1. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Advances in meat, poultry
and seafood packaging
2. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Related titles: Emerging
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978-1-84569-809-6) Packaging technologies remain a key area of
interest for the food industry. When they are successfully
employed, product safety and shelf life can be greatly improved.
Four themes in particular are driving packaging innovation at the
present time: development and implementation of active packaging
techniques, develop- ment and implementation of intelligent
packaging techniques, advances in packaging materials and concerns
about packaging sustainability. Each part of this book focuses on
one of these themes, reviewing key developments in the area.
Processed meats: Improving safety, nutrition and quality (ISBN
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nutritionally balanced, contain fewer added ingredients and have
excellent sensory characteristics. Processed meats must also be
safe to eat. Producing products that fulfill these requirements is
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of processed meats. Part I outlines market-driven changes in
processed meat products. Further sections of the book focus on
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3. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series
in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition: Number 220 Advances in
meat, poultry and seafood packaging Edited by J. P. Kerry Oxford
Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi
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5. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Contents Contributor
contact
details..........................................................................
xiii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and
Nutrition.............................................................................
xix Preface
.........................................................................................................
xxvii Part I Safety and quality of packaged meat, poultry and
seafood ..... 1 1 Major microbiological hazards associated with
packaged fresh and processed meat and
poultry............................... 3 C. N. Cutter, R. N.
Senevirathne, V. P. Chang, R. B. Cutaia, K. A. Fabrizio, A. M.
Geiger, A. M. Valadez and S. F. Yoder, Pennsylvania State
University, USA 1.1 Introduction: survival and growth of
microorganisms in meat and poultry
products........................................................ 3
1.2 Vacuum packaging (VP) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
to control microbial populations associated with meat and poultry
products.................................. 7 1.3 Notable foodborne
outbreaks related to packaged fresh and further processed meat and
poultry....................................... 8 1.4 The future of
food packaging for controlling pathogens associated with fresh and
further processed meat and poultry .... 40 1.5
References....................................................................................
41 2 Major microbial hazards associated with packaged
seafood..................................................................................
59 L. E. Lampila, Lousiana State University Agricultural Center,
USA and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program, USA and K. W.
McMillin, Lousiana State University Agricultural Center, USA 2.1
Introduction..................................................................................
59
6. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 vi Contents 2.2 Seafood
spoilage..........................................................................
61 2.3 Major microbiological hazards associated with fresh seafood
.... 63 2.4 Live
animals.................................................................................
73 2.5 Major hazards associated with processed and packaged
seafood.........................................................................
74 2.6 Future trends
................................................................................
77 2.7
References....................................................................................
80 3 Sensory and quality properties of packaged fresh and processed
meats.............................................................................
86 M. G. OSullivan and J. P. Kerry, University College Cork,
Ireland 3.1
Introduction..................................................................................
86 3.2 Packaging of fresh and processed
meats...................................... 87 3.3 Colour
development in fresh and processed meats...................... 95
3.4 Flavour of fresh and processed meat
products............................. 97 3.5 Texture of fresh and
processed meat............................................ 101 3.6
Future trends
................................................................................
103 3.7
Acknowledgements......................................................................
104 3.8
References....................................................................................
104 4 Sensory properties of packaged fresh and processed poultry
meat..........................................................................................
112 B. Min, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, USA and D.U. Ahn,
Iowa State University, USA and Seoul National University, Seoul,
Korea 4.1
Introduction..................................................................................
112 4.2 Color changes in packaged fresh and processed poultry meat
.... 113 4.3 Lipid oxidation in packaged, fresh and processed
poultry meat
.................................................................................
121 4.4 Tenderness and packaged fresh and processed poultry
meat....... 129 4.5 Other sensory and quality issues associated
with packaged fresh and processed poultry
meat................................. 137 4.6 Future trends
................................................................................
141 4.7
References....................................................................................
141 5 Sensory and quality properties of packaged
seafood........................ 154 G. Hyldig, J. Nielsen, C.
Jacobsen and H. H. Nielsen, Technical University of Denmark,
Denmark 5.1
Introduction..................................................................................
154 5.2 Fish
composition..........................................................................
157 5.3 Initial biochemical and microbiological deterioration of
fish...... 158 5.4 Lipid
oxidation.............................................................................
160 5.5 Sensory quality changes in stored and packaged fish
products... 162 5.6 Case studies of sensory quality changes in
stored and packaged fish
products.................................................................
163
7. Contents vii Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 5.7 Shrimps
........................................................................................
166 5.8 Future trends
................................................................................
166 5.9
References....................................................................................
167 Part II Developments in vacuum and modified atmosphere
packaging of meat, poultry and seafood
.................................. 171 6 Advances in the packaging
of fresh and processed meat products
.......................................................................................
173 K. W. McMillin, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center,
USA and J. N. Belcher, Sealed Air Corporation, USA 6.1
Introduction..................................................................................
173 6.2 Current technologies and use of packaging for fresh and
processed meat
......................................................................
174 6.3 Advances in overwrap, vacuum packaging (VP) and modified
atmosphere packaging (MAP) for fresh and processed meat ...... 180
6.4 Effective application of packaging to improve the quality of
fresh and processed
meat............................................. 190 6.5 Future
trends
................................................................................
196 6.6 Sources of further information and
advice................................... 197 6.7
References....................................................................................
197 7 Advances in vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging of
poultry
products...............................................................................
205 A. A. Argyri, E. Z. Panagou and G.-J. E. Nychas, Agricultural
University of Athens, Greece 7.1
Introduction..................................................................................
205 7.2 Role of packaging and conventional packaging
systems............. 206 7.3 Shelf life of fresh and processed
poultry products in conventional packaging
systems.................................................. 208 7.4
Extension of shelf life and future trends in packaging systems
.......................................................................
216 7.5 Chemical indicators for assessing the quality of fresh and
processed poultry
.........................................................................
229 7.6 Sources of further information and
advice................................... 239 7.7
References....................................................................................
240 8 Advances in bulk packaging for the transport of fresh
fish............. 248 A. . Hansen, Nofima, Norway, E. Svanes, O. J.
Hanssen and Mie Vold, Ostfold Research, Norway and B. T. Rotabakk,
Nofima, Norway 8.1
Introduction..................................................................................
248 8.2 Status and
challenges...................................................................
249 8.3 Advances in bulk packaging for the transportation of
processed
fish...............................................................................
253
8. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 viii Contents 8.4
Effective application of bulk packaging for transportation of raw
fish products
.....................................................................
255 8.5 Future trends in seafood packaging and
distribution................... 256 8.6
References....................................................................................
258 9 Advances in vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging of fish
and
crustaceans.........................................................................
261 G. C. Fletcher, New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food
Research Limited, New Zealand 9.1
Introduction..................................................................................
261 9.2 Innovations in packaging technology
.......................................... 262 9.3 Advances in
understanding spoilage processes in packaged fish
...............................................................................
265 9.4 Advances in understanding food safety implications of
packaging.................................................................................
267 9.5 Applying and modelling different gas configurations for
different fish
...........................................................................
269 9.6 Applying packaging technologies to products other than
fresh
fillets............................................................................
279 9.7 Combining packaging technologies with other
treatments.......... 280 9.8
Conclusions..................................................................................
283 9.9
References....................................................................................
283 10 Advances in vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging of
shellfish...........................................................................
298 L. Pastoriza and M. Bernrdez, Instituto de Investigaciones
Marinas (IIM-AECSIC), Spain 10.1
Introduction..................................................................................
298 10.2 Combination of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and
vacuum packaging (VP) with other treatments.....................
300 10.3 Effective application of traditional, VP and MAP to
improve shellfish
quality..............................................................
302 10.4 Future trends
................................................................................
307 10.5 Sources of further information and
advice................................... 309 10.6
Acknowledgment.........................................................................
310 10.7
References....................................................................................
310 11 Solubility of carbon dioxide in muscle foods and its use to
extend the shelf life of packaged
products..................................... 314 B. T. Rotabakk
and M. Sivertsvik, Nofima, Norway 11.1
Introduction..................................................................................
314 11.2 The principle of modified atmosphere packaging
(MAP)........... 315 11.3 Effect of CO2 on
microorganisms................................................ 316
11.4 Alternatives to MAP
....................................................................
325 11.5
References....................................................................................
326
9. Contents ix Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Part III Other
packaging methods for meat, poultry and seafood
products.....................................................................331
12 Packaging of retort-processed seafood, meat and
poultry................ 333 J. Bindu, C. N. Ravishankar and T. K.
S. Gopal, Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, India 12.1
Introduction..................................................................................
333 12.2 Rigid containers for retort-processed seafood, meat and
poultry
..........................................................................
335 12.3 Semi-rigid and flexible
containers............................................... 339 12.4
Methods to test the suitability of packaging materials for
retorting
..................................................................
346 12.5 Changes in the quality of seafood, meat and poultry due to
retort
processing................................................................
351 12.6 Future trends in processing and
packaging.................................. 355 12.7
References....................................................................................
356 13 Packaging for frozen meat, seafood and poultry
products............... 363 A. Totosaus, Tecnolgico de Estudios
Superiores de Ecatepec, Mexico 13.1
Introduction..................................................................................
363 13.2 Quality improvement through frozen
packaging......................... 370 13.3 Recent advances in
frozen packaging.......................................... 373 13.4
Future trends
................................................................................
374 13.5
References....................................................................................
374 14 Advances in the manufacture of sausage casings
.............................. 377 Z. Savic, Victus International,
Austria 14.1
Introduction..................................................................................
377 14.2 Definition and types of sausage casings
...................................... 378 14.3 Advances in sausage
casings ....................................................... 379
14.4 Effective selection and use of sausage casings for optimum
product quality: possible meat product defects due to incorrect
selection of casing types........................ 399 14.5 Meat
industry requirements for new casing types .......................
402 14.6 Future trends
................................................................................
402 14.7 Sources of further information and
advice................................... 403 14.8
References....................................................................................
403 15 Packaging of ready-to-serve and retail-ready meat, poultry
and seafood
products..............................................................
406 H. Walsh and J. P. Kerry, University College Cork, Ireland 15.1
Introduction..................................................................................
406 15.2 Key
drivers...................................................................................
407 15.3 Packaging
requirements...............................................................
408 15.4 Microwave reheating
...................................................................
411 15.5 Packaging materials
.....................................................................
413
10. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 x Contents 15.6 Packaging
techniques...................................................................
419 15.7 Active packaging
applications.....................................................
427 15.8 Future trends
................................................................................
431 15.9
References....................................................................................
432 16 In-package pasteurization of ready-to-eat meat and poultry
products............................................................................
437 L. Huang and C-A. Hwang, United States Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS), USA 16.1
Introduction..................................................................................
437 16.2 In-package pasteurization
............................................................ 440
16.3 Timetemperature for in-package pasteurization
........................ 441 16.4
Equipment....................................................................................
447 16.5 Practical considerations
............................................................... 448
16.6
References....................................................................................
448 Part IV Emerging packaging techniques and
labelling....................... 451 17 Environmentally compatible
packaging of muscle foods ................. 453 P. Dawson, K.
Cooksey and S. Mangalassary, Clemson University, USA 17.1
Introduction..................................................................................
453 17.2 Types of meat packaging
materials.............................................. 454 17.3
Source reduction
..........................................................................
455 17.4 Recyclable
materials....................................................................
458 17.5 Biobased
materials.......................................................................
460 17.6 Future trends
................................................................................
471 17.7
References....................................................................................
471 18 Antimicrobial and antioxidant active packaging for meat and
poultry
..................................................................................
477 V. Coma, University of Bordeaux - CNRS, France 18.1
Introduction..................................................................................
477 18.2 Meat safety and quality
concerns................................................. 479 18.3
Active packaging based on biopolymers and natural bioactives
.........................................................................
482 18.4 Antimicrobial bioactive
biopackaging......................................... 487 18.5
Antioxidant bioactive biopackaging
............................................ 492 18.6 Future trends
................................................................................
495 18.7 Conclusion
...................................................................................
498 18.8
References....................................................................................
498 19 Edible films for meat, poultry and
seafood........................................ 504 M. E. Janes,
Louisiana State University, USA and Y. Dai, Southern University,
USA 19.1
Introduction..................................................................................
504
11. Contents xi Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 19.2 Edible
film
materials....................................................................
505 19.3 Antimicrobial edible
films...........................................................
509 19.4 Edible films containing antioxidants and other nutrients
............ 513 19.5 Conclusion
...................................................................................
515 19.6
References....................................................................................
516 20 Application of smart packaging systems for conventionally
packaged muscle-based food products ..................... 522 J. P.
Kerry, University College Cork, Ireland 20.1
Introduction..................................................................................
522 20.2 Packaging technologies for gas and moisture
control.................. 525 20.3 Antimicrobial
packaging..............................................................
530 20.4 Other applications of smart/active
technologies.......................... 537 20.5 Sensors for smart
packaging........................................................
540 20.6 Indicators for smart
packaging..................................................... 546
20.7 Radio frequency identification tags (RFID) and potential
future applications of other smart/intelligent
technologies.......... 552 20.8
Conclusions..................................................................................
555 20.9
References....................................................................................
556 21 Traceability in the meat, poultry and seafood industries
................. 565 K. W. McMillin, Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center, USA, L. Lampila, Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center, USA and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program,
USA and J. A. Marcy, University of Arkansas, USA 21.1
Introduction..................................................................................
565 21.2 Current technologies available for muscle food industry
tracing
systems.............................................................................
569 21.3 Traceability in livestock production
............................................ 574 21.4 Traceability
in poultry production
............................................... 578 21.5
Traceability of
seafood.................................................................
579 21.6 Traceability of meat, poultry and seafood
products..................... 581 21.7 Electronic identification
(EID) .................................................... 585 21.8
Future trends
................................................................................
587 21.9 Sources of further information and
advice................................... 588 21.10
References....................................................................................
589 22 Labelling of meat, poultry, seafood and their products in
the
EU................................................................................
596 M. Woolfe, Food Standards Agency Retired, UK 22.1
Introduction..................................................................................
596 22.2 General (horizontal) food labelling
requirements........................ 597 22.3 Origin, assurance and
eco-labelling schemes............................ 602 22.4 Specific
(vertical) requirements for raw meat and minced meat
labelling..................................................................
605 22.5 Specific (vertical) requirements for poultry meat
labelling......... 610
12. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xii Contents 22.6
Specific (vertical) labelling of meat and poultry
products........... 612 22.7 Specific (vertical) labelling of fish
and shellfish......................... 617 22.8 Specific (vertical)
labelling of fish and shellfish products .......... 622 22.9 Future
trends
................................................................................
624 22.10
Acknowledgements......................................................................
625 22.11 Sources of further information and
advice................................... 625 22.12
References....................................................................................
626 23 Food packaging laws and regulation with particular emphasis
on meat, poultry and fish
.................................................... 631 F. Moran,
School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute
of Technology, Ireland 23.1 Introduction to food contact material
legislation......................... 631 23.2 The regulation of
food contact materials in the European Union (EU)
..................................................................
633 23.3 EU legislation on specific materials
............................................ 638 23.4 Other
specific measures of
importance........................................ 644 23.5 The
regulation of food contact materials in the United States..... 646
23.6 Exemptions to the
regulations......................................................
649 23.7 The food contact notification
system........................................... 651 23.8
Implications of regulations for packaging and product
development....................................................................
653 23.9 Future trends in
legislation...........................................................
654 23.10 Sources of further information and
advice................................... 656 23.11
References....................................................................................
658
Index.............................................................................................................
661
13. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 (* = main contact) Editor
and Chapter 20 J. P. Kerry Senior College Lecturer and Head of the
Food Packaging Group School of Food and Nutritional Sciences
University College Cork Cork Ireland E-mail: [email protected]
Chapter 1 Catherine N. Cutter*, Reshani N. Senevirathne, Vivian P.
Chang, Renee B. Cutaia, Kerry A. Fabrizio, Amie M. Geiger, Angela
M. Valadez and Sally F. Yoder Department of Food Science 202 Food
Science Building Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA
16803 USA E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 2 Lucina E. Lampila*
Department of Food Science Louisiana State University Agricultural
Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail:
[email protected] and Louisiana Sea Grant College Program
Baton Rouge, LA USA Kenneth W. McMillin School of Animal Sciences
and Department of Food Science Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail:
[email protected] Contributor contact details
14. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xiv Contributor contact
details Chapter 3 Maurice G. OSullivan* and J. P. Kerry Packaging
Group, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences University College
Cork Ireland E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Chapter 4 Byungrok Min Food Science and Technology University of
Maryland Eastern Shore Princess Anne, MD 21853 USA Dong U. Ahn*
Department of Animal Science Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011
USA and Department of Agricultural Biotechnology Major in
Biomodulation Seoul National University Seoul, 151921 Korea E-mail:
[email protected] Chapter 5 Grethe Hyldig*, Jette Nielsen,
Charlotte Jacobsen and Henrik Hauch Nielsen Technical University of
Denmark Denmark E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 6 Kenneth W.
McMillin* School of Animal Sciences and Department of Food Science
Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA
70803-4210 USA E-mail: [email protected] James N. Belcher
Poultry and Seafood Marketing Cryovac Food Solutions Division
Sealed Air Corporation Duncan, SC USA E-mail:
[email protected] Chapter 7 Anthoula A. Argyri, Efstathios
Z. Panagou and George-John E. Nychas* Agricultural University of
Athens Department of Food Science & Technology Laboratory of
Microbiology & Biotechnology of Foods Iera Odos 75 Athens 11855
Greece E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 8 Anlaug dland Hansen* Nofima AS
Osloveien 1 1430 s Norway E-mail: [email protected]
15. Contributor contact details xv Woodhead Publishing Limited,
2012 Erik Svanes, Ole Jrgen Hanssen and Mie Vold Ostfold
Research/stfoldforskning AS Gamle Bedding vei 2b 1671 Krkery Norway
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected] Bjrn Tore Rotabakk Nofima AS, Mltidets Hus
Richard Johnsens gt 4 PO Box 8034 4068 Stavanger Norway E-mail:
bjorn.tore.rotabakk@nofima. no Chapter 9 Graham C. Fletcher Food
Safety & Preservation New Zealand Institute for Plant &
Food Research Limited Private Bag 92169 Auckland 1142 New Zealand
E-mail: Graham.Fletcher@ plantandfood.co.nz Chapter 10 L.
Pastoriza* and M. Sc M. Bernrdez. Instituto de Investigaciones
Marinas (IIM-AECSIC). Eduardo Cabello, 6. 36208 Vigo Spain E-mail:
[email protected]; bernar@ iim.csic.es Chapter 11 Bjrn Tore
Rotabakk* and Morten Sivertsvik Nofima AS, Mltidets Hus Richard
Johnsens gt 4 PO Box 8034 4068 Stavanger Norway E-mail:
bjorn.tore.rotabakk@nofima. no Chapter 12 J. Bindu*, C. N.
Ravishankar and T. K. S. Gopal Fish Processing Division Central
Institute of Fisheries Technology, Matsyapuri-Post Cochin- 682029
India E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 13 Alfonso Totosaus
Food Science Lab Tecnolgico de Estudios Superiores de Ecatepec Av.
Tecnologico esq. Av. Central Ecatepec de Morelos CP 55210 Estado de
Mexico Mexico E-mail: [email protected]
16. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xvi Contributor contact
details Chapter 14 Zoran Savic VICTUS International GmbH Hietzinger
Haupstrasse 41 1130 Wien Austria E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 15
Helena Walsh* and J. P. Kerry School of Food and Nutritional
Sciences University College Cork Cork Ireland E-mail:
[email protected]; joe. [email protected] Chapter 16 Lihan Huang* and
Cheng-An Hwang Eastern Regional Research Center Agricultural
Research Service United States Department of Agriculture 600 E.
Mermaid Lane Wyndmoor, PA 19038 USA E-mail:
[email protected]; [email protected] Chapter 17 Paul
Dawson*, Kay Cooksey and S. Mangalassary Food Nutrition and
Packaging Sciences Department204 Poole Hall Clemson University
Clemson, SC 29634-0316 USA E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 18
Veronique coma University of Bordeaux LCPO, UMR 5629 F-33600 Pessac
France CNRS LCPO, UMR 5629 F-33600 Pessac France E-mail:
veronique.coma@u- bordeaux1.fr Chapter 19 Marlene E. Janes*
Louisiana State University Agricultural Center 111 Food Science
Bldg Baton Rouge, LA 70803 USA E-mail: [email protected];
[email protected] and Y. Dai Southern University Agricultural
Research & Extension Center A.O. Williams Hall PO Box 10010
Baton Rouge, LA 70813 USA E-mail: [email protected]
17. Contributor contact details xvii Woodhead Publishing
Limited, 2012 Chapter 21 Kenneth W. McMillin* School of Animal
Sciences and Department of Food Science Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail:
[email protected] Lucina E. Lampila Department of Food
Science Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Baton Rouge,
LA 70803-4210 USA E-mail: [email protected] and Louisiana
Sea Grant College Program Baton Rouge, LA USA John A. Marcy
Department of Poultry Science University of Arkansas Fayetteville,
AR USA E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 22 Mark Woolfe Food
Standards Agency Retired Thames Ditton Surrey KT7 0UJ UK E-mail:
[email protected] Chapter 23 Fintan Moran School of Food Science
and Environmental Health Dublin Institute of Technology Cathal
Brugha St Dublin 1 Ireland E-mail: [email protected]
18. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing
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26 Biosensors for food analysis Edited by A. O. Scott 27 Separation
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Kulkarni and D. V. Rege 29 Principles and practices for the safe
processing of foods D. A. Shapton and N. F. Shapton 30 Biscuit,
cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume 1: ingredients D.
Manley 31 Biscuit, cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume
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Manley 36 Practical dehydration Second edition M. Greensmith 37
Lawries meat science Sixth edition R. A. Lawrie 38 Yoghurt: science
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New ingredients in food processing: biochemistry and agriculture G.
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Guy
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in food processing Volume 1 Edited by K. W. Waldron
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neutraceutical uses Edited by M. Corredig 183 Handbook of waste
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Consumer-driven innovation in food and personal care products
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food chain Edited by S. Brul, P.M. Fratamico and T.A. McMeekin 197
Case studies in novel food processing technologies: innovations in
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Doona, K. Kustin and F. E. Feeherry 198 Freeze-drying of
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Saeger 204 Developing childrens food products Edited by D. Kilcast
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edition Edited by M. Saarela 206 Postharvest biology and technology
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Yahia
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integrity: a holistic approach to food traceability, safety,
quality and authenticity Edited by J. Hoorfar, K. Jordan, F. Butler
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products Volume 1 Edited by Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel
214 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products
Volume 2 Edited by F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain 215 Animal
feed contamination: effects on livestock and food safety Edited by
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J. Holah and H. L. M. Lelieveld 217 Manleys technology of biscuits,
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Nanotechnology in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries
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analysis K. R. Bhattacharya 220 Advances in meat, poultry and
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Piggott 226 Extrusion problems solved: food, pet food and feed M.
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making: improving quality Second edition Edited by S. P. Cauvain
230 Emerging food packaging technologies: principles and practice
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Garti and D. J. McClements 240 Fibre-rich and wholegrain foods:
improving quality Edited by J. A. Delcour and K. Poutanen
25. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 The quest to preserve and
extend the consumable longevity of foods derived from meat, poultry
or seafood is one which is pursued with as much enthusiasm and
energy today as it has been over the last several hundred years.
While many approaches have been used to accomplish these
objectives, packaging is para- mount among them. In fact, most of
the approaches used to bring about muscle food preservation are
quite limited in the absence of utilizing suitable packaging
technologies. This is particularly true when considering the
challenges presented by the modern-day retailing of such food
products. Food chain distribution systems designed for the
commercial movement of food products from the point of manufacture
through to their retail display and sale are both complex and
demanding. This equally applies to all meat, poultry and seafood
products. Muscle-based products that appear on supermarket shelves
today may have their origins many thousands of miles away from
where they are being sold, they may have been processed either
minimally or fully to meet market demands, they may be required to
meet specialized storage conditions and deliver upon expected shelf
life and they will need to meet all of the expectations that
markets specify in terms of addressing food safety and traceability
issues. Modern-day consumers, of course, understand much of this
and take it as a given that when purchasing muscle-based food
products in their local supermarket that they are buying quality,
safety and stability as integral product components, but consumers
will have their own specific product demands which will be
comprised of issues such as: value-for-money, nutritional
requirements, information and convenience. Consequently, packaging
plays the pivotal role in coping with all of these situa- tions and
demands. Many packaging systems currently exist for use with
muscle-based food prod- ucts, each one with its own unique
attributes and potential for application, from short-term storage
(about one week) employing overwrapping, to longer-term
Preface
26. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xxviii Preface modified
atmosphere packaging (MAP) storage (about two to six weeks), to
very long-term storage (weeks to months) using a host of approaches
to providing gas- less packaging systems often employing vacuum to
do so. These packaging sys- tems are usually employed singly, but
can be combined in different ways (like overwrapped products being
held under bulk gas flushed conditions, a commer- cial approach
called mother packing). While the formats described above might
suggest regimented and set approaches to packaging muscle food
products in centralized meat, poultry and seafood packaging plants,
nothing could be further from the truth. The packaging of
muscle-based food products is a dynamic pro- cess which is
constantly evolving as we learn more about the productpackage
interaction. The productpackage interaction is quite complex and
affected by numerous factors. On the muscle-based food product side
of the interaction, factors such as pre- and post-slaughter factors
(from farming or catching through to chilling fol- lowing
slaughter), further processing (from reforming or restructuring of
muscle foods with ingredient manipulation through to cooking or the
use of novel pro- cessing technologies) and final product
composition all play a role in creating a unique set of challenges
which the ultimate packaging system will have to con- tend with.
Additionally, from the package side of the interaction, factors
such as alterations in packaging materials and constructions,
developments in material sciences, selection and use of gas mixes,
compatibility of packaging materials with muscle food production
processes, capacity to deliver safety, quality and shelf-life
throughout the chill chain, utilization of smart packaging
technologies, environmental concerns and issues pertaining to
sustainability, evolving legal issues, unit costs and market
demands and compatibility with consumer aspira- tions and
expectations equally present their own difficulties. The packaging
of muscle-based foods is a dynamic process and it needs to be in
order to meet the challenges of our various global food markets. It
is for this reason that it was decided upon to develop this
publication. All of the issues highlighted above, as part of the
productpackage interaction, have been raised as issues within this
book in one way or another. The information gathered and the case
studies presented by each of the contributing authors will
adequately high- light the progress that we have made in the area
of muscle food packaging over a great many years, will show the
current status of muscle food packaging and the developments being
made in packaging technologies presently and will illumi- nate the
passages within which we must travel to address the packaging
issues that may confront us within the packaging arena tomorrow. J.
P. Kerry
27. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 1 Major microbiological
hazards associated with packaged fresh and processed meat and
poultry C. N. Cutter, R. N. Senevirathne, V. P. Chang, R. B.
Cutaia, K. A. Fabrizio, A. M. Geiger, A. M. Valadez and S. F.
Yoder, Pennsylvania State University, USA Abstract: This chapter
discusses major microbiological hazards associated with packaged
fresh and processed meat and poultry, including survival and growth
of microorganisms in meat and poultry products, as well as the role
of product composition and intrinsic and extrinsic factors (water
activity, pH, oxidation-reduction potential, atmosphere,
temperature, etc.) affecting microbial growth in these products.
Additional information addresses foodborne outbreaks related to
packaged fresh and further processed meat and poultry caused by
pathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes,
Salmonella spp., Yersinia spp., Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus
aureus and Aeromonas spp. and novel packaging techniques that may
be employed to control these pathogens. Key words: foodborne
pathogens, pathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter spp., Listeria
monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Yersinia spp., Clostridium spp.,
Staphylococcus aureus, Aeromonas spp. 1.1 Introduction: survival
and growth of microorganisms in meat and poultry products The many
properties of meat and poultry, including intrinsic, as well as
extrin- sic variables, will determine the survivability of
pathogenic and spoilage micro- organisms. Microorganisms require
plentiful sources of water; adequate carbon sources (sugars,
alcohols) for energy, nitrogen (amino acids), B vitamins, related
growth factors and various minerals, in order to survive. Other
factors, such as water activity (aw) and oxidation-reduction
potential (ORP) of meat and poultry
28. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 4 Advances in meat,
poultry and seafood packaging products can influence significantly
the growth and proliferation of organisms. Additionally, extrinsic
parameters of meat and poultry, including pH, relative humidity,
temperature and gaseous atmosphere affect microbial growth as well
as survivability (Cutter, 2002). 1.1.1 Product composition The
composition of meat and poultry products can affect the growth of
patho- genic bacteria. Generally speaking, fresh meat or poultry
that has undergone rigor is composed of macromolecules such as
protein, fat, as well as trace minerals. Compositionally speaking,
most meat and poultry is made up of 18% protein, on average, but
can range from 12% to 20%, depending upon the type of meat or ani-
mal source. Meat products are typically low in carbohydrates (06%),
except those that have been supplemented for fermentation purposes,
for flavor or purely for the creation of specific appearances. For
fat content, meat and meat products average 3% fat (w/w), but fat
levels can vary widely and can range from 3% to 45% (Jay et al.,
2005), depending upon the product and how it is processed. Low
molecular weight soluble components, including creatine phosphate
to glycogen to amino acids and dipeptides, minerals and vitamins,
also contribute to the composition of these food products (~3.5%;
Jay et al., 2005). Additionally, the presence of water in muscle
tissue also affords microorganisms with another necessary component
to support microbial growth. In fact, muscle is composed of
approximately 75.5% water, but again, levels can range from 42% to
80% (Jay et al., 2005). As described above, water is an important
component of meat and poultry and, consequently, its presence
supports microbial growth. Moisture content, or water activity
(aw), are terms used interchangeably when describing the amount of
water in a food product or system. However, aw is defined as the
energy status of the water in the system. It is equal to the
relative humidity of the air in equilibrium with a sample in a
sealed chamber. It is defined as the vapor pressure of water in a
sample divided by the vapor pressure of pure water held at the
sample tempera- ture therefore, water activity and moisture content
together provide a complete moisture analysis (Decagon, 2010). aw
measurements range from 0 to 1.0, with moisture-laden products
having an aw of 0.90 or greater, while products with an aw of <
0.50 are intermediate moisture products, typically described as
dry, and are relatively shelf stable. From a microbiological
perspective, the aw of meat and poultry is an important intrinsic
property that will influence the growth of pathogenic
microorganisms. Fresh meats and poultry typically exhibit aw values
of > 0.95 (Jay et al., 2005). Processing can also influence
significantly the ultimate aw, depending upon the type of
parameters (heating, cooling, drying, etc.) or compounds
(marinades, salt concentrations, carbohydrates, etc.) employed.
Various microorganisms have varying aw requirements. For example,
Gram- negative organisms (such as E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp.,
Campylobacter spp., etc.) have a minimum aw requirement of 0.96 to
0.93 for growth, whereas Gram-positive, non-spore-formers (Listeria
monocytogenes, Staphylococcus
29. Microbiological hazards associated with packaged meat and
poultry 5 Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 aureus, etc.) can grow
to a lower aw of 0.90 to 0.94 (Farkas, 1997). By lowering the aw of
a muscle food, one can increase the lag phase of bacterial growth
and, ultimately, decrease the growth rate (Farkas, 1997).
Additionally, factors such as pH, temperature, nutrient content,
presence of antimicrobials or oxidation-reduc- tion potential, work
synergistically with aw (Jay et al., 2005). For example, when
stored at a specific temperature, the ability of microbes to grow
on meat and poul- try is reduced as the aw is lowered. Similarly,
addition of salts or solutes in a mari- nade to a muscle food and
storage under refrigeration will hamper the ability of the
pathogenic organism to grow. The difference in aw limits for
microbial growth may be reflected in osomoregulatory capacities
since mechanisms of tolerance to low aw are different in bacteria
and fungi (Farkas, 1997). The strategy employed by microorganisms
to protect against osmotic stress under extreme conditions of low
aw appears to be the intracellular accumulation of salts, polyols,
amino acids or compatible solutes such as potassium ions or amino
acids in bacteria (Cutter, 2002; Farkas, 1997; Jay et al., 2005).
In conjunction with aw, the relative humidity of the storage
environment is also important in determining the growth of micro-
organisms in foods (Jay et al., 2005). Careful consideration should
be given when storing low aw foods in environments where the
relative humidity is high since moisture will transfer from the
environment to the food. The change in the aw of the muscle food
has the potential to affect the growth of microbes. Conversely,
high aw foods held in packaged environments with low relative
humidity tend to lose moisture in the transfer of moisture from the
food to the environment. In this case, microbial growth may be
slowed by the loss of available water, but unde- sirable quality
changes in the food may occur. It is possible that by altering the
gaseous environment, microbial growth can be minimized without
lowering the relative humidity (Jay et al., 2005). 1.1.2 Storage
temperature and oxidation-reduction potential Another property that
influences the growth of microorganisms is storage tem- perature.
While microorganisms grow over a wide range of temperatures, the
gen- eral temperature ranges for microbial growth are:
psychrophiles (15C to 20C with an optimum of 10C); psychrotrophs
(5C to 35C with optimum of 20C to 30C); mesophiles (10C to 35C with
optimum of 30C to 40C); and ther- mophiles (40C to 90C with optimum
of 55C to 65C) (Cousin and Rodriguez, 1987). Above the optimal
growth temperature, the growth rates decrease pre- cipitously;
below the optimum, growth rates also decrease, but do so gradually
(Montville and Matthews, 2008). The influence of temperature on
microbial growth and physiology is obvi- ous; yet the influence of
temperature on gene expression is equally important (Montville and
Matthews, 2008). For example, psychrophilic organisms not only grow
slower under refrigerated conditions, but they also express
different genes and are physiologically different than mesophilic
organisms (Montville and Matthews, 2008). Temperature also
influences the expression of other genes and their representative
proteins, such as toxin production in Yersinia enterocolitica,
30. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 6 Advances in meat,
poultry and seafood packaging internalin production by L.
monocytogenes, or production of heat shock pro- teins involved in
thermal resistance in Escherichia coli O157:H7 (Montville and
Matthews, 2008). The oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) of a
substrate may be defined as how easily a substrate loses or gains
electrons (Jay et al., 2005). When a substance is oxidized, it
loses electrons and these electrons must be accepted by another
sub- stance, which then becomes reduced (Jay et al., 2005). Aerobic
microorganisms require positive ORP values (i.e., oxidized) and
therefore, can lower the ORP of their environment. Anaerobes
require negative ORP values (i.e., reduced) and therefore, cannot
lower the ORP of their environment (Jay et al., 2005). The ORP of a
muscle food is determined by the resistance to change the potential
of the food, the oxygen tension of the atmosphere around the food,
and the access which the atmosphere has to the food (Jay et al.,
2005). Substances, such as sulfide groups, help in maintaining
reduced conditions in foods (Jay et al., 2005). Thus, it is the
presence or absence of appropriate quantities of oxidizing and
reduc- ing compounds in muscle foods that are important to the
growth and activity of microorganisms (Cutter, 2002; Jay et al.,
2005). 1.1.3 Atmospheric composition Perhaps the major technical
role played by packaging during containment of meat and poultry is
its influence on the water vapor, gas composition and partial pres-
sure in the headspace or atmosphere of the packaged food (Cutter,
2002). Oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2) are the
three gases used primarily in commercial modified atmosphere
packaging (MAP) of muscle-based prod- ucts. Oxygen generally
stimulates the growth of aerobic bacteria, while inhibiting
strictly anaerobic bacteria. Oxygen also is necessary to maintain
the bright red color of fresh red meat, but, concurrently, it will
contribute to lipid oxidation. Nitrogen is an inert, tasteless gas
that exhibits low solubility in water and lipids. It is used to
replace O2 in some packaging regimens in order to delay oxidative
rancidity and inhibit the proliferation of aerobic microorganisms.
Additionally, nitrogen is used as a filler-gas to prevent collapse
of packaging (Davies, 1995; Stiles, 1991). Carbon dioxide, which is
both a water- and lipid-soluble gas, pri- marily exerts
bacteriostatic effects on selective groups of microorganisms in
modified atmospheres. The presence of CO2 not only prolongs the lag
phase of bacterial growth, but also decreases the growth rate
during the logarithmic phase (Davies, 1995). Any bacteriostatic
effect exerted by carbon dioxide is determined by gas concentration
used, gas to product ratio, age and load of the initial bacte- rial
population, temperature and composition of the muscle food product.
The modes of CO2 action on certain bacteria may include: an
alteration of the cell membrane function such that nutrients and
absorption are affected; inhibition or decrease in enzymatic
reactions; intracellular pH changes and/or changes in the
physicochemical properties of proteins (Farber, 1991). Under some
packaging conditions, carbonic acid may be formed when CO2
interacts with water, lower- ing the pH and inhibiting or
interfering with microbial growth on the surface of
31. Microbiological hazards associated with packaged meat and
poultry 7 Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 muscle foods (Gill,
1986). Another gas, carbon monoxide (CO), has been used to preserve
muscle foods and to overcome color deterioration of packaged meats
(Gill, 1986). However, carbon monoxide has a limited effect on
spoilage microor- ganisms (Gill, 1986; Stiles, 1991). 1.2 Vacuum
packaging (VP) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) to control
microbial populations associated with meat and poultry products
When discussing gas and/or surrounding atmospheres and the effect
on microbial populations associated with muscle foods, it is
important to include some infor- mation about vacuum packaging (VP)
and MAP. VP is accomplished by evacuat- ing the air from within a
package and ensuring that it continues not to possess an atmosphere
prior to heat-sealing (Brody, 1989; Cutter, 2002; Davies, 1995). In
the process of VP, a pressure differential exists between the
package exte- rior and interior. This pressure differential can
cause package collapse in some rigid packages, but may be very well
suited for some types of flexible packaging (Brody, 1989). The
gaseous atmosphere surrounding the meat or poultry product is
likely to change during storage due to respiration of the muscle
food itself or via the metabolism of microorganisms found on the
food surface (Davies, 1995). Conversely, modified atmospheres are
generated by the initial alteration of the gaseous environment in
the immediate vicinity of the muscle food. The gaseous environment
within MAP is altered in order to slow down the respiration rate of
the muscle foods as well as microbial growth, and to reduce
enzymatic degrada- tion resulting in an extension in the shelf life
of the food (Cutter, 2002; Stllman et al., 1994). Because fresh
foods may be naturally respiring or contain micro- organisms that
respire, O2 is consumed and CO2 and water vapor are produced,
reaching a steady-state composition within the package (Brody,
1989; Ooraikul, 1991). Depending upon the type of packaging
material(s) used, the package may also transmit oxygen, carbon
dioxide and water vapor, resulting in changes to the gaseous
environment surrounding the product. VP can be considered a
variation of MAP in that the removal of air is an atmospheric
modification and not carried out specifically by the introduction
of gases (Brody, 1989; Cutter, 2002). The absence or reduction of
oxygen in VP foods may permit conditions suitable for the growth
and toxin production by anaerobic pathogens such as Clostridium
botulinum (Brody, 1989). Additionally, the suppression of aerobic
spoilage organ- isms may create conditions favorable for the growth
of pathogenic aerobic bacte- ria such as L. monocytogenes, Yersinia
enterocolitica, Aeromonas hydrophila and enterotoxigenic
Escherichia coli (Brody, 1989). While the presence of CO2 in VP
products inhibits the growth of some Gram-negative spoilage
organisms, lactic acid spoilage bacteria are less affected by
elevated levels of CO2 and grow well. Based on this information, VP
and the atmosphere it creates in and around mus- cle foods may
selectively favor the growth of obligate and facultative
anaerobic
32. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 8 Advances in meat,
poultry and seafood packaging pathogens (Cutter, 2002). As
mentioned previously, several factors are known to influence the
antimicrobial effect of CO2 in MAP. Specifically, the initial
micro- bial load, concentration of gas, temperature and film
permeability affect micro- bial growth (Cutter, 2002; Ooraikul,
1991; Stiles, 1991). MAP can be inhibitory to some microorganisms,
including a number of Gram-negative organisms; yet, Gram-positive
organisms can grow slowly under modified atmospheres (Brody, 1989;
Farkas, 1997; Ooraikul, 1991) Additionally, since O2 is removed and
replaced by other gases in MAP, there is the potential for
outgrowth of pathogens such as L. monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus
and Clostridium botulinum (Farkas, 1997). Furthermore, the effect
of VP and MAP against microorganisms associ- ated with fresh or
further processed meat and poultry decreases as the temperature
increases. Therefore, elevated temperatures that may be seen with
temperature abuse throughout storage, transport, or distribution
could permit the growth of once-inhibited microorganisms and create
food safety issues (Brody, 1989). Despite these limitations, it has
been proposed that the risks of foodborne patho- gens associated
with modified atmospheres are no greater, and are frequently less
than, those from aerobically stored foods (Cutter, 2002; Davies,
1995). It has been well established that most microorganisms grow
at pH values around 7.0, with some molds growing between pH 0 and
11; bacteria growing between pH 3 and 11; and yeast growing between
pH 1.5 and 8.50 (Jay et al., 2005). In some instances, pH
fluctuations on meat and poultry occur as a result of metabolites
(e.g., organic acids) produced by the microbes associated with the
product over time (Genigeorgis, 1985). In other instances, pH
changes can occur due to the amount of gas and/or atmosphere
applied. In cases of MAP in which carbon dioxide is used, the
conversion of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid on the surface can
result in a pH drop that has the potential to affect microbial
growth (Genigeorgis, 1985). Along these lines, high levels of
carbon dioxide in a packaged product could result in higher levels
of carbonic acid on the surface, resulting in lower microbial
levels. When microorganisms encounter environ- ments exhibiting pH
values above or below their optimal pH, they must adjust by
expelling or importing hydrogen ions in an effort to maintain an
internal pH near neutrality (Jay et al., 2005). Adverse pH
conditions also may affect respiring microorganisms by denaturing
DNA, altering cellular enzymes or disrupting the transport of
nutrients into the cell (Jay et al., 2005). Ultimately, these
changes can result in cellular death. 1.3 Notable foodborne
outbreaks related to packaged fresh and further processed meat and
poultry In addition to the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic
factors, as well as packaging materials, on microbial growth, it is
important to understand the biological haz- ards associated with
the presence of pathogens which are specifically involved with, and
relate to, muscle foods: their properties, mechanisms of infection,
inci- dents of foodborne illness and potential control measures. Of
these pathogens,
33. Microbiological hazards associated with packaged meat and
poultry 9 Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Salmonella spp.,
Campylobacter spp., L. monocytogenes and Shiga-toxin pro- ducing E.
coli are considered the most important bacteria with regard to
public health. Additional concerns associated with Yersinia spp.,
S. aureus, C. botuli- num, C. perfringens, B. cereus, Aeromonas
spp. and Shigella spp. also will be discussed. Some notable
foodborne outbreaks, packaging type (if known) and other outbreak
statistics related to fresh and further processed meat and poultry
products (19882010) are presented in Table 1.1. Major
microbiological hazards associated with packaged fresh and further
processed meat and poultry are dis- cussed in the following
sections. 1.3.1 Salmonella spp. Salmonella spp. are Gram-negative,
small, non-spore-forming, motile and fac- ultative anaerobic rods
(Jay et al., 2005). Salmonella spp. are commonly distrib- uted in
nature, with humans and domestic animals being the primary
reservoirs of the organism. Salmonella spp. are differentiated
serologically by their somatic (O) antigen, flagellar (H) antigen
or capsular antigen (K) and classified by group A, B, C, D, etc.
The most prevalent serotypes are Salmonella Enteritidis (SE), S.
Typhimurium and S. Heidelberg, accounting for the majority of human
salmo- nellosis cases. Salmonella spp. can grow between 5C and 47C,
with an optimum temperature of 3537C, and can survive in a pH range
of 4.59.0, with the ideal pH being 6.57.5. Most Salmonella spp.
grow aerobically at aw of 0.9450.999 (Jay et al., 2005). Salmonella
spp. cause the gastrointestinal disease known as salmonellosis. The
minimum infective dose in humans ranges from 107 to 109 cells/gram
of food (Jay et al., 2005). The general symptoms of salmonellosis
in humans occur within 1236 h after the bacteria are ingested and
may include diarrhea, vomit- ing, abdominal cramps or fever,
generally persisting for one to seven days. The virulence of S.
Typhimurium in humans is attributed to several mechanisms.
Lipopolysaccharide components of the cell wall and endotoxins have
been sug- gested as the cause of fever in salmonellosis (Jay et
al., 2005). Salmonella spp. do not possess enterotoxins, but are
capable of penetrating the ileum and the colon of the
gastrointestinal tract in humans, causing inflammation. In some
instances, the organism may establish a systematic infection
following penetra- tion of blood and lymphatic vessels, causing
bacteremia in infected individuals (Flowers et al., 1988a, 1988b).
In some salmonellosis cases, severe dehydration can lead to death
of infected individuals. Other symptoms may include muscu- lar
weakness, faintness, restlessness and drowsiness (Jay et al.,
2005). Another clinical manifestation of Salmonella spp. infection
is enteric fever, more com- monly known as typhoid fever, which is
caused by S. Typhi (Gonzalez-Escobedo et al., 2011). Salmonella
spp. have been implicated in meat borne illnesses for several
decades. Salmonellosis represents a serious problem worldwide, with
billions of dollars spent each year due to the illness, including
on: lost wages, medical expenses, lawsuits and product recalls
(Buzby and Roberts, 2009; Todd, 1989).
38. Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 14 Advances in meat,
poultry and seafood packaging Outbreaks caused by Salmonella spp.
have been associated with foods derived from animals, including
pork, eggs, poultry, low fat and whole milk, raw ground beef, ice
cream, cheese, sausages and cured meats (ham, bacon and tongue). In
1994, a meat-related outbreak was linked to the consumption of raw
ground beef contaminated with S. Typhimurium. This outbreak yielded
a total of 158 confirmed cases experiencing symptoms (diarrhea,
abdominal pain, fever and nausea) and 17 hospitalizations. The
source of contamination was linked to improper sanita- tion of
utensils