Advanced Rechargeable Batteries

DRAFT INTERNAL REPORT

In 2011, more than 1.4 billion mobile phones

will be sold worldwide

Wind power in EU represented 39% of all new power

generation capacity installed in 2009/2010

More than 1 million Hybrid-Electric & Electric vehicles

may be sold in Europe in 2020

A Sustainable Technology for

an Energy & Resource-Efficient Society

ADVANCED RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES


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CONTENT

1. Introduction (Chair’s message) 2. Objectives of this Report 3. Advanced Rechargeable Batteries in our

Society

3.1. A Mobile communication Society

3.2. The Silent (R)Evolution of E-Mobility

3.3. Using Green Power in Daily Life 4. EU Commission’s Input 5. The Advanced Rechargeable Battery

5.1. Battery Technology

5.2. Optimizing Battery Performance

5.3. Charging the Battery

5.4. Market trends 6. Wide Angle: Application Ranges

6.1. Mobile Communication 6.2. Laptops 6.3. Cordless Power Tools 6.4. Individual cells 6.5. Other Consumer Applications

7. Responding to E-Mobility

7.1. Individual Mobility

7.2. Hybrid-mode

7.3. Plug-in Hybrid Electric

7.4. Full Electric

7.5. Mass Transport 8. The new demand of the Electricity Grid 9. The Future: air, sea and synergies 10. Sustainability

10.1. Miniaturization and Sustainability

10.2. Sustainable Transport Modes

10.3. Life Cycle Analysis : a decision tool 11. Towards a Resource Efficient Economy 12. The way forward with Raw Materials

12.1. Recycling makes sense

12.2. Collection: the bottleneck

12.3. Improving the EOL management 13. Conclusions


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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Foreword from RECHARGE’s Chair

elcome to this brochure setting

out the world of Advanced Rechargeable Batteries and showing how these mature and developing technologies interact in our daily lives and more importantly how they will interact in the future.

Like many other industries the Advanced Rechargeable Battery Industry is committed to developing and improving the performance of our products so that they deliver a higher performance and improved value for money to our customers while embracing sustainability and eco balance throughout our value chain. This can only be achieved by implementing sound management processes from our concept designs through our manufacturing processes and on into battery collection, material recovery and reuse.

I hope you find this brochure informative and enjoyable and I look forward to receiving any further information requests you may have.

Jill Ledger Chair

This report has been prepared by Michel Vanderstraeten (Consultant), Jean-Pol Wiaux (Director General of RECHARGE) and RECHARGE’s secretariat.

As an International Association, RECHARGE is an example of how a value chain can cooperate and share knowledge and objectives.

RECHARGE Members represents all stages of the life-cycle of a rechargeable battery

W


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1.2. RECHARGE Membership

For more than ten years, RECHARGE has developed knowledge and has been gathering intelligence and data on markets, technologies and regulatory and legislative issues of interest to the development of the EU portable and industrial rechargeable battery industry (1). Over the last ten years, the power tool, camera, communication and computing applications have driven the development of advanced portable rechargeable batteries (2).

More recently, the rechargeable industrial battery industry application field has opened to Electric Mobility while supplying the LEV, HEV, PHEV and EV Industry. The increasing need for rechargeable batteries in energy storage applications is also developing. Therefore, RECHARGE has integrated a new and complementary field of activities in the area of advanced industrial rechargeable batteries and their applications, with a special focus (but not exclusive) on Lithium Ion technologies.

(1). The terms portable and industrial refers to the definitions proposed in Article 3 of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC.

(2). Advanced rechargeable Battery technologies include battery systems such as Ni-MH, Ni-Cd, Li-Ion, Na-NiCl2, Metal-air batteries


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1. OBJECTIVES

This report will give you a better understanding of...

The nature of Advanced Rechargeable Batteries and their application range

The reasons why they’ve become increasingly efficient and popular

The societal value of Advanced Rechargeable Batteries

Why they really represent a sustainable technology for the future, based on the results of recent Life-Cycle Analysis.

The report will also cover the future challenges for the Advanced Rechargeable Battery Industry which are: - optimizing the resources and energy

consumption from the many appliances which consumers and businesses increasingly rely upon;

- closing the materials loop through efficient collection and recycling circuits so as to reduce the dependency on primary raw material sources;

- providing batteries fulfilling the requirements for eco-designed equipment;

- increasing battery-life and efficiency whilst reducing costs so as to further improve the overall Life-Cycle performance of the battery.


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3. ADVANCED RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES IN OUR SOCIETY

3.1 A MOBILE COMMUNICATION

SOCIETY

The mobile communication world In 1982, Finnish pioneer Nokia introduced its first mobile phone, the Mobira Senato. This phone then had the appearance of a portable radio and it weighed 10 kilograms! Introduced in 1991, the GSM system initially served a relatively privileged group of 16 million mobile users in the world. Ten years later, in 2001, the number of subscriptions passed the 1 billion mark and we are at 5 billion now!

International Telecommunications Union statistics (The World in 2010 – ICT Facts and Figures) indicate that the total number of SMS sent globally tripled between 2007 and 2010, from an estimated 1.8 trillion to a staggering 6.1 trillion. In other words, close to 200 000 text messages are sent every second. Without the Advanced Rechargeable Battery, there would not have been 120 mobile phones subscriptions per 100 Europeans and 1360 million mobile phones shipped in 2010 around the world.

This battery-based technological revolution results in the reduced use of aerial or underground copper wiring. Connecting large parts of the world would never have been possible with the traditional wired applications…

Graph: CIS**: Community of Independent States; 2010 figures are provisional Source: International Telecommunications Union – 2010

Source : Nokia LAC Analysis 2007

Mobile communications empower people. With a penetration level of 47% in 2011, the African mobile sector is spectacularly changing the way Africans connect to the world and do business (Ref: ITU)

Although being the best-equipped in fixed land lines, Europeans are now leading in the number of mobile subscription users.


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3.2 THE SILENT (R)EVOLUTION OF E-MOBILITY

Increasingly accepted as capable, even appealing, forms of transportation, particularly in densely populated urban areas, electric two-wheel vehicles, a category that includes electric bicycles, motorcycles, and scooters, will spread rapidly over the next years. Electric two-wheel vehicles tend to be a lifestyle choice as well as an alternative to the car for commuting to work.

Electric means of transport are seen as the most promising way of addressing traffic congestion and pollution in an ever more urbanised world. Battery improvements that extend the driving range of the vehicle at competitive cost should hasten adoption of e-mobility as a full-fledged means of transportation. According to market intelligence firm Pike Research worldwide sales of electric two-wheel vehicles are expected to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.4% through 2016. More than 466 million e-bikes, e-motorcycles and e-scooters will be sold worldwide between 2010 and 2015, 95% of them in China alone! (Ref: Pike Research),

According to an American report, 5.2 million Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) will be sold worldwide in 2020. (Ref: J.D. Power and Associates),

Some 3.9 million units (about 5.5% of the market) are expected to be HEVs and PHEVs of which a million will be sold in Europe. Of the 1.3 million BEVs projected to be sold worldwide in 2020 (about 1.8% of the market), sales in Europe will account for 742,000 units.

Luxury car manufacturer Lexus’ hybrid e-bike concept first seen at the 2009 Tokyo motor show

New Honda 4-wheeled scooter

iOn electric car from Peugeot

The world’s first commercial diesel-electric hybrid train started service through Japan’s northern highlands in July 2007. (Ref: Cnet news). That same year tests began in Europe.


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3.3 USING GREEN POWER IN OUR DAILY LIVES

According to the latest International Energy Agency figures, electricity generation in OECD countries will increase by an average of 1.1 percent per year, from 3.4 trillion kilowatt-hours (kWh) in 2007 to 4.4 trillion kWh in 2030 and 4.6 trillion kWh in 2035. The challenge for our society will be to ensure that energy is produced and used in an efficient way.

According to the EU Commission, a 20 % share of renewable energy could cut Europe’s fuel imports by 20M tonnes oil equivalent per year and avoid between 600 and 900 Mt CO2 emissions per year. (Ref: EU Commission).

However there are many technical, regulatory and economic issues with making the renewable option really work.

The rechargeable battery industry has an important role to play in this huge challenge by making energy storage for peak load levelling possible and by allowing the integration of intermittent clean energy sources into the grid.

The Commission sponsored H2RES model is designed for balancing between hourly time series of water, electricity, heat and hydrogen demand, appropriate storages and power supply. This model can serve as planning tool for single wind, hydro or solar power producers connected to bigger power systems.

Net electricity generation in OECD Europe by fuel, 2007-2035 (trillion kilowatthours)

IEA 2010 International Energy Outlook

Note on definitions used: Renewables: Energy that is derived from natural processes (e.g. sunlight and wind) that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed. Solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, and biomass are common sources of renewable energy Liquids: Crude and unconventional oil as well as natural gas liquids


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4. EU COMMISSION POLICY

Some of the most recent policy proposals from the EU Commission are oriented towards,

the development of technologies and software applications that depend on the availability of mobile power

the review of environmental policies to prevent pollution and to preserve material availability

the development of a safeguard access to resources and critical raw materials

the 2020 renewable energy policy


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5. THE ADVANCED RECHARGEABLE BATTERY

5.1 BATTERY TECHNOLOGY

A rechargeable battery is made of one or more electrochemical cell(s) that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy.

These batteries are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are reversible, which makes them rechargeable, hence the charge-discharge cycles which can be many hundreds or even thousands depending of the application.

Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from portable batteries such as the single cells used to power a mobile phone to industrial batteries connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network, ensure power storage or transport (electric vehicles). Industrial rechargeable batteries are also used in marine, space and other specialty applications. Different combinations of chemicals are commonly used:

• Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion and Li-Polymer), • Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH), • Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd), • Silver-Zinc (Ag2O-Zn), • Sodium-Nickel Chloride (ZEBRA),…

Among rechargeable batteries, the Lithium-Ion technology has the highest energy density. This new battery system is still under intensive development both at performance and cost levels and also for new active electrode materials. Currently there is eight different Lithium-Ion systems on the market.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry


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• The Nickel-Metal Hydride battery offers up to 50% more energy than conventional batteries. This technology is based on the storage of Hydrogen atoms in a metallic matrix made from Rare-Earth metals.

• Nickel-Cadmium is a battery with proven reliability which operates well even in extreme temperatures and conditions. The nickel-cadmium battery is one of the most enduring batteries in terms of service life but has only moderate energy density.

• The ZEBRA Battery is using molten sodium as an electrode. It is used in energy storage applications and is tested for full Electric Vehicles.

• The Silver-Zinc battery is used in special military applications for high power demand.

.

Portable rechargeable batteries include sealed units used in appliances such as mobile phones, laptop computers and cordless tools. Cells of this type include Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) and Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) cells

Today, the Li-Ion battery has the highest share of the portable rechargeable battery market. In 2011, nearly 28.000 tons of Li-Ion cells will be sold in Europe, for over 700 million cells, a figure that is expected to grow up with 200 million more cells by 2015! (Ref: Recharge)

Industrial rechargeable batteries are found in stand-by and transport applications from the various electric car types to the large battery systems for emergency power storage. They are used in transportation, space and other specialty applications.


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5.2 OPTIMIZING BATTERY PERFORMANCE

THE BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS)

1. Electrochemical Cells

A cell is an electrochemical device composed of positive and negative electrodes and an electrolyte, which is capable of storing electrical energy. It is the basic “building block” of a battery.

A Prismatic Cell

A Cylindrical Cell

A Pouch Cell

2. A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic device that manages a rechargeable battery (cell or battery pack). The use of a BMS is critical for

ensuring the life and

performance of Li-Ion batteries The purpose of the BMS is mainly to

• protect Li-Ion cells against abuse such as overcharge and over-discharge,

• monitor the state of the battery (voltage, current, temperature, state of charge, overall condition of the battery),

• calculate secondary data (total operating time etc.),

• report that data (such as the CAN-bus controller-area network present in all cars),

• protect the battery against over-charge, excessive current flow, exposure to extreme temperatures, over-pressure,

• control the battery by commanding the operation of cooler fans or balancing energy between cells.


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5.3. CHARGING THE BATTERY

The quality of the charger is a key determinant in the life time of a rechargeable battery. The users and designers of appliances are also major stakeholders towards an ever more efficient use of Advanced Rechargeable Batteries Technologies.

With the Universal Charging Solution, a voluntary agreement between mobile phone manufacturers and service providers, battery chargers for mobile phones will be standardised, Micro-USB chargers will be adopted, and no-load energy consumption will be limited to 0.15 W.

5.4. MARKET TRENDS

The fast development for sealed rechargeable batteries is supported by the demand in portable computing, cordless tools and the first generations of hybrid and full electric vehicles.

Source: Market survey prepared by Avicenne for Recharge (2010).


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6. WIDE ANGLE

The world of Advanced Rechargeable Batteries

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries satisfy the fast growing demand for powering an increasing number of portable electric and electronic devices.

Number of subscriptions per 100 Inhabitants (WW) Source: International Telecommunications Union – 2010

6.1. Mobile Communication

The trend towards mobile communication is powerful and irreversible

People want to stay connected anytime, anywhere… forced to move away from energy-voracious ways of working or moving around, society will rely more on flexible and ‘lightweight’ alternatives.

The integration of a growing number of functions such as telephony, video and audio-visual media, payment and data processing increases the performance requirements on batteries. In responding to this challenge, the Advanced Rechargeable Battery facilitates the transition to a much greener approach to productivity and mobility.

The entire chain of mobile communications relies on battery performance as Rechargeable Batteries not only power the handheld devices but are also used as back up to provide emergency power for large cellular telephone towers and data centres.

SOURCE : RECHARGE MARKET SURVEY 2010

Ever more services

Many leading European operators are committed to implementing Near Field Communications (NFC) technology by 2012.This will enable mobile payments, ticketing, the exchange of data, access control to cars, homes, hotels, car parks and much more.


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6.2. Laptop and Tablet PC s

There is an increasing demand for data acquisition and transfer for both professional use and individual leisure.

The introduction of the laptop to replace desktop computers and the development of new tablet PCs will boost demand for advanced equipment that integrates communication tools and media support platforms. It is anticipated that teleworking will bring a partial solution to time consuming commuting.

Together with the development of advanced electronic materials and technologies, the rechargeable battery has transformed the laptop into an energy-efficient and powerful information and communication technology available to the public in a mobile format.

The continuous technical challenges between performances and functions of equipments result in the demand for an increase of performances of Advanced Rechargeable Batteries.

The market for laptops and tablet PCs is expected to experience a stronger growth rate than the maturing mobile phone market. The increasing number of functions and longer running time puts new and challenging technical requirements on rechargeable batteries.

Source : RECHARGE MARKET SURVEY 2010

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Portable PCs with Li-ion battery

38,06 46,4 54,84 63,28 71,71 77,39 83,79 88,25

Portable PCs with NiMH battery

1,18 1,43 1,7 1,96 2,224 2,39 2,59 2,73

0

20

40

60

80

100

Mill

ions

Portable PCs sold in Europe


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6.3 Cordless Power Tools

People enjoy the flexibility of cordless power tools because of their superior convenience and portability.

One of the major benefits of using cordless power tools is that they avoid carrying high voltage cables on construction sites, which is inconvenient and may constitute a hazard for workers.

Thanks to advancements in battery technology and tool design, such equipment now has more power, less weight, and a longer run-time than ever before.

Li-ion batteries have about three times the energy density of conventional technology batteries, making them ideal for powering high performance equipment. But they are less robust than conventional rechargeable battery technologies, based on alkaline or acid electrolytes.


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6.4. Individual cells for consumer applications

Rechargeable Ni-MH cells are offered as an alternative to primary, non-rechargeable batteries. In 2011, Ni-MH single cells dominated the consumer market for Rechargeable Batteries. Indeed, they have the standard size of portable primary batteries and are voltage compatible. Ni-MH single cells are used in applications where there is a high power demand such as flashlights, videogames, CD players, handheld recorders, etc...

SOURCE: RECHARGE MARKET SURVEY 2010

6.5 Other Advanced Applications for Specialty Rechargeable Batteries

There are many other specific applications for Ni-Cd, NiMH or Li-ion batteries to be used in medical and emergency applications.

Rechargeable batteries are a reliable power source for critical applications such as cardiac defibrillators or marine GPS equipment.


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7. E-POWER and E-MOBILITY

Rechargeable Batteries will assist people in their need for clean transport. Rechargeable Batteries respond to the energy demand requirements for the individual and collective transportation.

7.1 INDIVIDUAL MOBILITY

An Electric Vehicle (EV) depends on one or more electric motors for propulsion. Electric Vehicles include many transportation modes. Battery powered vehicles include cars, bicycles, trains, trucks, boats. The electric bicycle has long ceased to be a gadget: 1 million electric bicycles were sold in Europe in 2010!

7.2 HYBRID MODE: a win-win technology.

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric power train allows achieving either a better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle, or improves the overall performance of the vehicle. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks and buses also exist. Nearly all car manufacturers have decided to invest in the HEV technology.

CO2 emissions from ICE and Hybrid vehicles: the win-win challenge of the Hybrid Technology (Toyota Prius).

Mobility contributes to economic and social

development. It enables people to access

goods, services and information, as well as

jobs, markets, family and friends. Mobility can

improve quality of life, but the development

of mobility brings the challenge of congestion,

air pollution, traffic-related accidents and the

environmental costs of transportation.

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries will

increasingly allow for mobility solutions to be

developed to address these challenges:

* tele-working will reduce commuting,

*electric mobility will improve quality of life

in the large cities,

*electricity storage will optimize the supply

of and demand for electric power…


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Results of an LCA analysis performed jointly by RECHARGE, the Nickel Institute, Umicore & Toyota.

7.3. PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC

In the new plug-in hybrid diesel/electric

vehicle, that Volvo and Vattenfall presented at

the 2011 Geneva Motor Show an electric

motor gets power from a lithium-ion battery.

In their commonly developed Plug-in Hybrid

the buyer gets the properties of three distinct

car types. At the touch of a button he decides

how to drive.

The "Pure" button makes the car run entirely

on electricity, giving it a range of up to 50

kilometres. Press "Hybrid" and one drives a

high-efficiency hybrid with average carbon

dioxide emissions of just 49 g/km. When

choosing "Power", a veritable powerplant

provides a combined total of 215 + 70

horsepower and acceleration from 0-100

km/h in just 6.9 seconds. (Ref: Volvo)

7.4 FULL ELECTRIC

The Smart Fortwo e-drive, a full electric vehicle, will be available to the public as of 2012. The battery can be charged at any normal household socket. To drive 50 km per day , which is the average distance covered by 80% of car users, the battery can be fully recharged in around 3 hours (Ref: Smart)


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7.5 Mass Transport

Individual Mobility and Mass Transport are interdependent. Every day millions of individuals commute, heading into large, often congested cities in public and individual transportation modes by rail, road and air.

Optimization of mass and individual transportation through improved energy use will be forced upon us by strong economic or political drivers.

The hybrid mode of propulsion or traction is already a commercial reality for individual cars and other transport such as buses.

The possibility to convert a part of the vehicle fleet powered by conventional fuel-based engines into hybrid or full electric vehicles represents another large potential development for the battery industry.

Hybrid propulsion buses are used in many cities across the world.


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8. THE NEW DEMANDS OF THE ELECTRICITY GRID

Rechargeable Batteries will optimize the use of electricity in an individual or collective environment

Rechargeable batteries for industrial applications already provide backup power for numerous electrical and electronic equipments.

The data centres on which all business and communication now rely depend on uninterruptible power supply, which ‘battery banks’ made of rechargeable batteries provide. Data centres such as those run by Google Inc. already use more than 1 per cent of the world's energy and their demand for power is rising fast with the trend to outsource computing.

(Ref: Reuters – 27 Oct. 2010)

Batteries are starting to be used for grid energy storage allowing load levelling and peak shaving when required.

The increasing investments in wind power and solar energy make it essential to ensure that all the energy produced can be delivered to the grid when needed, instead of relying on

costly coal or fuel-based back-up generation…

Solar and wind power are intermittent and unpredictable whilst the grid requires a constant and instantaneous match between the electricity generated and the consumption. With battery back-up, a wind farm can deliver a set amount of electricity at all times, making it more reliable.

Denmark aims for a 50% share of wind in energy production by 2025

Wind and Solar Power dominate the EU power generation investments.


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A major focus of R&D is the development of a distribution grid where renewable power is generated where it will be used. The challenge is to master the move to solar or wind power, as these forms of energy are intermittent. There are indeed large fluctuations in the amount of power being generated which makes a robust, reliable method of storing energy absolutely critical.

To generate energy at a usable, consistent level, we will need to couple a dependable energy storage system i.e. advanced rechargeable batteries with renewable power sources.

Rechargeable Batteries offer highly efficient energy storage and increase the market penetration of power generation from renewable sources.

Figure:

Example of how energy storage can help level off peak demand, both reducing the strain on utilities (base load operations) and taking into account the intermittency of wind power.

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-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

2h 4h 6h 8h 10h 12h 14h 16h 18h 20h 22h 24h

Demand

Non-renewable production (coal, nuclear etc.)

Peak Deficit

Wind Production

Storage

THE ADDED VALUE OF ENERGY STORAGE

Households - Energy Self-Sufficiency, local production = local consumption

- Safe against outages - High efficiency - Sell excess of wind or photovoltaic (solar) energy when demand is high

Grid Operator - Reduce Peak Demand (production and transmission)

- Avoid disturbances (overvoltage) - Defer grid upgrades (long term) - Ancillary i.e. supportive Services

Environment - Continuous increase of wind and sun in energy mix - Energy savings due to reduced losses on the grid - Energy savings due to reduced consumption - Substitution of costly and inefficient peak power generation


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9. THE FUTURE: AIR AND SEA...

9.1. SOLAR PLANE

The Solar Impulse Electric Aeroplane is powered by electric motors similar to those used in geo-orbiting spacecraft to maintain position. As a back-up power, 400 kg of Li-Ion batteries store energy and provide the necessary energy to the plane for day and night flights.

The solar energy is captured by 200 m2 of solar panels while the batteries store it as electrical energy when produced and deliver it when required mainly during take-off and while maintaining the flight position.

9.2. SOLAR BOAT With its 31 meters in length and 15 meters width, the Turanor Planet Solar is the world’s largest solar-powered boat.

The vessel is completely fuelled by renewable energy, with its 500 square meters of solar cells having a 22% efficiency rate.

The batteries weigh 11,7 tons and ensure an autonomy of 3 days of navigation. On its 2011 round-the-globe expedition, the Turanor PlanetSolar is pioneering the use of sustainable energy technology on water.

9.3. SYNERGIES

Combining Fuel Cells and Advanced Battery Technologies

Fuel cell technology is being looked at as a radical alternative to the Internal Combustion Engine to generate electric power, which can then be stored by a battery. The fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy from hydrogen into electricity through a reaction with oxygen from air into electricity, heat and water. Instead of recharging a fuel cell by using electricity, a tank of hydrogen is refilled.

Fuel cell powered Honda FCX combined with Li-ion electricity storage e.g. from regenerative breaking.

A rechargeable battery is generally coupled with the Fuel Cell as a

complementary energy storage device.


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10. SUSTAINABILITY 10.1 MINIATURIZATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

Miniaturization of handheld devices or affordability of batteries for electric vehicles relies on the continuous improvement of performances of rechargeable batteries.

Advanced Rechargeable Battery technologies are being constantly improved to respond to the increasing performance demands of new devices whilst using lower levels of resources.

On 27 October 2010, IBM, Infineon, Global Foundries, the Jülich Research center as well as the universities of Bologna, Dortmund, Lausanne, Pisa and Udine unveiled a research project, called Steeper, which aims to decrease the energy needs of electronic devices such as TV sets or supercomputers by 10 times when active, and to virtually eliminate power consumption when in standby mode.

The ultimate objective would be to develop a PC with no energy consumption in stand-by mode...

Electronic devices currently account for 15 per cent of household electricity consumption, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), and their energy needs will triple by 2030. (Ref: IEA)

Scientists hope to rely on nanotechnology to lower electricity consumption and extend battery life of electronic devices, aiming to at least halve the operating voltage needed by transistors to operate.

0,00

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

kWh/

kg

Capacity Improvement for Portable Rechargeable Batteries

NiCd AA

NiCd Sub-C

NiMH AA

Li-ion UR 16650

Completed in 2010, the EU-

sponsored NanoPoLiBat project

successfully looked at inserting

nano technology in Li-ion

batteries. Energy content,

capacity and safety of Li-ion

batteries will be improved.

Enormous future potential is

expected to use silicium, which

is able to absorb up to ten times

more charging compared to

other anode materials used until

now.


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10.2. SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT MODES.

The battery industry is challenged to contribute in developing a sustainable transport mode for society.

According to International Energy Agency forecasts, the world’s car fleet is expected to triple by 2050 with 80% of this growth occurring in developing economies. This presents unparalleled resource and environmental challenges and requires a combination of research and development efforts.

The future development of the hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) rests on various pillars:

- More efficient internal combustion engine (ICE). The “50by50” initiative of the automobile industry aims at reducing a car’s fuel consumption by 50% by 2050. (Ref: GFEI)

- Design to reduce weight and use of scarce resources

- Improved energy efficiency of the battery.

- Transformation into electricity of the

vehicle’s energy ‘losses’. Modern HEVs make use of regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into battery-replenishing electric energy, rather than wasting it as heat energy like conventional brakes do.

Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the engine at idle and restarting it when needed: start-stop system.

The battery industry target of the next 10 years is to bring the price tag under 100€ per kWh. Increasing production volumes, together with improvements in reliability, safety and recyclability will be the major challenges faced by the battery industry.

Ambitious cities:

The 'Amsterdam Electric' scheme, launched in March 2009, set the goal to have 200,000 battery-driven vehicles in Amsterdam in 2040.

Many other EU-cities such as London and Barcelona are introducing E-mobility in their transport policy.


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10.3. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT: A DECISION TOOL

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries are a Sustainable Technology

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries aim at providing solutions for an economy that is in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems, preserving their carrying capacity whilst addressing the many social challenges facing humanity.

Life-Cycle Assessment is the preferred tool for the decision maker by evaluating and interpreting the potential environmental impacts associated with the identified inputs and releases.

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries are economically and environmentally viable compared to other battery types! A Bio Intelligence Study performed for the Company UNIROSS has calculated that for 1 kWh of energy produced, rechargeable batteries have compared to disposable batteries:

• 23 times less potential impact on non-renewable natural resources

• 28 times less potential impact on global warming

• 30 times less potential impact on air pollution (ozone)

• 9 times less potential impact on air acidification

• 12 times less potential impact on water pollution

An Australian LCA study reinforces what is probably the intuitive opinion of most experts that the environmental benefits of using rechargeable batteries rather than disposable batteries for consumer electronics are very significant. More specifically, the benefits apply in all of the categories of impact which were analyzed even in the relatively pessimistic case of only fifty cycles of discharge/charge for the re-chargeable batteries and even if the various battery types are used under less than ideal conditions such as storing re-chargeable batteries for a considerable time after charging. The production of the batteries is the dominant source of damage from re-chargeable batteries so efforts to obtain maximum benefits in the form of the maximum number of discharge and charge cycles should be encouraged… Parsons D. (2007) The Environmental Impact of Disposable vs. Re-Chargeable Batteries for Consumer Use. Int J. LCA 12 (3) 197-203

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries are a Sustainable Technology in E-Car development. The ecobalance of Li-ion batteries for electric cars appears greener than expected. In 2010, EMPA, the Swiss federal Research Institute, looked at the environmental performance of the manufacture, operation and disposal of the rechargeable batteries. EMPA has, for the first time, calculated the ecological footprint of the most commonly used type, the lithium-ion battery. The result is that a conventional car with a petrol engine must consume less than 4 liters of fuel per 100km in order to be as environmentally friendly as modern electric

A myth busted...Rechargeable battery-powered laptops are energy efficient!

Based on Windows Vista Energy Conservation, 2006, PCs configured to sleep in off hours with Wake-on LAN are two to five times costlier in electricity than battery-powered laptops.The Enterprise PC Lifecycle, Microsoft, 2008


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cars.


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The EMPA investigation shows that if the power used to charge the battery is not derived from purely hydroelectric sources, then it is primarily the operation of the electric car, which has an environmental impact, exactly as is the case with conventionally fuelled automobiles. The size of the environmental footprint depends on which sources of power are used to "fuel" the e-mobile. The Li-ion battery itself has, in contrast, a limited effect on the LCA of the electric vehicle. This is contrary to initial expectations that the manufacture of the batteries could offset the advantages of the electric drive. (Ref: EMPA)

According to the EMPA study, the Full Electric Vehicle or Battery-powered Electric Vehicle (BEV) allows savings of 53% (electricity vs. fuel) in CO2 equivalent emissions.

Similarly, the study shows that the Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) reduces by 30.6% the Global Warming Potential of a car (See page 18).

Figure : Global Warming Potential (GP) in kg-CO2 eq. Over the entire lifecycle operation (150’000 km). Reduced CO2 emissions of the Full Electric Vehicle compared with the ICE car.Fuel Consumption EURO 4 UCTE Mix 134 g CO2 Eq/kWh. Source: EMPA Switzerland ( Batteries 2009 ).


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11. TOWARDS A RESOURCE- EFFICIENT ECONOMY

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries require quality raw materials, some of them quite rare…

Access to strategically important raw materials is one of Europe’s most recent concerns.

Advanced Rechargeable Batteries are examples of resource efficient technologies

The debate on access to rare earth and other potentially critical materials such as cobalt and lithium has brought RECHARGE to look at the likely trends in battery materials uses between 2010 and 2020

Thanks to the high number of cycles they achieve, Rechargeable Batteries offer an efficient application of raw materials as they are used many times in a piece of equipment.

Life Cycle Analysis confirms the important role of the number of cycles achieved per battery unit in a given application.

When they reach their end of life, rechargeable batteries can be recycled efficiently and their materials content recovered for reuse.

The growth of demand for lithium in the hypothesis of a significant growth of the number of electric vehicles sold in Europe and worldwide raises concerns.

Current world production of this metal is around 25.000 tons.

The battery application represents 25 % by w. of total uses. Reserves are abundant but it is of strategic importance that

• Collection of waste batteries is further developed.

• Recycling technologies are optimized.


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12. THE WAY FORWARD WITH RAW MATERIALS: COLLECTION and RECYCLING

RECHARGE Membership includes companies specialized in the recycling of materials recovered from waste batteries.

They are committed to operate under the most strict environmental and human health protection conditions.

These recyclers process an increasing quantity of waste Rechargeable Batteries allowing the reuse of metals such as nickel, cobalt, iron, cadmium or lithium... in the economy.

In a report dated 2003, the EU Commission already emphasized the role of recycling as production technology that requires less energy to produce raw materials than the primary metal production industry.

A critical parameter is the collection of these batteries at end of life. They are linked with the equipment with which they are sold. An important “urban mining” effect (“hoarding”) is at the origin of reduced yearly collection rates of these batteries.

It is anticipated that the implementation of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC and of the WEEE Directive 2002/96/EC will lead to an efficient capture of the flow of waste batteries generated every year.

FIGURE: ILLUSTRATION OF THE COMPLEXITY OF MATERIALS USED IN ADVANCED COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES .

Source: ENVIRONMENT. 2/2011. OFPE/BAFU. Bern. Switzerland

A universal labelling of rechargeable batteries according to their technology would assist greatly collectors and recyclers in achieving optimum recycling efficiency for the recovery and re-use of raw materials.


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12.1. RECYCLING MAKES SENSE

The complex materials composition of finished products using Rechargeable Batteries, imposes further development of advanced recycling technologies that allow the recovery of secondary raw materials which can then be re-introduced in the economy.

European battery recyclers have been processing waste batteries for more than 20 years. They offer recycling technologies able to process all types of advanced rechargeable batteries.

Their objective is the production of secondary raw materials of the quality required by commercial operators.

An Extended Impact Assessment published by the EU Commission in 2003 (2003 – 1343, pp 13) indicates that the production of secondary metals requires significantly less energy than the production of primary metals.


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12.2. COLLECTION: THE BOTTLENECK

A critical parameter is the collection of spent Rechargeable Batteries at end of life. They are linked with the equipment with which they are sold. An important “urban mining” effect (“hoarding”) is at the origin of a low yearly return rate of these batteries.

Current estimations predict that after ten years of market development in the Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) powered by Rechargeable Batteries, there are close to 100’000 tonnes of Portable Rechargeable Batteries available for collection for the EU recycling industry.

This valuable secondary raw material is ‘hoarded’ in our homes and garages. The hoarding rate is estimated at an astonishing 66%. These batteries need collecting and recycling as we want their raw material content being returned to the production of new batteries.

Figure: For many years, RECHARGE and EBRA have consolidated information on the collection of Advanced Rechargeable Batteries in EU 27 MS.

12.3. IMPROVING THE END OF LIFE MANAGEMENT EFFICIENCY RECHARGE proposes to improve access to raw materials from the recycling of waste batteries through the following list of actions:

1. IMPROVE KNOWLEDGE AND MANAGEMENT OF

HOARDED EQUIPMENT WITH INCORPORATED

BATTERIES (HOME STORAGE – URBAN MINING) 2. MOTIVATE END-USERS TO ACCELERATE THE RETURN

OF HOARDED ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

EQUIPMENT 3. BETTER CONTROL THE EXPORT OF WEEE 4. DEVELOP EFFICIENT SEPARATION

TECHNOLOGIES/PRACTICES OF WASTE BATETRIES

FROM WEEE. 5. CONTROL RETURN CHANNELS AND END OF LIFE

MANAGEMENT OF WASTE BATTERIES USED FOR E-MOBILITY

6. IMPLEMENT CODING FOR BETTER SEPARATION OF

BATTERIES BY CHEMISTRY


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13. CONCLUSIONS

The contribution Advanced Rechargeable Batteries will make to our society depends on an integrated and cooperative consideration of five development pillars:

1. R&D in the battery energy efficiency and embarked energy, 2. Eco-design of appliances incorporating batteries (removability) 3. Efficient use of the battery’s energy content 4. Efficient collection of waste batteries at end of life 5. Efficient recovery of raw materials 6. Implementation of Regulatory Safety measures

RECHARGE’s Members are fully committed to contributing to a sustainable Society based on a Circular Economy in the field of integrated energy storage systems for communication, convenience via portability, mobility and electricity grid interaction. This is confirmed in their mission statement.

RECHARGE’s MISSION


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RECHARGE MEMBERS


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ACRONYMS EBRA European Battery Recyclers Association EV Electric Vehicle LEV Light Electric Vehicle HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicles PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles BEV GFEI

Battery Electric Vehicles Global Fuel Economy Initiative

H2RES

H2RES is a model designed for balancing between hourly time series of water, electricity, heat and hydrogen demand, appropriate storages and supply (wind, solar, hydro, geothermal, biomass, fossil fuels or mainland grid).

BMS Battery Management System CAN Controller-Area Network NFC Near Field Communications ICE Internal Combusion Engine LCA Life Cycle Analysis

EMPA Eidgenössische Materialprüfungs- und Versuchsanstalt (Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology)

References

ITU- International Telecommunications Union: The World in 2010 – ICT Facts and Figures & World Telecommunication/ICT database

Pike Research: Electric two-wheeled vehicles – June 2010

J.D. Power and Associates: Drive Green 2020: More Hope than Reality – October 2010

Cnet.news: Riding the world’s first hybrid train in Japan, Graham Webster, March 18, 2008. EMPA: Life Cycle Assessment of lithium ion batteries and implications on future e-mobility applications (2009) & Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles“, D.A. Notter & al., Environmental Science & Technology, August 2010.

EU Commission: Renewables make the Difference – 2011 & Extended Impact Assessment of the Directive on Batteries, and accumulators and spent batteries and accumulators – COM(2003)723 final)

REUTERS and PC Pro –Scientists promise power revolution, Stewart Mitchell, – October 27, 2010 .

Volvo: Volvo Cars first with next-generation hybrids. The V60 Plug-in Hybrid is three cars in one – February 2011 (volvocars.com)

Smart: see article on the electric drive on www.smartusa.com

Solar Impulse: see www.solarimpulse.com

Turanor Planet Solar: visit www.planetsolar.org to follow the first solar boat expedition around the globe

IEA - International Energy Agency: Transport, Energy and CO2, Moving toward Sustainability, 2009

50by50: Global Fuel Economy Initiative, a collaborative project from FIA Foundation, IEA, International Transport Forum, United Nations Environment Program – www.globalfueleconomy.org

http://www.smartusa.com/

http://www.solarimpulse.com/

http://www.planetsolar.org/

http://www.globalfueleconomy.org/


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