Advanced Placement Psychology

Chapter 10: Mental Abilities

Mental Ability – The capacity to reason, remember; understand, solve problems, and make decisions

What is Intelligence?

Current Definition for IntelligenceThree Main Characteristics

The possession of knowledge A high schooler who knows more “stuff” will be considered

more intelligent than a first grader who knows less about the world.

The ability to efficiently use knowledge to reason about the world If two people both solved the same problem correctly, then

the one who did it faster would be considered more intelligent.

The ability to use that reasoning adaptively in different environments Seniors will soon be freshmen in college and will need to

adapt to their new environment.

History of Intelligence Tests

In 1904, the French government commissions Alfred Binet to identify, study, and provide special programs for children who weren’t doing well in school Focused on the ability to reason, judge, and solve problems Assumed that children’s abilities increased with age

Age-Graded Chronological Age – A person’s actual age Mental Age – A person’s mental level.

Stanford-Binet: English version a decade later that includes items for adults and an intelligence quotient (IQ) (Mental age / Chronological age) x 100 One problem not fair for immigrants who didn’t speak English

Chronological Age vs. Mental Age

History of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence Testing for Soldiers (1st group administered tests) Army Alpha – IQ test for English speakers

Arithmetic, analogies, general knowledge Army Beta – IQ tests for non-English speakers

Visualizing 3-dimensional objects and solving mazes

David Wechsler Verbal and nonverbal were completed by all test takers Answers less culturally dependent Subtests scored separately Why was Wechsler’s test better?

IQ Tests Today Wechsler test

Verbal scale Remembering a series of digits, solving math problems,

defining vocab words, etc. Performance scale

Assembling block puzzles, solving mazes, completing pictures, etc.

Average result obtained at each level is assigned IQ score, then compared to the average of the person’s age to compute an IQ Mean score of 100, standard deviation of 15 “Gifted” (130) or “Mentally retarded” (70) 2 standard

deviations from the mean

IQ Tests Today

Stanford-Binet Verbal Reasoning

What is similar about and orange, apple, and grape?

Quantitative Reasoning Math problems

Abstract/Visual Reasoning Explaining why one should wear a coat in the

winter Working Memory

Repeating a string of numbers in reverse order

Raven Progressive Matrices (Non-verbal) Decide what the next item in the series will

be

IQ Standard Distribution

Today, IQ is not just mental age divided by chronological age.

It involves more complex computations that rely on norms about each age’s intelligence established over the years.

www.highiqsociety.comTest your own IQ online

Intelligence?

Tests & Quality of Tests

Test: A systematic procedure for observing a standard situation and describing it with the help of a numerical scale or a system of categories Standardized – Conditions are as similar as possible

for everyone taking the test Objective – Results are not influenced by tester Quantifiable – Measurable results Economic & Efficient – Can be given to many people

in less time and for less money

Norms Descriptions of the frequency of particular scores

Aptitude vs. Achievement Tests

Aptitude Measures a person’s capability to learn certain

things or perform certain tasks Assesses your potential to learn SAT & ACT

Achievement Measures what a person has accomplished or

learned in a certain area AP Tests, MME tests, etc.

Features of TestingReliability

Results are repeatable or stable

A test must measure the same thing in the same way with the same results every time

Correlation coefficient must be high & positive

Methods to check reliability: Test-retest Compares the scores between multiple trials

of the same test Alternate-form Compares the scores between different

but very similar tests Split-half method Compares the scores between the

first and second halves of a test

Features of TestingValidity

A test must measure what it is designed to measure

Measures of validity: Content how much the test items relate to the test’s area

Ex: if I spend only 5 mins. out of 5 class periods talking about IQ and devote half of the final exam on IQ, the exam would be low in content validity

Construct scores must relate to tester’s theory about what it being tested Ex: if my theory is that babies cry more than adults, my results

should indicate those findings (positive correlation) Criterion scores must correlate with another measurement

Ex: a test for hand-eye coordination should have high content validity for diamond cutters or sports players

Predictive when the goal is to predict future behavior (related to criterion)

The Reliability & Validity of IQ Tests

How reliable are IQ tests? Test-retest reliability can be low if initial testing is done

before age 7 Testing conditions & person’s motivation also affects results

How valid are IQ tests? Validity is difficult to measure because intelligence is hard to

define But tests can be effective at predicting future success

How fair are IQ tests? Tests today try to avoid biased & culturally unfair questions Some areas most influenced by culture (e.g., language) can

be assessed separately

Intelligence?

Innate Ability

Intelligence is influenced by:

Heredity Identical twins have similar IQ

scores, even if raised separately

The environment No matter how genetically similar

two people may be, if they are raised in the same environment, they will have similar IQ scores

Group Differences in IQ Scores

Socioeconomic differences Upper-class communities in the U.S. have shown

average IQ scores of 17 points higher than those of lower-class communities with the same ethnic makeup

Why?

A child’s ability is influenced: Genetic factors Parents’ occupations Parents’ education Home environment

Group Differences in IQ Scores

Ethnic Differences Variation between ethnic groups & within ethnic

groups

Differences may be due to: Socioeconomic environment Parental education Nutrition Health care Schools Cultural values placed on education

Conditions That Can Raise IQ Scores

Efforts to intervene in the lives of children & enrich their environments have had some success

Conditions for improving performance Rewards for progress Encouragement of effort Expectations for success

Conditions That Can Raise IQ Scores

Project Head Start Established by gov’t in 1960s to help preschoolers from

lower-income backgrounds Teachers visit the home or children attend classes Some programs emphasize health & nutrition, as well as

family mental health & social skills May cause a child to be more motivated & have a better

attitude toward school Such programs can cause as least temporary gains in IQ

scores

Measuring Mental Abilities

People tend to perform at their best when their arousal level is moderate

Those whose arousal inhibits their performance in testing suffer from test anxiety

Concern over negative stereotypes may play a role in explaining low test performance

…Basically, people who are severely anxious about testing will not perform to the best of their ability

Understanding IntelligenceThe Main Approaches for Explaining Intelligence

Psychometric Approach The Psychometric Approach emphasizes the products of

intelligence, including IQ scores

Implications Is intelligence a single general trait or is it a bundle of specific

abilities? This matters because if intelligence is a single “thing,” an

employer might assume that someone with a low IQ couldn’t do any tasks well

Charles Spearman – Found a positive correlation between almost all tests of mental abilities. General Intelligence (g) – Intelligence for general use Special Intelligence (s) – Intelligence for specific cases

Correlations that could not be explained by either g or s were called group factors

Psychometric Approach L.L. Thurstone - Didn’t believe in a single

dominant g-factor, and split g into Primary Abilities Factor Analysis: Statistical technique useful for analyzing the

correlations between IQ tests to identify underlying factors (or abilities)

Seven Primary Abilities: Numerical ability, reasoning, verbal fluency, spatial visualization, perceptual ability, verbal comprehension, and memory

Raymond Cattell – Through his own factor analysis, believed that there were two kinds of g Fluid Intelligence – Reasoning and problem solving (evaluate, think

critically, understand relationships, etc.) Crystallized Intelligence – Specific knowledge (vocabulary,

multiplication table, etc.)

Information-Processing Approach

Information-Processing focuses more on the process of intelligent behavior rather than the products of intelligence.

Intelligence is the direct result of other mental processes Perception – How you process what you sense Learning – Amount of learning and learning strategies Memory – Developmental factors Cognition – Ability to abstract and think

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg believed that a complete theory of intelligence must deal with three different types of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical.

Analytic The kind of intelligence tested by traditional IQ tests

Creative The kind of intelligence needed to compose a symphony

or paint a masterpiece

Practical The kind of intelligence that helps you figure out how

restart your dead car

Intelligence?

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Linguistic Intelligence

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Spatial Intelligence

Musical Intelligence

Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence (skills used by dancers, athletes, and doctors)

Intrapersonal Intelligence (self-understanding)

Interpersonal Intelligence (interaction with others)

Naturalistic Intelligence (seeing patterns in nature)

Intelligence?

The Ecological Approach

Intelligence is mental activity that allows people to select, shape, and adapt to those aspects of the environment that are the most relevant to life. Intelligence is different depending on the situation It is not the same in all environments

Rather than focusing on elements of intelligence that are universally shared, tests should account for the environment in which the person operates.

Diversity in Cognitive AbilitiesFrom Creativity to Giftedness to Mental Retardation

Creativity The ability to produce novel but effective solutions to

challenges

Divergent Thinking The ability to think along many paths to generate many

solutions to a problem Imagine all of the possible uses of a Wii remote

Convergent Thinking The ability to apply logic and knowledge in order to narrow

down the number of possible solutions to a problem. On a multiple choice test, you have to narrow down the

possible choices to the one most likely to be right.

Characteristics for Creativity

Expertise in the area A master painter must have certain skills like how to

handle a paintbrush or which colors to mix together

Creative skills Problem solving, capacity for divergent thinking, a

willingness to take risks, etc.

Internal motivation A person who paints only for money will be limited

in his creativity because he is externally motivated.

Unusual Mental Ability Giftedness

Gifted people tend to very rarely become creative geniuses, but they do tend to lead more successful lives.

Mental Retardation 50 – 70 Mild (typically Down syndrome individuals) 35 – 49 Moderate 20 – 34 Severe Below 20 Profound

Characteristics of Mentally Retarded People Perform certain mental operations more slowly Know fewer facts about the world Are less skilled at using particular mental strategies

Learning Disabilities

Dyslexia Difficulty in understanding reading Difficulty in sounding out or identifying written words

Dysphasia Difficulty in understanding speech Difficulty in recalling the words one needs for effective speech

Dysgraphia Difficulty in writing and forming letters Omission or reordering of words and parts of words in one’s

writing

Discalculia (least common) Difficulty with math skills and/or in the comprehension of basic

arithmetic principles and operations