have an effect on the velocity of sound in

water.

Sound Velocity

The factor that causes the greatest amount of change to the velocity of sound in seawater is

temperature. Temperature tends to decrease as latitude and/or depth increases. In general, sound

velocity changes 6 feet per second for every 1 ºF of temperature change.

The weight of dissolved natural solids per unit weight of seawater determines salinity. The

average open ocean salinity is 35 parts per thousand (ppt). Salinity is determined by 60

elements, with chlorine and sodium making up the majority. Sound velocity changes 4 feet per

second for every 1 ppt. change in salinity. Except in coastal and arctic areas, salinity changes are

normally insignificantly small and are thus neglected when calculating sound velocity.

Additionally, MPRA are unable to measure salinity. For this reason, it is treated as a constant,

except during mission planning.

Pressure in the water column increases with depth at a nearly constant rate of 1 atmosphere per

33 ft. Sound velocity changes 2 feet per second (fps) for every 100 ft. of depth change.

A simple format to remember this is T S P; Temperature, Salinity and Pressure followed by 6, 4,

and 2. Each change in TSP (1 ºF of temperature, 1ppt. in salinity, or 100 ft. of depth change)

will yield the respective numbers above in sound velocity change in feet per second.

Solar Effects

The intensity of solar radiation is largely a function of the angle of incidence or the angle at

which the Sun's rays strike the Earth's surface. If the Sun is positioned directly overhead (high

angle of incidence) or 90° from the horizon, the solar radiation strikes the surface of the Earth at

right angles and is most intense. The smaller the angle is (low angle of incidence), or the lower

the Sun is in the sky, the greater the reflection of solar radiation from water or dust particles in

the atmosphere.

CHAPTER ELEVEN ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

11-2 OCEANOGRAPHY OVERVIEW

The depth to which solar energy penetrates is a function of its wavelength. Solar radiation is

reduced as depth increases. The majority of heating takes place at the surface with 50% of the

heat being absorbed in the first 2 inches.

Ocean temperature is heated mainly by solar radiation. Minor heat sources include geothermal

or mechanical energy produced by waves. These minor heat sources are generally ignored.

Ocean temperature is cooled through a variety of processes including evaporation, heat transfer

(cold air above warm water), and radiated heat. Seasonal factors will also affect sea surface

temperatures. Ocean temperatures also change due to diurnal factors, or daily changes that result

from solar radiation peaks near midday (these effects are most notable in the equatorial regions),

and as a result of warm or cold core eddies. Eddies are large rotating masses of warm or cold

water surrounded by water of different temperatures. Eddies can be 60 – 200 NM across and

may be found at depths of 3000 feet or more.

Surface Salinity

A number of factors affect the ocean’s surface salinity, including evaporation, precipitation, river

runoff, and the presence of ice. Evaporation removes fresh water from the ocean’s surface,

which increases surface salinity. Precipitation adds fresh water to the ocean’s surface thus

decreasing surface salinity. River runoff has been known to decrease surface salinity as far as

200 mi out to sea as a result of the addition of fresh water. Ice formation increases salinity

through a process in which dissolved solids are expelled from the ice. The dissolved solids are

expelled because there is no room within the crystal structure for their ions. Ice melting in the

spring causes surface salinity to decrease.

Vertical Temperature Structure

A graph of temperature versus depth, known as the Bathythermograph Trace (BT), represents the

Vertical Temperature Structure. The common name for the Vertical Temperature Structure is the

BT profile. ASW assets use the BT sonobuoy (SSQ-36) with an acoustic processor to record the

BT profile. The ocean’s Vertical Temperature Structure segments are made of the Mixed Layer

(ML), Mixed Layer Depth (MLD), thermocline, and deep water.

The ML segment is near the surface of the Vertical Temperature Structure (from the surface of

the ocean to the MLD). It is typically an isothermal (constant temperature) layer created by

convective and/or mechanical mixing (also called wind wave mixing).

The depth to which the ML extends is called the MLD. The depth of the MLD varies upon

location and season. The MLD tends to be deeper as latitude increases and in the winter.

The thermocline segment is below the MLD. This segment is a gradient, measured in degrees of

change per 100 feet of depth. The thermocline’s temperature decreases with increasing depth.

The deep-water segment is below the thermocline. The water at this segment becomes

isothermal again, but generally at very cold temperatures. This segment originates in Polar

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER ELEVEN


Regions and flows toward equatorial regions. Deep-water temperatures will not vary greatly

between different locations. Figure 11-1 depicts Vertical Temperature Structure segments.

Figure 11-1 Vertical Temperature Structure Segments

Sound Fundamentals

Sound has the ability to travel great distances in water, and for this reason, sound is a great way

to detect submarines. Sonobuoys use sound as the primary means of detecting submarines;

therefore, a basic understanding of sound properties is required by any ASW NFO.

Sound is caused by the periodic variation in pressure and particle displacement in an elastic

medium. Sound cannot propagate in a vacuum. Elasticity is the ability of an object, after being

distorted by a force, to return to its original shape when the force is removed. Without this

ability, the mechanical energy of a sound wave could not be transmitted.

Sound is transmitted as a longitudinal wave in the form of a pressure disturbance. Compression

and rarefaction (the opposite of compression) will occur alternately in the direction of

propagation (represented by a sine wave). A cycle encompasses one complete compression and

one complete rarefaction.

Knowing the definition of several terms related to sound will make it easier to understand the

fundamentals of sound propagation. These terms include wavelength, frequency, period,

velocity, amplitude, and acoustic pressure.



Wavelength is the physical length of one complete cycle or the physical distance between

identical points of successive waves. The wavelength of sound waves varies greatly depending

on their frequency and velocity.

Frequency is the number of cycles that pass a given point in unit of time and typically measured

in cycles per second or hertz. The sensation of frequency is commonly referred to as the pitch of

a sound. A high pitch sound corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and a low pitch sound

corresponds to a low frequency sound wave.

The period is the time it takes one cycle to pass a given point The relationship between period

and frequency is responsible for the Doppler Effect.

Velocity is the speed of sound in a medium, and it varies with the medium. The velocity of

sound will also vary as conditions within a medium change.

Amplitude is the measurement of particle displacement from its original position as the sound

wave passes. Amplitude is a measure of loudness. As amplitude increases, loudness increases.

Because it is very difficult to measure the displacement of a particular particle, and since the

pressure differential caused by a sound wave is directly proportional to the displacement,

pressure is used as a measure of the wave’s amplitude.

Acoustic pressure is the actual pressure differential created by the passage of a sound wave, both

positive and negative. The effective pressure is the Root-Mean-Square (RMS) value of the

acoustic pressure. Effective pressure is a more representative value of pressure in that it is a

constantly positive value. A hydrophone on a sonobuoy measures effective pressure.

The wavelength (λ) is a function of the velocity (V) and the frequency (f) as shown in the

following equation.

λ = V ÷ f

Because the frequency of a sound does not change once it is emitted, the wavelength will change

as the velocity of the sound in the medium changes; the higher the velocity of sound, the longer

the wavelength. In the case where the velocity of sound is constant, higher frequencies result in

shorter wavelengths.

Ray Path Theory

Ray Path Theory was developed to make sound wave travel easier to understand. A ray path

represents the line drawn from the sound emitter/source (submarine) perpendicular to the wave

fronts emanating from the source. Isovelocity, positive and negative velocity conditions are

examples of ray paths (see Figures 11-2 through 11-5).

An isovelocity condition occurs when sound velocity is constant throughout. The rays tend to

spread uniformly outward in straight paths.



Figure 11-2 Isovelocity

Positive velocity conditions occur when sound velocity increases constantly with depth. All rays

tend to bend up toward the surface.

Figure 11-3 Positive Velocity



Negative velocity conditions occur when sound velocity decreases constantly with depth. All

rays tend to bend down, away from the surface.

Figure 11-4 Negative Velocity

The bending of ray paths (sound waves) is called refraction and the rays tend to bend away from

higher velocities and toward lower velocities. HALT is a mnemonic that was developed to help

remember that ray paths tend to bend away from higher velocities and toward lower velocities.

H_igher

A_way

L_ower

T_oward

Snell’s Law mathematically represents ray path theory as shown in the following equation:

V1 ÷ cos Ө1 = V2 ÷ cos Ө2 = V3 ÷ cos Ө3

Refraction occurs anytime sound waves move into water with a different sound velocity.



Figure 11-5 Snell’s Law Graph

1102. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE OPERATIONS – TERMS & CONCEPTS

Sound Velocity Profile

The Sound Velocity Profile (SVP) is a graph of the velocity of sound versus water depth,

dependent on the temperature, pressure, and salinity. Understanding the SVP and mission

environment allows the ASW NFO to properly employ their ASW tactics (i.e., sonobuoy depth,

life, spacing, etc.) and successfully execute his or her mission.

The SVP may be determined using a velocimeter cast from a ship. For airborne purposes, the

profile is determined by constructing the SVP from the BT trace with the understanding that the

pressure will constantly rise with increasing water depth. Isovelocity occurs when the velocity

of sound is constant from the surface to the bottom. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the

Vertical Temperature Structure is represented by a graph of temperature versus depth and is most

commonly known as the BT profile. Figure 11-6 depicts BT profile and SVP.



Figure 11-6 BT Profile/Sound Velocity Profile

A velocity gradient refers to how the speed of sound within the ocean layers differs from a

baseline. The velocity gradient can be different speeds at different layers of the water.

Temperature gradients (thermoclines) can help drive or produce velocity gradients. Identifying

these gradients is important when employing underwater sensors or trying to track underwater

contacts.

The parts of an SVP are defined and illustrated in Figures 11-7 and 11-8.

SVP Part Definition

Sonic Layer (SL) The area of positive velocity gradient. In the

ML of the water column, the water is

isothermal, and there is no velocity change

due to temperature. There is an increase in

sound velocity with depth due to the increase

in pressure.

Sonic Layer Depth (SLD) The depth to which the SL extends and is the

maximum near-surface sound velocity.

Typically same as MLD.

Deep Sound Channel Axis (DSCA) The point of minimum sound velocity

Limiting Depth (LD) (Also called

the Critical Depth)

The point at which the maximum near-surface

sound velocity is re-achieved

Conjugate Depth (CD) The depth below the DSCA where the sound

velocity equals that of the sound source (The

sound source is the submarine emitting the

sound waves.)



SVP Part Definition

Depth Excess (DE) The depth between the LD and the ocean

bottom

Velocity Excess (VE) The sound velocity difference between the LD

and the ocean bottom

Figure 11-7 Sound Velocity Profile Parts Definitions

Figure 11-8 Sound Velocity Profile Parts

Seasonal and diurnal changes will cause variations in the SVP. Seasonal heating during the

transition from winter to spring will create a negative velocity gradient in the near-surface region

due to the increased temperatures, eliminating the isothermal properties. The SLD will decrease,

and the near-surface maximum velocity will increase. This increase in the near-surface

maximum velocity will cause the LD to go deeper. Daily (diurnal) heating will cause similar

effects to the SVP but on a smaller scale. These diurnal effects could result in significant

changes to the SVP.

Transmission Phenomena

Transmission phenomena are the ways in which sound will lose intensity as it moves through a

medium. Some of the losses are due to the nature of sound transmission, the medium itself, and



the reflection of sound from the interface between mediums. Losses due to the nature of sound

transmission would occur even in an ideal medium.

The ideal medium for sound transmission is one that is homogeneous throughout and perfectly

elastic; however, the ocean does not meet these requirements. Transmission losses are expressed

as decibel values.

Decibel

The decibel is the logarithmic expression of a power ratio and is normally used in the field of

acoustics and electronics. A decibel is a means for expressing large or small numbers easily.

Because the decibel is the expression of a ratio, it is a relative value. It can be converted to an

absolute value when a standard reference is used.

It is vitally important to have an understanding of the decibel in ASW because sound is measured

in decibels. The following are ways to use decibels:

1. Comparing two sounds (S/N ratio)

2. Comparing one sound at two points (Propagation Loss [PROPLOSS] from A to B)

3. Measuring a single component against a reference pressure

The half power relationship is a 50% power loss and is equal to a 3-decibel (dB) decrease.

Attenuation

Attenuation is the reduction in sound energy as sound propagates through water. Attenuation

applies to a loss in intensity that occurs due to the nature of the medium. The types of

attenuation are absorption and scattering.

Absorption is a true loss of intensity of power. It results from friction between molecules

displaced by the passage of a sound wave (losses occur as sound energy is converted to heat

energy).

Scattering is the random reflection of sound and its effect is loss of intensity. Scattering results

from discontinuities in the physical properties of seawater that intercept and reradiate a portion

of the sound energy that strikes it. Sediment, magnetic anomalies, and seismic activity are

examples of the causes of scattering. Sea life, sea state noise, sea ice, and underwater seamounts

are also causes of scattering.

The basic types of scattering are surface, bottom, and volume. Surface scattering is the random

reflection of sound off an irregular surface. Bottom scattering is the random reflection of sound

off an irregular bottom. Volume scattering is the random reflection of sound from anything

suspended in water (e.g., fish, plankton, or silt). Salinity is not a cause of volume scattering

because minerals are dissolved in water and not suspended.



Spreading Losses

Spreading losses are losses in intensity that occur due to the physical nature of sound

transmission and distance. The types of spreading losses are spherical and cylindrical. Spherical

spreading occurs in isovelocity conditions where the wavefronts expand equally in all directions,

forming concentric spheres. Cylindrical spreading occurs when a case of spherical spreading

becomes limited to only two dimensions, such as when it is limited by the surface and the

bottom. See Figure 11-9.

Figure 11-9 Spherical and Cylindrical Spreading Losses

Transmission Paths

Transmission paths are the paths through which sound propagates through water. Various paths

exist due to changes in sound velocity with changes in depth. The paths through which sound is

transmitted through water include the surface duct, direct path, sound channel, Convergence

Zone (CZ), Bottom Bounce (BB), and half channel. More than one path will be in existence at

any given time in ASW.

A surface duct may occur in the SL in a region with a positive velocity gradient. This causes all

the ray paths to refract upward. Surface duct ray paths will then reflect off the surface and again

refract between the SLD and the surface, thus becoming trapped within the SL, which acts as a

waveguide, and possibly traveling long ranges (depending on sea state and the depth of the

submarine). Ray paths that cross the SLD will continue downward due to the negative velocity

gradient below the SLD. At low frequencies, sound energy will not be trapped in a surface duct

as its wavelength is too large for all the energy to fit within the duct. The frequency at which

this occurs is known as the low frequency cut-off.



Direct path is the simplest propagation path and occurs where there is approximately a straight-

line path between the source (submarine) and the receiver (sonobuoy) with no reflection and only

one change of direction due to refraction. It is commonly a short-range direct line from a source

to a receiver. The placement of a source below the SLD creates a ray path pattern with a shadow

zone in the SL and no ducting. This placement creates a better situation for the submarine than

being in the SL because sonobuoys will not detect the submarine as easily below the SLD.

A detection source’s ability to perceive a submarine is dependent on SLD, velocity gradient, and

source depth. As the depth of the SL increases, the range for detection increases. As the

negative gradient below the SLD increases, the detection range becomes shorter. The deeper the

sound source is below the SLD, the longer the range for detection gets. The best depth for a

submarine to avoid detection is that which the below-layer gradient (BLG) is the most negative.

This will typically, but not always, be 100-200 ft. below the SLD.

Sound channeling is the longest range transmission path available, since the primary loss is the

absorption of sound by seawater. Any time a velocity minimum (axis) exists, a sound channel

will exist. If the sound source is at the DSCA, the sound paths continually converge within the

channel. To be effective, a sound channel must have sufficient width (depth) and gradients to

channel the sound. In this case, sound waves experience multiple refractions and no reflections.

CZs are regions at or near the ocean surface where the focusing of sound rays occurs. The

focusing of these sound rays is called the annulus or zone width. The existence of CZs requires a

negative sound-velocity gradient at or near the surface, with a positive gradient below, and at

least 200 fathoms (1200 ft [1 fathom = 6 ft]) DE below the LD or 22fps of VE below the LD.

Sound rays leaving the near-surface region are refracted back to the surface because of the

positive speed gradient at greater depths. The deep-refracted rays often become concentrated at

or near the surface, and partial focusing begins to occur, at depth, when sound rays cross. The

focusing effect produced by this convergence forms intense sound fields that can aid in

submarine detection. CZs vary in range from 18–36 NM (depending on the SVP). The width of

the CZ is 5–10 percent of the range.

A CZ contact will have more rapid signal gain and loss than a direct path contact. It may be

possible to determine whether the target is penetrating the CZ from the inside or outside. This is

because the inner side of the CZ, where ray paths are closely packed, will produce a more rapid

change in signal strength than the outer side. The inner third of the CZ is an area known as the

reswept zone, where the ray paths are most closely concentrated.

BB is the one transmission path that will always be present and where sound can be transmitted

over long ranges, but it is seldom usable for detection. BB is sound reflection off the ocean

bottom, and much of this sound will be absorbed and scattered by the ocean bottom. Loss of BB

depends primarily upon bottom composition, slope, angle of incidence, and bottom roughness.

Since a totally negative gradient reduces BB loss, BB is stronger in shallower water, even though

shallow water requires more bounces to cover the same range.



Conditions known as half channel are found in the Polar Regions and in the Mediterranean Sea,

where the water is isothermal in the winter. A positive velocity gradient exists from the surface

to the bottom. The term half channel is used due to the half channel’s similarity to the lower half

of the deep sound channel. The positive velocity gradient causes all the ray paths to refract

upward, which causes a surface duct that exists from the surface of the water to the ocean

bottom. Half channel yields excellent detection ranges, exceeded only by sound channeling and

CZs.

The sound transmission through water from a source (submarine) to a receiver (sonobuoy) is

critical in the success of ASW. Predicting the appropriate sound transmission increases the

chances of detecting a submarine. The predicted sound transmission will lead the ASW NFO to

select the appropriate type of sonobuoy and the mode and depth setting to be utilized.

1103. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE OPERATIONS – SONAR EQUATIONS

The sonar equations used to support ASW operations include the passive sonar equation, Figure

of Merit (FOM) equation, active sonar equation, and the reverberation-limited case-active sonar

equation. These equations provide a range of information relative to underwater targets and

sources of interest.

Passive Sonar Equation

A sonar sensor receiving a sound signal generated by a target accomplishes passive sonar

detection and tracking. The detection process involves the recognition of target signals in the

presence of interfering background noise. Thus, passive detection factors are those that affect

the received S/N ratio. The passive sonar equation and a Figure 11-10 with the definitions of the

equation variables follow.

(SL - RD - AN + DI - PL = SE)

Equation

Variable Definition

Source Level

(SL)

The level of the target (component of submarine making

the noise) radiated signal (in decibels) at a range of 1 yard

from the source

Recognition

Differential (RD)

The S/N ratio (in decibels) required at the sonar receiver to

enable an operator to recognize the signal 50% of the time

Ambient Noise

(AN)

The steady state level (in decibels) of total background

noise (This level derives from the ambient noise levels

based on the Wenz Curves. To calculate ambient noise,

the Wenz Curves take into account shipping traffic, sea

state, and wind.)



Equation

Variable Definition

Directivity Index

(DI)

The measure (in decibels) of the amount by which an

array, through its beam pattern, discriminates against noise

(typically zero)

PROPLOSS (PL)

(or transmission

loss)

The reduction in signal intensity (in decibels) between a

point 1 yard from the sound source and the receiving

sensor (Sensors obtain the PROPLOSS from curves

provided or specific configurations, frequencies, and

environmental conditions.)

Signal Excess

(SE)

The received signal level (in decibels) in excess of that

required for detection (Detection occurs 50% of the time

when the signal excess is zero.)

Figure 11-10 Passive Sonar Equation Variables

Figure of Merit Equation

FOMs are widely used in estimating overall sonar performance. The estimated FOM is provided

by environmental service products given to ASW crews during mission briefs.

The FOM for passive sonar (for ASW purposes) is defined as the maximum allowable one-way

PROPLOSS (in decibels) that a signal may suffer while maintaining a 50% probability of

detection. The FOM derives from the passive sonar equation. The PROPLOSS profiles with the

FOM provide a method for predicting ranges of detection, signal excess, and probability of

detection. The FOM equation is as follows:

SL -RD -AN + DI = FOM

Another definition for FOM is the PROPLOSS for which signal excess is equal to zero.

Predictions of passive sonar performance using the FOM equation involve estimates of own

system parameters, ambient noise, target characteristics, and sound propagation characteristics.

Probability of Detection

PROPLOSS profiles, FOM probability of detection modification overlays, and probability of

detection monograms may supplement the passive sonar equation and the FOM to predict

passive sonar performance. The following figure shows an example of how ranges are predicted

utilizing the FOM, as well as the PROPLOSS profile obtained for the geographic location of

interest, specific sensor in use, applicable sensor and source depths, and specific frequency of

interest.



Figure 11-11 Range Prediction and Figure of Merit

The horizontal line across the PROPLOSS profile chart is the calculated FOM. The shortest

range at which the FOM is equal to decibel loss is the Median Detection Range (MDR). This

represents the average range at which the sonobuoy will detect the target, 50% of the time. In

Figure 11-11, the MDR is 3 NM.

Active Sonar Equation

The active sonar equation provides a means for detecting and tracking submerged targets. The

sonar does this by listening to echoes reflected off the target.

In active detection, pulses of acoustic energy generated by the sonar (or by active acoustic

circuits in the weapons themselves) propagate through the water to the target. Reflected from the

target, these pulses of acoustic energy travel back to the receiver. From there, range information

obtained by electronic circuitry measures the time interval between transmitted and received

pulses.

The active sonar equation is similar to the passive sonar equation; however, active sonar is

limited by ambient noise or reverberation, whichever is the dominant factor. Reverberation

occurs when a sound is produced in an enclosed medium, causing a large number of echoes to

build up and then slowly decay with absorption. The active sonar equation also differs from the

passive sonar equation by experiencing twice the amount of PROPLOSS due to the active echo

being transmitted and received.



The noise-limited case-active sonar equation is as follows:

SL - RD - AN + DI - 2PL + TS = SE

The variables have the same definition as in the passive sonar equation with a few exceptions.

SL is the intensity of the radiated sound (in decibels) referenced to a point 1 yard from the

acoustic center of the projector in the direction of the target. PL has the same definition as in the

passive sonar equation, except it is multiplied by two, due to the active sonar’s ping traveling to

the target and then returning to the point of origin. The variable TS represents target strength.

The target strength of a reflecting object is the amount by which the apparent intensity of sound

scattered by the target exceeds the intensity of the incident sound. The reference distance is 1

yard from the acoustic center of the target. The value of target strength depends on a number of

target characteristics including size, shape, construction, type of material, roughness, and aspect.

Target strength also depends on the angle, frequency, and waveform of the incident sound

energy.

The reverberation-limited case-active sonar equation is as follows:

SL + TS - RD - RL - 2PL = SE

AN + DI are replaced with the variable for reverberation level, RL. The reverberation level is a

function of source level and range, as well as the dominant reverberation scatterers (volume, sea

surface, or bottom).

The active sonar equation may be used to predict active sonar performance. Performance may be

predicted by direct application of the equations for signal excess described in the calculation of

the FOM for the passive sonar equation. The FOM concept, however, is not useful for the

reverberation-limited case. This is because as the source level increases, the reverberation level

will increase at the same rate as the return from the target.

1104. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE OPERATIONS – OCEANIC CONDITIONS

The inherent characteristics of the ocean in any one location can greatly alter the effectiveness of

any ASW platform. Ocean topography, sea states, underwater equipment, seismic activities, and

biological factors are considerations when planning and executing ASW operations.

Ocean Topography

Ocean topography can have a significant effect on ASW operations. The different types of ocean

topography include the continental shelf, continental slope, and ocean basin. (See Figure 11-12.)

The continental shelf is the relatively shallow area that is immediately adjacent to the landmass

and is a part of the continent itself. It typically has a gentle slope, averaging about 1 – 540 feet

in depth, but the outer limit is usually denoted by the 600 ft., or 100 fathom, curve. A rapid

increase in slope, known as the shelf break, marks the actual edge of the shelf. This may actually

occur at depths from 75 – 750 feet. The continental shelf comprises approximately 12% of the



submarine terrain. ASW prosecution in this area is difficult due to shallow water, increased

surface traffic, and increased ambient noise.

The continental slope is the edge of the continent, and it ranges from the shelf break to the

bottom of the ocean basin. It is a steeply sloping area with an incline that averages 1 foot per 40

feet of horizontal distance; however, in some areas it may be nearly vertical. The continental

slope has a very irregular surface and may even have a stepped appearance. This rough, irregular

surface increases the scattering of sound, which leads to radical and possibly unreliable

sonobuoy bearings. The continental slope accounts for approximately 8% of all submarine

terrain.

The ocean basin is the entire area between continental slopes. Its topography may be extremely

flat in the abyssal plains or very irregular along the mid-ocean ridge. The average ocean depth is

about 12,000 feet, although it is appreciably less over submarine mountains and vastly deeper in

deep ocean trenches. The ocean basin is the best area for ASW prosecution, but the threat may

not give the preferred choice.

Figure 11-12 Ocean Topography

Sea States

Sea state is a measure of wind-driven waves on the surface of the ocean. The factors that affect

sea state are wind velocity, fetch (length of wind over water), and duration. Sea state noise

occurs over a broad range of frequencies and is generated by the breaking of waves and by the

mere undulation of the sea surface. Precipitation is also included in sea state noise.

Surface scattering is the random reflection of sound by the irregular surface of the sea. The

higher the sea state, the more irregular the surface becomes and the greater the scattering.



In sea states high enough to create white caps, a second type of scattering, called volume

scattering occurs. Volume scattering is the random reflection of sound off a body suspended in

the water. In the case of high sea states, the suspended bodies are bubbles (foam) near the sea

surface.

Due to their shorter wavelengths as a result of higher frequencies, scattering has a much greater

effect upon active sonar systems. Scattering may in fact become the limiting factor for the

detection range of active systems.

Sonobuoy washover occurs when waves break over a sonobuoy and ground out the antenna. The

wave height necessary to create sonobuoy washover varies between sonobuoy types. An

intermittent radio signal from the sonobuoy is characteristic of sonobuoy washover.

Ocean waves reflect RADAR signals, and in higher sea states, this return will create clutter on

the RADAR scope. Clutter makes it difficult to identify small contacts, such as periscopes or

snorkels. Clutter is worse when looking upwind at the steeper face of a wave.

Sea ice is another source of sea noise. As sea ice forms on the surface, it begins as a slush that

generates noise. The slush forms large, rounded plates called pancakes that form a solid sheet

with continued freezing. Ice noise is at its maximum when it is in the pancake phase. Sea ice

noise is similar in frequency to sea state noise, except when the ice pack breaks up or cracks.

When this happens, the sea ice creates intermittent noise that sounds similar to an explosion.

Seismic Activity

There is always a seismic contribution to ambient noise because the Earth is in a constant state of

inner motion. Seismic waves are Extra Low Frequency (ELF) sound waves. Under normal

conditions, seismic waves known as microseisms exist in the Earth. The frequency of

microseisms is roughly 1/7 hertz (Hz) and has a source level that averages about 120 dB. Even

though that frequency is well below the range of frequencies typically associated with ASW, the

harmonics of this noise may become a problem. Local seismic or volcanic activity may create a

sufficient amount of noise to blank out totally passive sonar ASW capability.

Biological Activities

Life-forms in the ocean become a problem for ASW in some cases. Biological activities fall into

categories that include noisemakers, scatterers, false targets, and bioluminescence.

Many varieties of marine life are noisemakers. The frequencies that marine life can produce

range from low frequency to ultrasonic. Some animals make broadband noise, while others

make a discrete noises over a range of frequencies. Biological noise is seasonal and often local.

Any object suspended in the water will create volume scattering, though some organisms are

better scatterers than others. Scattering does not usually cause a problem until the organisms

gather in large quantities. When that occurs, a phenomenon known as the Deep Scattering Layer

(DSL) exists. One characteristic common to all DSLs is that they migrate up and down through



the water column with the amount of light that is available; therefore, the layer is deeper during

the daylight hours and shallower during hours of darkness. When the DSL exists, it affects ASW

operations in that it poses a scattering problem for HF active sonar. It may also give a false

bottom indication on a fathometer. The DSL can stop almost all HF sound from penetrating

through the layer if it is dense enough.

Bioluminescence is the result of numerous species of light-producing marine life. Some of these

organisms produce light when agitated. This light source will effectively illuminate a wake or a

bow wave, making it detectable at night. Bioluminescent organisms are not confined to the

surface only; these organisms may illuminate a submarine at periscope depth even though there

is nothing protruding above the surface.




SONOBUOY OVERVIEW 12-1

CHAPTER TWELVE

SONOBUOY OVERVIEW

1200. INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an overview of the functions and uses of sonobuoys. Definitions related to

sonobuoys are presented. In addition, characteristics of active, passive, and special purpose

sonobuoys are described.

1201. SONOBUOY DEVICE DEFINITIONS

Sonobuoys have evolved from simple listening devices that relayed a broadband frequency

spectrum into today’s complex systems that depend on beam formation, noise rejection, and

array gain. Sonobuoys are vital for the success of air ASW.

Basic Characteristics of Sonobuoys

Sonobuoys are sensors designed to relay underwater sounds associated with ships and

submarines to remote processors. Classes of sonobuoys include active, passive, and special

purpose. (See Figure 12-1.)

Sonobuoy Class Type

Active Directional Command Activated Sonobuoy System (DICASS)

SSQ-62E

Improved Extended Echo Ranging (IEER) SSQ-110A

Air Deployable Low Frequency Projector (ADLFP) SSQ-125

Passive AN/Directional Frequency Analysis and Recording (DIFAR)

SSQ-53F

Air Deployable Active Receiver (ADAR) SSQ-101A

Special Purpose (BT

Sonobuoys) ABXT SSQ-36B

Sparton

USSI

Figure 12-1 Sonobuoy Classes and Types

CHAPTER TWELVE ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

12-2 SONOBUOY OVERVIEW

Each sonobuoy has three basic subassemblies, including an upper electronics assembly, a

compliance/suspension cable assembly, and a sensor (hydrophone/passive or transducer/active).

Each assembly has its own characteristics that contribute to the success or failure of the

sonobuoy. Figure 12-2 depicts sonobuoy basic subassemblies.

Figure 12-2 Sonobuoy Basic Subassemblies

Hydrophone

A hydrophone is the interface between acoustic signals in the ocean and a sonobuoy. A

hydrophone senses pressure waves created by periodic signals of interest and non-periodic noise

and converts them to electrical voltages. The hydrophone designs include Omni, directional,

array, active, and active–transmitter only.

Transducer

A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy to another. In sonar, electrical energy

is converted to acoustic energy in the form of oscillations in the water molecules through which

the sound travels. Transducers transform energy between electronic and acoustic forms in either

direction.

Sound is generated and goes through the following process to display an acoustical picture:

1. The sound is transmitted through the ocean.

2. The sound is received by the sonobuoy.

3. The sound is relayed through the sonobuoy to the aircraft processor.

4. The sound is processed.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER TWELVE


5. The sound is displayed as an acoustical picture.

6. The picture is interpreted by the operator.

Launching a Sonobuoy

Sonobuoys can be launched by Navy surface ships, helicopters, maritime patrol aircraft, and

submarines.

Sonobuoys launched from Navy surface ships by deploying them overboard once removed from

their containers.

Sonobuoys that are launched from helicopters or MPR aircraft are prepared for launch onboard

the aircraft or loaded in external sonobuoy chutes and then ejected from the aircraft into the

water.

After the sonobuoy is launched from an aircraft, it takes a finite time to reach the ocean surface,

descend to depth, and deploy as an operating system. (See Figure 12-3.) During this time, the

sonobuoy provides no data, and the target has time to maneuver.

Figure 12-3 Sonobuoy Descent and Deployment Times



The launch procedure for sonobuoys that are launched from Submarine Launched Vehicles

(SLVs) is shown in Figure 12-4.

Figure 12-4 Submarine Buoy Launch

Electronic Function Select/Command Function Select

The Electronic Function Select (EFS) is the electronic display housed in the upper unit of the

sonobuoy as depicted in Figure 12-5.

Figure 12-5 Sonobuoy Electronic Function Select



The EFS is set prior to the deployment of the sonobuoy. The selectable EFS settings for

sonobuoys and AN/SSQ-53F performance data are listed in Figure 12-6.

EFS Setting SSQ-53F Performance Data

VHF channel On

Off

Operating life 0.5 hr

1.0 hr

2.0 hr

4.0 hr

8.0 hr

Operating depth 90 ft

200 ft

400 ft

1000 ft

Acoustic sensor

mode (if applicable) Constant Shallow Omni (CSO)

Calibrated Omnidirectional Hydrophone

DIFAR

Acoustic Gain

Control (AGC) mode

(if applicable)

Fast

Slow

Off

Figure 12-6 Electronic Function Select Settings and Performance Data

The EFS settings may be modified after deployment by Command Function Select (CFS). CFS

provides the remote capability of changing life settings and modes of a sonobuoy. This

capability allows the operator on a CFS-capable aircraft to turn the sonobuoy VHF transmitter

power on and off, change the RF channel, switch between modes, and change the buoy life

selection after buoy deployment. The AN/SSQ-53F sonobuoy CFS commands and selections are

listed in Figure 12-7.



Command Selection

RF power On (1.0 watt [W])

Off

RF channel 1 – 99, except 57, 58, and 93 (These channels will not appear as

options, as they are reserved for CFS transmission.)

Acoustic

gain/AGC AGC Off

On Slow (A1) (Default regardless of selection when on)

On Fast (A2)

Modulation

input DIFAR

CSO

Calibrated Omnidirectional Hydrophone

Life 0.5 hour (hr)

1.0 hr

2.0 hr

4.0 hr

8.0 hr

Figure 12-7 AN/SSQ-53F Command Function Select Commands and Selections

Cartridge Actuated Device

Though not part of the sonobuoy itself, Cartridge Actuated Devices (CADs) are installed on the

breech end of the Sonobuoy Launch Container (SLC). The SLC uses a CAD to launch the

sonobuoy. CADs are handled as Class C ammunition. The CAD fires in response to an electric

command within the aircraft. When the CAD is fired, the following actions occur:

1. The CAD produces gas that expands into the SLC.

2. The gas pushes against the sonobuoy and pushes out the breakout cap.

3. The sonobuoy exits the SLC.

Figure 12-8 depicts the parts of a CAD.



Figure 12-8 Cartridge Actuated Device

1202. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SONOBUOY CHARACTERISTICS

Active and passive sonobuoys each have unique characteristics. Within either the active or the

passive category of sonobuoys, various types of sonobuoys exist. The capabilities and

drawbacks of a sonobuoy as well as the purpose and goals of the mission should be evaluated to

determine which type of sonobuoy and ASW tactic to deploy giving the best results.

SSQ-53F Directional Frequency Analysis and Recording Passive Sonobuoy

The SSQ-53F DIFAR sonobuoy is a passive acoustic sensor used by a submerged submarine to

detect, localize, and track targets. Upon water entry, the SSQ-53F sonobuoy deploys a passive

directional hydrophone and a Calibrated Omnidirectional (CO) Hydrophone to a depth of 90,

200, 400, or 1000 ft. The SSQ-53F sonobuoy also deploys an omnidirectional hydrophone to 45

ft. This omnidirectional hydrophone is called the CSO hydrophone.

Figure 12-9 depicts a DIFAR sonobuoy.



Figure 12-9 Directional Frequency Analysis and Recording Buoy

The AN/SSQ-53F sonobuoy is programmed prior to launch via the EFS or after launch via the

CFS. The EFS allows selection of the RF channel, life, depth, sensor, and the AGC mode as

follows:

1. To set the buoy, press the SET button.

2. The display cycles through available RF channels. To select the tens digit of the RF

channel, press the SET button when the desired tens digit displays. (In other words, if the

desired RF channel is 31, press the SET button when the display shows a 3 in the tens digit.)

The tens digit freezes and the ones digit cycles. Press the SET button when the desired ones

digit displays. The selected RF channel displays, followed immediately by the cycling of the

buoy life options.

3. Select the buoy life as those options display. Press the SET button when the desired life

option appears. Options are 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 hr.

4. Next, the depth options display, and a depth is selected. Press the SET button when the

desired depth appears. Options are d1 for 90 feet, d2 for 200 feet, d3 for 400 feet, and d4 for

1000 feet.

5. Next, the sensor options display, and a sensor is selected. Press the SET button when the

desired sensor appears. Choose CS, DF, or Calibrated Omnidirectional Hydrophone.



6. Finally, AGC modes display, and an AGC mode is selected. Press the SET button when

the desired AGC mode appears. Choose A2 for Fast, A1 for Slow, or Of for Off.

7. To verify the selections, select the VERIFY button. Each selection will display.

Figure 12-10 SSQ-53F Sonobuoy Electronic Function Select

An Omni hydrophone, such as the Calibrated Omnidirectional Hydrophone and CSO modes of

the SSQ-53F, responds equally to sound from all directions. The primary purpose of an Omni

sensor is to detect underwater sound only. A directional hydrophone, such as the DIFAR mode

of the SSQ-53F, responds to sound from different directions and provides the ability to detect

sound as well as a bearing to the source.

The AGC is available in DIFAR mode only. It is not available in the CSO hydrophone. The

AGC measures the acoustic energy in the DIFAR omnidirectional channel and uses this data to

set the gain on the DIFAR channels.

The AGC fast selection is inoperative; therefore, the buoy only has an AGC ON or an AGC OFF

selection. Thus, if AGC ON (fast) is selected via the EFS, the buoy will be processed as AGC

ON (slow).

AGC ON (slow), or narrowband AGC, continuously samples ambient noise from the

omnidirectional channel and adjusts the DIFAR channels accordingly. If high ambient noise is

present, the AGC circuitry will reduce the gain in the DIFAR channels to lessen the probability

of transmitter saturation. Slow AGC was designed for use in areas of high sea state, heavy

shipping activity, or rain.



Directional Command Activated Sonobuoy System

An active sonobuoy is also known as a DICASS buoy. A DICASS uses a vertical array of four

piezoceramic ring transducers with approximately half wavelength spacing (at the sonic

frequency) between elements. The transducers are used for both projecting and receiving the

active ping at the sonic frequency.

A sonar channel is the frequency of a sonar pulse transmitted by the sonobuoy transducer during

a ping and the center frequency of the receiver band while listening for an echo. DICASS power

output for each sonar channel is listed in kilohertz (kHz). A sonar channel is one of four audio

(sonic) frequencies used to emit a sonar pulse. Sonar channels and frequencies are depicted in

Figure 12-11.

Sonar Channel Sonar Frequency

A 6.5 kHz

B 7.5 kHz

C 8.5 kHz

D 9.5 kHz

Figure 12-11 DICASS Power Output by Sonar Channels and Frequencies

The active sonobuoy is capable of operating in either a CW or an FM mode. Figure 12-12 shows

the PDs that may be selected when the sonobuoy is in the CW mode.

Pulse Mode Pulse Duration

CW 0.1 0.1 sec

CW 0.5 0.5 sec

CW 1.0 1.0 sec

Figure 12-12 DICASS Continuous Wave Pulse Modes and Durations

Longer duration pulses are capable of achieving the greatest ranges, but they result in less RR

and increased reverberation.

The PD of FM pulses is 1.0 sec, and the sonar pulse modes are either FM UP or FM DOWN.

FM UP pulses sweep up from 200 Hz below the sonar frequency to 200 Hz above the sonar

frequency. FM DOWN pulses sweep from 200 Hz above the sonar frequency to 200 Hz below

the sonar frequency. The FM mode is particularly useful for low Doppler targets that tend to be

masked by reverberation in the CW mode.



SSQ-62E Directional Command Activated Sonobuoy System Active Sonobuoy

The SSQ-62E DICASS sonobuoy is an active sensor used to provide positioning data (bearing

and range) for a submerged contact.

Figure 12-13 Directional Command Activated Sonobuoy System Buoy

The sonobuoy deploys an active transducer to a depth within one of two depth families

depending on the operator depth selection via the EFS or CFS (see Figure 12-13). The SSQ-62E

DICASS sonobuoy CFS commands and selections are listed in Figure 12-14.



Command Selection

RF power On (1.0 W)

Off

Depth (Shallow) 50 ft

150 ft

300 ft

Depth (Deep) 90 ft

400 ft

1500 ft

RF channel 1 – 99, except 57, 58, and 93

Sonar channel A

B

C

D

Figure 12-14 SSQ-62E Command Function Select Commands and Selections

The depth families of the SSQ-62E DICASS sonobuoy are the shallow family (d1) and deep

family (d2). Figure 12-14 lists d1 and d2 selection depths. The operator commands the

sonobuoy transducer to lower depths via a Command Signal Generator. The commands and

responses for these depth families are listed in Figure 12-15.



Command Response

33 kHz Depending on Depth Family selection of EFS:

150 ft

400 ft

27 kHz Depending on Depth Family selection of EFS:

300 ft

1500 ft

300 ft

21 kHz Scuttle

Figure 12-15 SSQ-62E DICASS Command Signal Generator Commands/Responses

The AN/SSQ-62 EFS allows the RF channel and depth to be preset as follows:

1. To set the buoy, press the SET button.

2. The display cycles through available RF channels. To select the tens digit of the RF

channel, press the SET button when the desired tens digit displays. (In other words, if the

desired RF channel is 31, press the SET button when the display shows a 3 in the tens digit.)

The tens digit freezes and the ones digit cycles. Press the SET button when the desired ones

digit displays. The selected RF channel displays, followed immediately by the cycling of the

depth options.

3. Next, the depth options display and a depth is selected. Press the SET button when the

desired depth appears. Options are d1 for shallow family and d2 for deep family. After making

the depth selection, the display shuts off.

4. To verify the selections, select the VERIFY button. Each selection will display.

SSQ-110A Improved Extended Echo Ranging Sonobuoys

The SSQ-110A sonobuoy is constructed in two parts. The upper section is similar to the upper

electronics section of a DICASS sonobuoy. The lower section consists of two payload

assemblies (Class A explosive devices). The SSQ-110A is equipped with a 99 RF channel EFS.



The SSQ-110A sonobuoy is the sonobuoy sound source for the Improved Extended Echo

Ranging (IEER) system. The IEER system is a multi-static active ASW system. Figure 12-16

shows the stages of the SSQ-110A sonobuoy.

Figure 12-16 SSQ-110A Sonobuoy Stages

The detonation, also known as the first active ping, is released from one source (SSQ-110A).

The received reflection of the explosion from a target, also known as the return of the ping, is

gathered by a separate passive sonobuoy (SSQ-53F, or SSQ-101). When a ping is generated

from a sonobuoy (SSQ-110A) and then received on a different sonobuoy (SSQ-53F, or SSQ-

101), this system is referred to as a multi-static ASW system. The SSQ-110A sonobuoy is

similar to a Signal Underwater Sound (SUS) device, discussed later in this chapter, and is

hydrostatically armed and fired. The payloads remain unarmed until released.



Figure 12-17 depicts improved extended echo ranging detonation.

Figure 12-17 Improved Extended Echo Ranging Detonation

SSQ-101 Air Deployable Active Receiver Passive Sonobuoy

The passive SSQ-101 ADAR sonobuoy deploys a horizontal planar hydrophone array for use as

the receiver for the IEER system. The SSQ-101 ADAR sonobuoy detects echoes reflected from

a submerged submarine from sound pulses generated by the SSQ-110A buoy. This sonobuoy is

also used to detect the echoes generated by the SSQ-125 Multi-Static Active Coherent (MAC)

Source buoy. Figure 12-18 depicts ADAR echo-detonation and MAC program.



Figure 12-18 ADAR Echo Detonation and MAC Program

The SSQ-101 uses a planar array, which consists of 40 hydrophones suspended from five arms

with cords strung between them. (See Figure 12-19.) The SSQ-101 is designed to operate for a

minimum of 6.0 hr at depths of 65, 300, and 500 ft. Depth settings for the SSQ-101 are

programmed prior to deployment through the EFS.

Figure 12-19 SSQ-101 Planar Array



The SSQ-101 incorporates CFS capability including toggling the VHF transmitter power on and

off, changing the RF channel, changing the sonic system response, scuttling the buoy, and

changing the processing mode. The AN/SSQ-101 CFS commands and selections are listed in

Figure 12-20.

Command Selection

RF power On (5.0 W)

Off

RF channel 1 – 16

32 – 99 even, except 56, 58, and 60

Channels 52, 54, 62, and 64 are degraded.

Sonic system response Low band

High band (Default)

Scuttle Scuttle

Processing mode Incoherent source (Default)

Figure 12-20 AN/SSQ-101 Command Function Select Commands and Selections

SSQ-125 Multi-Static Active Coherent Source Sonobuoy

The SSQ-125 MAC Source sonobuoy is the acoustic source technology and improved signal

processing for the air MAC ASW mission set. (See Figure 12-21) The series of pulses provides

waveform flexibility. The MAC is the third generation of multi-static active acoustic search

systems developed. The SSQ-125 uses echolocation to detect, classify, and localize targets of

interest. The MAC program examines improvements in both large area shallow and deep water

ASW searches using active sources (SSQ-125) and passive sonobuoy receivers (SSQ-53F, and

SSQ-101). Refer to Figure 12-22 for MAC Program Echolocation.



Figure 12-21 Multi-Static Active Source Sonobuoy

The SSQ-125 sonobuoy active acoustic array deployment depths are dependent on operator

depth selection, EFS, or CFS. The SSQ-125 incorporates CFS capability including toggling the

VHF transmitter power on and off, changing the acoustic power level, changing the RF channel,

changing the depth, and scuttling the buoy. The SSQ-125 sonobuoy CFS commands and

selections are listed in Figure 12-22.



Command Selection

RF power On

Off

Acoustic power level 3 dB

6 dB

173 dB

RF channel 1 – 99, except 56, 58, and 93

Depth 65 ft

175 ft

300 ft

500 ft

Scuttle Scuttle

Figure 12-22 SSQ-125 Command Function Select Commands and Selections

The SSQ-125 is the replacement for the SSQ-110A, providing an electronically produced active

acoustic wave instead of an explosively produced active acoustic wave. The SSQ-125 will shift

the Navy from the IEER program to the more dynamic MAC program.

1203. SPECIAL PURPOSE SONOBUOY CHARACTERISTICS

In addition to active and passive sonobuoys, special purpose sonobuoys are also deployed.

Special purpose sonobuoys include the SSQ-36B BT sonobuoy, the Expendable Mobile Anti-

Submarine Warfare Training Target (EMATT) MK 39 training tool, and the SUS device.

SSQ-36B Bathythermograph Sonobuoy

The SSQ-36B BT sonobuoy is equipped with an EFS and has lithium and seawater battery life

up to 12 min. Figure 12-23 depicts Bathythermograph Sonobouys. It has RF operation of 1 – 99

channels. The SSQ-36B BT has an ocean temperature measurement profile from the ocean

surface down to a depth of 2625 ft.



Figure 12-23 Bathythermograph Sonobuoys

Expendable Mobile Anti-Submarine Warfare Training Target MK 39

The EMATT MK 39 is a training tool developed for the U.S. Navy airborne and surface ASW

forces and submarines to provide detection, localization, identification, and tracking of targets of

interest. The EMATT MK 39 underwater device is small, negatively buoyant, expendable, and

self-propelled. Reference Figure 12-24.

This training tool can be launched from fixed wing aircraft, helicopters, and surface ships. In the

air launch configuration, upon water entry, the target separates from its air launch assembly and

activates electrically and acoustically upon reaching 35 feet in depth. At 75 feet, it dynamically

begins its preprogrammed pattern, running until its energy source is depleted. The energy source

lasts up to 10 hours at low speeds.

For detection purposes, the EMATT MK 39 is a target that is compatible with all passive and

active sonars currently in the fleet and is detectable with MAD sensors.



Figure 12-24 Expendable Mobile Anti-Submarine Warfare Training Target MK 39

The SUS is expendable. The cylindrical-shaped device is small, with a diameter of 3 in and

length of 15 or 21 in. SUSs are used to communicate with any platform with sound listening

systems. The basic types of SUS devices are explosive and electronic. The explosive SUS

generates pressure waves by moving the water out with a large gas bubble. The electronic type

of SUS uses a seawater battery to power the electronic circuitry. The electronic circuit powers a

transducer, which creates sound waves in the water. This signal is transmitted for a specified

time as the SUS sinks. Figure 12-25 depicts a SUS device.

Figure 12-25 Signal Underwater Sound Device




SUBSURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION THEORY 13-1

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

SUBSURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION THEORY

1300. INTRODUCTION

This chapter focuses on basic subsurface target identification theory. Also included is a

discussion of the purpose of ASW and its missions. Rounding out the chapter is a summary of

the characteristics of submarines and the descriptions of U.S. and world submarine mission

basics.

1301. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE AND MISSIONS

ASW is a branch of Naval warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or submarines to find,

track and deter, damage, or destroy enemy submarines. ASW operations are conducted with the

intention of denying the enemy the effective use of submarines. These operations also secure the

friendly maneuver area, which drives away or destroys enemy submarines, thereby protecting

maritime operating areas. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships and shipping lanes from

enemy submarines.

Successful ASW depends on sensor and weapon technology, training, and experience. One of

the key elements in ASW is the use of sophisticated sonar equipment for detecting, classifying,

locating, and tracking targets. The types of airborne sensors used in ASW include sonobuoys

with acoustic processors, MAD, RADAR, ESM, and EO/IR.

Magnetic Anomaly Detector

MAD uses the principle of metallic objects disturbing the Earth’s magnetic lines of force.

Consequently, a submarine beneath the ocean’s surface that causes a distortion or anomaly in the

Earth’s magnetic field can be detected from a position in the air above the submarine by the

MAD system. The essential function of MAD equipment is to detect this irregularity. MAD

equipment is used as a localization and targeting sensor by ASW aircraft. For example, a

helicopter’s small-turn radius allows for optimal MAD employment. A helicopter tows the

sensor on a cable behind and below the aircraft in an attempt to reduce the helicopter’s self-

noise. For a fixed-wing ASW aircraft, MAD configurations are provided in the tail boom of the

aircraft. Because of the relatively short detection ranges, this type of sensor is not used as an

initial detection sensor.

Launch Platforms

To destroy submarines, ASW aircraft and ASW helicopters, surface ships, and subsurface assets

have a variety of weapons in their arsenal. These aircraft can launch missiles, including the

Maverick missile, cluster bombs, depth bombs, torpedoes (primary weapon), and mines. The

ASW helicopters can launch missiles and torpedoes; surface ships can launch missiles,

torpedoes, and mines; and subsurface assets can launch shoulder-launched missiles (while

surfaced), torpedoes, and mines.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

13-2 SUBSURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION THEORY

World Submarine Fleets

World submarine fleets are located around the globe. The locations of world submarine fleets

are provided below:

1. Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, and South Africa)

2. Asia (China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Japan, Malaysia, North Korea, Pakistan,

Republic of Korea, Russia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, and Vietnam)

3. Australia

4. Europe (Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy,

Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, Ukraine, and

United Kingdom)

5. North America (Canada and the U.S.)

6. South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela)

NOTE

Russia and Turkey are in both continents of Europe and Asia.

Submarine Missions

The world submarine fleets focus on a variety of missions. The following information provides a

summary of the classes and assignments of submarine classes around the world.

The classes and assignments for the Chinese fleets are described below:

1. Ming – Functions as the backbone of the Chinese submarine force

2. Kilo – Provides anti-shipping and anti-submarine operations in relatively shallow waters

3. Song – New modern design replacing the Ming class

4. Yuan – Replaces the aging Ming class as the main attack force and succeeds the Song

5. Han – China’s first nuclear powered submarine

6. Xia – China’s first ballistic missile submarine (SSBN)

7. Shang – Improvement to the Han class

8. Jin – Replaces the Xia class submarines

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER THIRTEEN


The classes and assignments for the French fleets are described below:

1. Rubis – Nuclear, functions as the attack submarine of the French Navy

2. Triomphant – France’s ballistic missile submarine (SSBN)

3. Barracuda – Is a planned nuclear-attack submarine, replacing the Rubis

The class and assignment for the German fleet is described below:

1. Type 212 – Diesel, functions as an attack submarine capable of long-distance submerged

operations

The classes and assignments for the British fleet are described below:

1. Trafalgar – Nuclear, provides the backbone of the Royal Navy’s hunter-killer submarine

force

2. Astute – Acts as the successor to the Trafalgar class (only two completed)

3. Vanguard – The United Kingdom’s ballistic missile submarine (SSBN)

The classes and assignments for the Iranian fleet (all diesel powered) are described below:

1. Kilo – Performs anti-shipping and anti-submarine operations in relatively shallow waters

2. Ghadir – Midget submarine, cruises within the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf

3. Nahang – Midget submarine, provides mine laying capability as a sonar-evading stealth

submarine

4. Yugo – Midget submarine, performs infiltration and espionage

The classes and assignments for the Russian Navy are summarized below:

1. Delta IV – Nuclear, formed the backbone of Russia’s strategic fleet of ballistic missile

submarines

2. Typhoon – Nuclear, largest submarine ever built. Originally designed and used as a

ballistic missile submarine. Now, remaining Typhoon (1) serves as test submarine

3. Oscar – Nuclear, Russia’s cruise missile submarine

4. Sierra – Nuclear, fast attack submarine

5. Akula – Nuclear, advanced fast attack submarine



6. Victor – Nuclear, protects Russian surface fleets and hunts U.S. ballistic missile

submarines

7. Kilo – Diesel, provides anti-shipping and anti-submarine operations in relatively shallow

waters

8. Lada – Diesel, provides an upgraded version of the Kilo class submarines

9. Delta III – Nuclear, ballistic missile submarine predecessor to Delta IV

The classes and assignments for the U.S. fleet (all nuclear powered) are described below:

1. LOS ANGELES – Performs fast-attack submarine missions (backbone of USN’s

submarine force)

2. OHIO – Conducts extended war-deterrence patrols. Ballistic missile and guided missile

submarine

3. SEAWOLF (only three built) – Provides an upgraded version of the LOS ANGELES class

4. VIRGINIA – Performs a broad spectrum of open-ocean and littoral missions (newest of the

attack submarines)

1302. SUBMARINE CHARACTERISTICS

The two types of submarines are nuclear and diesel-electric (conventional). Both types of

submarines have their advantages and disadvantages, but the main difference between the two is

the power generation system.

Nuclear Submarines

Nuclear submarines employ nuclear reactors for power generation. The nuclear reactors either

generate electricity to power electric motors connected to the propeller shaft or rely on the

reactor heat to produce steam that drives steam turbines. All Naval nuclear reactors currently in

use are operated with diesel generators as a backup power system. These diesel generators

provide emergency electrical power for reactor decay heat removal and enough electric power to

supply an emergency propulsion mechanism.

The performance advantages of nuclear submarines over diesel-electric submarines are

considerable. For example, nuclear propulsion, which is completely independent of air, frees the

submarine from the need to surface frequently, which is a requirement for diesel-electric

submarines. Another advantage is that the large amount of power generated by the nuclear

reactor allows nuclear submarines to operate at high speed for long durations. The long interval

between refueling provides an operational range only limited by consumables (such as food) or

maintenance of the vessel. The nuclear reactor also supplies power to the submarine’s other

subsystems used to maintain air quality, produce freshwater by distilling salt water from the



ocean, and regulate temperatures. Current generations of nuclear submarines have not required

refueling throughout their 25-year life span.

A disadvantage of nuclear submarines is the stealth weakness. Nuclear submarines need to cool

the reactor even when the submarine is not moving. Roughly 70% of the reactor output heat is

dissipated into the seawater. This absorption leaves a thermal wake, which is a plume of warm

water of lower density that ascends to the sea’s surface and creates a thermal scar, which may be

observable by IR systems.

Diesel-Electric Submarines

Older diesel submarines run direct shafts from the diesel motor to the propeller. Most diesel

submarines are diesel-electric. With this type of system, a submarine’s diesel engine drives a

generator that either charges the submarine’s batteries or drives an electric motor for propulsion.

With this functionality, the electric motor speed is independent of the diesel engine speed so that

the engine can run at an optimum and noncritical speed. During this operation, one or more of

the diesel engines can be shut down for maintenance while the submarine continues to run, using

the remaining engine, the battery power, or both. However, the diesel engines can only operate

if the submarine is surfaced, broached, or snorkeling.

The main advantage of a diesel-electric submarine is its ability to operate on batteries, which

makes it very quiet and hard to detect by acoustic sensors. The submarine can travel slowly with

the engines at full power to recharge the batteries quickly, thereby reducing the time needed on

the surface or on the snorkel. It is possible to insulate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure

hull, making the submarine quieter and harder to detect by acoustic sensors.

A disadvantage of diesel-electric submarines is that there is limited power stored in electric

batteries. Even the most advanced diesel submarines can only remain submerged for a few days

at slow speed and only a few hours at top speed. Diesel-electric submarines are also slower

compared with more modern nuclear submarines.

Earlier submarine batteries allowed slow-speed submerged operations for about 12 hr. Modern

battery designs allow submarines to increase their submerged endurance to 3 – 4 days and reduce

the duration of their vulnerability when charging batteries. Advanced submarine battery designs

are under development worldwide and could increase submerged endurance to 10 – 12 days.

Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP) technology is becoming more prevalent in the diesel-electric

submarine export market.

Quieting technologies continue to improve and are increasingly available to backfit older diesel-

electric submarines. Hull coatings, improved propeller design, and quieted propulsion plant

equipment reduce the submarine’s overall noise levels, especially at high speeds. Future

incorporation of AIP, advanced batteries, and improved quieting measures will reduce the

submarine’s vulnerability to acoustic detection even further. Diesel-electric submarine

advancement poses challenges for U.S. ASW capabilities.



Categories of Submarine Noise

The categories of sounds generated by submarines include self-noise, machinery noise, propeller

noise, and flow/hydrodynamic noise.

Self-noise can result from circuit noise from relay contacts and other components, hull noise

from structural parts that are loose, and machinery noise from base structural parts, propulsion,

or auxiliary equipment.

Machinery noise is produced by the main propulsion plant, reduction gears, propeller shafts,

auxiliary machinery, and underwater discharges. The sounds produced from these components

include whines, squeaks, and grumbles at various discrete frequencies. Other sounds result from

broadband noise components.

The primary source of propeller noise is cavitation. High-speed movement of underwater

propeller blades causes cavitation noise. Cavitation is the sudden formation and collapse of low-

pressure bubbles in liquids caused by the rotation of a propeller, generating noise that can be

heard at considerable ranges.

Flow noise, also referred to as hydrodynamic noise, results when there is relative motion

between objects and surrounding water. Under ideal conditions, water will be even and regular

from the surface outward. This ideal condition is called laminar flow. Friction increases as the

flow speed increases. This situation results in turbulence and increases noise due to fluctuating

static water pressure. Irregular objects can achieve laminar flow at very low speeds (below 2

knots [kts]).

Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Aircraft Acoustic System

The MPR aircraft acoustic system, known as the Single Advanced Signal Processor (SASP),

provides the aircrew with the ability to process, analyze, and identify acoustic sounds that are

received from deployed sonobuoys. The SASP provides information to two operators that

determine station selections. These designated stations are Sensor Station One (SS1) and Sensor

Station Two (SS2).

NOTE

The acoustic operators are normally referred to as “JEZ,” a name

whose origin is traced to the first acoustic processing equipment

(JEZEBEL) that was used in ASW aircraft.

Components of the SASP include receiving and transmitting antennas, transmitter, test system,

amplifiers, recorders, computer processor, and input devices with displays.

The processing option for onboard acoustic systems determines the way the uplinked acoustic

data for the sonobuoy will be processed. The more complex the processing operation, the

heavier the load placed on the system. Procession options common to MPR include AN, BT,



Low Frequency Analysis and Recording (LOFAR), DIFAR, DIFAR null steering, Synthetic

Omni, and DICASS. The frequency range for the acoustic system is classified.

1303. SUBSURFACE TARGET IDENTIFICATION BASICS

Understanding basic submarine characteristics and missions allows the NFO to deploy the proper

ASW tactics to successfully detect, classify, locate, and track subsurface targets. An MPR NFO

must also comprehend basic ASW DR procedures in the event the aircraft mission computer

“crashes” rendering the tactical display useless. The NFO will have to continue to employ his or

her ASW tactics and track the subsurface contact of interest “offline” using a DRT.

Dead Reckoning Trace

The DRT is used to maintain a relative plot of sonobuoy positioning and submarine movements.

It is an offline (no computer aid) ability to track sonobuoy drops and submarine contact relative

to sonobuoys. The DRT is the universal plotting sheet for ASW plotting charts. The document

is also used to depict a tactical plot graphically and to plot sonobuoy patterns and acoustic

contact in ASW prosecutions. The components of a DRT include a compass rose, header,

remarks, time-distance-speed, and miles per inch scales.

A DRT, which is a paper document, is used to plot subsurface target information for ASW

missions. Subsurface target identification requires comprehension of the Three Minute Rule,

knowledge of DRT symbology, and the skill to plot applicable fixes, bearings, courses, and

tracks. DRTs are also an excellent pictographic record of significant events that are an

outstanding tool when reviewing the mission during debrief.

Three Minute Rule

The Three Minute Rule is used to determine distance. To calculate the distance, use the speed of

the target and multiply the value by 100. The result is the distance traveled in yards in 3 min. In

the following example of the Three Minute Rule, the target (a submarine) is moving at 15 kts.

15 × 100 = 1500 yard in 3 min

1500 ÷ 3 = 500 yards/min

The target is moving at 500 yards/min.

Directional Frequency Analysis and Recording Speed Fitting

The DIFAR speed fitting is used to determine a target’s course and, once speed is determined, a

target’s track (predicted track of a submarine). This speed fitting also can be used during

situations including single sonobuoy in contact, constant speed target, and non-maneuvering

target.



The following steps describe the procedure for determining a target’s course:

1. Use the plotter to pick three equally spaced marks about 1 inch apart (e.g., 80, 100, and 120

marks on the 1:2,000,000 scale).

2. Plot three DIFAR bearings from a single sonobuoy, which must be spaced apart by equal

lengths of time (one every minute).

3. Place the plotter on the DRT where each of the three marks is directly over a DIFAR

bearing from the sonobuoy. The plotter is now oriented along the target’s course. Reference

Figure 13-1.

Figure 13-1 Plotting Target’s Course

The following steps define the procedure for determining a target’s track:

1. Establish the speed independently with information related to propulsion data.

2. Determine the distance traveled in the time the DIFAR bearings were spaced.



3. Find a line parallel to the target’s course line, where the distance along the line is equal to

the distance traveled. This parallel line is the target’s track.

The figure below provides an example of how to determine a target’s track based on the

following parameters:

1. JEZ determines 15 kts from using the propulsion data. Using the Three Minute Rule, 15

kts = 1500 yd or 500 yd/min.

2. Each DIFAR line was taken 1 min apart. A line must be found that is parallel to the

target’s course line, where the distance along that line is 500 yd between the DIFAR lines.

Reference Figure 13-2.

Figure 13-2 Plotting Target’s Track



Dead Reckoning Trace Symbology

Standard symbology is used on all DRTs. On the DRT, different symbols represent the

sonobuoy type, passive bearing, active fix, and predicted track. Figure 13-3 illustrates DRT

symbology.

Figure 13-3 Dead Reckoning Trace Symbology

Plotting Methods

There are two ways to plot a sonobuoy pattern on a DRT. One way involves using latitude and

longitude, and the other uses relative range and bearing.

The latitude and longitude method is used if conducting coordinated operations where Battle

Group positions, remote contacts, and sonobuoy field latitudes and longitudes are known. This

method allows for picking positions from the DRT for reporting purposes.

However, the relative range and bearing method is the easiest and quickest. This method, which

works well with plotting sonobuoy fields and patterns, is also used for independent operations.



The following procedure describes how to plot a sonobuoy field using the relative range and

bearing method:

1. Draw a line through the center of the DRT on the appropriate radial, called the road.

2. Plot a sonobuoy for the appropriate spacing in yards on either side of center.

3. Plot the offsetting row by the walk or the perpendicular radial to the road, if applicable.

4. Plot the rest of the sonobuoy field, if applicable. Always center and maximize sonobuoy

patterns over the DRT. Figure 13-4 shows plotting relative range and bearing.

Figure 13-4 Plotting Relative Range and Bearing



Another plotting method of tracking uses the bearing. As shown in Figure 13-5, with two

sonobuoys in contact, the bearing intersection between the two sonobuoys creates a fix. With the

two fixes, a track is created.

Figure 13-5 Bearing Tracking

With the use of the active tracking method, once a target starts to maneuver, the type of sensor

may change from passive to active. This type of tracking is the most straightforward method to

explain because it provides a range and bearing (a fix) with each ping. After two pings of the

active sonobuoy, two fixes are provided and a track is created for the target. A new DRT is used

to represent the active pattern. Reference Figure 13-6.



Figure 13-6 Active Tracking Pattern

Closest Point of Approach

The closest a submarine gets to a sonobuoy is its CPA, which provides the operator with the true

frequency of the sound source. This point allows the operator to know if a submarine is either

Up or Down Doppler relative to the sonobuoy in contact.




MPR COORDINATED OPERATIONS 14-1

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE COORDINATED OPERATIONS

1400. INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces information related to MPR coordinated operations, including terms and

concepts, aircraft and airspace procedures, mission planning considerations, and ASW actions.

1401. TERMINOLOGY

The term Operational Command (OPCOM) refers to the authority granted to a commander to

assign missions or tasks to subordinate commanders, deploy units, reassign forces, and retain or

delegate operational and/or tactical control.

Operational Control (OPCON) refers to the authority delegated to a commander to direct

assigned forces to accomplish specific missions or tasks that are usually limited by function,

time, or location. This term, which is subordinate to operational command, does not allow

reassignment of forces and has limited authority.

There is no North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) commander that has full command over

his or her assigned forces. When assigning forces to NATO, nations assign only operational

command or operational control.

The Change of Operational Control (CHOP) is the date and time at which the responsibility for

operational control of a force or unit passes from one operational control authority to another.

Units executing CHOP should report to both the operational control authorities and the authority

vested with operational command over the force or unit. In the case of MPR coordinated

operations, CHOP may occur when the MPR aircraft’s operational control responsibility passes

from their home base Tactical Support Center (TSC) to their assigned on-station Aircraft Control

Unit (ACU). CHOP will occur again at off station, from ACU to home base TSC.

The term Tactical Command (TACOM) refers to the authority delegated to a commander to

assign tasks to forces to accomplish the mission assigned by a higher authority.

The Officer in Tactical Command (OTC) is the senior officer eligible to assume command or the

officer to whom he or she has delegated tactical command. (See Figure 14-1)

CHAPTER FOURTEEN ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

14-2 MPR COORDINATED OPERATIONS

Figure 14-1 Officer in Tactical Command Organizational Chart

Tactical Control (TACON) is the detailed and local direction and control of movements or

maneuvers necessary to accomplish missions or tasks assigned. This type of control is granted

by the authority exercising operational command, operational control, or tactical command to a

subordinate commander to assume a function concerning actions relative to a specific task.

Tactical control, which exists for a limited time period, is subordinate to tactical command.

A threat warning is a means by which a command can rapidly promulgate the evaluated type and

degree of a threat and specify the likelihood of an attack. Threat warnings are used for each

particular warfare area. Figure 14-2 defines threat-warning codes.

Color Code Threat Warning Code Threat Warning Evaluation

White Warning White Attack is unlikely without adequate warning.

Yellow Warning Yellow Attack is probable.

Red Warning Red Attack is imminent or has already begun.

Figure 14-2 Threat Warning Codes

A weapon control status, a status report issued by the relevant commander, provides the general

direction or policy with regard to weapon employment for all units under the authority of the

assigned commander or in a particular warfare area. Figure 14-3 defines weapon control

statuses.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER FOURTEEN


Weapon Control

Status Weapon Control Status Direction

Weapons Free Open fire on any target that is not identified as friend.

Weapons Tight Do not open fire unless targets are identified as hostile.

Weapons Safe Do not open fire except in self-defense or in response to a formal

order.

Figure 14-3 Weapon Control Statuses

The ultimate responsibility for the safety of aircraft rests with the aircraft commander. Apart

from this duty, tasking and air coordination authorities arrange separation for aircraft joining and

departing a patrol area or a force at sea. Arranging separation for aircraft joining and departing a

patrol area or a force at sea may be accomplished by ordering routes, handover gates, entry and

exit gates, Identification Safety Points (ISPs), or transit and patrol altitudes, including upper and

lower limits, in the appropriate messages. Separation arrangement must be coordinated with the

appropriate air defense organizations.

Safety procedures for maritime air operations provide aircraft joining procedures for situations

that include direct support operations, associated support and area operations, and adjacent patrol

areas.

Helicopters may ditch without warning and should, whenever possible, be kept under constant

surveillance by a surface unit. Helicopters in the dip are to be considered ships not under

command. When working at close quarters, avoiding helicopters is the responsibility of ships,

which should not pass within 500 yards of hovering helicopters. Fixed wing aircraft should not

position themselves so that the slipstream strikes a helicopter or causes a helicopter to maneuver

to avoid the slipstream. Other considerations for helicopters include joining procedures for air

move messages, transit, and join or rejoin clearances.

Fighters and Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs) are employed in separate engagement zones of

airspace, which are separated by sector, altitude, and range from an origin. (See Figure 12.4)

Normally, safety sectors and Missile Engagement Zones (MEZs), Joint Engagement Zones

(JEZs) or crossover zones, and Fighter Engagement Zones (FEZs) are established. The MEZ is

sometimes referred to as a Ship Engagement Zone (SEZ). The JEZ is sometimes referred to as a

Dual Engagement Zone (DEZ). The FEZ is sometimes referred to as an Air Engagement Zone

(AEZ).

A short-range MEZ refers to the area within a short distance of a ship in which target

engagement is the responsibility of the shipboard weapons systems. For a MEZ, friendly aircraft

must not penetrate the MEZ unless positive clearance has been obtained from the Anti-Air

Warfare Commander (AAWC) or the local AAWC. Any change in status of a MEZ is

promulgated to aircraft and friendly units by the AAWC using the appropriate code words.

A medium-range JEZ (or crossover zone) refers to the area within a medium distance of a ship in

which target engagement is the responsibility of both shipboard weapons and fighter aircraft. A



long-range FEZ refers to the area within an extended distance of a ship in which target

engagement is the responsibility of fighter aircraft. Fighters have freedom of action within a

FEZ to identify and engage air targets in accordance with the Rules of Engagement (ROE) in

force. If the AAWC wants to engage a particular target in the FEZ with a long-range SAM, the

individual can issue an engagement order assigning the target to a SAM system. This action

ensures that the fighter-controlling agency is advised.

Figure 14-4 Engagement Zones

The aim of anti-surface operations by fixed wing aircraft is to ensure the detection and

engagement of enemy surface forces in order to deny their effective employment. This plan

includes attacking enemy surface forces and conducting reconnaissance operations.

Attack support is the generic term for all forms of tactical assistance given by a shadower to

enable strike, attack, or reconnaissance aircraft to locate their targets. This term includes Surface

Picture (SURPIC) and Vector-Assisted Attack (VASTAC). SURPIC is a message format that is

used for contact reporting during shadowing and attack support operations. VASTACs are

procedures enabling attack aircraft to be vectored to the target by the Target Reporting Unit

(TRU).

1402. AIRCRAFT AND AIRSPACE

The coordination of aircraft in airspace is a concerted effort involving land-based and shipborne

support, RED CROWN or GREEN CROWN agencies, various airspace control groups, and

ACUs.



Land-Based and Shipborne Support

OTCs should be informed by the appropriate authority of any friendly aircraft employed in the

vicinity of their forces. Land-based aircraft support and shipborne aircraft support are examples

of appropriate authority.

If a force at sea is to be supported by land-based aircraft in associated or direct support, the OTC

will be informed by the appropriate coordinating authority of the type and nature of support

being provided. A unit assigned in direct support will operate under the tactical control of the

OTC being supported. Operational control and tactical command remain with the assigning

authority. The direct support unit will report to the designated controlling authority for

employment. A unit assigned in associated support operates independently of the supported

force, but may be tasked to provide contact information to and receive intelligence from the OTC

being supported. The designated unit operates under the tactical control of the assigning

authority, who coordinates the tasking and movement of the supporting unit in response to the

supported OTC’s requirements.

In the case of shipborne aircraft support, the OTC of the force providing the support should keep

the OTC of the supported force informed of the flying schedule and intentions.

Force Joining

The terms associated with joining the force are provided in the Figure 14-5.

Term Definition

Approach

corridor

The area established on a line between the entry/exit gate and the

force/disposition center

Departure

location

The location from which the supporting aircraft departs (includes

airfields, carriers, or other ships)

Entry/exit

gate

The point to which an aircraft begins the transit inbound or outbound

from an airfield or force at sea

Force Air

Coordination

Area (FACA)

The area surrounding a force within which air coordination measures are

required to prevent mutual air interference between all friendly surface

and air units and their weapon systems

Handover

gate

The point at which the control of the aircraft, if RADAR handover is

used, changes from one controller to another

Identification

Safety Range

(ISR)

The minimum range in maritime operations to which an aircraft may

close on an assumed friendly force without positive identification to

ensure that the force does not mistake the aircraft as hostile (Once the

supporting force has identified and has control of the aircraft, the

OTC/ACU directs the aircraft to the patrol area.)

ISP The point at which aircraft, upon joining the force, attempts to establish

two-way communications with the ships and begins identification

procedures



Term Definition

Marshalling

gate

The point to which aircraft fly for ATC purposes prior to beginning

outbound transit or after completing an inbound transit before landing

(used when the support consists of more than one aircraft)

Figure 14-5 Force Joining Terminology

The OTC promulgates handover gates, entry/exit gates, and other terms in the appropriate

messages. Whenever possible, OTC should also send a joining instructions message to the

tasking authority and the airbase or parent ship to promulgate and update information regarding

the mission.

Approach corridors for friendly aircraft to use when joining a force should be established by

OTC. The aircraft should be at the ISP (entry/exit gate if without ISP) at the promulgated ON

TASK time. If the aircraft are early, they should hold there until ON TASK time and then fly

down the approach corridor and attempt to establish contact with the OTC.

In order to expedite joining procedures, the information from the aircraft joining should include

authentication, number and type of aircraft, identity of the senior aircraft, persons on board, force

from which they are joining, and the reason for joining. When helicopters join from another task

unit within the same task group, abbreviated joining procedures are sufficient.

Air Coordination

Air coordination involves the safe employment of aircraft and the organization of airspace with

other units. The OTC is responsible for all aircraft embarked in the force at all times as well as

all aircraft assigned to the force for tactical command or control. The commander’s

responsibility for these units begins when two-way communications are established with any

ACU in the force.

Tactical Airspace Control

The Surface Action Group (SAG) is a unit comprised of surface ships, which may be supported

by fixed wing aircraft or helicopters that are formed to counter a surface threat. For the purpose

of aircraft deconfliction, a SAG can consist of one or more Naval surface vessels with rotary

wing aircraft or Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs) that usually operate at low altitudes.

Airspace control and deconfliction occur using the ship’s call sign on a pre-briefed frequency.

Air assets approaching Carrier Strike Groups (CSGs) or Expeditionary Strike Groups (ESGs)

must establish contact with the initial controlling agency responsible for detection and

identification as soon as they are within radio range. RED CROWN, which supports the

maritime Air Defense Commander (ADC), is responsible for detection and identification of

aircraft approaching CSGs and delousing friendly aircraft from enemy aircraft. GREEN

CROWN is responsible for detection and identification for ESGs.



Whenever possible, Airborne Command and Control (ABCC) aircraft should be used to

streamline communications for aircraft joining and exiting the area. ABCC, which can be

designated as the regional ADC or sector ADC, may fulfill the roles of RED CROWN and

GREEN CROWN.

Carrier Strike Group Airspace Control

For the purpose of aircraft deconfliction, a CSG consists of one CVN supported by other Naval

surface vessels with significant fixed wing and limited rotary wing aircraft. Because of the large

volume of traffic within close proximity to the CVN, caution must be exercised when

approaching CSG airspace. This airspace control is provided by STRIKE control, MARSHAL

control, and TOWER control, which extend out to 50 NM. Figure 14-6 depicts CSG airspace.

STRIKE controls aircraft within 50 NM of a CSG. Aircraft will check in with STRIKE using the

same format used with RED CROWN. MARSHAL control, which provides services for the

CVN similar to an approach control, establishes holding and airspace deconfliction during

recovery at night and in poor weather conditions. TOWER controls airspace within a 10NM

radius of the CVN from the surface to an unlimited range. TOWER can be contacted on the

land/launch frequency.

Figure 14-6 Carrier Strike Group Airspace Control

Carrier Air Wing

A Carrier Air Wing (CVW), previously called a Carrier Air Group (CAG), is located on a CVN

and is typically made up of the following components:

1. F/A-18F squadrons (two)



2. F/A-18E squadron

3. F/A-18C squadron

4. EA-18G squadron

5. E-2C squadron

6. SH-60 squadron

7. C-2A detachment

Modern air wings typically consist of two Strike Fighter (VFA) squadrons with 12 – 14 F/A-18s;

two VFA squadrons with 10 – 12 F/A-18s, one usually provided by a USMC Fighter Attack

(VMFA) squadron; an Electronic Attack (VAQ) squadron of 4 – 6 EA-6s or EA-18s; a Carrier

Airborne Early Warning (VAW) squadron of 4 – 6 E-2s; a Fleet Logistics Support (VRC)

squadron of 2 C-2s (one detachment); a Helicopter Anti-Submarine (HS) squadron of 6 – 8 SH-

60s and HH-60s or Helicopter Sea Combat (HSC) squadron of 5 – 6 MH-60s; and a Helicopter

Maritime Strike (HSM) squadron of 5 MH-60s.

Expeditionary Strike Group Airspace Control

An ESG consists of air-capable amphibious ships supported by other Naval surface combatants.

Like a CSG, an ESG conducts both rotary wing and fixed aircraft operations. ESG airspace

control extends out to 50 NM and is provided by the Tactical Air Command Center (TACC),

known as ICEPACK, amphibious air traffic control CENTER, and TOWER control. Reference

Figure 14-7.

Airspace control is determined by ICEPACK, CENTER, or TOWER, based on the distance from

the amphibious assault ships (LHD/LHA). ICEPACK controls aircraft within 50 NM of the

LHD/LHA. If transiting less than 50 NM from the ESG, aircraft check in with ICEPACK using

the same format as GREEN CROWN. CENTER, which controls aircraft within 10 NM from the

LHD/LHA, is responsible for providing Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) approach

and departure services. No aircraft should approach closer than 10 NM without positive control

from CENTER while the LHD/LHA conduct flight operations. TOWER controls airspace

within 5 NM of the LHD/LHA and can be contacted on the land/launch frequency.



Figure 14-7 Expeditionary Strike Group Airspace Control

Aircraft Control Unit

Maritime tactical airspace control is normally conducted by air and surface units under the broad

category of ACUs. ACUs must efficiently use assets to maximize search volume and maintain

deconfliction for controlled assets.

The ACU is responsible for ordering the tactical employment of aircraft as required by the

appropriate commander, specifying the type of control, and keeping the commander fully

informed of aircraft status and of any other factors affecting air operations. Additional ACU

responsibilities include informing the commander of movements of aircraft under specific

control and in the operations area, keeping aircraft informed of the tactical situation, assisting

aircraft that are operating independently or are controlled by shore-based authorities, and

relaying tactical information to and from aircraft.

A description of close, loose, broadcast, positive safety and advisory safety operational levels of

controlled operations is provided in Figure 14-8.



Operational

Level Description

Close The aircraft is continuously controlled for altitude, speed, and heading to a

position from which the mission can be accomplished.

Loose The aircraft commander selects the appropriate speed, altitude, heading, and

tactics required to accomplish the assigned task. The controlling unit

advises the aircraft of the current tactical picture and provides further advice

if and when available.

Broadcast Controller qualification is not required. It is a form of aircraft mission

control that is used in the absence of full capability or if the tactical situation

prevents close or lose control. In this case, tactical or target information is

passed to enable the aircraft to accomplish the assigned task. Aircraft

commanders are responsible for navigation and collision avoidance.

Positive

safety

The controlling unit is responsible for taking actions for collision avoidance,

such as ordering necessary alterations to heading, speed, and altitude to

maintain separation criteria.

Advisory

safety

The controlling unit will provide adequate warnings of hazards affecting

aircraft safety. The aircraft commander is responsible for the aircraft’s

navigation and collision avoidance.

Figure 14-8 Operational Levels

Low-altitude rules include the following:

1. Aircraft approaching a force are to assume that helicopters are flying unless otherwise

informed.

2. The maximum altitude for ASW helicopters is 400 ft AGL.

3. The minimum altitude for fixed wing aircraft at night or when visibility is 3 NM or less is

700 ft AGL.

4. The minimum altitude for fixed wing aircraft by day when flight visibility is greater than 3

NM is 100 ft AGL.

The P-3 Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures Standardization (NATOPS) program

limits its minimum operational altitude to 200 ft AGL.

Minimum lateral or vertical separation regulations between aircraft at low altitude (below 2000 ft

AGL) are listed in Figure 14-9.



Aircraft Separation Regulation

Fixed wing aircraft and helicopter 1500 yards lateral or 300 ft vertical

Fixed wing aircraft (two) 3 mi lateral or 500 ft vertical

Helicopters (two) 1500 yards lateral or 300 ft vertical

Figure 14-9 Minimum Lateral or Vertical Separation Regulations at Low Altitude

The following rules in Figure 14-10, apply when fixed wing aircraft and helicopters operate

within force-controlled airspace at levels above 2000 ft AGL.

Separation Rule

Lateral Aircraft should be at least 3 NM apart when within 40 NM of the control

RADAR and at least 5 NM apart when beyond 40 NM of the control

RADAR.

Vertical Helicopters should be separated by 500 ft, fixed wing aircraft should be

separated by 1000 ft, and helicopters should be separated from fixed wing

aircraft by 1000 ft.

Figure 14-10 Lateral and Vertical Separation Rules

Below 2000 ft AGL, helicopters shall be separated from fixed wing aircraft by 300 ft vertically.

When aircraft operate within assigned altitude bands, the rules for safety separation should be

applied between the bands.

1403. COMMAND AND COORDINATION

The coordination of commanders’ responsibilities supports harmonized MPR operations, which

are also supported by a system of tools, defined procedures, and designated tasks.

Responsibilities of the Commanders

The ASWC is responsible for denying the enemy the effective use of submarines by collecting,

evaluating, and disseminating anti-submarine surveillance information to the CWC.

Typical functions assigned to the ASWC include anti-submarine planning assistance, emission

guidance and active sonar interference avoidance, acoustic deception guidance and acoustic

decoy planning, and anti-submarine planned response guidance. Additional assignments include

anti-submarine degrees of readiness, Waterspace Management (WSM) recommendations,

nonorganic ASW support requirements, and alternate ASW recommendations.

The SUWC is responsible for surface surveillance coordination and war-at-sea operations that

are conducted to destroy or neutralize enemy naval surface forces and merchant vessels.



The SUWC carries out a variety of functions that include developing and implementing the

surface surveillance plan, assigning sectors and/or patrol areas, designating control units for

Surface Warfare (SUW) aircraft to keep the ACA informed, and issuing criteria for weapons

release and expenditure. In addition, this commander carries out coordinating and controlling

use of all force sensors in the SUW, orders aircraft launch and tasking to counter hostile surface

contacts and establishes aircraft alert requirements while the OTC retains alert launch

authorization unless specifically assigned.

The responsibilities of the SCC cover the tasks of the ASWC and SUWC. The responsibilities of

the ASWC and SUWC are combined for the SCC whenever the levels of activity and complexity

of the multiple mission areas are deemed manageable. The SCC also establishes sea combat

guidance and controls assigned assets to implement the sea combat plan.

When delegating authority to the ASWC, the OTC should consider such factors as the

availability of communication systems and space required for coordination with submarines and

the Submarine Operating Authority (SUBOPAUTH), availability of air ASW expertise, and the

requirement of specialized oceanographic expertise.

When delegating authority to the ASUW commander, the OTC’s considerations should include

access to aircrew post-mission debriefs, AEW and strike warfare expertise, and adequate

targeting data.

Coordination

Checksum digits, which are used to avoid confusion caused by errors in transmission, are derived

by adding together the numbers in the position, course, speed, or time. The last digit in the

resulting equation is the checksum digit, which is placed after the element of measurement. For

example, in the position 5004N9, the checksum digit of 9 results by adding together

5 + 0 + 0 + 4. Figure 14-11 lists additional examples of checksum digits.

Orienting Factor Transmission Checksum Digit

Position 15642W8 8

Course 225T9 degrees true or 225M9 degrees magnetic 9

Speed 15KT6 6

Time 281030Z4 4

Figure 14-11 Checksum Digits



The standard positions in a force are listed in Figure 14-12.

Position Position Definition

QQ The center of the front of the main body or convoy when not in a circular

formation

TT The originator’s present position

XX The standard position established by the OTC for a search or enemy reporting

YY The addressee’s present position

ZZ The center of the force

Figure 14-12 Force Standard Position

The reference points, Data Link Reference Point (DLRP) and Helicopter Reference Point (HRP),

are points from which other positional information is calculated. A DLRP, the common point

from which all positional information of data link is derived, is established by the OTC in the

geographic position. The HRP is a geographically fixed position issued by either the Air

Coordinator (AC) in an Operation Task (OPTASK) air message or the Helicopter Control Unit

(HCU) prior to a mission.

Position reporting occurs when navigation is used to establish passing position information as a

bearing and range from a reference point. An HRP can be used to pass geographic position

information, such as an aircraft search origin.

1404. MISSION PLANNING

Mission planning requires the coordination of resources such as applicable website information,

messages, instructions, and orders. This planning must take into account joint environment

coordination and a thorough understanding of EMCON plans by all units.

Planning Resources

Planning resources include the Collaboration-at-Sea website, Special Instructions (SPINS), Air

Tasking Orders (ATOs), and Airspace Control Orders (ACOs).

The Collaboration-at-Sea website covers the following:

1. OPTASK communications, link, and link identification

2. OPTASK air defense and/or ADC Daily Intentions Message (DIM) SUW/SCC and/or the

SCC DIM

3. Area of operations with defined vital areas

4. Criteria needed for classification and identification



5. Commander’s guidance and intentions for prosecuting contacts

6. Pre-Planned Response (PPR) documents

7. CVW/ESG air plans

8. Card of the Day information

9. Point of Contact (POC) e-mail and phone numbers

10. Carrier Intelligence Center information

Operational Tasking Messages (OPTASKs) contain specific information for different

applications. Figure 14-13 lists OPTASKs and information applications.

OPTASK Information Application

OPTASK ADC Detailed tasking and instructions for all aspects of ADC

OPTASK ASW Detailed tasking and instructions for all aspects of ASW

OPTASK SUW Detailed tasking and instructions for the conduct of

ASUW

OPTASK Communications

(COMMS)

The COMMS plan in force and COMMS-related

instructions

OPTASK LINK Detailed tasking and instructions for the operation of

tactical data links

Figure 14-13 Operational Tasking Messages

A SPINS message contains airspace procedures for the theater and the intent of the commander,

weapons procedures, and tactical direction. SPINS messages, which provide operational and

tactical direction at the appropriate levels of detail, contain tanker, cruise missile, and airspace

procedures as well as ROE, combat identification criteria, and other required information.

An intentions message contains the objective, acceptable level of risk, ROE, SPINS, target

priorities, restricted targets, and positive identification requirements as directed by the

commander.

An ATO contains components, subordinate units, and C2 agency-projected sorties, capabilities,

and/or forces for targets and specific missions. The purpose of an ATO is to task and

disseminate information including projected sorties; capabilities and/or forces to targets; specific

missions; specific instructions to include call signs, targets, and controlling agencies; and general

instructions to components, subordinate units, and C2 agencies.

An ACO contains specific control procedures for established time periods and information for

establishing controlled airspace. The purpose of an ACO is to implement the airspace control



plan that provides the details of the approved requests for airspace coordination measures.

Air plans are detailed documents describing sector support for close ASW actions; standoff

attacks in sectors; circular attacks in zones; sector searches around Datum, involving one or more

ships and/or helicopters; and area searches.

Mission Planning Considerations

For mission planning considerations in a joint environment, commanders should consider force

operating location, the Law of the Sea United Nations Convention, intelligence, weather

conditions, and where their forces will be operating. If the mission is in national airspace outside

of the U.S., a diplomatic clearance is required. These concerns do not apply to international

airspace. Compliance is required with all laws and frameworks governing USN operations at

sea, recognized limits of U.S. sovereignty, international and territorial claims, and airspace

control and procedures. Timely and accurate intelligence regarding threat information, target

description, location, defensive weapons information, and COP should be accessible to

commanders as they plan a mission. Weather conditions in the area of operations and how they

will affect the execution and effectiveness of the mission must also be considered.

Certain guidelines should be observed for mission planning considerations in a joint

environment. For example, military aircraft operating in international straits must proceed

through the strait without delay and refrain from any threat or use of force against nations

bordering the strait. Military aircraft should also operate with due regard for safety of navigation

and monitor the appropriate international distress radio frequency. Local air superiority is a key

enabler to conducting operations. It may be necessary to destroy or disrupt all or part of an

enemy’s integrated air defense system prior to or during the execution of operations.

Additional mission planning considerations in a joint environment include observing certain

guidelines, COMMS nets between assets must be clearly established with dedicated frequencies

considered in the development of the COMMS plan. SUW missions must be able to effectively

locate, positively identify, and engage target vessels in all environmental conditions. The

commander must use the aircraft accordingly.

For mission planning considerations in a joint environment, aircrew proficiency also has a major

impact on mission success. The mission unit should consider an aircrew’s ability to create and

execute complex plans that integrate airborne and surface assets as well as knowledge of other

platforms, weapons, sensors, and capabilities; surface forces, including likely dispositions and

formations; surface vessel recognition; and potential threats.

The commander’s intent must be detailed in a separate SPINS message or in the DIM. The

intent information includes objectives, acceptable levels of risk, ROE, SPINS, target priorities,

restricted targets, and positive identification requirements.



Emissions Control Considerations

EMCON plans should be known by every unit in the force employing the plan before a mission

commences. The overall Emission Policy (EP) should be sufficient in detail to support an

EMCON plan. Situations covering anticipated changes should be addressed as well.

1405. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE

ASW is complex and must take into account many factors. These factors include, but are not

limited to, understanding how applicable support systems work, classification methodology and

terminology, and investigative and reporting procedures. In addition, it is necessary to have a

deep knowledge of submarine characteristics, capabilities, and technology. ASW also requires

the ability to participate, as applicable and directed, and a willingness to act tactically or

strategically as dictated by the situation.

Support Systems

Surveillance Towed Array Sensor Systems (SURTASS) tend to have extremely long lengths and

are optimized for very slow towing speeds. These systems are best used in stationary operations

where ships can perform patrols at low speeds and avoid the frequent maneuvers that negatively

affect array performance.

Tactical Towed Array Sensor Systems (TACTASS), which are specifically designed for higher

speeds, are the best option for moving Position of Intended Movement (PIM) operations, such as

convoy escort.

The Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) is a network of deep-ocean, long-range acoustic

sensor arrays used to accomplish locating, classifying, and tracking for submarines. The system,

which uses the deep sound channel, is located in large areas of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

The land-based SOSUS, highly effective at long ranges, is able to provide bearings from

different stations to establish contact areas for submarines. With the fixed sonar SOSUS, MPR

aircraft provide the means for rapidly prosecuting the SOSUS detections.

Contact Classifications

Classification is the method by which subordinate commanders inform their superiors and other

units if contacts that they have just detected or are investigating are of submarine origin.

Classification terms are inevitably subjective because individual reactions are based on

experience.

A contact that has been sighted and positively identified as a submarine is classified as a Certain

Submarine Contact (CERTSUB). Various parameters used to classify these contacts include

surfaced and submerged submarines, submarine masts, antennas, periscopes or snorkels, missiles

emerging from the sea, and torpedo or torpedo wakes sighted without a nearby surface vessel.

Any submarine parameter must be sighted and positively identified by competent personnel.



A contact that displays strong cumulative evidence of being a submarine is classified as a

Probable Submarine Contact (PROBSUB). Contact information is obtained by using one or

more sensors. These sensors include sonar, RADAR, ESM, MAD, passive or active sonobuoys,

towed arrays, and EO/IR.

When available information indicates the likely presence of a submarine, but there is insufficient

evidence to justify a higher classification, the contact is classified as a Possible Submarine

Contact (POSSUB). A POSSUB classification is assigned based on various criteria. Possible,

but unconfirmed, visual submarine contact or possible, but unconfirmed, sensor submarine

contact are two reasons a POSSUB classification might be assigned. Other reasons include

possible sighting of submarine indicator lights and possible HF/DF contact of submarine origin.

Sighted objects such as surfaced or submerged submarines and submarine periscopes or snorkels

may be classified as possible, but unconfirmed, visual submarine contact. In all of these cases,

due to poor visibility or an observer’s lack of competence to recognize such objects, the criteria

for a CERTSUB classification cannot be supported.

Some sensors may detect a possible, but unconfirmed, submarine contact. These sensors include

active or passive sonars or sonobuoys, as well as MAD, RADAR, ESM, and towed acoustic

arrays. In all of these cases, such contacts are investigated or tracked without confirming all of

the characteristics listed for PROBSUB, but are suspected to be of submarine origin.

A possible sighting of submarine indicator lights could be the result of surface flare, blinker

light, trace light sightings, or other similar indications. In all of these cases, the sightings are

thoroughly investigated and do not lead to submarine sightings or sensor contact, but are

suspected to be of submarine origin.

A possible HF/DF contact of submarine origin may be a surface ship HF/DF contact on a signal

classified as being of submarine origin.

If after investigation, a contact has characteristics that exclude the possibility that it is a

submarine; the contact is classified as a Nonsubmarine Contact (NONSUB). A NONSUB

classification substantiates that the classifier is entirely satisfied that the contact is not a

submarine.

If a contact cannot be regarded as a NONSUB and requires further investigation, the contact is

classified as a LOW CONFIDENCE POSSUB or POSSUB-LOW. It the classifier determines

that a contact is a submarine (based on firm evidence), but the contact does not meet the criteria

established for PROBSUB, it is classified as a HIGH CONFIDENCE POSSUB or POSSUB-HI.

Contact Reporting

Initial contacts, classified or not, must be reported immediately. When not included in the initial

report, a classification must be made in the subsequent amplifying report. Where possible, the

classifier should amplify the contacts by propulsion and class.



The reclassification of a contact continues throughout the entire ASW prosecution. Any

subsequent reports by a unit may amend or amplify the classification. Prosecuting units must

continually review contact classifications by using other sensors (as available). When more than

one ASW unit is in contact, the Scene-of-Action Commander (SAC) or OTC (or ASWC/SCC, if

delegated) evaluates all information and classifications and reports the contact together with his

or her classification. The method by which the contact was obtained, maintained, or localized

may be of assistance in assessing a passive acoustic contact report.

Coordinated Anti-Submarine Warfare Action

When an initial contact is reported, units in the vicinity of the unit making the initial contact

report are to take immediate action or render assistance. Examples of units that must take action

or render assistance following an initial contact report include surface ships, helicopters, and

fixed wing aircraft. The ship that is best positioned to aid the detecting unit automatically acts as

the assisting ship (unless otherwise directed). Except when operating under close positive

control or where there is an immediate threat to a ship or force, the helicopter nearest to the

detecting unit should provide support and inform the detecting unit, HCU, or other appropriate

authority of its intentions. When a fixed wing aircraft has received a request for assistance from

the detecting unit and the tactical situation permits, the aircraft is to close on that unit and inform

the ASW ACU of its intentions.

When a fixed wing aircraft is in the vicinity of a contact that is an immediate threat, the ASW

ACU should inform the aircraft of the contact, direct the aircraft to close on the unit in contact,

and ensure that the aircraft keeps clear of weapon danger areas. If directed, the ASW ACU

should transfer control of the aircraft to the unit in contact or to another unit in the vicinity of the

contact.

The HCU tasks to complete include reassigning helicopter screen stations as ordered by the OTC

or appropriate commander, informing helicopters of any contact that is an immediate threat, and

directing the helicopter nearest the contact to a position in support of the detecting unit. The

HCU must also inform the detecting unit of the helicopter’s availability, weapon load, and

control frequency in use. In addition, the HCU must also be prepared to transfer control of the

helicopter to the detecting unit or the unit in the vicinity of the contact that is most capable of

assuming HCU duties.

The SAC or Search and Attack Unit (SAU) commander should promulgate, within the OTC’s

policies, the intended employment of units as soon as a submarine contact is gained. A SAU

may be dispatched to assist at a scene of action or to conduct a search of a designated area. In

order to dispatch a SAU, considerations include evaluation of threats, missions, conditions,

assets available, and possibilities of evasion. Upon dispatch of an SAU, responsibility for its

communication requirements is transferred from the OTC to the SAU commander.

Relevant information must be provided to the SAU and the SAU commander. The information

to provide includes composition of the SAU, identity of the SAU commander, identity of the

SAC, and a situation report. The latest position, time, source information, classification, and

confidence level of the contact must also be provided. Other relevant information to pass on



includes Datum (which is the last known position of a submarine or suspected submarine after

contact has been lost), position, error and time; as well as the last known course and speed of the

contact.

At the scene of action, the aircrew transmits reports to the SAU to assist in closing the contact or

Datum. However, complying with attack procedures and maintaining contact take precedence

over reporting in situations involving approaching units (aircraft on RADAR or aircraft not on

RADAR) or sighted aircraft.

When an approaching unit holds the aircraft on RADAR, the commander of the approaching unit

may send the message, “Request RADAR on top.” On receiving this signal, the aircraft shall fly

over the contact (Datum or KINGPIN [an arbitrary reference position established by the aircraft,

typically a sonobuoy]); report, “On top contact (Datum or KINGPIN) now, now, NOW;” and use

IFF squawk identity. The third “NOW” will be the on-top position.

When an approaching unit does not hold the aircraft on RADAR, the aircraft should use its own

RADAR to try to determine the position of the unit relative to the contact (Datum or KINGPIN).

The aircraft shall fly over the contact (Datum or KINGPIN); report, “On top contact (Datum or

KINGPIN) now, now, NOW;” and transmit to the approaching unit the bearing and distance

from the approaching unit to the contact (Datum or KINGPIN).

When the aircraft is sighted, the commander of the approaching unit may send the message,

“Request visual on top.” On receiving this signal, the aircraft shall fly in a shallow dive over the

contact (Datum or KINGPIN) and signal, “On top contact (Datum or KINGPIN) now, now,

NOW.” The aircraft is pulled out of the dive, and a yellow flare may be fired on the

transmission of the third “NOW.”

The SAU commander has various responsibilities including forming the units assigned and

establishing communications on assigned SAU frequencies with units of the SAU and with the

SAC. The SAU commander is also responsible for designating the appropriate ACU, even

though the duties of the ACU are normally best carried out by the SAU commander. In addition,

the SAU commander is responsible for establishing Datum, as necessary, and promulgating

helicopter alert states, if applicable. SAU information that includes situation reports and torpedo

countermeasures to be employed, as well as relevant intentions, is passed on by the SAU

commander.

If dispatched to assist at an existing scene of action, the SAU commander must provide

information to the SAU that includes the identity of the SAC, latest position, time, source of

information, and classification. The SAU commander must also provide the confidence level of

the contact or the Datum time, position, designation, and error. In addition, the SAU commander

provides the SAU with the Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) at contact or Datum, as well as

Torpedo Danger Area (TDA), if applicable.

The method of approach and the countermeasures to be applied depend on the tactical situation.

When necessary, the SAU commander must accept a calculated risk in an effort to balance the



danger to the SAU against the subsurface threat to friendly forces that may be targets of

submarine-launched missiles.

Submarine Operations

Traditionally, submarine operations have been conducted independent of aircraft and surface

ships and have required a centralized command system. Improvements in submarine

communication capabilities along with refocusing of maritime objectives have brought about

much closer cooperation and interoperability of submarines and other maritime forces. Shifting

of tactical C2 to an OTC for coordinated operations between submarines and surface and/or air

forces is highly desirable in many scenarios.

Safety lanes are sea-lanes designated for use in transit by submarines and surface ships in order

to prevent attacks by friendly forces. Safety lanes are also used to facilitate submarine and

surface ship operations.

The development of effective WSM and Prevention of Mutual Interference (PMI) systems is

essential to ensure the safety of friendly submarines and surface forces. WSM is a system of

procedures for the control of anti-submarine weapons to prevent the inadvertent engagement of

friendly submarines. In submarine operations, PMI is a system of procedures to prevent the

occurrence of interference with any underwater events and collisions including those between

submerged friendly submarines, submerged submarines and friendly ship-towed bodies, and

submerged submarines and other underwater objects.

The weapon danger zone is based on parameters that relate to types of weapon, method of

employment, run pattern, and estimated acquisition range. In addition, during any ASW

engagement, air and surface units should apply a compensatory allowance that minimizes the

risk of a weapon inadvertently entering an area containing a friendly submarine. In order to

prevent their own ASW weapons from endangering friendly submarines and surface units,

submarines should remain clear of their area boundaries by at least their assessed navigation

error and take appropriate precautions.

Anti-Submarine Warfare Attack Policy

Within the ASW attack policy, attacks may be URGENT or DELIBERATE. The purpose of an

URGENT attack is to upset the submarine’s plan of action and gain the initiative in the

engagement. In this case, speed of action is essential and outweighs accuracy. The purpose of a

DELIBERATE attack is the destruction of the hostile submarine by using the most effective

ASW weapon for the prevailing tactical situation. Precise weapon placement is of paramount

concern.

For attacks in which more than one ASW unit is involved in close prosecution, the attacking unit

must, upon attack, announce an area from which assisting units should remain clear for their own

safety. Vectored Attacks (VECTACs) are attacks in which a weapon carrier unit (air, surface, or

subsurface) not holding contact on the target is vectored to the weapon delivery point by a unit

(air, surface, or subsurface) that holds contact on the target.



When executing a VECTAC, agreement of weapon type, forward throw and splash point of

weapons, bearing and course, announcement of weapon drop, vertical separation, unit

conducting the attack, course and speed of the contact, and cancellation of attack procedure

should be considered.

In a VECTAC, the following methods of attack execution are used:

1. Transit to release point

2. Weapon release

3. RADAR usage

4. Target position, course, and speed

5. Warning calls

6. Situational considerations

An area known as a DOGBOX, which is established for torpedoes, is the area in which units that

interfere will be endangered by active torpedoes. The presence of surface ships or employment

of other ASW weapons within a DOGBOX may degrade the performance of running torpedoes.

The attacking unit must reconsider the attack and cancel it if there is a risk to a friendly unit, or

the anticipated effect of the weapon is unacceptably degraded due to friendly unit interference.




MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CRM AND MULTITASKING 15-1

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

AND MULTITASKING

1500. INTRODUCTION

This chapter addresses the importance and components of Crew Resource Management (CRM).

Key terms, procedures, and limitations associated with CRM, as well as multitasking as it

pertains to MPR coordinated operations, are also presented in this chapter.

1501. IMPORTANCE OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

CRM is vital to MPR operations in that, when properly implemented, it improves mission

effectiveness by minimizing crew-preventable errors, maximizing coordination, and optimizing

risk management.

1502. COMPONENTS OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

CRM involves the ability to understand the elements, requirements, and goals of the mission.

Mastery of specific behaviors and skills such as assertiveness, decision-making, communication,

and SA support accomplishment of successful missions. Positive mission outcomes result when

both leadership and crewmembers perform their jobs to the best of their abilities.

Mission Analysis

Mission analysis is the ability to make plans to coordinate, allocate, and monitor crew resources.

Mission analysis is important to the success of the mission. Good analysis when the situation

changes can mean the difference between the success or failure of the mission. Each stage of

mission analysis has an impact on the overall mission. Failure to develop a good plan, or to

revise a plan when the situation changes, can result in a failed mission or mishap.

Mission analysis refers to the ability to make short-term, long-term, and contingency plans. It

also means coordinating, allocating, and monitoring crew and aircraft resources to include

organizing and planning for what will occur during the mission, monitoring the current situation,

and reviewing and providing feedback on what occurred.

Mission analysis consists of pre-mission, in-flight, and post-mission stages. Pre-mission analysis

includes establishing mission requirements and constraints, specifying both long-term and short-

term plans, and advising the crew of what to expect. In-flight analysis includes critiquing and

updating existing plans, evaluating results of previous decisions, and informing the crew of

changes to the flight concept. Post-mission analysis includes critiquing the entire mission and

determining areas of future improvement.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

15-2 MARITIME PATROL AND RECONNAISSANCE CRM AND MULTITASKING

Assertiveness

Assertiveness is the willingness to actively participate, state, and maintain a position until facts

prove other options to be better. Assertiveness is an important quality for maintaining control of

a crew. Aircrew members must be willing to act assertively if he or she is going to fulfill their

responsibility towards mission success. What is thought but not said can be fatal.

Assertiveness includes making decisions, demonstrating initiative and the courage to act, and

stating and maintaining a position. Some examples of assertive behaviors include providing

relevant information without being asked, making suggestions, and asking questions as

necessary. Assertive behavior also involves confronting ambiguities, maintaining a position

when challenged, stating opinions on decisions and/or procedures, and refusing an unreasonable

request.

If a disagreement in the aircraft exists, take the most conservative action until more information

is available to avoid irrational decisions based on psychological factors. In extreme situations, if

the pilot does not respond to two reasonable demands, the copilot should take the controls.

Situations that require assertiveness include the preflight brief, flight, and debrief. The following

steps are used to create an assertive statement:

1. Get the attention of the receiver.

2. State the concerns.

3. Offer a solution.

4. Ask for feedback.

Decision Making

Decision-making is being able to choose a course of action using logical and sound judgment

based on the available information. Decision-making is vital to CRM, especially when the

situation calls for an immediate and/or a critical decision. Good decisions optimize risk

management and minimize errors, while poor decisions can increase them. Each decision may

affect future options. Poor judgment or decision-making is a leading cause of failure to complete

missions and a leading cause of mishaps.

Effective decision-making includes accurately assessing the problem, verifying information,

anticipating consequences of decisions, informing others of the decision and the rationale behind

it, and evaluating the outcome of the decision. Factors that promote effective decision-making

include teamwork, adequate time to make a decision, alert crewmembers, decision strategies, and

experience.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER FIFTEEN


Decision-making strategies derived from troubleshooting include the following steps:

1. Identify all the symptoms.

2. Make a hypothesis as to the possible cause.

3. Test the hypothesis.

4. Apply appropriate remedies.

Barriers to good decision-making and ways to overcome these barriers are listed in Figure 15-1.

Barrier Overcoming Barrier

Time constraint Use Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

and select the best decision using the available

information.

Inaccurate or ambiguous

information

Cross-check information.

Pressure to perform Evaluate the rational for making a decision.

Differences in Rank Use assertive behaviors.

Figure 15-1 Overcoming Barriers to Good Decision Making

Communication

Communication is sending and receiving information, instructions, or commands. In CRM,

effective communication is critical to confirm that each person in the crew knows what he or she

needs to do and, therefore, contributes to a successful mission. Effective communication refers

to the ability to clearly and accurately send and receive information, instructions, or commands

and provide useful feedback. The greatest enemy of effective communication is the illusion of it.

Effective communication is vital at all times both inside and outside the aircraft.

It is important that everyone involved fully understand what is being communicated in order to

accurately pass information, maintain SA, conduct effective missions, and avoid mishaps.

Communication involves senders and receivers.

Responsibilities of communication senders include communicating information clearly;

conveying information accurately, concisely, and in a timely manner; requesting verification or

feedback; and verbalizing plans. Senders should be sure to provide information as required and

when asked, convey only useful information in a concise and accurate manner, and use non-

verbal communication appropriately.

Responsibilities of receivers include acknowledging communication, repeating information,

paraphrasing information, clarifying information, and providing useful feedback. To ensure that

a receiver is meeting his or her communication responsibilities, they should acknowledge



communication; repeat information received, and perhaps most importantly ask for clarification

if there is uncertainty about a communication. A receiver should also reply with questions or

comments and provide useful feedback.

Techniques to overcome barriers to communication include using active listening techniques,

requesting feedback, using an appropriate mode of communications and decibel level, and using

standard terminology.

Leadership

Leadership is the ability to direct and coordinate a crew and encourage teamwork. Being a good

leader involves inspiring the crew to work to their best potential, so as to bring out the best in the

crew. Aircrew leaders must be able to do the following:

1. Direct and coordinate crew activities.

2. Delegate tasks.

3. Ensure that the crew understands what is expected of them.

4. Focus attention on the crucial aspects of a situation.

5. Keep crewmembers informed of mission information.

6. Ask crewmembers for mission relevant information.

7. Provide feedback to crewmembers on their performance.

8. Create and maintain a professional atmosphere.

There are two types of leadership, designated and functional. Designated leadership is

leadership by authority, crew position, rank, or title. Functional leadership is leadership by

knowledge or expertise. Designated leadership is the normal mode of leadership. Functional

leadership is usually temporary and allows the most qualified individual to take charge of the

situation.

At minimum, a crew needs to know what behaviors are being evaluated, what standard the

crew’s performance is being evaluated against, and how the crew’s performance compares to the

evaluation standard.

Individuals can be influenced by voicing suggestions, making the crew want to perform

activities, and leading by inspiration. It is more effective to try to influence individuals than to

dictate to them. It is the leader’s responsibility to make sure that the crew works together as a

team. Feedback should be given to the crew on both good and bad performance.

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE CHAPTER FIFTEEN


Adaptability/Flexibility

Adaptability/flexibility is the ability to respond to a changing situation with composure based on

present occurrences. When unexpected situations arise during a mission, adaptability/flexibility

can ensure that the situation does not go beyond the control of the crew. A mission's success

depends on crewmembers’ ability to alter behavior and dynamically manage crew resources to

meet situational demands. Effectively responding to situations requires crews to remain flexible

in their decision-making and actions. Crewmembers must be able to demonstrate the following

adaptable/flexible behaviors:

1. Altering behaviors to meet situational demands

2. Being open and receptive to others’ ideas

3. Helping others when necessary

4. Maintaining constructive behavior under pressure

5. Adapting to internal and external environmental changes

Situations that require adaptability/flexibility include situations arising that are unbriefed,

emergencies occurring during routine missions, transitions occurring, incapacitation of

crewmembers, and/or personnel interactions that become strained. Critical aspects of

adaptability/flexibility include the following:

1. Anticipating problems

2. Recognizing and acknowledging change

3. Determining SOPs

4. Taking alternative actions

5. Providing and asking for assistance

6. Interacting constructively with others

Once a decision is made, it can be revoked. The crew should keep an open mind and continually

evaluate the decision against new data.

Situational Awareness

SA is the degree to which an individual's perception of a current situation matches reality. A

successful mission depends on maintaining SA. SA is a critical factor in the ability to respond

effectively to a situation. Maintaining high levels of SA prepares crews to respond to

unexpected situations.



SA includes the ability to identify the source and nature of problems. Extracting and interpreting

essential information is another element of SA. SA also includes maintaining an accurate

perception of the external environment, as well as the ability to detect a situation requiring

action. SA requires knowledge of who is responsible for specific activities, what is happening,

when events are supposed to occur, and where the aircraft is in 3D space. Maintaining correct

SA involves detecting and commenting on deviations, providing information in advance,

identifying potential problems, and demonstrating awareness of task performance and mission

status. Factors that reduce SA include insufficient communication, fatigue or stress, task

overload or underload, group mindset, “Press on regardless” philosophy, and degraded operating

conditions. The loss of SA can be combated by adopting certain strategies, as follows:

1. Actively question and evaluate mission progress.

2. Use assertive behaviors as necessary.

3. Analyze the situation.

4. Update and revise the mission image.

GLOSSARY A-1

APPENDIX A

GLOSSARY

Acronym Definition

µPa Micropascal (measurement of pressure)

µsec Microsecond

AA Anti-Aircraft

AAA Anti-Aircraft Artillery

AAW Anti-Air Warfare

AAWC Anti-Air Warfare Commander

AB Airborne Search and Bombing

ABCC Airborne Command and Control

AC Air Coordinator

ACA Airspace Control Authority

ACO Airspace Control Order

ACU Aircraft Control Unit

ADAR Air Deployable Active Receiver

ADC Air Defense Commander

ADLFP Air Deployable Low Frequency Projector

AEW Airborne Early Warning

AEZ Air Engagement Zone

AGC Acoustic Gain Control

AGL Above Ground Level

AI Airborne Intercept

AIP Air-Independent Propulsion

GLOSSARY ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE

A-2 GLOSSARY

AIS Automatic Identification System

AM Airborne Reconnaissance and Mapping

AMDC Air Missile Defense Commander

AMOP Amplitude Modulation On the Pulse

AN Ambient Noise

AOR Area of Responsibility

AREC Air Resource Element Coordinator

ARP Antenna Rotation Period

ASUW Anti-Surface Warfare

ASW Anti-Submarine Warfare

ASWC Anti-Submarine Warfare Commander

AT Airborne Reconnaissance and Mapping

ATC Air Traffic Control

ATO Air Tasking Order

AW Air Warfare

AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System

BB Bottom Bounce

BLG Below-Layer Gradient

BMD Ballistic Missile Defense

BMDC Ballistic Missile Defense Commander

BN Beacon/Transponder

BR Bearing Resolution

BT Bathythermograph Trace

ADVANCED MC2 MPR STAGE GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY A-3

BW Beam Width

C constant for the speed of light

C2 Command and Control

C4I Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence

CA Controlled Approach

CAD Cartridge Actuated Devices

CAG Carrier Air Group

CCG Cartesian Coordinate Grid

CD Conjugate Depth

CERTSUB Certain Submarine Contact

CFS Command Function Select

CHOP Change of Operational Control

CI Controlled Intercept

CO Calibrated Omnidirectional

COMM(S) Communication(s)

COP Common Operational Picture

CPA Closest Point of Approach

CRC Cryptologic Resource Coordinator

CRM Crew Resource Management

CS Coastal Surveillance

CSG Carrier Strike Groups

CSO Constant Shallow Omni

CTPM Common Tactical Picture Manager


A-4 GLOSSARY

CVW Carrier Air Wing

CW Continuous Wave

CWC Composite Warfare Commander

CZ Convergence Zone

dB Decibel (logarithmic comparison)

DE Depth excess

DEZ Dual Engagement Zone

DF Direction Finding

DI Directivity Index

DICASS Directional Command Activated Sonobuoy System

DIFAR Directional Frequency and Ranging

DIM Daily Intentions Message

DLRP Data Link Reference Point

DME Distance Measuring Equipment

DR Dead Reckoning

DRT Dead Reckoning Trace

DSC Digital Selective Calling

DSCA Deep Sound Channel Axis

DSL Deep Scattering Layer

E3 Electromagnetic Environmental Effects

EA Electronic Attack

EER Extended Echo Ranging

EFS Electronic Function Select


GLOSSARY A-5

ELF Extra Low frequency

ELINT Electronic Intelligence

EM Electromagnetic

EMATT Expendable Mobile Anti-Submarine Warfare Training Target

EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility

EMCON Emissions Control

EME Electromagnetic Environment

EMI Electromagnetic Interference

EMP Electromagnetic Pulse

EO Electro-Optical

EP Electronic Protection; Emission Plan

ES Electronic Warfare Support

ESG Expeditionary Strike Group

ESM Electronic Support Measures

ETA Estimated Time of Arrival

EW Electronic Warfare; Early Warning

FACA Force Air Coordination Area

FC Fire Control

FEZ Fighter Engagement Zone

FMOP Frequency Modulation On the Pulse

FOM Figure of Merit

FONOP Freedom of Navigation Operations

FOR Field of Regard


A-6 GLOSSARY

FOTC Force Track Coordinator

fps feet per second

FRS Fleet Replacement Squadron

FSO Fleet Support Operations

ft feet

GPS Global Positioning System

HCU Helicopter Control Unit

HEC Helicopter Element Coordinator

HERO Hazards of EM Radiation to Ordnance

HF Height Finder

hr hour

HRP Helicopter Reference Point

HSI Horizontal Situation Indicator

HZ Hertz

I&W Indications and Warnings

ICS Intercommunications System

IEER Improved Extended Echo Ranging

IFF Identification Friend or Foe

IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions

IMO International Maritime Organization

in inch or inches

INS Inertial Navigation System

IP Initial Point


GLOSSARY A-7

IPB Intelligence Preparation of the Battlespace

IR Infrared

ISAR Inverse Synthetic Aperture RADAR

ISP Identification Safety Point

ISR Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance;

Identification Safety Range

IW Information Warfare

IWC Information Operations Warfare Commander

JEZ Joint Engagement Zone

kHz kilohertz

KIAS Knots Indicated Airspeed

kts knots

LAC Launch Area Coordinator

LAT Latitude

LCAC Landing Craft Air Cushion

LD Limiting Depth

LOFAR Low Frequency Analysis and Recording

LOG Logistics

LONG Longitude

LOS Line-of-Sight

m meter

MAC Multi-Static Active Coherent

MAD Magnetic Anomaly Detector


A-8 GLOSSARY

MAS Maritime Air Support

MASS MDA/AIS, Sensor/Server

MDA Maritime Domain Awareness

MDR Median Detection Range

MEU Marine Expeditionary Unit

MEZ Missile Engagement Zone

MF Multifunction

MG Missile Guidance

MH Missile Homing

mi mile or miles

min minute or minutes

MIO Maritime Interdiction Operations

MIOC Maritime Interdiction Operations Commander

MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology

MIW Mine Warfare

MIWC Mine Warfare Commander

ML Mixed Layer

MLD Mixed Layer Depth

MOB Mobility

MOP Modulation On the Pulse

MOS Missions of State

MOSA Minimum Operational Safe Altitude

MOT Mark On Top


GLOSSARY A-9

MPR Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance

MPRA Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Aircraft

MSL Mean Sea Level

NA Navigation

NAS Naval Air Station

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NATOPS Naval Air Training and Operating Procedures Standardization

NAV Navigator

NCO Non-Combat Operations

ND Navigation/Distance Measuring Equipment

NFO Naval Flight Officer

NONSUB Nonsubmarine Contact

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

OFFSTA Off Station

ONC Operational Navigation Chart

ONSTA On Station

OPCOM Operational Command

OPCON Operational Control

OPGEN Operations General Message

Ops Operations

OPTASK Operation Task

OTC Officer in Tactical Command

PD Pulse Duration


A-10 GLOSSARY

PIM Position of Intended Movement

PL Propagation Loss (PROPLOSS)

PM Phase modulation

PMI Prevention of Mutual Interference

PMOP Phase Modulation On the Pulse

POC Point of Contact

POSSUB Possible Submarine Contact

PPR Pre-Planned Response

PRF Pulse Repetition Frequency

PRI Pulse Repetition Interval

PROBSUB Probable Submarine Contact

PROPLOSS Propagation Loss

p-static precipitation static

PW Pulse Width

QRS Quick Reference System

RCIED Remote Controlled Improvised Explosive Device

RD Recognition Differential

RF Radio Frequency

RL Reverberation Level

Rmax Maximum Range

Rmin Minimum Range

RMS Root-Mean-Square

RO Range Only


GLOSSARY A-11

ROE Rules of Engagement

RR Range Resolution

RT Real Time

S&T Science and Technology

S/N Signal-to-Noise Ratio

SA Situational Awareness

SAC Systems Accuracy Check; Scene-of-Action Commander

SAG Surface Action Group

SAM Surface-to-Air Missile

SAR Search and Rescue, Synthetic Aperture RADAR

SASP Single Advanced Signal Processor

SAU Search and Attack Unit

SC Screen Commander

SCC Sea Combat Commander

SCAR Strike Coordination and Reconnaissance

SCL Scene Center Line

SD Scan Duration

SE Signal Excess

SEZ Ship Engagement Zone

SL Sonic Layer; Source Level

SLAM-ER Standoff Land Attack Missile-Expanded Response

SLBM Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile

SLC Sonobuoy Launch Container


A-12 GLOSSARY

SLD Sonic Layer Depth

SLOC Sea Lines of Communications

SLV Submarine Launched Vehicle

sm statute miles

SOCA Submarine Operations Coordinating Authority

SOP Standard Operating Procedure

SOSUS Sound Surveillance System

SPIN Special Instructions

SR Scan Rate

SRO Sensitive Reconnaissance Operations

SRP Scene Reference Point

SS Surface Search

SSC Surface Search Coordination

ST Scan Type

STK Strike

STWC Strike Warfare Commander

SUBOPAUTH Submarine Operating Authority

SURPIC Surface Picture

SURTAS Surveillance Towed Array Sensor Systems

SUS Signal Underwater Sound

SUW Surface Warfare

SUWC Surface Warfare Commander

SVP Sound Velocity Profile


GLOSSARY A-13

TA Target Acquisition

TACC Tactical Air Command Center

TACOM Tactical Command

TACON Tactical Control

TACTAS Tactical Towed Array Sensor Systems

TAS True Airspeed

TCDL Tactical Common Data Link

TDA Torpedo Danger Area

TDMA Time Division Multiple Access

TI Target Illumination

TLAM Tomahawk Land Attack Missile

TPC Tactical Pilotage Chart

TRU Target Reporting Unit

TS Target Strength

TSC Tactical Support Center

TST Time-Sensitive Targets

TT Target Tracker

UAS Unmanned Aircraft System

USMC United States Marine Corps

USN United States Navy

UN Unknown

VASTAC Vector-Assisted Attack

VE Velocity Excess


A-14 GLOSSARY

VECTAC Vectored Attacks

VLA Vertical Line Array

VP Patrol

VQ Fleet Air Reconnaissance

VTS Vessel Traffic Service

W Watt (measurement of power)

WSM Waterspace Management

Date post:	03-Nov-2021
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ADVANCED MARITIME COMMAND AND CONTROL (ADVANCED …

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