Affirmative Action Policies in the US:An Introductory Overview
Presentation by Glenn C. LouryMerton P. Stoltz Professor of the Social Sciences
Brown University
For Discussion Group on Affirmative ActionInstitute for Advanced Study in Toulouse,
September 14, 2018
AA = {cognizance of ‘social identity’} + {concern for ‘inequality’} + {need to ration access to elite positions}
Affirmative Action policies presuppose four things:
(1) Hierarchy of more/less desired positions,
(2) Significant racial/ethnic (gender) diversity of identities
(3) Substantial social disparity between these groups (due perhaps to a history of social exclusion/discrimination)
(4) Demand (political/economic) for more equal grouprepresentation
Start with a Basic Definition of Affirmative Action:
In many societies and for a variety of reasons, policy makers may seek to increase the marginalized group’s representation in scarce, high status positions.
AA policies may thus be seen as departures from purely ‘meritocratic’ selection in the interest of achieving greater ‘diversity’. (Ironically?) Affirmative Action policies presuppose elitism. That is, they seek to promote the racial integration of elite cadres.
Goals of AA Policy
(I simply note that these are very different and sometimes conflicting goals, especially the last one…)
•Deep Philosophical Q: Why Care about Group Inequality, Per Se?(Answer: Individual opportunities often determined by group status)
• Deep Political Q: Should We Formulate Policy in Explicit Group Terms?(“Group-Blindness” could be a rule even if not “Group-indifferent”)
•Related Q: When to collect social statistics in explicit group terms?(crime statistics, e.g.)
• What accounts for appeal in US of Color-Blind/Post-Racial Narratives?
• Blacks vs. Immigrants – Allies or Competitors? Conflicting Narratives?
Some elemental questions raised in the AA debate in US:
Racial Attitudes of National Samples of Whites(Source: General Social Survey, 1972 to 2004)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Would vote for a black candidate
Would vote forOpen Housing
Law
Believe blacks shouldn't
push
Oppose interracialmarriage
Believe whites have right to segregate their neighborhoods
But Aren’t We Living In A Post-Racial Era In the US?
Chart1
19721972197219721972
19731973197319731973
19741974197419741974
19751975197519751975
19761976197619761976
19771977197719771977
19781978197819781978
19791979197919791979
19801980198019801980
19811981198119811981
19821982198219821982
19831983198319831983
19841984198419841984
19851985198519851985
19861986198619861986
19871987198719871987
19881988198819881988
19891989198919891989
19901990199019901990
19911991199119911991
19921992199219921992
19931993199319931993
19941994199419941994
19951995199519951995
19961996199619961996
19971997199719971997
19981998199819981998
19991999199919991999
20002000200020002000
20012001200120012001
20022002200220022002
20032003200320032003
20042004200420042004
Would vote for a black candidate
Would vote forOpen HousingLaw
Believe blacks shouldn'tpush
Oppose interracialmarriage
Believe whites have right to segregate their neighborhoods
% Who favor a law against interracial marriage
% Who agree that blacks shouldn't push where they aren’t wanted
% Who agree that whites have the right to segregate their neighborhoods
% Who say they would vote for a black candidate for president
% Who would vote in favor of an open housing law
0.39
0.76
0.4
0.74
0.38
0.73
0.4
0.775
0.34
0.35
0.735
0.4
0.81
0.34
0.39
0.74
0.4
0.82
0.34
0.33
0.71
0.4
0.8
0.35
0.29
0.73
0.42
0.78
0.36
0.2966666667
0.7133333333
0.39
0.83
0.37
0.3033333333
0.6966666667
0.36
0.8375
0.385
0.31
0.68
0.33
0.845
0.4
0.32
0.645
0.315
0.8525
0.4166666667
0.33
0.61
0.3
0.86
0.4333333333
0.3
0.6
0.28
0.855
0.45
0.27
0.59
0.26
0.85
0.49
0.28
0.61
0.26
0.83
0.48
0.275
0.5911111111
0.26
0.86
0.47
0.27
0.5722222222
0.26
0.825
0.49
0.26
0.5533333333
0.25
0.79
0.53
0.23
0.5344444444
0.22
0.81
0.57
0.21
0.5155555556
0.24
0.87
0.53
0.2
0.4966666667
0.2
0.88
0.58
0.195
0.4777777778
0.175
0.875
0.605
0.19
0.4588888889
0.15
0.87
0.63
0.16
0.44
0.17
0.89
0.61
0.145
0.425
0.15
0.905
0.635
0.13
0.41
0.13
0.92
0.66
0.13
0.42
0.66125
0.13
0.43
0.6625
0.125
0.425
0.66375
0.12
0.42
0.665
0.11
0.395
0.66625
0.1
0.37
0.6675
0.66875
0.67
Sheet1
Racial Attitudes of National Samples of Whites: General Social Survey 1972 to 2004
Year% Who favor a law% Who agree that% Who agree that% Who say they would% Who would vote in
against interracialblacks shouldn'twhites have the right tovote for a blackfavor of an open
marriagepush where theysegregate theircandidate forhousing law
aren’t wantedneighborhoodspresident
1972397640740.390.760.400.74
19733873340.380.730.400.780.34
197435810.350.740.400.810.34
1975397482340.390.740.400.820.34
1976337140350.330.710.400.800.35
1977297342780.290.730.420.780.36
197883370.300.710.390.830.37
19790.300.700.360.840.39
1980316833400.310.680.330.850.40
19810.320.650.320.850.42
1982336130860.330.610.300.860.43
1983450.300.600.280.860.45
198427592685490.270.590.260.850.49
1985286126830.280.610.260.830.48
198686470.280.590.260.860.47
19872726490.270.570.260.830.49
1988262579530.260.550.250.790.53
1989232281570.230.530.220.810.57
1990212487530.210.520.240.870.53
1991202088580.200.500.200.880.58
19920.200.480.180.880.61
1993191587630.190.460.150.870.63
199416441789610.160.440.170.890.61
19950.150.430.150.910.64
199613411392660.130.410.130.920.66
19970.130.420.66
199813430.130.430.66
19990.130.430.66
200012420.120.420.67
20010.110.400.67
200210370.100.370.67
20030.67
2004670.67
Source: General Social Survey
Questions: Intermarriage. Do you think there should b e laws against marriages between (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) and whites?
Blacks Push. (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) shouldn't push themselves where they are not wanted? Agree or disagree
Segregated neighborhoods. White people have a right to keep (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) out of their neighborhood if they
want to, and (Negroes/blacks/African Americans) should respect that right? Agree or Disgree
Black Candidate. If your party nominated a (Negro/black/African American) for president, would you vote for him if he were
qualified for the job?
Open Housing Law. Suppose there is a community-wide vote on the general housing issue. There are two possible laws to vote on.
One law says that a homeowner can decidee for himself who to sell his house to, even if he prefers not to sell to (Negroes/blacks/African
Americans). The second law says that a homeowner cannot refuse to sell to someone because of their race or color. Which law would
you vote for?
Sheet2
Sheet3
Further (Technical) Questions about AA Policy (to be addressed in some of the papers to come…)
• What is impact of affirmative action policy on group stereotypes? (Coate/Loury, AER 1993)
• When will AA policies undercut incentives to acquire skills in beneficiary groups? (Fryer/Loury, JPE 2013)
• Is AA best employed early or late in the process of skill development? [a difficult/important Q; Fryer/Loury]
• In a complex multiethnic society which groups should be favored by AA policies? (Asian Americans v. Harvard)
• Should AA policies be temporary and, if so, how long should they continue?
Some of My Papers on Affirmative Action
– Coate-Loury [Stephen Coate, Economics, Cornell]• AER 1993: Show how AA can worsen racial stereotypes• AER Proceedings 1994: Show how overly ambitious AA goal can lead to
the undercutting of skill acquisition incentives
– Loury• Bowen and Bok’s The Shape of the River (1998) [Forward]• Unpublished essay on reparations (argues for an “interpretative” not a
“compensatory” approach)
– Fryer-Loury [Roland Fryer, Economics, Harvard]• JEcIneq 2005: Study optimal handicapping of tournaments• JEP 2005: Dispels some popular “myths” surrounding AA• JLEO 2008: Estimate cost of color-blindness in US higher ed)• JPE 2013: Study the design of affirmative action policy as an optimal-
taxation/mechanism-design problem
Principled Argument against Aff. Action in US
• “Color-Blindness” is the ultimate non-discriminatory ideal.• Affirmative action relies on policy maker s NOT being CB:
– AA forces policy makers to take note of individuals’ racial identities– AA encourages and induces people to see selves mainly in racial terms– AA stigmatizes (in racial terms) its beneficiaries– AA fosters backlash and resentment from non-beneficiaries– AA undercuts (in racial terms) incentives of beneficiaries to get skills
• Thus, despite any short-term benefits, AA ensures that the ultimate ideal of a CB society may never be achieved over the longer run.
Arguments in Favor of Affirmative Action• “Color-Blindness” is the wrong goal:
– Non-discrimination important, but enforcing this rule requires color-sightedness, even in the absence of formal AA policies.
– “Blindness constraint” typically applied to public not private actors.– Legacy of racially unjust past will never be overcome with CB policy.
• AA is a temporary policy used to promote transition to full equality– Can actually enhance, not retard, incentives for beneficiaries– Affect s only a few among non-beneficiary groups (the “marginals”)– Much of the stigma for beneficiaries actually reflects latent racism– Resentment reserved for race-based but not (say) gender-based AA– Racial diversity a value in its own right– Standards of ‘merit’ highly subjective, yet treated as if they were not
(consider, e.g., the case of Cornel West vs. Larry Summers at Harvard)• Thus, despite some problems, AA has been a proven way for this
society to begin to move past its history of racial inequality.
This is my view. (see, e.g., my Foreword to “The Shape of the River,” 1999.) But racial AA policies in US under
serious legal/political threat.
Based on paper with Roland Fryer (JEP, 2005) here are some commonly held but dubious beliefs (“myths”) about affirmative action in the US
Discourse on Affirmative Action in the US is encumbered by a number of false beliefs in my view.
(Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2005)
(No, It Can’t! This is a deep point, and a source of much confusion.)
(No, at least with respect to US higher education, they don’t!)
(In principle, the effect can go either way, depending on the details.)
(For the US, we doubt this seriously!)
(See the data on trends in racial inequality to be presented shortly.)
(We think this concern in US is overblown.)
(Wishful thinking in the US context!)
Why Is Affirmative Action So Controversial? An Empirical Study of AA in US Law Schools in the
1990s
Law schools are among the most hotly contested arenas where racial affirmative action is employed. Excellent data exist on lawschool admissions practices. These data reveal the extent of AA and permit some assessment of the policy’s effects.
Based on:
Sander’s
“When Affirmative Action Was White”
Consider now an historical perspective on “Affirmative Action” in the US, based
on the book by Ira Katznelson
Katznelson’s basic argument is that the New Deal coalition inscribed racial inequality at the very heart of the American welfare state.
What was that coalition?
This is a partial list of New Deal-era policies that, wittingly or not, had racially disparate effects
Katznelson Argues that New Deal was Tacit Affirmative Action for WhitesHere are some other areas of social policy that impact on racial inequality
Thus tacit “affirmative action” (for or against Blacks ) can occur in non-racial policy areas (with respect to life insurance, e.g.) when either:
1. The incidence of a policy’s effects varies in a predictable way by race; or,2. The legitimacy/“social meaning” of a policy is affected by the race of its
beneficiaries
Katznelson book/article suggest a broadening of AA in three ways:
1. Take long view (goal should be rectification of historic injustice)2. Focus on jobs not just colleges (only way to affect lives of masses)3. Put AA on sounder footing using Justice Powell’s “strict scrutiny”
doctrine: the narrowly tailored pursuit of compelling public interest(as distinct from “diversity.”
A Key Political Question: Does Katznelson’s call for a revivified effort at affirmative action seem realistic to us in 21st century America?
My answer to this question is a resounding “NO”!
Also relevant here is work of UCSD sociologist John David Skrentny.In two path-breaking books he argues for the centrality of what he calls “the black analogy” in shaping racial/ethnic inequality policies:
1. In the US a minority group has “rights” deserving of protection to the extent its experience comes to be seen as analogous to that of blacks. (E.g., Hispanics get AA coverage but not Slavs!) See The Minority Rights Revolution, Harvard Univ. Press 2002
2. Affirmative Action is de-legitimated to the extent that it is seen as a “black program” (E.g., talk about AA having “undeserving”, “unqualified” beneficiaries is pretty much restricted to blacks!) See The Ironies of Affirmative Action, Univ. Chicago Press 1996
Related work on “social meaning” of racial/ethnic disparities.
Finally: “Beyond Civil Rights”:
What’s a Self-Respecting “Black” Intellectual (Me!) To Do in the Face of Persistent Racial Inequality in the
United States? Evidently, Affirmative Action Has
Failed to Achieve Equality for Blacks In the US Since 1970
Here are the First-Order Social Facts about Racial Inequality in America Today:
(1) African American Social Disadvantage Is a Stubbornly Persistent Reality of 21st Century American Society
(2) Convergence to parity is nowhere in sight (I’ll show).
(3) Dr. King’s ‘Dream’ of Equality Has Yet To Be Realized
(4) But That’s OK Because ‘We Got Us a Black President’?
Educational Attainment
Persistently Lower Rates of College Graduation and Enduring Racial
Achievement Gap
Here Are Some Statistics on Persistent Racial Inequality in the US
Percent of Native-Born, Non-Hispanic Men and Women Aged 25 to 34 Reporting a Four-Year College Education
0%5%
10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%
1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
Black Men
White Men
0%5%
10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%
1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
Black Women
White Women
College Men
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Men
White Men
0.056
0.145
0.08
0.124
0.06
0.151
0.067
0.17
0.081
0.165
0.08
0.17
0.087
0.183
0.115
0.163
0.116
0.178
0.12
0.187
0.119
0.188
0.138
0.172
0.126
0.182
0.123
0.168
0.129
0.168
0.142
0.158
0.134
0.155
0.137
0.143
0.132
0.152
0.122
0.162
0.131
0.145
0.118
0.161
0.137
0.136
0.119
0.15
0.12
0.143
0.122
0.155
0.106
0.159
0.137
0.148
0.098
0.199
0.108
0.188
0.139
0.16
0.136
0.185
0.167
0.165
0.172
0.149
0.173
0.157
0.155
0.172
0.16
0.167
0.155
0.166
0.158
0.157
0.176
0.148
College Women
0.0580.055
0.0570.068
0.0640.06
0.0650.083
0.0760.088
0.0850.09
0.0780.109
0.0980.094
0.1120.092
0.1110.11
0.110.111
0.1210.098
0.1240.108
0.1120.115
0.1220.113
0.130.114
0.130.123
0.1410.107
0.1420.114
0.1270.131
0.1280.119
0.1450.117
0.1370.129
0.1250.147
0.1180.146
0.1370.127
0.1280.139
0.1240.162
0.150.159
0.1490.169
0.1510.178
0.1670.169
0.1690.182
0.190.169
0.1920.192
0.1740.202
0.2030.174
0.2160.17
0.2140.162
0.1950.203
Black Women
White Women
College Data
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Agesd 25 to 34
Reporting a Four Year College Education
WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace
MenMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN
196820.15.614.511.35.85.50.0560.1450.0580.055
196920.4812.412.45.76.80.080.1240.0570.068
197021.2615.112.46.460.060.1510.0640.06
197123.66.71714.86.58.30.0670.170.0650.083
197224.68.116.516.47.68.80.0810.1650.0760.088
19732581717.58.590.080.170.0850.09
1974278.718.318.77.810.90.0870.1830.0780.109
197527.811.516.319.29.89.40.1150.1630.0980.094
197629.411.617.820.411.29.20.1160.1780.1120.092
197730.71218.722.111.1110.120.1870.1110.11
197830.711.918.822.11111.10.1190.1880.110.111
197930.913.817.22212.19.80.1380.1720.1210.098
198030.812.618.223.212.410.80.1260.1820.1240.108
198129.112.316.822.711.211.50.1230.1680.1120.115
198229.712.916.823.512.211.30.1290.1680.1220.113
198329.914.215.824.31311.40.1420.1580.130.114
198428.913.415.525.31312.30.1340.1550.130.123
19852813.714.324.914.110.70.1370.1430.1410.107
198628.413.215.225.614.211.40.1320.1520.1420.114
198728.412.216.225.812.713.10.1220.1620.1270.131
198827.713.114.524.712.811.90.1310.1450.1280.119
198927.911.816.126.214.511.70.1180.1610.1450.117
199027.313.713.626.613.712.90.1370.1360.1370.129
199126.911.91527.212.514.70.1190.150.1250.147
199226.31214.326.411.814.60.120.1430.1180.146
199327.712.215.526.513.712.70.1220.1550.1370.127
199426.510.615.926.712.813.90.1060.1590.1280.139
199528.513.714.828.612.416.20.1370.1480.1240.162
199629.79.819.930.81515.90.0980.1990.150.159
199729.610.818.831.814.916.90.1080.1880.1490.169
199829.913.91632.815.117.80.1390.160.1510.178
199932.113.618.533.616.716.90.1360.1850.1670.169
200033.116.716.535.116.918.20.1670.1650.1690.182
200132.117.214.935.91916.90.1720.1490.190.169
20023317.315.738.419.219.20.1730.1570.1920.192
200332.715.517.237.617.420.20.1550.1720.1740.202
200432.61616.737.720.317.40.160.1670.2030.174
20053215.516.638.521.6170.1550.1660.2160.17
200631.615.815.737.621.416.20.1580.1570.2140.162
200732.417.614.839.819.520.30.1760.1480.1950.203
HS Women
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Women
White Women
0.5
0.237
0.53
0.2186
0.568
0.1859
0.586
0.2161
0.61
0.2091
0.606
0.232
0.644
0.1972
0.685
0.1519
0.721
0.1318
0.69
0.175
0.725
0.1463
0.731
0.1484
0.757
0.1342
0.756
0.1354
0.79
0.1075
0.798
0.1017
0.81
0.0936
0.806
0.1042
0.821
0.093
0.811
0.1003
0.807
0.1079
0.844
0.0706
0.836
0.0821
0.807
0.1048
0.841
0.0875
0.846
0.0847
0.866
0.0604
0.865
0.0708
0.861
0.0728
0.88
0.0654
0.894
0.0564
0.894
0.0502
0.898
0.0566
0.902
0.0461
0.905
0.0479
0.911
0.0443
0.9
0.0547
0.906
0.0457
0.887
0.0663
0.898
0.0585
HS Men
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Men
White Men
0.54
0.2
0.55
0.208
0.518
0.259
0.543
0.279
0.592
0.237
0.626
0.216
0.675
0.179
0.707
0.151
0.712
0.161
0.741
0.137
0.752
0.138
0.736
0.161
0.762
0.138
0.771
0.128
0.799
0.104
0.791
0.111
0.759
0.146
0.79
0.115
0.828
0.074
0.83
0.067
0.804
0.089
0.81
0.088
0.812
0.082
0.837
0.065
0.849
0.066
0.878
0.04
0.86
0.05
0.872
0.052
0.884
0.038
0.882
0.044
0.894
0.04
0.901
0.036
0.903
0.038
0.911
0.03
0.902
0.037
0.917
0.022
0.926
0.015
0.923
0.015
0.892
0.05
0.916
0.026
HS Data
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Aged 25 to 34 Reporting
a High School Education
WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace
MenbMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN
196873.9542073.75023.70.540.20.50.237
196975.85520.874.95321.860.550.2080.530.2186
197077.751.825.975.456.818.590.5180.2590.5680.1859
197182.154.327.980.258.621.610.5430.2790.5860.2161
19728359.223.781.96120.910.5920.2370.610.2091
197384.262.621.683.860.623.20.6260.2160.6060.232
197485.467.517.984.164.419.720.6750.1790.6440.1972
197585.870.715.183.768.515.190.7070.1510.6850.1519
197687.371.216.185.372.113.180.7120.1610.7210.1318
197787.774.113.786.56917.50.7410.1370.690.175
197888.975.213.887.172.514.630.7520.1380.7250.1463
197989.773.616.18873.114.840.7360.1610.7310.1484
19809076.213.889.175.713.420.7620.1380.7570.1342
198189.977.112.889.275.613.540.7710.1280.7560.1354
198290.379.910.489.77910.750.7990.1040.790.1075
198390.279.111.189.979.810.170.7910.1110.7980.1017
198490.575.914.690.4819.360.7590.1460.810.0936
198590.67911.59180.610.420.790.1150.8060.1042
198690.282.87.491.482.19.30.8280.0740.8210.093
198789.7836.791.281.110.030.830.0670.8110.1003
198889.380.48.991.580.710.790.8040.0890.8070.1079
198989.8818.891.484.47.060.810.0880.8440.0706
199089.581.28.291.883.68.210.8120.0820.8360.0821
199190.183.76.591.280.710.480.8370.0650.8070.1048
199291.584.96.692.984.18.750.8490.0660.8410.0875
199391.887.8493.184.68.470.8780.040.8460.0847
19949186592.686.66.040.860.050.8660.0604
199592.487.25.293.686.57.080.8720.0520.8650.0708
199692.288.43.893.486.17.280.8840.0380.8610.0728
199792.688.24.494.5886.540.8820.0440.880.0654
199893.489.449589.45.640.8940.040.8940.0564
199993.790.13.694.489.45.020.9010.0360.8940.0502
200094.190.33.895.489.85.660.9030.0380.8980.0566
20019491.1394.890.24.610.9110.030.9020.0461
200293.990.23.795.390.54.790.9020.0370.9050.0479
200393.891.72.295.591.14.430.9170.0220.9110.0443
200494.192.61.595.4905.470.9260.0150.90.0547
200593.892.31.595.290.64.570.9230.0150.9060.0457
200694.289.2595.488.76.630.8920.050.8870.0663
200794.291.62.695.789.85.850.9160.0260.8980.0585
College Men
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Men
White Men
0.056
0.145
0.08
0.124
0.06
0.151
0.067
0.17
0.081
0.165
0.08
0.17
0.087
0.183
0.115
0.163
0.116
0.178
0.12
0.187
0.119
0.188
0.138
0.172
0.126
0.182
0.123
0.168
0.129
0.168
0.142
0.158
0.134
0.155
0.137
0.143
0.132
0.152
0.122
0.162
0.131
0.145
0.118
0.161
0.137
0.136
0.119
0.15
0.12
0.143
0.122
0.155
0.106
0.159
0.137
0.148
0.098
0.199
0.108
0.188
0.139
0.16
0.136
0.185
0.167
0.165
0.172
0.149
0.173
0.157
0.155
0.172
0.16
0.167
0.155
0.166
0.158
0.157
0.176
0.148
College Women
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Women
White Women
0.058
0.055
0.057
0.068
0.064
0.06
0.065
0.083
0.076
0.088
0.085
0.09
0.078
0.109
0.098
0.094
0.112
0.092
0.111
0.11
0.11
0.111
0.121
0.098
0.124
0.108
0.112
0.115
0.122
0.113
0.13
0.114
0.13
0.123
0.141
0.107
0.142
0.114
0.127
0.131
0.128
0.119
0.145
0.117
0.137
0.129
0.125
0.147
0.118
0.146
0.137
0.127
0.128
0.139
0.124
0.162
0.15
0.159
0.149
0.169
0.151
0.178
0.167
0.169
0.169
0.182
0.19
0.169
0.192
0.192
0.174
0.202
0.203
0.174
0.216
0.17
0.214
0.162
0.195
0.203
College Data
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Agesd 25 to 34
Reporting a Four Year College Education
WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace
MenMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN
196820.15.614.511.35.85.50.0560.1450.0580.055
196920.4812.412.45.76.80.080.1240.0570.068
197021.2615.112.46.460.060.1510.0640.06
197123.66.71714.86.58.30.0670.170.0650.083
197224.68.116.516.47.68.80.0810.1650.0760.088
19732581717.58.590.080.170.0850.09
1974278.718.318.77.810.90.0870.1830.0780.109
197527.811.516.319.29.89.40.1150.1630.0980.094
197629.411.617.820.411.29.20.1160.1780.1120.092
197730.71218.722.111.1110.120.1870.1110.11
197830.711.918.822.11111.10.1190.1880.110.111
197930.913.817.22212.19.80.1380.1720.1210.098
198030.812.618.223.212.410.80.1260.1820.1240.108
198129.112.316.822.711.211.50.1230.1680.1120.115
198229.712.916.823.512.211.30.1290.1680.1220.113
198329.914.215.824.31311.40.1420.1580.130.114
198428.913.415.525.31312.30.1340.1550.130.123
19852813.714.324.914.110.70.1370.1430.1410.107
198628.413.215.225.614.211.40.1320.1520.1420.114
198728.412.216.225.812.713.10.1220.1620.1270.131
198827.713.114.524.712.811.90.1310.1450.1280.119
198927.911.816.126.214.511.70.1180.1610.1450.117
199027.313.713.626.613.712.90.1370.1360.1370.129
199126.911.91527.212.514.70.1190.150.1250.147
199226.31214.326.411.814.60.120.1430.1180.146
199327.712.215.526.513.712.70.1220.1550.1370.127
199426.510.615.926.712.813.90.1060.1590.1280.139
199528.513.714.828.612.416.20.1370.1480.1240.162
199629.79.819.930.81515.90.0980.1990.150.159
199729.610.818.831.814.916.90.1080.1880.1490.169
199829.913.91632.815.117.80.1390.160.1510.178
199932.113.618.533.616.716.90.1360.1850.1670.169
200033.116.716.535.116.918.20.1670.1650.1690.182
200132.117.214.935.91916.90.1720.1490.190.169
20023317.315.738.419.219.20.1730.1570.1920.192
200332.715.517.237.617.420.20.1550.1720.1740.202
200432.61616.737.720.317.40.160.1670.2030.174
20053215.516.638.521.6170.1550.1660.2160.17
200631.615.815.737.621.416.20.1580.1570.2140.162
200732.417.614.839.819.520.30.1760.1480.1950.203
HS Women
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Women
White Women
0.5
0.237
0.53
0.2186
0.568
0.1859
0.586
0.2161
0.61
0.2091
0.606
0.232
0.644
0.1972
0.685
0.1519
0.721
0.1318
0.69
0.175
0.725
0.1463
0.731
0.1484
0.757
0.1342
0.756
0.1354
0.79
0.1075
0.798
0.1017
0.81
0.0936
0.806
0.1042
0.821
0.093
0.811
0.1003
0.807
0.1079
0.844
0.0706
0.836
0.0821
0.807
0.1048
0.841
0.0875
0.846
0.0847
0.866
0.0604
0.865
0.0708
0.861
0.0728
0.88
0.0654
0.894
0.0564
0.894
0.0502
0.898
0.0566
0.902
0.0461
0.905
0.0479
0.911
0.0443
0.9
0.0547
0.906
0.0457
0.887
0.0663
0.898
0.0585
HS Men
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Men
White Men
0.54
0.2
0.55
0.208
0.518
0.259
0.543
0.279
0.592
0.237
0.626
0.216
0.675
0.179
0.707
0.151
0.712
0.161
0.741
0.137
0.752
0.138
0.736
0.161
0.762
0.138
0.771
0.128
0.799
0.104
0.791
0.111
0.759
0.146
0.79
0.115
0.828
0.074
0.83
0.067
0.804
0.089
0.81
0.088
0.812
0.082
0.837
0.065
0.849
0.066
0.878
0.04
0.86
0.05
0.872
0.052
0.884
0.038
0.882
0.044
0.894
0.04
0.901
0.036
0.903
0.038
0.911
0.03
0.902
0.037
0.917
0.022
0.926
0.015
0.923
0.015
0.892
0.05
0.916
0.026
HS Data
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Men and Women Aged 25 to 34 Reporting
a High School Education
WhiteBlackRaceWhiteBlackRace
MenbMenDifferenceWomenWomenDifferenceMENWOMEN
196873.9542073.75023.70.540.20.50.237
196975.85520.874.95321.860.550.2080.530.2186
197077.751.825.975.456.818.590.5180.2590.5680.1859
197182.154.327.980.258.621.610.5430.2790.5860.2161
19728359.223.781.96120.910.5920.2370.610.2091
197384.262.621.683.860.623.20.6260.2160.6060.232
197485.467.517.984.164.419.720.6750.1790.6440.1972
197585.870.715.183.768.515.190.7070.1510.6850.1519
197687.371.216.185.372.113.180.7120.1610.7210.1318
197787.774.113.786.56917.50.7410.1370.690.175
197888.975.213.887.172.514.630.7520.1380.7250.1463
197989.773.616.18873.114.840.7360.1610.7310.1484
19809076.213.889.175.713.420.7620.1380.7570.1342
198189.977.112.889.275.613.540.7710.1280.7560.1354
198290.379.910.489.77910.750.7990.1040.790.1075
198390.279.111.189.979.810.170.7910.1110.7980.1017
198490.575.914.690.4819.360.7590.1460.810.0936
198590.67911.59180.610.420.790.1150.8060.1042
198690.282.87.491.482.19.30.8280.0740.8210.093
198789.7836.791.281.110.030.830.0670.8110.1003
198889.380.48.991.580.710.790.8040.0890.8070.1079
198989.8818.891.484.47.060.810.0880.8440.0706
199089.581.28.291.883.68.210.8120.0820.8360.0821
199190.183.76.591.280.710.480.8370.0650.8070.1048
199291.584.96.692.984.18.750.8490.0660.8410.0875
199391.887.8493.184.68.470.8780.040.8460.0847
19949186592.686.66.040.860.050.8660.0604
199592.487.25.293.686.57.080.8720.0520.8650.0708
199692.288.43.893.486.17.280.8840.0380.8610.0728
199792.688.24.494.5886.540.8820.0440.880.0654
199893.489.449589.45.640.8940.040.8940.0564
199993.790.13.694.489.45.020.9010.0360.8940.0502
200094.190.33.895.489.85.660.9030.0380.8980.0566
20019491.1394.890.24.610.9110.030.9020.0461
200293.990.23.795.390.54.790.9020.0370.9050.0479
200393.891.72.295.591.14.430.9170.0220.9110.0443
200494.192.61.595.4905.470.9260.0150.90.0547
200593.892.31.595.290.64.570.9230.0150.9060.0457
200694.289.2595.488.76.630.8920.050.8870.0663
200794.291.62.695.789.85.850.9160.0260.8980.0585
Employment, Earnings and Family incomes
Lower Earnings and Employment for Men, Hugely Disparate Resources for Raising Families and Persistent Racial
Poverty Rate Gap
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
White Men
Black Men
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
White Women
Black Women
White Women
Black Women
Percent of Native-Born, Non-Hispanic Men and WomenAged 25 to 59 Employed; 1968 to 2007
Women
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
White Women
Black Women
White Women
Black Women
0.5292
-0.094
0.5331
-0.0892
0.5449
-0.0929
0.5281
-0.0785
0.5205
-0.0587
0.524
-0.0585
0.5272
-0.0458
0.5168
-0.0386
0.5498
-0.0603
0.5408
-0.027
0.5617
-0.0222
0.5719
-0.0171
0.569
0.0044
0.5635
0.0193
0.5524
0.0302
0.5533
0.0305
0.5801
0.024
0.5888
0.0347
0.608
0.0246
0.6083
0.0371
0.6278
0.0349
0.6344
0.0365
0.6332
0.0459
0.6213
0.0587
0.6162
0.0682
0.6187
0.0652
0.6242
0.0818
0.6419
0.069
0.6541
0.0588
0.6629
0.062
0.7032
0.0178
0.7098
0.0163
0.7217
0.0092
0.7116
0.0164
0.679
0.039
0.6747
0.043
0.6823
0.0274
0.6763
0.0347
0.6699
0.037
0.6971
0.0128
Men
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
White Men
Black Men
0.8503
0.0611
0.8474
0.0635
0.8183
0.0853
0.8093
0.0785
0.7956
0.094
0.8088
0.081
0.7861
0.1022
0.7082
0.1408
0.7011
0.1562
0.7498
0.1118
0.77
0.0964
0.7424
0.1327
0.7453
0.1156
0.7159
0.1425
0.6965
0.1402
0.6599
0.1615
0.6986
0.146
0.7023
0.1545
0.7417
0.1082
0.7309
0.1237
0.7153
0.1486
0.7285
0.139
0.7377
0.1261
0.7121
0.1361
0.6911
0.1498
0.6948
0.1404
0.6895
0.1564
0.7238
0.1321
0.6837
0.1759
0.7185
0.1439
0.7276
0.1367
0.7271
0.1394
0.7593
0.1021
0.733
0.1258
0.71
0.1298
0.6807
0.1541
0.6833
0.1452
0.6895
0.1441
0.6831
0.1536
0.6977
0.1442
Data
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic White and Black Men Aged 25 to 59
Employed
WhiteBlackRace
MenMendifferenceMENWOMEN
196891.1485.036.110.85030.06110.43520.5292-0.094
196991.0984.746.350.84740.06350.44390.5331-0.0892
197090.3681.838.530.81830.08530.4520.5449-0.0929
197188.7880.937.850.80930.07850.44960.5281-0.0785
197288.9679.569.40.79560.0940.46180.5205-0.0587
197388.9880.888.10.80880.0810.46550.524-0.0585
197488.8378.6110.220.78610.10220.48140.5272-0.0458
197584.970.8214.080.70820.14080.47820.5168-0.0386
197685.7370.1115.620.70110.15620.48950.5498-0.0603
197786.1674.9811.180.74980.11180.51380.5408-0.027
197886.64779.640.770.09640.53950.5617-0.0222
197987.5174.2413.270.74240.13270.55480.5719-0.0171
198086.0974.5311.560.74530.11560.57340.5690.0044
198185.8471.5914.250.71590.14250.58280.56350.0193
198283.6769.6514.020.69650.14020.58260.55240.0302
198382.1465.9916.150.65990.16150.58380.55330.0305
198484.4669.8614.60.69860.1460.60410.58010.024
198585.6870.2315.450.70230.15450.62350.58880.0347
198684.9974.1710.820.74170.10820.63260.6080.0246
198785.4673.0912.370.73090.12370.64540.60830.0371
198886.3971.5314.860.71530.14860.66270.62780.0349
198986.7572.8513.90.72850.1390.67090.63440.0365
199086.3873.7712.610.73770.12610.67910.63320.0459
199184.8271.2113.610.71210.13610.680.62130.0587
199284.0969.1114.980.69110.14980.68440.61620.0682
199383.5269.4814.040.69480.14040.68390.61870.0652
199484.5968.9515.640.68950.15640.7060.62420.0818
199585.5972.3813.210.72380.13210.71090.64190.069
199685.9668.3717.590.68370.17590.71290.65410.0588
199786.2471.8514.390.71850.14390.72490.66290.062
199886.4372.7613.670.72760.13670.7210.70320.0178
199986.6572.7113.940.72710.13940.72610.70980.0163
200086.1475.9310.210.75930.10210.73090.72170.0092
200185.8873.312.580.7330.12580.7280.71160.0164
200283.987112.980.710.12980.7180.6790.039
200383.4868.0715.410.68070.15410.71770.67470.043
200482.8568.3314.520.68330.14520.70970.68230.0274
200583.3668.9514.410.68950.14410.7110.67630.0347
200683.6768.3115.360.68310.15360.70690.66990.037
200784.1969.7714.420.69770.14420.70990.69710.0128
Source: U. S., Bureau of the Census, Public Use Microdata Files from the March
Current Population Survey
WhiteBlackRace
WomenWomenDifference
196843.5252.92-9.4
196944.3953.31-8.92
197045.254.49-9.29
197144.9652.81-7.85
197246.1852.05-5.87
197346.5552.4-5.85
197448.1452.72-4.58
197547.8251.68-3.86
197648.9554.98-6.03
197751.3854.08-2.7
197853.9556.17-2.22
197955.4857.19-1.71
198057.3456.90.44
198158.2856.351.93
198258.2655.243.02
198358.3855.333.05
198460.4158.012.4
198562.3558.883.47
198663.2660.82.46
198764.5460.833.71
198866.2762.783.49
198967.0963.443.65
199067.9163.324.59
19916862.135.87
199268.4461.626.82
199368.3961.876.52
199470.662.428.18
199571.0964.196.9
199671.2965.415.88
199772.4966.296.2
199872.170.321.78
199972.6170.981.63
200073.0972.170.92
200172.871.161.64
200271.867.93.9
200371.7767.474.3
200470.9768.232.74
200571.167.633.47
200670.6966.993.7
200770.9969.711.28
Women
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
White Women
Black Women
White Women
Black Women
0.5292
-0.094
0.5331
-0.0892
0.5449
-0.0929
0.5281
-0.0785
0.5205
-0.0587
0.524
-0.0585
0.5272
-0.0458
0.5168
-0.0386
0.5498
-0.0603
0.5408
-0.027
0.5617
-0.0222
0.5719
-0.0171
0.569
0.0044
0.5635
0.0193
0.5524
0.0302
0.5533
0.0305
0.5801
0.024
0.5888
0.0347
0.608
0.0246
0.6083
0.0371
0.6278
0.0349
0.6344
0.0365
0.6332
0.0459
0.6213
0.0587
0.6162
0.0682
0.6187
0.0652
0.6242
0.0818
0.6419
0.069
0.6541
0.0588
0.6629
0.062
0.7032
0.0178
0.7098
0.0163
0.7217
0.0092
0.7116
0.0164
0.679
0.039
0.6747
0.043
0.6823
0.0274
0.6763
0.0347
0.6699
0.037
0.6971
0.0128
Men
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
White Men
Black Men
0.8503
0.0611
0.8474
0.0635
0.8183
0.0853
0.8093
0.0785
0.7956
0.094
0.8088
0.081
0.7861
0.1022
0.7082
0.1408
0.7011
0.1562
0.7498
0.1118
0.77
0.0964
0.7424
0.1327
0.7453
0.1156
0.7159
0.1425
0.6965
0.1402
0.6599
0.1615
0.6986
0.146
0.7023
0.1545
0.7417
0.1082
0.7309
0.1237
0.7153
0.1486
0.7285
0.139
0.7377
0.1261
0.7121
0.1361
0.6911
0.1498
0.6948
0.1404
0.6895
0.1564
0.7238
0.1321
0.6837
0.1759
0.7185
0.1439
0.7276
0.1367
0.7271
0.1394
0.7593
0.1021
0.733
0.1258
0.71
0.1298
0.6807
0.1541
0.6833
0.1452
0.6895
0.1441
0.6831
0.1536
0.6977
0.1442
Data
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic White and Black Men Aged 25 to 59
Employed
WhiteBlackRace
MenMendifferenceMENWOMEN
196891.1485.036.110.85030.06110.43520.5292-0.094
196991.0984.746.350.84740.06350.44390.5331-0.0892
197090.3681.838.530.81830.08530.4520.5449-0.0929
197188.7880.937.850.80930.07850.44960.5281-0.0785
197288.9679.569.40.79560.0940.46180.5205-0.0587
197388.9880.888.10.80880.0810.46550.524-0.0585
197488.8378.6110.220.78610.10220.48140.5272-0.0458
197584.970.8214.080.70820.14080.47820.5168-0.0386
197685.7370.1115.620.70110.15620.48950.5498-0.0603
197786.1674.9811.180.74980.11180.51380.5408-0.027
197886.64779.640.770.09640.53950.5617-0.0222
197987.5174.2413.270.74240.13270.55480.5719-0.0171
198086.0974.5311.560.74530.11560.57340.5690.0044
198185.8471.5914.250.71590.14250.58280.56350.0193
198283.6769.6514.020.69650.14020.58260.55240.0302
198382.1465.9916.150.65990.16150.58380.55330.0305
198484.4669.8614.60.69860.1460.60410.58010.024
198585.6870.2315.450.70230.15450.62350.58880.0347
198684.9974.1710.820.74170.10820.63260.6080.0246
198785.4673.0912.370.73090.12370.64540.60830.0371
198886.3971.5314.860.71530.14860.66270.62780.0349
198986.7572.8513.90.72850.1390.67090.63440.0365
199086.3873.7712.610.73770.12610.67910.63320.0459
199184.8271.2113.610.71210.13610.680.62130.0587
199284.0969.1114.980.69110.14980.68440.61620.0682
199383.5269.4814.040.69480.14040.68390.61870.0652
199484.5968.9515.640.68950.15640.7060.62420.0818
199585.5972.3813.210.72380.13210.71090.64190.069
199685.9668.3717.590.68370.17590.71290.65410.0588
199786.2471.8514.390.71850.14390.72490.66290.062
199886.4372.7613.670.72760.13670.7210.70320.0178
199986.6572.7113.940.72710.13940.72610.70980.0163
200086.1475.9310.210.75930.10210.73090.72170.0092
200185.8873.312.580.7330.12580.7280.71160.0164
200283.987112.980.710.12980.7180.6790.039
200383.4868.0715.410.68070.15410.71770.67470.043
200482.8568.3314.520.68330.14520.70970.68230.0274
200583.3668.9514.410.68950.14410.7110.67630.0347
200683.6768.3115.360.68310.15360.70690.66990.037
200784.1969.7714.420.69770.14420.70990.69710.0128
Source: U. S., Bureau of the Census, Public Use Microdata Files from the March
Current Population Survey
WhiteBlackRace
WomenWomenDifference
196843.5252.92-9.4
196944.3953.31-8.92
197045.254.49-9.29
197144.9652.81-7.85
197246.1852.05-5.87
197346.5552.4-5.85
197448.1452.72-4.58
197547.8251.68-3.86
197648.9554.98-6.03
197751.3854.08-2.7
197853.9556.17-2.22
197955.4857.19-1.71
198057.3456.90.44
198158.2856.351.93
198258.2655.243.02
198358.3855.333.05
198460.4158.012.4
198562.3558.883.47
198663.2660.82.46
198764.5460.833.71
198866.2762.783.49
198967.0963.443.65
199067.9163.324.59
19916862.135.87
199268.4461.626.82
199368.3961.876.52
199470.662.428.18
199571.0964.196.9
199671.2965.415.88
199772.4966.296.2
199872.170.321.78
199972.6170.981.63
200073.0972.170.92
200172.871.161.64
200271.867.93.9
200371.7767.474.3
200470.9768.232.74
200571.167.633.47
200670.6966.993.7
200770.9969.711.28
Median Wage and Salary Earnings for Native-Born Non-Hispanics Reporting Earnings
$10,000
$15,000
$20,000
$25,000
$30,000
$35,000
$40,000
$45,000
$50,000
$55,000
$60,000
1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
White Men
Black Men
Black Women
White Women
Chart1
1968196819681968
1969196919691969
1970197019701970
1971197119711971
1972197219721972
1973197319731973
1974197419741974
1975197519751975
1976197619761976
1977197719771977
1978197819781978
1979197919791979
1980198019801980
1981198119811981
1982198219821982
1983198319831983
1984198419841984
1985198519851985
1986198619861986
1987198719871987
1988198819881988
1989198919891989
1990199019901990
1991199119911991
1992199219921992
1993199319931993
1994199419941994
1995199519951995
1996199619961996
1997199719971997
1998199819981998
1999199919991999
2000200020002000
2001200120012001
2002200220022002
2003200320032003
2004200420042004
2005200520052005
2006200620062006
2007200720072007
White Men
Black Men
Black Women
White Women
42286.2
26456.44
18195.88
11949.8
44211.25
28594.65
18390.75
12469.55
45963.36
29397.94
19124.35
13865.83
46581.76
29905.92
19594.24
15329.28
47928.48
30017.92
20092.96
15991.04
49095.71
32325.74
19866.18
17428.44
47069.4
31214.4
19194
16090.2
46219.25
30965.55
18714.85
16235.45
45543.68
31515.12
18873.4
18309.2
46641.96
30998.88
19299.06
18837.36
47719.08
30817.38
19388.46
19223.1
45840.08
31505.76
19433.7
19224.92
44266.32
29055.6
19303.2
18169.2
43356.48
27442.08
19316.16
18324.36
43129
28083.3
19562.85
18603.95
42194.88
27137.76
20866.56
20835.36
43090
28032
21292
20166
45266.22
27944.47
21390.19
21243.51
45558.45
29716.47
22772.61
20969.55
45616.48
29547.7
23184.98
20818.98
45552.5
28906.5
23721.25
21171.5
45173.5
29363.61
24193.29
21334.25
44572.47
28737.66
23927.91
22374.48
42710.48
27626
24373.2
22676.88
42970.32
26765.8
25087.48
22251.8
42958.63
27264.38
25768.6
21615.88
42086.8
28011.2
25309.2
21133
42260.64
28625.28
24924.72
21802.16
42345.6
27832.2
25667.4
22511.28
43267.89
30996.12
25872.24
23305.14
44517.31
31781.75
26734.77
24189.69
45911
31368.28
28569.6
24289.12
46875.6
33656.4
28399.2
25284
46859.67
33439.77
29320.2
26033.67
46100.05
34527.6
29966.7
27616.1
46412.49
32970.01
30184.56
27207.01
46275.9
33056.1
30831.9
27366.9
46693
31847.7
29780.7
26550.88
46358.24
30965.92
30905.15
25817.98
46049
32013
30064
26025
Sheet1
Median Earnings for non-Hispanic, native born whites and blacks aged 25 to 59 who
reported wage or salary earnings
YearCurrent DollarsConstant DollarsRaceBlack as %
WhiteBlackDifferenceof white
WhiteBlackMenMenMENWOMEN
MenMen
1968709544395.9642286264561583062.6%42286264561819611950
1969782550615.6544211285951561764.7%44211285951839112470
1970849654345.4145963293981656564.0%45963293981912413866
1971909858415.1246582299061667664.2%46582299061959415329
1972966360524.9647928300181791162.6%47928300182009315991
19731051369224.6749096323261677065.8%49096323261986617428
19741120774324.247069312141585566.3%47069312141919416090
19751200580433.8546219309661525467.0%46219309661871516235
19761251286583.6445544315151402969.2%45544315151887318309
19771363890643.4246642309991564366.5%46642309991929918837
19781500696913.1847719308171690264.6%47719308171938819223
197916028110162.8645840315061433468.7%45840315061943419225
198017566115302.5244266290561521165.6%44266290561930318169
198119016120362.2843356274421591463.3%43356274421931618324
198220060130622.1543129280831504665.1%43129280831956318604
198320286130472.0842195271381505764.3%42195271382086720835
19842154514016243090280321505865.1%43090280322129220166
198523454144791.9345266279441732261.7%45266279442139021244
198624105157231.8945558297161584265.2%45558297162277320970
198725064162351.8245616295481606964.8%45616295482318520819
198826030165181.7545553289071664663.5%45553289072372121172
198927050175831.6745174293641581065.0%45174293642419321334
199028033180741.5944572287381583564.5%44572287382392822374
199128099181751.5242710276261508464.7%42710276262437322677
199229034180851.4842970267661620562.3%42970267662508722252
199330041190661.4342959272641569463.5%42959272642576921616
199430062200081.442087280111407666.6%42087280112530921133
199531074210481.3642261286251363567.7%42261286252492521802
199632080210851.3242346278321451365.7%42346278322566722511
199733541240281.2943268309961227271.6%43268309962587223305
199835053250251.2744517317821273671.4%44517317822673524190
199937025252971.2445911313681454368.3%45911313682857024289
200039063280471.246876336561321971.8%46876336562839925284
200140051285811.1746860334401342071.4%46860334402932026034
200240087300241.1546100345281157274.9%46100345282996727616
200341073291771.1346412329701344271.0%46412329703018527207
200442069300511.146276330561322071.4%46276330563083227367
200544050300451.0646693318481484568.2%46693318482978126551
200645008300641.0346358309661539266.8%46358309663090525818
2007`4604932013146049320131403669.5%46049320133006426025
Sheet2
Sheet3
Median Income of Households Headed by Native-Born Non-Hispanics(shown in constant 2007 Dollars)
$10,000
$15,000
$20,000
$25,000
$30,000
$35,000
$40,000
$45,000
$50,000
$55,000
$60,000
1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
Whites
Blacks
HH Income
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Whites
Blacks
25264.44
18708.44
26628.45
18758
28321.35
18799.75
27842.56
19763.2
27458.56
20569.12
27389.55
21617.43
26653.2
20218.8
25983.65
19146.05
27030.64
18378.36
26963.28
19487.16
26524.38
19887.72
26640.9
19144.84
25416.72
19116.72
23969.64
19530.48
24056.35
19868.15
24974.56
19745.44
24788
19870
25574.43
21102.62
28068.39
19948.95
27401.92
21603.4
27471.5
22121.75
27119.13
22493.23
28573.89
20946.66
28402.72
20374.08
28041.56
20073.24
26596.57
21359.91
26318.6
21417.2
27764.4
19971.6
29054.52
20268.6
29855.76
20553.57
31450.28
20190.46
31045.88
22080.68
32995.2
20412
34825.05
19391.58
32976.25
21071.45
31609.49
21512.94
31480.9
21332.3
30938.22
21066.44
30771.25
21044.96
30894
21675
Data
Median Income of Households Headed by Non-Hispanic, Native Born Blacks and White
YearWhiteBlackInflationMedian Incomes inRace
MedianMedianAdjjustmentConstant DollarsDifferenceBlack as
Actual $Actual $WhiteBlack% of white
1968737842395.9643973252641870857.5%
1969803347135.6545386266281875858.7%
1970871052355.4147121283211880060.1%
1971929854385.1247606278431976358.5%
1972968355364.9648028274592056957.2%
19731049458654.6749007273902161755.9%
19741116063464.246872266532021956.9%
19751172267493.8545130259841914657.6%
19761247574263.6445409270311837859.5%
19771358278843.4246450269631948758.0%
19781459583413.1846412265241988857.1%
19791600993152.8645786266411914558.2%
198017672100862.5244533254171911757.1%
198119079105132.2843500239701953055.1%
198220430111892.1543925240561986854.8%
198321500120072.0844720249751974555.8%
19842232912394244658247881987055.5%
198524185132511.9346677255742110354.8%
198625406148511.8948017280681994958.5%
198726926150561.8249005274022160355.9%
198828339156981.7549593274722212255.4%
198929708162391.6749612271192249354.7%
199031145179711.5949521285742094757.7%
199132090186861.5248777284032037458.2%
199232510189471.4848115280422007358.3%
199333536185991.4347956265972136055.5%
199434097187991.447736263192141755.1%
199535100204151.3647736277641997258.2%
199637366220111.3249323290552026958.9%
199739077231441.2950409298562055459.2%
199840662247641.2751641314502019060.9%
199942844250371.2453127310462208158.4%
200044506274961.253407329952041261.8%
200146339297651.1754217348251939264.2%
200246998286751.1554048329762107161.0%
200347011279731.1353122316092151359.5%
200448012286191.152813314812133259.6%
200549061291871.0652005309382106659.5%
200650307298751.0351816307712104559.4%
20075256930894152569308942167558.8%
Sheet2
Sheet3
Percent of Native-Born Non-Hispanic Children Under Age 18 Living Below the Poverty Line; 1968 to 2007
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
ImpoverishedBlack Children
Impoverished White Children
Older Poverty
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Impoverished BlackAdults Aged 65+
Impoverished WhiteAdults Aged 65+
0.2611
0.2468
0.2309
0.246
0.2333
0.2681
0.2139
0.2662
0.1881
0.2074
0.1543
0.2443
0.1351
0.2398
0.1332
0.2298
0.1288
0.2316
0.1276
0.2192
0.1164
0.2478
0.1176
0.2222
0.1272
0.2318
0.1272
0.2562
0.1243
0.2683
0.1171
0.2669
0.1145
0.2483
0.1007
0.2153
0.1018
0.2092
0.1012
0.2076
0.0988
0.225
0.0932
0.2294
0.0897
0.2188
0.0932
0.2443
0.0968
0.2401
0.1029
0.2289
0.0999
0.1829
0.0948
0.1848
0.0813
0.1753
0.0838
0.1745
0.0787
0.1829
0.0769
0.1761
0.0738
0.1562
0.0785
0.1571
0.0773
0.1418
0.0817
0.1562
0.079
0.1641
0.0725
0.1658
0.0771
0.159
0.069
0.1512
Child Poverty
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
ImpoverishedBlack Children
Impoverished White Children
0.1065
0.347
0.1082
0.324
0.0995
0.2979
0.0857
0.3364
0.0896
0.3178
0.0798
0.3532
0.0797
0.3278
0.0945
0.3152
0.1115
0.326
0.1012
0.3329
0.1006
0.3357
0.0975
0.3265
0.1051
0.3182
0.1265
0.3108
0.1406
0.3412
0.1545
0.3634
0.1577
0.351
0.1486
0.3604
0.1408
0.333
0.1406
0.3303
0.1186
0.3333
0.1106
0.3278
0.1144
0.3256
0.124
0.3275
0.1316
0.33
0.1326
0.3389
0.1374
0.3288
0.1272
0.3221
0.1168
0.3094
0.117
0.2853
0.1189
0.2596
0.1108
0.2647
0.0991
0.2425
0.0977
0.2217
0.0995
0.2109
0.0989
0.2334
0.1036
0.2441
0.1097
0.2344
0.1059
0.2495
0.1044
0.2357
Child Data
Poverty Race for Non-Hispanic Native Born White and Black Children Under Age 18
PercentPercent
ImpoverishedImpoverishedRace
YearWhite ChildrenBlack ChildrenDifference
196810.6545.3534.70.10650.3470.4535
196910.8243.2232.40.10820.3240.4322
19709.9539.7429.790.09950.29790.3974
19718.5742.2133.640.08570.33640.4221
19728.9640.7431.780.08960.31780.4074
19737.9843.335.320.07980.35320.433
19747.9740.7532.780.07970.32780.4075
19759.4540.9731.520.09450.31520.4097
197611.1543.7532.60.11150.3260.4375
197710.1243.4133.290.10120.33290.4341
197810.0643.6333.570.10060.33570.4363
19799.7542.432.650.09750.32650.424
198010.5142.3331.820.10510.31820.4233
198112.6543.7331.080.12650.31080.4373
198214.0648.1834.120.14060.34120.4818
198315.4551.7936.340.15450.36340.5179
198415.7750.8735.10.15770.3510.5087
198514.8650.936.040.14860.36040.509
198614.0847.3833.30.14080.3330.4738
198714.0647.0933.030.14060.33030.4709
198811.8645.1933.330.11860.33330.4519
198911.0643.8432.780.11060.32780.4384
199011.444432.560.11440.32560.44
199112.445.1532.750.1240.32750.4515
199213.1646.16330.13160.330.4616
199313.2647.1533.890.13260.33890.4715
199413.7446.6232.880.13740.32880.4662
199512.7244.9332.210.12720.32210.4493
199611.6842.6230.940.11680.30940.4262
199711.740.2328.530.1170.28530.4023
199811.8937.8525.960.11890.25960.3785
199911.0837.5526.470.11080.26470.3755
20009.9134.1624.250.09910.24250.3416
20019.7731.9422.170.09770.22170.3194
20029.9531.0421.090.09950.21090.3104
20039.8933.2323.340.09890.23340.3323
200410.3634.7724.410.10360.24410.3477
200510.9734.4123.440.10970.23440.3441
200610.5935.5424.950.10590.24950.3554
200710.4434.0123.570.10440.23570.3401
Source: Public Use Microdata files from March Current Population Surveys
Old Folks Data
Poverty Rate for Non-Hispanic Native Born Persons Age 65 and Over
Poverty Rate forPo verty Rage forRacial
Whites Age 65 and overBlacks Ag 65 and ovrDifference
196826.1150.7924.680.26110.2468
196923.0947.6924.60.23090.246
197023.3350.1426.810.23330.2681
197121.3948.0126.620.21390.2662
197218.8139.5520.740.18810.2074
197315.4339.8624.430.15430.2443
197413.5137.4923.980.13510.2398
197513.3236.322.980.13320.2298
197612.8836.0423.160.12880.2316
197712.7634.6821.920.12760.2192
197811.6436.4224.780.11640.2478
197911.7633.9822.220.11760.2222
198012.7235.923.180.12720.2318
198112.7238.3425.620.12720.2562
198212.4339.2626.830.12430.2683
198311.7138.426.690.11710.2669
198411.4536.2824.830.11450.2483
198510.0731.621.530.10070.2153
198610.1831.120.920.10180.2092
198710.1230.8820.760.10120.2076
19889.8832.3822.50.09880.225
19899.3232.2622.940.09320.2294
19908.9730.8521.880.08970.2188
19919.3233.7524.430.09320.2443
19929.6833.6924.010.09680.2401
199310.2933.1822.890.10290.2289
19949.9928.2818.290.09990.1829
19959.4827.9618.480.09480.1848
19968.1325.6617.530.08130.1753
19978.3825.8317.450.08380.1745
19987.8726.1618.290.07870.1829
19997.6925.317.610.07690.1761
20007.382315.620.07380.1562
20017.8523.5615.710.07850.1571
20027.7321.9114.180.07730.1418
20038.1723.7915.620.08170.1562
20047.924.3116.410.0790.1641
20057.2523.8316.580.07250.1658
20067.7123.6115.90.07710.159
20076.922.0215.120.0690.1512
Black-White
19681968
19691969
19701970
19711971
19721972
19731973
19741974
19751975
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
ImpoverishedBlacks
Impoverished Whites
0.1023
0.2745
0.0992
0.2475
0.0941
0.2293
0.0844
0.2552
0.0845
0.241
0.0733
0.2638
0.0708
0.2432
0.0782
0.2363
0.0882
0.237
0.0823
0.2449
0.0805
0.2433
0.0788
0.232
0.082
0.2348
0.0934
0.2397
0.1031
0.2568
0.1105
0.2687
0.1116
0.2691
0.1041
0.2583
0.1013
0.2333
0.0974
0.2351
0.0862
0.2366
0.0832
0.231
0.0823
0.2258
0.0876
0.2332
0.0932
0.2339
0.0956
0.2389
0.0984
0.2395
0.0938
0.2229
0.085
0.2132
0.0857
0.2039
0.0857
0.1821
0.0818
0.1836
0.077
0.1675
0.0739
0.157
0.0776
0.1558
0.0809
0.169
0.0825
0.1702
0.087
0.1672
0.0841
0.176
0.0828
0.1651
Black-White Data
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanics Below Poverty Line: 1968 to 2007
This one shows the percent of native born non-hispanic whites and blacks who lived in impoverished households from 1968 through 2007.
You might try a vertical axis running from about 5 percent to 40 percent. You might draw the lower trend line showing white poverty and the upper trend line showing black poverty. If possible, you might label them and then fill in the space in-betwee
I calculated the difference between the white and black percent in poverty and put those numbers in the Excel sheet. They are not going to be plotted.WhiteBlacksDifference
Below povertyBelow Poverty
196810.2337.6827.450.10230.27450.3768
19699.9234.6724.750.09920.24750.3467
19709.4132.3422.930.09410.22930.3234
19718.4433.9625.520.08440.25520.3396
19728.4532.5524.10.08450.24100.3255
19737.3333.7126.380.07330.26380.3371
19747.0831.424.320.07080.24320.3140
19757.8231.4523.630.07820.23630.3145
19768.8232.5223.70.08820.23700.3252
19778.2332.7224.490.08230.24490.3272
19788.0532.3824.330.08050.24330.3238
19797.8831.0823.20.07880.23200.3108
19808.231.6823.480.08200.23480.3168
19819.3433.3123.970.09340.23970.3331
198210.3135.9925.680.10310.25680.3599
198311.0537.9226.870.11050.26870.3792
198411.1638.0726.910.11160.26910.3807
198510.4136.2425.830.10410.25830.3624
198610.1333.4623.330.10130.23330.3346
19879.7433.2523.510.09740.23510.3325
19888.6232.2823.660.08620.23660.3228
19898.3231.4223.10.08320.23100.3142
19908.2330.8122.580.08230.22580.3081
19918.7632.0823.320.08760.23320.3208
19929.3232.7123.390.09320.23390.3271
19939.5633.4523.890.09560.23890.3345
19949.8433.7923.950.09840.23950.3379
19959.3831.6722.290.09380.22290.3167
19968.529.8221.320.08500.21320.2982
19978.5728.9620.390.08570.20390.2896
19988.5726.7818.210.08570.18210.2678
19998.1826.5418.360.08180.18360.2654
20007.724.4516.750.07700.16750.2445
20017.3923.0915.70.07390.15700.2309
20027.7623.3415.580.07760.15580.2334
20038.0924.9916.90.08090.16900.2499
20048.2525.2717.020.08250.17020.2527
20058.725.4216.720.08700.16720.2542
20068.4126.0117.60.08410.17600.2601
20078.2824.7916.510.08280.16510.2479
One Other Indicator Of African American’s subordinate social status:
A Huge Racial Assets Gap
Percent of Native-Born Non-Hispanic Households Owning their Residence
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Black Owners
White Owners
HOME OWNERSHIP
Chart1
19761976
19771977
19781978
19791979
19801980
19811981
19821982
19831983
19841984
19851985
19861986
19871987
19881988
19891989
19901990
19911991
19921992
19931993
19941994
19951995
19961996
19971997
19981998
19991999
20002000
20012001
20022002
20032003
20042004
20052005
20062006
20072007
Black Owners
White Owners
0.443
0.245
0.442
0.246
0.446
0.243
0.483
0.23
0.489
0.228
0.48
0.238
0.474
0.24
0.456
0.234
0.459
0.23
0.444
0.246
0.447
0.237
0.458
0.229
0.429
0.263
0.42
0.274
0.426
0.269
0.426
0.27
0.426
0.27
0.426
0.278
0.436
0.268
0.427
0.285
0.446
0.277
0.468
0.256
0.477
0.252
0.472
0.265
0.484
0.259
0.496
0.253
0.501
0.252
0.492
0.265
0.502
0.261
0.504
0.263
0.485
0.275
0.494
0.261
Homeownership
Percent of Native Born Non-Hispanic Households Owning their Residence
WhiteBlackRaceBlack as %
OwnersOwnersDifferenceof White
197668.944.324.564.40%0.4430.245
197768.744.224.664.30%0.4420.246
197868.944.624.364.70%0.4460.243
197971.348.32367.70%0.4830.23
198071.648.922.868.20%0.4890.228
198171.84823.866.90%0.480.238
198271.447.42466.40%0.4740.24
19836945.623.466.00%0.4560.234
198468.945.92366.60%0.4590.23
19856944.424.664.30%0.4440.246
198668.444.723.765.40%0.4470.237
198768.745.822.966.70%0.4580.229
198869.242.926.362.00%0.4290.263
198969.44227.460.50%0.420.274
199069.542.626.961.30%0.4260.269
199169.642.62761.20%0.4260.27
199269.742.62761.20%0.4260.27
199370.442.627.860.40%0.4260.278
199470.443.626.861.90%0.4360.268
199571.242.728.559.90%0.4270.285
199672.344.627.761.70%0.4460.277
199772.446.825.664.60%0.4680.256
199872.947.725.265.40%0.4770.252
199973.747.226.564.00%0.4720.265
200074.248.425.965.20%0.4840.259
200174.949.625.366.20%0.4960.253
200275.450.125.266.50%0.5010.252
200375.749.226.565.00%0.4920.265
200476.250.226.165.80%0.5020.261
200576.650.426.365.70%0.5040.263
20067648.527.563.80%0.4850.275
200775.549.426.165.40%0.4940.261
Then There’s The Incarceration Explosion – Both Reflecting and
Locking-in Racial Inequality
Let’s Look at the Numbers: US Imprisonment Trends -- 1970-2010
(1) Dwarfs other Countries in the West
(2) Unprecedented in US History
(3) Wildly Disparate by Race and Class
Berkeley Sociologist Loic Wacquant: “This is not ‘Mass Incarceration’ but instead, ‘Hyper-Incarceration,’ with a class/race nexus: the poorly educated
and non-white are at much higher risk of being locked-up: I.e., imprisonment is an integral part of our nation’s larger
social policy framework
The Prison Intersects with Families and Communities.Note Incarceration’s Huge Impact of Black Children.
-.50
.5Po
licy
Popu
latio
n R
elat
ive
to 1
990
1990 1995 2000y ear
Receiv ing Cash Assistance Incarcerated
The New Poverty Governance: Change in Numbers Incarcerated and Receiving Cash Aid:1990-2000
Source: Schram and Soss, 2005
PresenterPresentation NotesSource: Sanford Schram and Joseph Soss, “Coloring the terms of membership: Reinventing the divided citizenry in an era of neo-liberal paternalism” (unpublished paper, Bryn Mawr College, 2005)
Despite 40 years of AA, prisons are the primary venue for the government’s engagement with the lives of African American men in the US today
What does all this reveal about the true character of American social inequality?
Prisons more prominent than schools, unions, military or social agencies for poor black men…
Affirmative Action Policies in the US:�An Introductory Overview�Slide Number 2Slide Number 3Goals of AA PolicySlide Number 5Slide Number 6Further (Technical) Questions about AA Policy (to be addressed in some of the papers to come…)Some of My Papers on Affirmative ActionPrincipled Argument against Aff. Action in USArguments in Favor of Affirmative ActionBased on paper with Roland Fryer (JEP, 2005) here are some commonly held but dubious beliefs (“myths”) about affirmative action in the USSlide Number 12Slide Number 13Slide Number 14Slide Number 15Slide Number 16Slide Number 17Slide Number 18Why Is Affirmative Action So Controversial? An Empirical Study of AA in US Law Schools in the 1990sSlide Number 20Slide Number 21Slide Number 22Slide Number 23Slide Number 24Slide Number 25“When Affirmative Action Was White”Slide Number 27Slide Number 28Slide Number 29Slide Number 30Finally: “Beyond Civil Rights”:� �What’s a Self-Respecting “Black” Intellectual (Me!) To Do in the Face of Persistent Racial Inequality in the United States? �Evidently, Affirmative Action Has Failed to Achieve Equality for Blacks In the US Since 1970�Here are the First-Order Social Facts about Racial Inequality in America Today: ��(1) African American Social Disadvantage Is a Stubbornly Persistent Reality of 21st Century American Society ��(2) Convergence to parity is nowhere in sight (I’ll show).��(3) Dr. King’s ‘Dream’ of Equality Has Yet To Be Realized��(4) But That’s OK Because ‘We Got Us a Black President’?Educational AttainmentSlide Number 34Slide Number 35Employment, Earnings and Family incomesSlide Number 37Slide Number 38Slide Number 39Slide Number 40One Other Indicator Of African American’s subordinate social status:�A Huge Racial Assets Gap Slide Number 42Slide Number 43Then There’s The Incarceration Explosion – Both Reflecting and Locking-in Racial InequalityLet’s Look at the Numbers: US Imprisonment Trends -- 1970-2010��(1) Dwarfs other Countries in the West��(2) Unprecedented in US History��(3) Wildly Disparate by Race and Class�Berkeley Sociologist Loic Wacquant: “This is not ‘Mass Incarceration’ but instead, ‘Hyper-Incarceration,’ with a class/race nexus: the poorly educated and non-white are at much higher risk of being locked-up: I.e., imprisonment is an integral part of our nation’s larger social policy frameworkSlide Number 47Slide Number 48Slide Number 49Slide Number 50Slide Number 51The New Poverty Governance: Change in Numbers Incarcerated and Receiving Cash Aid:1990-2000Despite 40 years of AA, prisons are the primary venue for the government’s engagement with the lives of African American men in the US today