Lise Meitner:

Advancing Scientific Discovery in the Face of Conflicts Through Personal

Sacrifice and Compromise

Isabelle Appel

Historical Paper

Junior Division

Paper Length: 2,498 Words

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“Over the centuries, the apparent paucity of women in science has been used to deny women equitable access to education and the professions. And although

many more women are scientists today, sociologists note that as a group they are still, to a significant extent, at the margins.”

- Ruth Lewin Sime 1

Introduction

Lise Meitner possessed a passion for math and physics from a young age. Being both

female and Jewish meant overcoming numerous conflicts in order to gain acceptance in the

academic world. Despite these obstacles, in 1938, Meitner helped develop the theoretical

foundation for what became known as nuclear fission. This scientific breakthrough sparked the 2

beginning of the atomic age and its subsequent implications. Despite her major scientific

discovery and other advancements, the accolades were primarily given to her male colleagues. In

order to advance science and pursue the career she loved, Meitner pushed through these

conflicts, spending her life making sacrifices and compromises in the face of patriarchal and

cultural limitations.

Early Childhood and Education

In 1878, in Vienna, Austria, Lise Meitner was born to Phillip and Hedwig Meitner. The 3

exact date of her birth is unknown; however, Meitner observed November 7. Her father was one 4

of the first Jewish lawyers in Austria and her mother was a talented pianist. Since childhood,

Meitner’s family had always distanced themselves from their Jewish origin; thus conflicted

1 Sime, Ruth Lewin. Lise Meitner a Life in Physics . London, England: University of California Press, 1996, viii . 2 Sime, 237. 3 Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission . Great Minds of Science. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002, 11. 4 Sime, 1.

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Meitner would later convert to Christianity. However, she identified as Jewish throughout most

of her career— a choice that would play a major role in her academic life. 5

Unlike most girls during this time, Meitner’s family encouraged her to pursue an

advanced education. Years later, Meitner described her childhood as an “extraordinarily 6

stimulating intellectual atmosphere.” Excelling in both math and science, Meitner had a private 7

teacher until age 14 since laws in Vienna prohibited females from continuing any type of formal

schooling past this age. Female brains were considered too delicate for advanced schooling 8

because it was believed it could propagate mental illness. 9

In 1899, at age 21, despite her interest in physics, Meitner received her certificate to teach

French (see Appendix A). Her father wanted her to be independent, and teaching was one of the

few careers available to women during this time. As Meitner later stated, “I was very unsure as 10

to whether I would be able to become a scientist.” Fortunately, other areas of study soon 11

became available to women at the University of Vienna. An excellent student, Meitner 12

completed eight years of admission work in two years. She was one of only four females to pass

the University’s entrance exam in 1901. Over the next five years, Meitner studied with renowned

physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, who quickly became her inspiration: “He was in a way a ‘pure

soul,’ full of goodness of heart, idealism, and reverence for the wonder of the natural order of

5 Ibid, 5-6. 6 Ibid, 6. 7 Ibid, 1. 8 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 9 Sime, 8. 10 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 11 "Lise Meitner Looking Back." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book. 12 Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission . Great Minds of Science. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002, 14.

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things.” It was through his mentoring that in 1906, Meitner became only the second woman to 13

earn a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Vienna. Her excitement over this prestigious 14

accomplishment was tempered when Boltzmann took his life that same year. This tragedy only

further strengthened her determination to excel in physics. As her nephew, Otto Frisch,

mentioned years later, “Boltzmann gave her the vision of physics as a battle for ultimate truth, a

vision she never lost.” 15

Months later, Max Planck of the University of Berlin was invited to the University of

Vienna as a possible successor to Boltzmann. This was Meitner’s first exposure to Planck and 16

his teachings, and she hoped to return with him to attend his lectures. Up until this point, Planck

did not allow women in his classes. He believed, along with most of society, females were

incapable of pursuing an advanced education. Meitner negotiated a compromise with Planck, 17

securing a postdoctoral position, but unlike her male counterparts, she would not be paid. 18

Meitner arrived at the University of Berlin in 1907, excited to study the new field of

radioactivity. It was here Meitner began a life-long collaboration and friendship with a young

German chemist, Otto Hahn. 19

13 Sime, 14. "Dr. Lise Meitner." Nature , no. 162 (November 6, 1948): 1. Accessed September 20, 2017. doi:10.1038/162726c0. 14 Rayner-Canham, Marelen F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.c.: American Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 122. 15 Sime, 17. 16 "Lise Meitner Looking Back." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book. 17 Sime, 25. 18 Rife, Patricia. "Lise Meitner." Jewish Women's Archive. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ meitner-lise. 19 Sime, 23, 27.

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Early Vocational Years

In 1912, Meitner secured her first paid position as Planck’s assistant. Another conflict 20

arose when Meitner and Hahn began researching radioactive processes. Women were prohibited

from working in the University’s laboratories “lest their hair catch fire.” Again, Meitner 21

reached a compromise with the University and was granted permission to work in an old

carpenter's workshop. To supplement her small income as an assistant, Meitner occasionally 22

wrote for the scientific journal Nature under the pen name L. Meitner fearing readers would not

take the articles seriously if they knew they were written by a woman. 23

In 1912, Hahn became a scientific associate at the new Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for

Chemistry in Berlin (see Appendix B). The Institute had the first radioactivity department in 24

Germany. Meitner was allowed to accompany Hahn, but again was regarded as an unpaid

“guest.” After only a year, Meitner was promoted to the same position as Hahn, yet the 25

promotion came with a sexist compromise as she received a considerably lower salary. The

radioactivity section was officially theirs: Laboratorium Hahn-Meitner. 26

Meitner was appointed the head of her own physics section in 1917. With this new

arrangement came the responsibility of establishing an independent physics section, and more

20 Ibid, 45. 21 "Lise Meitner Looking Back." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book. 22 "Scientist Who Opened Way to Atom Bomb." The Observer ((London, Greater London, England)), August 4, 1968. Accessed April 12, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/258329529/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 23 Ibid, 36. 24 Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century . History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 124. 25 Sime, 45. 26 Ibid, 45, 47.

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importantly, the freedom to direct her own work. Later that year, Meitner and Hahn succeeded 27

in discovering protactinium most stable isotope. However, it was not until 1949 that the

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry credited Meitner and Hahn with this

discovery. On March 16, 1918, Meitner and Hahn submitted their paper: “The Mother 28

Substance of Actinium, A New Radioactive Element of Long Half-Life.” Hahn was named

senior author of the paper even though Meitner conducted the majority of the research. Meitner 29

compromised her personal advancement in the face of a historically misogynistic field to ensure

her research was published and taken seriously in the scientific world.

From 1918 to 1922, Meitner garnered prestige and respect in the academic world for her

research and became more independent in her work. By 1920, Meitner and Hahn were pursuing

separate scientific paths. Meitner accepted numerous positions as a visiting professor and

continued her investigations in radioactivity. While researching and lecturing at the University 30

of Berlin in 1922, Meitner discovered a process in which an atom, with an electron vacancy,

adjusts to a more stable state by ejecting one or more electrons. Unfortunately, in 1923, a 31

French scientist named Pierre Auger discovered the same process, which became known as the

Auger Effect. In 1926, Meitner was asked to head a research program at the University of 32

Berlin. With this promotion, Meitner became the first female physics professor in Germany. 33

27 Ibid, 63. 28 Toor, Dr. Fatima. E-mail interview by the author. May 3, 2018. 29 Sime, 70. 30 Sime, 79-83. 31 Ibid, 90-91. 32 Hanly, Beverly. "Feb, 11, 1939: Lise Meitner, ‘Our Madame Curie’." Wired , February 11, 2010. Accessed October 3, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2010/02/0211lise-meitner-publishes-nuclear-fission/. 33 Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Lise Meitner." Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.atomicheritage.org/ profile/lise-meitner.

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The appointment led to more exposure in the physics world, such as visiting students abroad and

studying alongside doctoral candidates (see Appendix C). 34

In 1932, James Chadwick, an English physicist, discovered the neutron. This discovery 35

led to speculation among scientists that heavier elements could be produced. Physicist Enrico

Fermi conducted an experiment in Rome testing this theory. His team bombarded uranium with

slow-moving neutrons. The results, however, were confusing. The bombardment did not produce

heavier elements as theorized, but rather lighter ones. Ida Noddack, a female chemist residing in

Berlin, suggested Fermi had overlooked the possibility that neutron bombardment could cause

the uranium nucleus to split apart, thus producing lighter elements. However, Noddack’s idea 36

was quickly met with skepticism. Meitner’s scientific curiosity and desire to replicate Fermi’s

experiment led her down a path towards her greatest discovery yet. 37

In 1934, Meitner asked for Otto Hahn’s help investigating neutron bombardment. They,

alongside chemist Fritz Strassmann, confirmed that bombarding uranium with slow-moving

neutrons resulted in unidentified lighter elements. They continued experimenting and 38

developed numerous theories to explain the results, as other laboratories across Europe raced to

answer the same question. Many in the scientific community believed whoever explained how 39

lighter elements were produced would be a frontrunner for the Nobel Prize in physics or

chemistry. 40

34 Sime, 110. 35 Ibid, 125. 36 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 37 Laurence, William L. "The Atom: How Scientists Made It Give Up." The Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), August 12, 1945. Accessed April 14, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/107138379/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 38 Famous Scientists. "Lise Meitner." Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/. 39 Sime, 165-183. 40 Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Lise Meitner." Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last

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The Nazi Rise to Power

During this time, a dangerous political environment was developing in Germany. The

country was suffering from numerous internal conflicts, including economic depression,

unemployment, the rise of the Nazi party, and consequently, continual power struggles. All

aspects of German life were affected; as Meitner noted to Hahn, “everything and everyone is

influenced by the political upheavals.” This was an ominous foreshadowing of future conflicts 41

and personal compromises impacting Meitner’s life.

One of Hitler’s decrees in April 1933 stripped Jewish educators in Germany of their

positions. Despite her Jewish ancestry, Meitner received an exemption due to her Austrian 42

citizenship. Unfortunately, many other Jewish scientists, like her nephew Frisch, were forced to

leave Germany. Meitner later regretted her indifference by remaining in Germany as long as she

did acknowledging, “It was not only stupid but also very wrong that I did not leave at once.” 43

Germany officially annexed Austria in 1938. As a result, Meitner was now considered a

German, placing her in danger due to her Jewish heritage. In July 1938, Meitner escaped 44

Germany as noted in her diary entry: “13. July. Said good-bye early to Hahn. Ring. Met Coster at

the station. In Nieuwe Schans [a village in the Netherlands] the customs officer was informed. 6

P.M. Groningen [a city in the Netherlands].” Meitner and close colleague, Dirk Coster, boarded 45

modified 2017. Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.atomicheritage.org/ profile/lise-meitner 41 Sime, 134, 136. 42 Albert Einstein's Big Idea Nova HD . YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo. 43 University of Berkeley. "Lise Meitner." Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013. Accessed January 20, 2018. http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/ Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meitner.html. 44 A Gift From Heaven . Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8. 45 Sime, 204.

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a train headed towards Holland. During their escape, Coster convinced a German immigrant 46

official that Meitner had permission to cross the German border. Meitner was so overwhelmed

by fear, she begged Coster to return to Berlin, which he refused. While Meitner successfully 47

escaped the conflict in Nazi Germany, she had to compromise her position at the Kaiser Wilhelm

Institute and leave her life’s work behind. 48

Following her escape from Germany, Meitner accepted a temporary position at the Niels

Bohr Institute in Copenhagen, Denmark. Later, she declined a position at Cambridge 49

University instead choosing to work at the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm in hopes of

building a leading research group. This decision proved to be a misstep in her career as Meitner

soon found that her reputation and accomplishments meant very little. Author Geoff

Rayner-Canham of Women in Chemistry stated, “At Cambridge University, she [Meitner] would

have been involved with a women-friendly group where she could have made significant

contributions and had her name recognized.” Despite feeling marginalized at the Nobel Institute 50

of Physics, Meitner continued to correspond with Hahn regarding the uranium work she left

behind in Berlin. 51

46 Ibid, 204. 47 University of Berkeley. "Lise Meitner." Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013. Accessed January 20, 2018. http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/ Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meitner.html. 48 A Gift From Heaven . Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8. 49 Sime, 207. 50 Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018. 51 A Gift From Heaven . Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8.

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Entering the Atomic Age: The Discovery of Nuclear Fission

On December 23, 1938, Meitner crossed Sweden to visit her nephew Otto R. Frisch. 52

Two days prior to her visit, she had received a puzzling letter from Hahn regarding his and

Strassmann’s uranium experiments. It appeared the uranium had produced barium, as noted in

Hahn’s letter to Meitner: “A reaction with slow neutrons that supposedly leads to barium… one

can unconditionally say: it is impossible!” Later that day, Meitner and Frisch took a walk to 53

discuss Hahn’s curious findings. For years, there had been speculation the nucleus of an atom

was not a solid object, but rather resembled a liquid drop. With this thought in mind, Meitner 54

and Frisch suggested when the neutrons hit the uranium atom, the atom becomes unstable,

ultimately resulting in the elongating of the atom; or splitting in two. When the atom divided, it 55

released a large enough amount of energy to drive the atoms apart. Meitner then calculated it

would produce 200 million electron volts: a tremendous amount of energy. If her calculations 56

were correct, Meitner and Frisch had explained the science behind their uranium investigations

and unknowingly sparked the beginning of the atomic age.

Following this breakthrough, Meitner shared their findings with Hahn, who published an

article with Strassmann that “characterized the Meitner-Frisch work as a fairly meaningless

description of known results.” Hahn made no mention that it was Meitner who had prompted 57

52 Ibid 53 Sime, 235. 54 Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century . History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 126. 55 Albert Einstein's Big Idea Nova HD . YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo. Oakland Tribune (Oakland, CA). "2 Scientists Played Lead Role in A-Power Story." September 30, 1955. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/ image/296392340/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 56 Albert Einstein's Big Idea Nova HD . YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo. 57 Sime, 240-254.

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their search for lighter elements. Soon after this, laboratories across the world were conducting

experiments and publishing works. These articles often acknowledged Hahn and Strassmann’s

role, but rarely mentioned Meitner’s contributions. Not only had she not received recognition for

her part in the discovery of nuclear fission, but her current position at the Nobel Institute of

Physics was extremely disheartening. Despite her years of experience, she was being treated

similar to a lab technician. Meitner’s world appeared to be collapsing around her, sending her

into depression:

...she was reliving the terrifying insecurity of her first months in Berlin: again she was a stranger in a foreign country, unwelcome in a male profession, living poorly on bread and black coffee in a tiny room--and devastated to find thirty years in physics had not kept it from happening again. 58

She shared her frustration over these issues in a letter to her brother, Walter:

And much as these results make me happy for Hahn, both personally and scientifically, many people here must think I contributed absolutely nothing to it-and now I am so discouraged; although I believe I used to do good work, now I have lost my self-confidence. 59

The discovery of nuclear fission caused alarm in the United States, because it was evident

in a chain reaction, nuclear fission would release a great amount of energy, thus opening the door

to building atomic weapons. On August 2, 1939, Albert Einstein sent a critical letter to 60

President Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning of potential nuclear weapon production in Nazi

Germany. In response, the United States developed the Manhattan Project, a top-secret 61

58 Ibid, 246-254. 59 Ibid, 255. 60 US Department of Energy. "Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission." The Manhattan Project. Last modified 2018. Accessed January 26, 2018. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/ rivals.htm. 61 Einstein, Albert. Letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, "Letter to the President of the United States on Germany's Work on Nuclear Energy," August 2, 1939. Accessed November 7, 2017. https://diaryofascientist.files.wordpress.com/

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organization that entered an arms race against Germany to develop the first atomic bomb. 62

Meitner was asked to join the Manhattan Project, yet she declined, despite the opportunity to

gain scientific recognition. Meitner was against utilizing nuclear fission for violence stating, “I

will have nothing to do with a bomb,” and, “It was an unfortunate accident that this discovery

came about in time of war.” To Meitner’s disappointment, Otto Hahn continued work on the 63

development of the atomic bomb in Berlin for the Nazis. Despite differing views on this matter, 64

Meitner and Hahn continued a cordial relationship. 65

Unrecognized Scientific Contributions

In 1944, Otto Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of

nuclear fission. In his acceptance speech Hahn gave limited credit to Meitner. Author Geoff 66 67

Rayner-Canham states, “Hahn was only interested in maximizing his own fame. Any

acknowledgement of Meitner’s role would have diminished his own glory.” There were many 68

in the scientific community who believed Meitner should have been awarded the corresponding

2014/08/fission.png. 62 US Department of Energy. "Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission." The Manhattan Project. Last modified 2018. Accessed January 26, 2018. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/ rivals.htm. 63 Sime, 305. Vare, Ethlie Ann, and Greg Ptacek. "Conceiving a Nuclear World." The Philadelphia Inquirer (Philadelphia, PA), May 30, 1988, 37. Accessed May 2, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/170030008. 64 The Guardian (London, Greater London, England). "Professor Otto Hahn Receives Faraday Medal." March 29, 1956. Accessed April 15, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/259465486/?terms=Lise+Meitner. 65 Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century . History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998, 127. 66 “A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice." Physics Today 50, no. 9 (September 1997): 26. Accessed February 14, 2018. doi:10.1063/ 1.881933. 67 Hahn, Otto. "From the Natural Transmissions or Uranium to it's Artificial Fission." Lecture, Nobel Lecture, December 13, 1946. 68 Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018.

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Nobel Prize in Physics. Swedish physicist Hans Pettersson commented on the oversight, “[We]

are indignant about the one-sidedness of the distribution of the Nobel Prize. We are certainly

glad that Hahn got the chemistry prize, but by all rights the physics prize should have gone to

you, [Meitner].” Even today, this is considered one of the greatest oversights by a Nobel Prize 69

Committee (see Appendix D). 70

Meitner spent much of the 1940’s and 1950’s traveling throughout the United States

lecturing and encouraging young women to pursue a career in physics (see Appendix E). She 71

was nominated and received several awards, frequently the first woman to receive these

nominations and honors (see Appendix F). In 1946, Meitner was awarded the prestigious

“Woman of the Year” accolade by the United States’ National Press Club. In 1960, Meitner 72

retired to England and shortly thereafter, her health declined. Lise Meitner passed away on 73

October 27, 1968, at the age of 89. Otto R. Frisch chose the inscription on Meitner’s gravestone.

It reads: “Lise Meitner: A physicist who never lost her humanity.” 74

69 Sime, 326. 70 The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. "Inspired Excellence: The story of Marie Sklodowska Curie and Lise Meitner." The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. Last modified 2017. Accessed October 6, 2017. https://www.nuclearmuseum.org/see/exhibits-to-rent/ inspired-excellence-the-story-of-marie-sklodowska-curie-and-lise-meitner/. 71 Sime, 330-336. American Catholic History Research Center and University Archives. Letter, "Invitation to Meitner Reception," February 10, 1946. Accessed November 21, 2017. http://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/9452/. 72 Sime, 342, 358-366. 73 University of Berkeley. "Lise Meitner." Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013. Accessed January 20, 2018. http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/ Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meitner.html. 74 The Central New Jersey Home News (New Brunswick, NJ). "Lise Meitner, Austrian Nuclear Physicist Dies." October 28, 1968. Accessed May 4, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/315869759/?terms=Lise+Meitner. Sime, 380.

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Lasting Legacy on the Scientific World

Throughout her life and career, Meitner faced numerous conflicts, primarily because she

was a woman and Jewish. These obstacles surrounding her identity hindered her earning an

advanced education and maintaining a respected position in the scientific community. Meitner

compromised salary, working conditions, and recognition in order to keep scientific discovery

moving forward and pursue the career she loved.

Meitner’s theories and contributions aided in shaping and establishing the field of atomic

physics, and despite her conflicted feelings, advanced research world-wide, changing the

landscape of warfare. Nuclear fission had an immediate impact on both the scientific and

political communities during World War II. However, Meitner’s values prevented her from

compromising her beliefs and participating in the development of a weapon of mass destruction.

Thus, it is Otto Hahn’s role in the discovery of nuclear fission that is widely accepted today,

while Meitner’s impact is rarely acknowledged.

Lise Meitner’s contributions to science are deemed extensive, even today. In 1982,

element 109 was discovered and named meitnerium in her honor, only the second element to be

named after a woman. Peter Armbruster, leader of the team that discovered the element, noted, 75

“Lise Meitner should be honored for her fundamental work on the physical understanding of

fission. She should be honored as the most significant female scientist of this century” (see

Appendix G). Today, nuclear fission is used to produce nearly 11 percent of total electricity in 76

75 Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018. The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. "Inspired Excellence: The story of Marie Sklodowska Curie and Lise Meitner." The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. Last modified 2017. Accessed October 6, 2017. https://www.nuclearmuseum.org/see/exhibits-to-rent/ 76 Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission . Great Minds of Science. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002, 106.

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the world and the majority of America's clean-air energy. Meitner’s achievements in the 77

scientific community have inspired other young women to pursue a career in physics. As

scientific researcher and author Ruth Lewin Sime notes in Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics, “To

me, she [Meitner] was a hero, like Eleanor Roosevelt.” Unfortunately, it seems Meitner’s story

has been swept into oblivion, and she never received the appropriate and deserved laurels for her

accomplishments. Meitner’s life’s work ushered in the atomic age, all because of her

understanding of some of the smallest particles in the universe.

“Lise Meitner was a woman who, against the greatest of odds, used her intellect and her spirit in ways that helped shape our century.”

- Mary Beth Danielson 78

77 Nuclear Energy Institute. "Nuclear Energy's Clean-Air Benefits." Nuclear Energy Institute. Last modified 2018. Accessed February 16, 2018. https://www.nei.org/Master-Document-Folder/Backgrounders/Fact-Sheets/ Nuclear-Energy-s-Clean-Air-Benefits?feed=factsheet%20. Toor, Dr. Fatima. E-mail interview by the author. May 3, 2018. "World Electricity Production by Source 2017." Chart. World Nuclear Association. 2018. Accessed May 5, 2018. http://www.world-nuclear.org/ information-library/current-and-future-generation/ nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx. 78 Danelson, Mary Beth. "Lise Meitner Battled Obstacles." The Journal Times (Racine, WI), September 10, 1999. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://www.newspapers.com/image/343277800/?terms=Lise+Meitner.

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Appendix A

Lise Meitner, Woman Scientist. 1899. Photograph. Accessed May 7, 2018. https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/lise-meitner. Image of Lise Meitner on her 21st birthday. In her early years, Meitner was encouraged by her parents to pursue an advanced education. They provided a private tutor and financial support throughout the majority of her college years.

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Appendix B

The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry . Photograph. Accessed September 11, 2017. http://www.mpic.de/en/history.html. Photograph of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry taken in 1930. Both Meitner and Hahn earned positions and established their own radioactivity sections; advancing research in radioactivity, protactinium, and nuclear fission.

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Appendix C

Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin (1928) . 1928. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017. http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=2112. Lise Meitner and colleague, Otto Hahn, taken at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute in 1928. Meitner and Hahn collaborated for over thirty years. Along with chemist Fritz Strassmann, they made numerous breakthroughs involving nuclear fission.

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Appendix D

A mushroom cloud billows over Nagasaki after the atomic bomb was dropped on the city on 9 August 1945. August 9, 1945. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018. https://www.ibtimes.co.uk Image taken over Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945 after the United States dropped the second atomic bomb. To Meitner’s disappointment, her discovery of nuclear fission was used to create this nuclear weapon.

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Appendix E

The Catholic University of America. "National Catholic News Service Press Release, Meitner Reference File." News release. February 12, 1946. Accessed May 8, 2018. https://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/tag/otto-hahn/. Press release of an interview with Lise Meitner at The Catholic University of America in 1946. Meitner spent one year here, giving lectures to graduate students on elementary nuclear physics.

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Appendix F

Lise Meitner in 1946. 1946. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/xie2/. Image of Lise Meitner in 1946. During Meitner’s later years, she traveled throughout the United States giving lectures and continuing her research at Sweden’s Nobel Institute for Physics.

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Appendix G

German Post Office Lise Meitner . 2017. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017. https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201502/physicshistory.cfm. German post office stamp depicting Lise Meitner. This stamp was issued in 1986, eighteen years after her death, demonstrating Meitner’s long-term impact on the scientific world.

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Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources

American Catholic History Research Center and University Archives. Letter, “Invitation to

Meitner Reception,” February 10, 1946. Accessed November 21, 2017.

http://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/9452/.

In 1946, Meitner spent several months as a visiting lecturing professor at the Catholic

University of America. This is an invitation to a reception honoring Lise Meitner for her

time at the University. I came across this invitation in the Catholic University of

America’s digital archives. The letter discusses how Meitner gave lectures throughout her

time in the United States, which I use in a paragraph describing Meitner’s time in

America.

Bohr, Niels. “The Structure of the Atom.” Lecture, December 11, 1922.

In my historical paper, I mention Niels Bohr, a colleague and friend of Meitner. This is

his Nobel Prize lecture. Reading his acceptance lecture deepened my understanding of his

significance to the physics society. I found this document within the “Nobel Prize and

Lectures” section of the Nobel Prize website.

23

The Catholic University of America. “National Catholic News Service Press Release, Meitner

Reference File.” News release. February 12, 1946. Accessed May 8, 2018.

https://www.lib.cua.edu/wordpress/newsevents/tag/otto-hahn/.

Meitner was a visiting professor in 1946 at The Catholic University of America, giving

lectures to graduate students on elementary nuclear physics. In this press release, Meitner

describes her escape from Nazi Germany and her reaction to the news of the dropping of

the first atomic bomb. I found this press release in The Catholic University of America’s

online archives. I include this image in my appendix.

The Central New Jersey Home News (New Brunswick, NJ). “Lise Meitner, Austrian Nuclear

Physicist Dies.” October 28, 1968. Accessed May 4, 2018.

https://www.newspapers.com/image/315869759/?terms=Lise+Meitner.

The author of this obituary gives a short summary of Lise Meitner’s life and the details

surrounding her death. I use this information when discussing Lise Meitner’s final years.

Published one day after her death, this is a reliable primary resource.

“Dr. Lise Meitner.” Nature , no. 162 (November 6, 1948): 1. Accessed September 20, 2017.

doi:10.1038/162726c0.

Nature is an international science journal in which both Meitner and Hahn published their

scientific papers. The journal article was originally written during Meitner’s life and was

a great primary source. “Dr. Lise Meitner” was written the day before her 70th birthday

24

and discusses Meitner’s accomplishments over the past couple decades. I recommend

looking in Nature for resources to researchers and historians.

Einstein, Albert. Letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, “Letter to the President of the United

States on Germany’s Work on Nuclear Energy,” August 2, 1939. Accessed November 7,

2017. https://diaryofascientist.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/fission.png.

Dated August 2, 1939, Albert Einstein sent this letter to President Franklin Roosevelt.

After learning Nazi Germany was advancing work on the atomic bomb, Einstein wanted

to warn President Roosevelt. I use this letter in the section discussing the Manhattan

Project and Meitner’s decision not to participate in it.

Frisch, Otto R. “Otto Frisch.” Interview by Charles Weiner. American Institute for Physics. Last

modified May 3, 1967. Accessed January 25, 2018.

https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4616.

By reading the transcript of this interview with Otto R. Frisch (Meitner’s nephew), I

gathered multiple pieces of information. Most importantly, Frisch discusses the discovery

of nuclear fission. Additionally, Frisch mentions what it was like being Jewish in Nazi

Germany. I use this interview to quote Frisch in my paper. This interview is housed in the

American Institute of Physics Oral History Collection.

25

“Otto Frisch on Hitler and being Jewish in an institute when racial laws were published.” Audio

file, 2:10. American Institute of Physics. May 3, 1967. Accessed January 28, 2018.

https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4616.

One of my most significant sources, this is an audio clip of Otto R. Frisch (Meitner’s

physicist nephew). In this clip, Frisch elaborates on being Jewish when Hitler’s racial

laws were enacted. Additionally, Frisch mentions Meitner’s opinion on the situation,

which I quote in my paper. This audio clip is found in the American Institute of Physics

Oral History Archives. I have used the American Institute of Physics for a few of my

other sources, as it is a reliable federation dedicated to preserving the past of physical

sciences through artifacts and transcripts.

“Scientist Who Opened Way to Atom Bomb.” The Observer ((London, Greater London,

England)), August 4, 1968. Accessed April 12, 2018.

https://www.newspapers.com/image/258329529/?terms=Lise+Meitner.

In this article, from The Observer Otto R. Frisch summarizes Otto Hahn’s life, as he had

just passed a week before. Throughout the article, Lise Meitner is mentioned several

times, however Hahn is credited with the discovery of nuclear fission. I use this to

elaborate on how Meitner was not given the credit she deserved. Newspapers.com is a

large archive newspaper clippings, several of which I have used in my paper.

26

German Post Office Lise Meitner . 2017. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017.

https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201502/physicshistory.cfm.

Meitner’s image is depicted on a German post office stamp. This image is used in my

paper’s appendix to display Meitner’s long term-impact. I found this image from APS

Physics, a source I have used previously in my research.

The Guardian (London, Greater London, England). “Professor Otto Hahn Receives Faraday

Medal.” March 29, 1956. Accessed April 15, 2018.

https://www.newspapers.com/image/259465486/?terms=Lise+Meitner.

Published in The Guardian newspaper, this article provide additional information

regarding Otto Hahn, including a short overview of his life and a small section about

Hahn’s work with the atomic bomb development in Germany. I found this article in the

Newspapers.com archives, a source I have used for research multiple times.

Hahn, Otto. “From the Natural Transmissions or Uranium to it’s Artificial Fission.” Lecture,

Nobel Lecture, December 13, 1946.

In my historical paper, I mention Otto Hahn’s Nobel Prize in Chemistry acceptance

speech. Hahn was a lifelong colleague and friend of Meitner’s, however it was he who

ultimately received credit for the discovery of nuclear fission. By reading his acceptance

speech, I noted how often he mentioned Meitner’s role. I use this source to elaborate how

Hahn was given credit for something Meitner accomplished.

27

The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry . Photograph. Accessed September 11, 2017.

http://www.mpic.de/en/history.html.

This is a photo of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute where Meitner spent over twenty years

researching, experimenting, and instructing. I felt it necessary to include a visual display

of the Institute. I found this image at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry’s digital

archives.

Laurence, William L. “The Atom: How Scientists Made It Give Up.” The Courier-Journal

(Louisville, KY), August 12, 1945. Accessed April 14, 2018.

https://www.newspapers.com/image/107138379/?terms=Lise+Meitner.

The article from The Courier-Journal , explains the work behind Meitner, Hahn, and

Frisch’s uranium investigations. The author, William Laurence, explains Hahn and

Meitner’s work in Berlin up to the development of the atomic bomb. Newspapers.com is

a credible resource, which I have used for numerous other of my primary resources. I

would recommend this source to students and researchers.

Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin (1928) .

1928. Photograph. Accessed September 7, 2017.

http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=2112.

Featured in my appendix, this is an image of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn. The two

scientists were partners in nuclear physics for radioactivity for decades and maintained a

cordial relationship after their collaboration. I felt it necessary to display an image of the

28

two in their workplace. I found this image at the German History in Documents and

Images, providing me with a great primary source.

Lise Meitner in 1946 . 1946. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018.

http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/xie2/.

Published by the University of Stanford, this is an image of Lise Meitner taken in 1946,

mostly likely during her time in the United States working as a visiting professor.

Although I use an image of a young Lise Meitner in my appendix, I thought it necessary

to include one in Meitner’s later years.

Lise Meitner, Woman Scientist. 1899. Photograph. Accessed May 7, 2018.

https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/lise-meitner.

Since my paper is structured in chronological order, I thought it necessary to provide an

image of a young Lise Meitner. This is Lise Meitner on her 21st birthday in 1899. The

photograph was published by the Atomic Heritage Foundation.

“Lise Meitner Looking Back.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 20, no. 9 (1964): 2-7. E-book.

In 1964, Lise Meitner wrote this article, “Looking Back,” in the science journal, Bulletin

of the Atomic Scientists. Throughout this article, Meitner discusses her childhood,

education, collaboration with Otto Hahn, and briefly the discovery of nuclear fission. I

use this information to quote Meitner and talk about her time at the Universities of

Vienna and Berlin. This was one of my most beneficial primary sources.

29

Meitner, Lise, and Otto R. Frisch. Letter to the editor of Nature from Lise Meitner and Otto R.

Frisch discussing the “disintegration of uranium by neutrons: a new type of nuclear

reaction.” February 11, 1939. Photograph. Accessed October 25, 2017.

https://www.loc.gov/item/2006691798/.

After discovering nuclear fission, Meitner and Frisch published their work in this

scientific journal. This image depicts the letter Lise Meitner and Otto R. Frisch wrote to

the editors of Nature . I found this image at the Library of Congress; a government library

specifically for the United States Congress. I recommend this source to historians and

researchers.

A mushroom cloud billows over Nagasaki after the atomic bomb was dropped on the city on 9

August 1945. August 9, 1945. Photograph. Accessed May 8, 2018.

https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/nagasaki-hiroshima-mark-anniversary-wwii-atomic-bomb-atta

cks-1575111.

Image of the atomic bomb being dropped over Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945. I

include this photo in my appendix, because I believe it is important to show the physical

consequences of Meitner’s discovery. This image is found on the International Business

Times digital website.

30

“News and Views.” Nature , February 11, 1939, 1. Accessed April 6, 2018.

https://www.nature.com/articles/143233a0.pdf.

In this article from Nature News and Views, Meitner and Frisch are quoted regarding

their experiments with the bombardment of uranium by slow-moving neutrons. The two

discuss the results from their various investigations and the different elements they

bombarded. This article helped me understand the science behind neutron bombardment.

This source is found in Nature’s historical archives, a scientific journal in which Meitner

herself published work.

Oakland Tribune (Oakland, CA). “2 Scientists Played Lead Role in A-Power Story.” September

30, 1955. Accessed April 13, 2018.

https://www.newspapers.com/image/296392340/?terms=Lise+Meitner.

In this article, the author gives a brief description of both Albert Einstein and Lise

Meitner. They are described as German Jewish scientists who were forced to flee from

Nazi Germany. The article mentions Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann and talks about the

discovery of nuclear fission. I use this information in my historical paper when describing

Meitner’s escape to the Netherlands. I recommend this source to all other student

historians.

31

The Path to Nuclear Fission: The Story Of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn . The National Science

Foundation, 2017. DVD. Accessed September 11, 2017.

https://filmsforthought.com/completed-films/the-path-to-nuclear-fission-the-story-of-lise-

meitner-and-otto-hahn/.

The Path to Nuclear Fission: The Story of Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn is a short film

consisting recordings and photographs from the time period in which Lise Meitner lived.

The narrator discusses the conflicts Meitner faced throughout her life, such as

discrimination, because of her gender and religion. This film also mentions the aftermath

of WWII and obstacles Meitner faced. Films for Thought is a website funded by the

National Science Foundation. This film is a significant addition to my research, and I

recommend Films for Thought to other student historians.

32

Secondary Sources

Abram, Prof. Ulrich. “’Lise Meitner had a big share in the discovery.’” Interview by Jan

Hambura. The University of Berlin. Last modified December 17, 2013. Accessed

October 25, 2017.

http://www.fu-berlin.de/campusleben/forschen/2013/131217_gedenkveranstaltung_75_ja

hre_kernspaltung/index.html.

In this interview, Ulrich Abram, a Professor of Chemistry at the University of Berlin,

discusses the role Meitner played in the discovery of nuclear fission. Prof. Abram states,

“Lise Meitner had a big share in the discovery.” He then elaborates on the history of

nuclear fission and the experiments that led to it. It is an extremely valuable source, as it

provides evidence that Meitner and her work have left a legacy.

Albert Einstein’s Big Idea Nova HD . YouTube, 2005. Accessed February 13, 2018.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4vDGTYTCLo.

In this film on Albert Einstein’s E=mc2 discovery, the narrator talks briefly of Lise

Meitner. The section about Meitner begins when she enters the University of Berlin and

then concludes after the discovery of nuclear fission. I use this information in my

historical paper to explain how Meitner used the E=mc2 formula to calculate the amount

of energy released during nuclear fission. The narrator on Meitner’s section of this film is

Ruth Lewin Sime, the author of Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics.

33

American Institute of Physics. “Lesson Plan Lise Meitner, Austrian Nuclear Physicist.”

American Institute of Physics. Last modified August 4, 2016. Accessed February 13,

2018.

https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/history/teaching-guides/case-studies-women-physi

cists-meitner/Lise%20Meitner_Lesson%20Plan.pdf.

The American Institute provides an excellent lesson plan on Lise Meitner. This plan

provides discussion questions and talks about the conflicts and sacrifices Meitner was

forced to make in order to pursue a career in physics. Additionally, this source provides

further resources, such as the article written by Lise Meitner, Looking Back, which I

quote in my paper. The American Institute of Physics is a reliable organization dedicated

to preserving and advancing physics.

American Physical Society. “Discovery of Nuclear Fission.” APS Physics. Last modified 2017.

Accessed September 7, 2017.

https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200712/physicshistory.cfm.

From this APS article, I found new information. I learned in-depth details about

Meitner’s discovery of nuclear fission and her position at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute.

The article discusses Meitner’s short-term impact throughout the world. This article was

a beneficial addition to my research, and I recommend this source to teachers, students,

and scientists.

34

Atomic Heritage Foundation. “Lise Meitner.” Atomic Heritage Foundation. Last modified 2017.

Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/lise-meitner.

The Atomic Heritage Foundation was a valuable addition to my research. AHF is a

reliable foundation focused on preserving atomic history by using it to educate. This

article on Lise Meitner is a brief summary of her extensive life. Additionally, this website

includes a timeline of Meitner’s life. This source analyzes and interprets Meitner's life,

which is a crucial part of my research. I recommend this to students and researchers.

Chemical Heritage Foundation. “Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann.” Chemical

Heritage Foundation. Last modified 2017. Accessed September 20, 2017.

https://www.chemheritage.org/historical-profile/otto-hahn-lise-meitner-and-fritz-strassma

nn.

From this article, I gathered more information regarding Meitner’s collaboration with

Fritz Strassmann and Otto Hahn. This page provides background descriptions of each of

the scientists as well as their contributions to the discovery of nuclear fission. I use the

information gained from this source to provide an analysis in my paper of each associate.

35

Danelson, Mary Beth. “Lise Meitner Battled Obstacles.” The Journal Times (Racine, WI),

September 10, 1999. Accessed April 13, 2018.

https://www.newspapers.com/image/343277800/?terms=Lise+Meitner.

In this newspaper article, Mary Beth Danielson notes that one of her daughter’s friends is

a relative of Lise Meitner. The article provides a very powerful quote, which I use near

the end of my historical paper.

Encyclopedia Britannica. “Lise Meitner.” Britannica School. Last modified August 13, 2017.

Accessed September 7, 2017.

http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/Lise-Meitner/275773.

When beginning my research, Iowa AEA Online’s Encyclopedia Britannica was an

excellent source with which to begin. Britannica School is an educational database that

provides students with credible information. The article about Lise Meitner explains

where she was born, her college years, and her groundbreaking discovery of nuclear

fission. Additionally, the article discusses one of the biggest conflicts in her life, which

was fleeing Nazi Germany. This was an excellent source, and I recommend Britannica

School to all students.

Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. “Auger Effect.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified 2018.

Accessed February 4, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/science/Auger-effect.

From reading this article on the Auger Effect, I was able to provide a brief description in

my historical paper regarding the process. I mention how Meitner discovered this effect,

36

yet I thought it necessary to explain what this process was. Encyclopedia Britannica is a

credible database, providing resources for students and teachers. I recommend this source

to educators and researchers.

Famous Scientists. “Lise Meitner.” Famous Scientists. Last modified 2017. Accessed September

7, 2017. https://www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/.

Famous Scientists provided one of my most beneficial articles on Lise Meitner. The

article gives an in-depth description of Meitner’s life. It discusses the time period and

political conflicts Meitner endured and the compromises she reached to overcome these.

Famous Scientists is an online education research tool dedicated to preserving the lives

and achievements of some of the world’s greatest scientists.

A Gift From Heaven . Narrated by Ruth Lewin Sime. BBC, 1992. Accessed September 13, 2017.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDbJ7X6Z0q8.

Ruth Lewin Sime, the author of Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics, narrated this brief film.

Sime has studied Meitner and Hahn for years and now teaches at the University of

Sacramento. Sime’s work has been one of my most valuable sources. This video helped

me understand the science behind Meitner and Hahn’s work and also the importance of

their discovery. I recommend this video to historians and students.

37

Hamilton, Janet. Lise Meitner Pioneer of Nuclear Fission . Great Minds of Science. Berkeley

Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002.

From this biography I learned a great deal about Meitner. The book talks about the

influence Meitner’s family had on her decision to study science, her college years, her

time at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, and the greatest conflict of her life, escaping Nazi

Germany. Hamilton does a wonderful job outlining the political climate through which

Meitner lived. Great Minds of Science is a collection of scientific books that I

recommend to teachers and students.

Hanly, Beverly. “Feb, 11, 1939: Lise Meitner, ‘Our Madame Curie’.” Wired , February 11, 2010.

Accessed October 3, 2017.

https://www.wired.com/2010/02/0211lise-meitner-publishes-nuclear-fission/.

From this newspaper article, my understanding of the conflicts and compromises in

Meitner’s life grew tremendously. For example, the article mentions the political climate

of Nazi Germany and the compromises Meitner had to make to escape safely. Wired , an

online newspaper, was a great resource which I recommend to scholars and teachers.

IUPAC. “Nomenclature.” International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Last modified

2018. Accessed May 5, 2018. https://iupac.org/what-we-do/nomenclature/.

When discussing Meitner and Hahn’s discovery of protactinium, I mention the IUPAC,

(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). During an interview with Dr.

Fatima Toor, she mentioned that it was not until 1949 that the IUPAC confirmed that

38

Meitner and Hahn discovered protactinium. This website provides background

information on IUPAC.

Lengel, Audrey. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 25, 2018.

After responding to Ms. Allison Rein’s email from the Niels Bohr Library and Archives,

Ms. Audrey Lengel replied. From Ms. Lengel, I learned the name of the American

Institute of Physics Director, Mr. Gregory Good, with whom I later attempted to conduct

an interview.

The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. “Inspired Excellence: The story of Marie

Sklodowska Curie and Lise Meitner.” The National Museum of Nuclear Science &

History. Last modified 2017. Accessed October 6, 2017.

https://www.nuclearmuseum.org/see/exhibits-to-rent/inspired-excellence-the-story-of-ma

rie-sklodowska-curie-and-lise-meitner/.

The National Museum of Nuclear Science and History provides a short article

highlighting their current exhibit of Lise Meitner. The author mentions how Meitner’s

partner, Otto Hahn, was given credit for her work on nuclear fission. This miscredit led to

one of the greatest oversights made by the Nobel Prize Committee in history. The

National Museum of Science and History is a credible source as it is a

congressionally-chartered museum, serving as America’s resource for nuclear history.

39

Nuclear Energy Institute. “Nuclear Energy’s Clean-Air Benefits.” Nuclear Energy Institute

2018. Accessed February 16, 2018.

https://www.nei.org/Master-Document-Folder/Backgrounders/Fact-Sheets/Nuclear-Energ

y-s-Clean-Air-Benefits?feed=factsheet%20.

From this article on Nuclear Energy in America, I learned how Meitner's discovery of

nuclear fission is used to produce nuclear energy in nuclear power plants. I use this

information when discussing Meitner's long-term impact in my historical paper. I found

this article at the Nuclear Energy Institute, which is a reliable database that provides

information on nuclear energy while promoting its environmental benefits.

Rayner-Canham, Geoff. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 28, 2018.

I thought it vital to include insight from someone who had studied Lise Meitner. Geoff

Rayner-Canham wrote a short excerpt about Meitner in one of his biographies, Women in

Chemistry. After locating his contact information, I conducted an email interview asking

Rayner-Canham multiple questions. I learned more about Meitner’s long-term impact, the

naming of element 109 (meitnerium), and how the Nobel Prize Committee overlooked

her role in the discovery of nuclear fission. This interview was very beneficial to my

research, and I recommend conducting an interview to all student historians.

40

Rayner-Canham, Marelene F. Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical

Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century . History of Modern Chemical Sciences. Washington

D.C.: American Chemical Society: Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1998.

Women in Chemistry is a collection of small biographies, one of which on Lise Meitner.

Her section discusses the work Meitner needed to accomplish to enter college as a

woman. Additionally, it details Meitner’s time at the Universities of Vienna and Berlin. I

discovered more about Meitner and Hahn’s teamwork during their time working with

radioactivity and nuclear fission. This was one of my most significant secondary sources.

Rein, Allison. E-mail interview by Isabelle Appel. January 23, 2018.

In order to gather more information on Lise Meitner, I emailed the Niels Bohr Library

and Archives. Bohr was a close colleague and friend of Meitner’s. I was seeking answers

to several questions and direction to additional primary sources. After questioning, Ms.

Rein suggested several other primary sources found at the American Institute for Physics.

These sources have been a significant addition to my research.

Reno, Dr. Mary Hall. E-mail interview by the author. May 6, 2018.

Dr. Reno is a particle physics professor from the University of Iowa. I reached out to Dr.

Mary Hall Reno to ask questions regarding Lise Meitner and nuclear fission, her

long-term impact, where nuclear fission is used today, and if Meitner’s name is

mentioned in her curriculum. Reno shared her views regarding Meitner’s contributions

and the lack of recognition given to Meitner even today.

41

Rife, Patricia. “Lise Meitner.” Jewish Women’s Archive. Last modified 2017. Accessed

September 7, 2017. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/meitner-lise.

Information from the Jewish Women’s Archive was an extremely significant addition to

my research. The source summarizes Meitner’s life and describes the discrimination she

faced when Otto Hahn was given credit for her work. The Jewish Women’s Archive is

dedicated to the lives of hundreds of Jewish females who have empowered others.

Royal Society of Chemistry. Meitnerium. Royal Society of Chemistry . Last modified 2017.

Accessed September 7, 2017. http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/109/meitnerium.

In 1982, the element meitnerium (then the heaviest man-made element) was discovered

and named after Lise Meitner. I found this information extremely important to include in

my historical paper, as it is an example of Meitner’s long-term impact. This was a great

source and one I believe would benefit students studying physics.

Sime, Ruth Lewin. Lise Meitner a Life in Physics . London, England: University of California

Press, 1996.

Ruth Lewin Sime’s Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics was one of my most valuable

sources. This biography is an in-depth and structured analysis of Meitner’s life. Sime

wrote in chronological order, beginning with the time period Meitner was born, to her

lasting legacy in the physics field. Sime not only wrote about Meitner, but also included

many of the other European physicists at the time. This biography included many quotes,

42

which are used in my paper. Sime, a faculty member of chemistry at the Sacramento City

College, is a scientific researcher and author to numerous other scientific biographies.

“A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice.” Physics Today 50, no. 9 (September 1997): 26. Accessed

February 14, 2018. doi:10.1063/1.881933.

Written by Ruth Lewin Sime, this is a brief article on Hahn’s Nobel Prize win over

Meitner. Sime discusses how it happened and the reaction of the people during the time. I

use this information when talking about Hahn’s Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1944. Ruth

Lewin Sime is the author of one of my other sources, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics.

Toor, Dr. Fatima. E-mail interview by the author. May 3, 2018.

Dr. Fatima Toor is an Assistant Physics and Astronomy Professor at the University of

Iowa. By interviewing Dr. Toor, I gained multiple pieces of valuable information. I

reached out to Dr. Toor and asked a few questions regarding Lise Meitner’s long-term

impact and her role in nuclear fission. In return, Dr. Toor directed me towards numerous

sources providing statistics on nuclear energy and helping me understand the discovery of

protactinium.

43

University of Berkeley. “Lise Meitner.” Berkeley Nuclear Research Center. Last modified 2013.

Accessed January 20, 2018.

http://bnrc.berkeley.edu/Famous-Women-in-Physical-Sciences-and-Engineering/lise-meit

ner.html.

Published by the Berkeley Nuclear Research Center, this is an in-depth description of

Meitner’s life. While I only used the information on Meitner’s final years, it was

extremely important in finizaling my paper. The Berkeley Nuclear Research Center is a

site published by the University of Berkeley.

US Department of Energy. “Atomic Rivals and the ALSOS Mission.” The Manhattan Project.

Last modified 2018. Accessed January 26, 2018.

https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1942-1945/rivals.htm.

The U.S. Department of Energy’s article regarding the United State’s Manhattan Project

was a key addition to my research. Not only did I gather information regarding how the

atomic bomb began, but also on the impact it had on World War II. This source assisted

me in writing a paragraph concerning the political situation between the United States

and Germany during WWII. This site is published by a division of the United States

government, the U.S. Department of Energy.

44

Vare, Ethlie Ann, and Greg Ptacek. "Conceiving a Nuclear World." The Philadelphia Inquirer

(Philadelphia, PA), May 30, 1988, 37. Accessed May 2, 2018.

https://www.newspapers.com/image/170030008.

"Conceiving a Nuclear War" was published by the Philadelphia Inquirer on May 30,

1988. The author quotes Meitner twice on her discovery of nuclear fission and its uses

during WWII. I use one of these quotes in my historical paper, as it explains why Meitner

chose not to participate in the American Manhattan Project.

“World Electricity Production by Source 2017.” Chart. World Nuclear Association. 2018.

Accessed May 5, 2018.

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-

power-in-the-world-today.aspx.

During an interview with Dr. Fatima Toor, I questioned what nuclear fission is used for

today. She mentioned that nuclear fission is used to produce nearly eleven percent of the

world’s energy today and provided me with this chart. I use this information when

discussing the long-term impact of the discovery of nuclear fission.

45