Advanced writing - iauz.ac.iriauz.ac.ir/files/85696/Advanced+Writing.pdf · Paragraph, Unity It is...

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Advanced writing

Dr. Fatemeh Alipanahi

English Language Department

Islamic Azad University, Znajan BranchZanjan Iran

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Features of the course

Name: Advanced Writing

Number of modules: 2

A Prerequisite course for MA students

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Books assigned

There are two books assigned for the course:

1. Paragraph Development

Martin L. Arnaudet

Mary Ellen Barrett

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Books assigned

2. Let’s Write English, Book 2

For the students of English as a secondlanguage

George E. Wishon

Julia M. Burks

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The aims of the course

The aims of the course are:

Familiarizing the student's with features andcomponents of a good paragraph.

Learning how to develop a paragraph andfamiliarizing with different styles ofparagraph development.

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The aims of the course

Learning to expand a paragraph to be ableto move on to writing compositions.

Familiarizing with different prose forms(narration, description, argumentation, andexplanation) through practice.

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The design of the course

The design of the first book is based on thetheory that if a student is able to write aunified, coherent paragraph, transferringthis skill to writing a full composition willnot be difficult. Accordingly, the content ofthe book is as follows:

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The topic sentence

Supporting topic sentences

Enumeration

Types of enumeration

Cause and effect

Comparison and contrast

Definition

From paragraph to composition

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The second book examines characteristicsof the major prose forms and givesexamples of each for the purpose ofdemonstrating the techniques used inwriting them.

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Paragraphs

In written form, English is divided intoparagraphs to distinguish one main ideafrom other main ideas.

Paragraph development, unit 1

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The topic sentence

The paragraph is the basic unit ofcomposition consisting of sentences thatdevelop one central idea.

The central idea is usually stated in a topicsentence.


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The topic sentence

Where does it appear?

In most cases, the topic sentence is the firstsentence of the paragraph.


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The topic sentence

However, it is possible to place the topicsentence at the end (as a kind of conclusion)or in the middle (as a link between the twoparts) of a paragraph.


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The topic sentence

It is even possible to write the paragraph in away that the topic sentence is implied orsuggested.

Remember that a topic sentence placed at thebeginning of a paragraph is the clearestkind of paragraph organization.


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The topic sentence

It is possible to have a paragraph withdouble topic sentences. That is, the firstsentence may introduce the idea in a generalway or in a question form and the secondsentence mentions the specific points.


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The topic sentence

What makes a good topic sentence?

A topic sentence always tries to make astatement about the topic which limits it toa certain extent.

Topic sentence = topic + limiting statement


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The topic sentence

In other words, a topic is more generalthan a topic sentence. Or a topic sentence ismore limited than a topic.


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Limiting your topic sentence

One good way to limit your topic is to placekey words or phrases in the topic sentence.

These words or phrases are sometimes calledcontrolling words or phrases.


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Consider ‘soccer’ as your topic.

There are too many things to put in oneparagraph about ‘soccer’; therefore, youneed to limit it.


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There are many ways to limit your topic in atopic sentence.

you can limit your topic by:

1. Place:

Soccer is now played in the United States.


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2. Time or period of time:Soccer has become more popular within thelast five years.

3. QualitySoccer is a physically demanding sport.


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4. Showing similarities:

Soccer and football have a great deal incommon.

5. Showing differences:

Soccer is more dangerous than tennis.


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6. A number of things; a list:A soccer player can receive various kindsof penalties.

7. Cause; reason:

Soccer is dangerous for several reasons.


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8. Effect:The World Cup Soccer ChampionshipGames create interest from soccer fans allover the world.


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Remember that it is possible to have morethan one of the above mentioned categoriesin your topic sentence:


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Soccer has become increasingly popular

quality

in the United States in the last ten years.

place time

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Paragraph, Indentation

The first sentence of a paragraph is alwaysindented so the reader will know that a newsubject- or a different aspect of the samesubject- is being dealt with.


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Paragraph, Indentation

The following figure shows two indentationsat the beginning of two paragraphs:Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx

xxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxxxx.


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Paragraph, length

A paragraph may vary in length. Some arequite short, others are extremely long. Mostparagraphs have more than three sentencesin them and usually have between 100 and200 words.


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Paragraph, Unity

In addition to the topic sentence, aparagraph includes several other sentenceswhich in some way contribute to orsupport the idea in the topic sentence.


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Paragraph, Unity

In other words, all the other sentences inthe paragraph must be related to the topicand must therefore refer back to the topicsentence.


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Paragraph, Unity

It is possible that some sentences may bedirectly related to the preceding supportingsentences (that is, they provide examples,details, or further explanation.) thefollowing diagram shows the relationship:


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Paragraph, Unity

Topic Sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

And so forth

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Paragraph, Unity

If a paragraph announces its main idea inthe topic sentence, and if all the supportingsentences contribute to the reader’sunderstanding of the main idea,


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Paragraph, Unity

we say that the paragraph is unified or that ithas unity.

If the paragraph fails to do so, we say that itlacks unity.


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Supporting Topic Sentences

There are many ways in which you candevelop and clarify a topic sentence. Fourof such ways are:

1. Examples2. Details3. Anecdotes4. Facts and statistics


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Supporting Topic Sentences, Examples

An example is a specific instance thatexplains a more general idea. Becauseexamples are smaller, more limited, andoften more concrete, they are easier tounderstand.


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If writers wish to provide examples, theycan remind their readers by using signalwords or phrases.


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structures of exemplificationThere are three groups of signals used in the

structure of examples:

Noun and verb signalsSentence connectorsPhrase signals


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Supporting Topic Sentences, examples

An example of noun signals:

Some words in English represent people’snames. A good example of this is the wordlynch. illustration


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An example of verb signals:

Some words in English represent people’snames. This can be illustrated by the wordboycott.


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An example of sentence connectors:

Some English words represent proper names.For instance, the word quisling originatedwith Vidkun Quisling.


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An example of phrase signals:

Words such as lynch and quisling representproper names.


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Supporting Topic Sentences, Details

A detail is a particular part or characteristicof a whole thing or a whole idea. Details arefrequently used in a description.


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Consider the following topic sentence:

Landlords usually require a renter to sign avery complicated contract called a lease.


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The supporting sentences of this topicsentence have to go through the details ofthe contract. They may include: the lengthof time, the amount of rent, the number ofpeople living in the house,…


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Supporting topic sentences, Anecdotes

An anecdote is a short, entertainingaccount of some happening. It is usuallypersonal and may be thought of as alengthy example.


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Supporting topic Sentences, Facts andStatistics

A fact is something which is objectivelyverifiable.

A statistic is a numerical fact which presentssignificant information about a givensubject.


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Arranging your Supporting Sentences

There are several ways to arrange yoursupporting sentences logically andcohesively.

The most common method of paragraphdevelopment in English is enumeration.


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Paragraph Development, Enumeration

In this type of paragraph development, awriter starts with a general class, thenproceeds to break it down by listing someor all of its members or parts.


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Paragraph development, enumeration

General Class

Memberor part

Memberor part

Memberor part

Memberor part

Memberor part

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Consider this sentence:

There are three different kinds of materialsthat can be found in any library.

The word ‘kinds’ is an enumerator becauseit shows exactly what we are listing orenumerating.


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Enumerators are valuable key words.

They help you to organize your paragraphmore clearly.

They help your reader to follow your train ofthought more easily.


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When making lists, we use listing signals toindicate the various items in the list.

Examples are: first, second, last, finally,…


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Remember that different listing signals mightrequire different sentence structures.

Group 1: first, second, third,…Group 2: the first, the second,…


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After the listing signals of group 1, you willneed a full sentence. However, the ones ingroup 2 together with the enumerator arethe subject of the sentence.


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Arranging the supporting sentences

The arrangement of the supporting sentencesof an enumerative paragraph can be one ofthe following three orders:

1. Equal importance2. Ascending order3. Descending order


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If all of the supporting sentences of aparagraph receive equal attention, they allhave equal importance and there is nospecific order in presenting them.


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If a writer lists the most important pointfirst, then goes on to speak of the otherpoints, descending order has been used.


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Descending order is indicated by a specialgroup of listing signals:

most essential

most important kind

The primary reason is….largest etc.

chief

etc.

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A triangle can be used to show how descendingorder works:

MORE IMPORTANT

Less important

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Ascending order is exactly the opposite ofdescending order. In ascending order, thewriter lists the minor points first, savingthe most important for last. So, theparagraph ascends to a climax.


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A triangle can be used to show how ascendingorder works:

Lessimportant

MORE IMPORTANT

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The listing signals used for ascending orderare really the same as those used fordescending order. However, the mostimportant one goes to the end.


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Types of enumeration; process

Process is a specialized type of enumerativeparagraph in which supporting sentences arearranged in a step-by-step sequence andtell how something is made or done.


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Whereas other enumerative paragraphs usemany enumerators, Process paragraphsmost commonly use three enumerators:

Step Stage Phase


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In addition to sequence signals, there areother indicators which a writer can use todevelop a process paragraph. They are:Time cluesRepetitionPronoun reference.


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Time clues include the choice of verb andtense.

Verbs like ‘begin’, ‘start’, continue’,…indicate steps or stages.


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Time clauses and phrases such as ‘while’,‘as’, ‘after’, …also help show the continuityof development in a process.

Sometimes time clauses may be reduced toparticipial phrases. Consider the followingexample:


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Clause: when you have beaten the eggs, pourthem into the pan.

Phrase: having beaten the eggs, pour theminto the pan.


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Sometimes, instead of making one of thesentences into a time clause, the twosentences can be joined by a sentenceconnector:

Beat the eggs well; after that pour them intothe pan.


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Repetition and pronoun reference are twoother indicators that help a processparagraph to develop.


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Words are often repeated to add continuityto a paragraph. They are repeated either intheir original form or in pronoun form.


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All in all, sequence signals, repetition andpronoun reference add continuity andcohesiveness to a paragraph developmentand are particularly important in a processparagraph.


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Types of enumeration; chronologicalorder

When the order in which things happen, or atime sequence, is used to develop aparagraph, this is called chronologicalorder. Like process, this is a special formof enumeration.


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Enumerators are rarely used inchronological order. Because readersusually do not need these signals tounderstand what is being discussed. Instead,time clues are very important.


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Time clues of all kinds are used inchronological order. However, the forms ofverbs generally are not present forms, butrather past forms. In addition, prepositionalphrases of time often appear.


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Types of enumeration; cause andeffect

In a cause-effect development, there isalways a causal relationship between thetopic sentence and the supporting sentences,or even between major supporting sentencesand minor ones.


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The supporting sentences in such paragraphsbecome a list of either effects or causes.

Focus on cause focus on effect

Cause # 1

Cause # 2

Cause # 3

situation situation

Effect # 1

Effect # 2

Effect # 3

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In addition to listing signals, there are sixgroups of structural signals used commonlyin cause-effect paragraphs.


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Sentence connectors

Group 1. Sentence connectors

These are words and phrases used to join twocomplete grammatical sentences.

Examples are: as a result, consequently,therefore,…


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Sentence connectors

A semicolon (;) is used before a sentenceconnector and a comma follows it.

If a period is used at the end of the firstsentence, there will be only a comma afterthe connector.


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Sentence connectors

Group 2. Conjunctions

Conjunctions of cause and effect (for, so) arealways preceded by commas, because thesentences generally do not stand alone.


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Sentence connectors

Group 3. Clause structuresThere are two categories of signals in this

group.First, signals whose parts are separated:So…thatSuch …thatSuch a … that


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Sentence connectors

The rise in temperature will dry out so muchland that agricultural patterns will change.

The rise in temperature will cause suchterrible damage that agricultural patternswill change.


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Sentence connectors

Second, signals such as since, because,…

SinceBecause rainfall patterns will change, water

supplies will diminish.


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Sentence connectors

Group 4. Phrase structures

Since a phrase is not a complete sentence, itmust be connected to the main sentence.

Because of the increased heat, agriculturalpatterns will change.


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Sentence connectors

Group 5. Predicate structures

In this group, the cause –effect relationship isindicated either by the verb or the wordsfollowing it.

Changes in water levels will result in changesin living patterns.


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Sentence connectors

Another pattern of the same example ofpredicate structures will be:

Drastic changes in living patterns will resultfrom changes in water levels.


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Sentence connectors

Group 6. Participial phrases

Since a participial phrase has no subject, itmust be connected to the main sentence.The following two examples showparticipial phrases in cause-effectstructures:


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Sentence connectors

Water levels will change, resulting inchanges in living patterns.

Living patterns will change, resulting fromchanges in water levels.


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Cause-effect paragraphs

Remember that in cause-effect paragraphs,you can focus on cause, on effect or on bothof them.


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Chain reaction

In developing a causal relationship, if theeffect of one situation becomes the cause ofthe next, we will have a chain reaction.


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In other words, the first event leads to thesecond, the second to the third, and so on:

Primary cause effect 1 effect 2 effect 3...

cause 2 cause 3 cause 4...

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The topic sentence of a comparison andcontrast paragraph is supported byarranging the supporting sentencesaccording to either the similarities or thedifferences between two things.


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Comparison: pointing out likenesses betweentwo things or two aspects of one thing

Contrast: pointing out differences betweentwo things or two aspects of one thing


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In a paragraph of comparison, thedifferences are often mentioned only brieflyor are even omitted entirely.


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Structures of comparison

In addition to listing signals and theenumerator similarities, six other basicstructures are used commonly in writingparagraphs of comparison.


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Group I. Adjective/preposition

The same as

Similar to

Like

Kennedy was killed on exactly the same day

adjective

of the week as Lincoln.

preposition

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Group II. Attached statements

And … tooAnd so

And … eitherAnd neither


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Kennedy was succeeded by a SouthernDemocrat, and Lincoln was too.

and so was Lincoln.

Kennedy didn’t finish his term of office,and Lincoln didn’t either.and neither did Lincoln.


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Group III. Correlative Conjunctions

Both… andAnd … bothNeither … norJust as … so


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Both Kennedy and Lincoln had theirKennedy and Lincoln bothelections legally challenged.

Just as Lincoln died in office, so Kennedywas still president when he wasassassinated.


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Group IV. Predicate structures

To resemble

To have in common

There are similarities


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Kennedy’s popularity greatly resembled Lincoln’s.

Kennedy and Lincoln have many features incommon.

There are many similarities between Kennedy andLincoln.


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Group V. sentence connectors

Similarly

Correspondingly

Likewise

In the same way

By the same tokenParagraph development, unit 6

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Lincoln was succeeded by a SouthernDemocrat named Johnson; by the sametoken, Lyndon Johnson, a Democrat fromthe South, succeeded Kennedy.

*Pay attention to the punctuation.Paragraph development, unit 6

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Group VI. Punctuation only

Andrew Johnson was born in 1808; LyndonJohnson was born in 1908.


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Structures of contrast

In addition to listing signals andenumerators , seven other structures areused commonly in writing paragraphs ofcontrast.


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Group I.

-er … thanMore … thanLess … thanAs … asThe introvert is quieter than the introvert.

The extrovert isn’t as quiet as the introvert.Paragraph development, unit 6

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Group II. Prepositions

Contrary to the extrovert, who cravesexcitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life.


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Group III. Adverbial clauses

Whereas the extrovert loses his temperquickly, the introvert seldom does.


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Group IV. Verbal structures

The introvert contrasts with the extrovert inregard to his temper.


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Group V. sentence connectors

The extrovert loves crowds; however, theintrovert is fond of solitude.

• Pay attention to the punctuation.


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Group VI. Conjunctions

The extrovert loves crowds, but the introvertis fond of solitude.


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Group VII. Punctuation only

The introvert likes books; the introvert is fondof people.


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Methods of contrast

Two main ways to organize your material in acontrast paragraph:

1. The contrasts are made one at a time, orpoint- by- point.

2. The contrasts are completely described forone side, then for the other side.


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Methods of contrast

Method 1

sociability

Risk-taking

[And so forth]

Extrovert

Extrovert

Introvert

Introvert

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Methods of contrast

Sociability

Risk-taking

Feelings, aggression

Reliability, optimism

Sociability

Risk-taking

Feelings, aggression

Reliability, optimism

Method 2

The Extrovert

The introvert

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Definitions

A paragraph of definition explains what aterm means or how it is used in a particularsituation.

It may be a formal definition or a stipulatedone.


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Definitions

A formal definition explains a meaning asyou might find it in a dictionary.

A stipulated definition explains how aparticular term is used in a specific context.


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The formal definition

A formal definition includes three kinds ofthings:

The term to be defined

The class to which a thing belongs

The features which distinguish it from otherthings in that class


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Structures of definition

The basic structures commonly used inwriting definitions are divided into twobasic groups:

Those associated with distinguishingfeatures

Those associated with the choice of verbParagraph development, unit 7

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Structures of definitions

Group I. structures which identifydistinguishing features:

adjectives and adjective clauses

A wristwatch is a mechanical, time-tellingadjectives

device which is worn on a band about thewrist.

Adjective clause

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Structures of definitions

Group II. Verbs used in definitions

IsThe term…means, signifies, refers to,Designates Is called, is known asA wristwatch is a mechanical, time-telling,…

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The extended definition

A definition is expanded or extended bygiving additional information about theterm being defined. This might include suchthings as a physical description or a list ofthe advantages of the item.


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Problems in definition

There are three common problems that mightarise in writing definitions:

The circular definition

The overextended definition

The overrestricted definitionParagraph development, unit 7

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In circular definition, the term being definedis repeated in the definition:

Economics = the study of the Economy

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In overextended definition, the definition canbe applied to more things than just the termbeing defined:

Lemonade is a refreshing drink.

The refreshing drink can apply to water, milk,Coke,…


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An overrestricted definition is one in whichthe term being defined is morecomprehensive than the definition. That is,you restrict the item to only a part of itstotal definition.


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Example:

A table is a place where one plays games.

The use of table has been restricted to onlyone of many possible uses.


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The stipulated definition

In stipulated definition, you explain howyou are using a term for a particularpurpose, or you explain your particularinterpretation of the term.


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The stipulated definition

The kinds of words which requirestipulated definition are generally abstractideas or qualities such as friendship,poverty, and so on.


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Ordinarily, any writing task will involve aseries of related paragraphs on a giventopic, that is, a composition.

Any composition has to include:

Introduction

Body

ConclusionParagraph development, unit 8

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In the paragraph of introduction, the readeris given certain background informationand the aim of the writer. Furthermore,the controlling idea of the composition isgiven in this paragraph.


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Introduction states the subject or topic of thewhole composition. It limits the subject andtells what aspects of it will be treated. Itmay also explain why these aspects havebeen chosen for treatment.


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The controlling idea which is introduced inthe introduction is very similar to a topicsentence; however, it is more powerful andmore general.


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This is because a controlling idea controlsnot a single paragraph but rather an entirecomposition. It announces the main idea ofthe composition.


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In the body of a composition, the controllingidea will be elaborated on. The body whichis the main part of a composition developsthe main idea in as many paragraphs asthere are main topics to discuss.


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Body

Any paragraph of the body has to have itsown topic sentence and the supportingsentences.

Various methods of arranging supportingsentences can be used in the body of acomposition.


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Body

Good writers frequently make use of all or anumber of methods of paragraphdevelopment to develop their topics. In oneparagraph they may enumerate theirsupporting sentences, in the next, they maymake use of cause-effect and…


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Conclusion

The concluding paragraph of a compositionties together all of the ideas expressed inthe composition. It usually restates indifferent words the main points that havebeen developed in the main paragraphs.


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Conclusion

Remember that this paragraph does notintroduce any new ideas. It should give thefeeling that the composition is completedand that a conclusion has been reached.


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Narration

Narration is telling or relating occurrences orseries of events. It requires the writer to tellwhat happened.

Most fiction is written in narrative form.

Let’s write English 2, unit 13

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Organization of narrative

In narration, it is useful to organize theevents in chronological order or timesequence.


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Organization of narrative

Time sequence can be indicated by certaintime words (yesterday, next year,…), theuse of verb tenses and transitionalexpressions (meanwhile, at the sametime,…).


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Point of view

In writing narratives, you must decidewhether you will tell the story in the firstperson or in the third person.

If you decide to tell the story in the firstperson, you as the story teller, will beparticipating in the story.


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Point of view

If you use the third person, you are onlyobserving the events and not involved inthe story.

You should be consistent in keeping the samepoint of view throughout your narrative.


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Oral and written narrative

Although oral and written narrative have thesame basic kind of structure, they havedifferences in style, length, and the level offormality of language.

Oral narratives tend to be short, informal andanecdotal.


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Narration, Elements of a good story

Three important points should be consideredin writing a story:

• The first sentence should arouse interest.

• The events should be told in step-by-steporder.

• It should build to a climax.Let’s write English 2, unit 13

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Narration, Elements of a good story

When the above principles are employed, astory will have these essential qualities:

1. Unity: it is about one subject.2. Coherence: all the details relate to the

story.3. Emphasis: the point of the story is

emphasized.Let’s write English 2, unit 13

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Description

A very basic way to use language is todescribe.

Description gives sense impressions- the feel,sound, taste, smell and look of things.

Also emotions- feelings such as happiness,fear,…may be described.


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Description

Description helps the reader, through hisimagination, to visualize a scene or a personor to understand a sensation or an emotion.

Good description requires careful observationand organization.


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Requirements for good description

Good descriptions have three importantqualities:

Dominant impression

Mood

Logical development


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Requirements for good description,dominant impression

The first sentence of a good description mayestablish the dominant impression. In otherwords, the sentence which establishes thedominant impression serves as the topicsentence of the paragraph.


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Requirements for good description,mood

Moods are feelings and emotions such asjoy, happiness, fear, or anxiety. Evil,sinister, good or bad qualities may also helpform part of the general mood.


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Requirements for good description,logical development

To be effective, written descriptions shouldhave an efficient and logical plan. Thewriter must follow a point of view fromwhich he views the things described.


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Explanations

An important way of presenting informationis explanation.

In the paragraph of explanation (also calledexposition, or expository paragraph) themain purpose is to explain or to interpretsomething.


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Explanations

The paragraphs of explanation are oftenused to explain a process or a procedure.Therefore, they involve the careful listing ofdetails in a logical sequence.


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Explanations

The paragraph of explanation requires aclear, strong topic sentence which indicateswhat is to be explained. The supportingsentences will give the explanation byproviding the details and examples.


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Explanations

The paragraph of explanation is sometimesused to give definition or directions. Again,it is necessary to list the details and to keepthe sequence.


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Argumentation

Argumentation means the discussion ordebate of a topic. Paragraphs ofargumentation are usually developed bylisting reasons to support the topic sentence.


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Argumentation

Some constructive uses of argument are:

To decide questions

To change viewpoints

To gain practical goals


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Methods of argumentation

There are several basic methods of reasoning:

Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

Comparison or analogy

Cause and effect reasoning

Argument by authorityLet’s write English 2, unit 16

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Argumentation, Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning (also known as thescientific method) proceeds to a generalstatement or a conclusion from specificexamples, facts, or instances.


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Argumentation, Inductive Reasoning

The important thing to remember inemploying inductive reasoning is that youmust consider a sufficient number of cases,because no one case proves or disproves theconclusion.


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Argumentation, Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning which is the opposite ofinductive reasoning begins with thegeneral and moves to the specific.

To reason deductively, three steps arerequired:

1. A major premise2. A minor premise3. A conclusion


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Argumentation, Deductive reasoning

Remember that premises must be true andacceptable in relation to each other.

Example:

Major premise: Wood will float in water.

Minor premise: My pencil is made of wood.

Conclusion: My pencil will float in water.


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Argumentation, comparison or analogy

Comparison shows the similarities anddifferences between the subject andsomething well-known.

The comparisons or contrasts must be exactand true under similar conditions.


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Argumentation, cause and effectreasoning

It tells what happened to produce a result, orwhat will result from a certain situation orevent.

Three points need to be considered in cause-effect reasoning:


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Argumentation, cause and effect

1. There must be a strong and trueconnection between the cause and theeffect.

2. The cause must be strong enough toproduce the result.

3. There must be no possibility that someother cause could produce the result.


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Argumentation, argument by authority

Argument by authority uses statements fromexperts to support a line of reasoning.

Authorities must be reputable, recognizedand up to date.


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Argumentation, weak arguments

Weak arguments result from faulty reasoning.

Avoid the following faults in your argument:

Lack of understanding of terms

Misuse of facts and unreliable authority

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Argumentation, weak arguments

Opinion substituted for fact

Hasty generalization (also known asjumping to conclusion)

Name calling and prejudiceLet’s write English 2, unit 16

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The outline

An outline is an arrangement of the topics orideas of a composition in the form of anumbered list. This list shows the order andthe relationship of the ideas.


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The outline

Outlining assures that:

Your composition will be complete and inlogical order.

You eliminate the irrelevant ideas.

You avoid repetition.

You know how many paragraphs you willneed to write.


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The outline

A system of Roman and Arabic numbers aswell as letters of the alphabet are used toform an outline:

I. Main point

A. Important divisions of main point

1. Sub-point about A.Let’s write English 2, unit 17

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Writing letters

There are two types of letters that you will becalled on to write:

Personal (social) letters

Business letters

Friendly letters require the same attention thatyou give to a conversation.


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Social letters

Some points to remember in writing letters tofriends:

Ask about the person you are addressingand keep the tone cheerful and sincere.

Tell news of interest to him.

Talk about mutual friends.Let’s write English 2, unit 19

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Social letters

Talk about yourself as little as possible.

Write as if you were having a conversationwith your friend.

Be sure your English usage is correct.


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Correct form of personal letters

The form of a letter is important because itmakes it appealing to the eye and easy toread.

The first part of a personal letter is itsheading which gives the writer’s addressand the date.


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Correct form of personal letters

The heading which appears at the upperright-hand corner of the first page may beblocked or indented:

Blocked Indented19 magnolia Street 137 Haynes Avenue

Hayward, Missouri Pocatello, Idaho

December 15, 2006 May 13, 2002

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Personal letters, salutation

The salutation is the greeting. It begins at theleft-hand margin of the letter and isfollowed by a comma.

Dear Tom,

Dear Professor Smith,


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Personal letters, body

The body is the composition of the letterand has the same organization as anycomposition. The ideas of the letter shouldbe organized in paragraphs.


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Personal letters, the closing

The closing which usually appears at thebottom right-hand corner may havedifferent forms. Choose one that meanswhat you want to say. The first letter ofthe closing is capitalized and it is followedby a comma:

Sincerely yours,

Your friend,Let’s write English 2, unit 19

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Signature

Sign the name you usually use with theperson to whom you are writing. Do notplace any punctuation after your signature.


188

The correct placement of the parts of aletter

Heading …………..…………..

Salutation ……..…………………………

Body …………………………..…………………………..

Closing ………signature

189

Business letters

There are several types of business letters(letters of order, request, application,…)that you may be called on to write.

The format of business letters is very similarto personal letters except for the insideaddress.


190

Business letter, the inside address

The inside address is the name of thecompany you are writing to, followed bythe street address, city, state and country.

It is the same address that appears on theenvelop.


191

Business letters, salutation

The salutation of a business letter is moreformal than a personal letter and is usuallyfollowed by a colon.

If you are writing to a firm and you do notknow the name of any particular person,use:

gentlemen or dear sirs:Let’s write English 2, unit 19

192

Business letters, body and closing

The body of a business letter has to be brief,well stated, and easy to read.

The closing is similar to that of personalletters, but more formal. The first word iscapitalized, and it is followed by a comma.


193

Types of business letters, the orderletters

An order letter has to state the exact nameof the merchandise, the price, and theamount of payment you are sending.


194

Types of business letters, letters ofrequest

It is necessary that the reader of yourrequest letter has all the necessaryinformation to do what you have asked himto do. Do not forget the date, the completeaddress and a careful description of the itemor service wanted.


195

Types of business letters, letters ofapplication

Letters of application are important both tothe sender and the receiver, because,usually, business and professional peopleare hired on the basis of letters ofapplication.


196

Types of business letters, letters ofrecommendation

Letters of recommendation are written forstudents and colleagues to recommend themfor a job or education. If you do not knowwho is going to read the letter, write: ‘towhom it may concern’ in place of thesalutation.


197

Précis and summary writing

A precise summary from a piece of originalwriting is called a précis.

Guidelines to write a good précis:

Read the original selection carefully. Searchfor the main idea.

Find the meanings of any words you do notknow.


198

Précis and summary writing

Read the selection again.

Determine which parts of the selection areessential.

Write down the key words or phrases.

From your notes and your owninterpretation, write your précis.


199

Organizing a research paper

The key to success in writing a researchpaper, or any lengthy paper, is organization.

The steps in planning these papers are:

Choose a suitable subject

Search for material

Take notesLet’s write English 2, unit 24

200

Organizing a research paper

Organize notes into an outline

Write an outline

Write the first draft

Document statements with footnotes.

Write a bibliography.

Write the final draft.Let’s write English 2, unit 24

201

Watch your English

No matter if you are writing one sentence,one paragraph or a whole article, you haveto check it for correct usage. The followingpoints have been mentioned in yourparagraph development book:

202

Watch your English

Subject-verb agreement

Usually the presence of a compoundsubject or a modified one may causeconfusion in agreement of subject and verb.The following guides may be helpful:

203

Watch your English

Recognize the main subject of the verb:

Other words in this category include lynch,Watt, davenport, and zeppelin.

If the compound subject is connected byand and conveys a plural idea, the pluralform of the verb must be used.

204

Watch your English

December and January are the coldestmonths of the year.

The singular form of the verb must be usedif the compound subjects are both singularand are connected by such connectives asor, nor, either…or, neither…nor.

205

Watch your English

John or his sister is going to attend the party.

If the compound subject is composed of twonouns differing in number or person, thesubject that is nearer the verb determinesthe verb form.

Either his brothers or Jim is planning toattend.

206

Watch your English

Singular-plural agreement

One of the most important resources in thelibrary is the reference room.

Tense

Pay attention to the signals in sentences whichindicate the tense.

207

Watch your English

The visitor usually begins his stay in a hoteland meets sympathetic and graciousnational.

Pronoun reference

Find out to what the pronoun refers to and ifthe reference is singular or plural.

Water levels will fall in the great lakes;consequently they will no…

208

Wish you all the best

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