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Afrikan-centered Rites of Passage:

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The Necessity for Rites Of Passage- Dr. Wade Nobles

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Lathardus Goggins II, Ed.D. Link below

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Harvesting New Generations: Afrocentric Rites of Passage

By Paul Hill, Jr.

The National Rites of Passage Institute http://www.ritesofpassage.org/index.htm The much quoted and overused African proverb, "It takes a village to raise a child" is predicated on the premise that healthy villages and communities exist. Contrary to this assumption, healthy

villages and communities are the exception and not the rule. Thus, in America we do not suffer from a youth problem, we suffer from an adult problem. Youth do not develop in a vacuum, they develop in unhealthy villages and communities that we as adults are responsible for allowing to exist (Some, 1993). This dilemma is not limited to the poor in the inner city, but is found among all classes, wherever they live. Youth internalize the values and emulate the behavior of adults. The unraveling of wholeness of the individual and the degeneration of family and community life is a widespread problem. No where is this phenomenon more widespread and disproportionate than among African Americans.

The phenomenon that reflects the unraveling of wholeness of the individual and the degeneration of family and community life is recent. As oppressive as enslavement was, the African-America population was able to develop and sustain domestic and kin arrangements and create healthy communities. Prior to 1917, over ninety percent (90%) of all black children were born in wed lock. It has only been in the past four decades that one begins to see significant changes take place in the African-American family. Up until 1960, eighty percent (80%) of all black children lived with both parents. However, by 1990, less than fifty percent of African-American children lived with both parents (Gutman, 1976, Staples, 1984).

Contrary to our current dilemma, black people were stolen from Africa as whole people with a strong concept, cultural competence, high self-esteem, positive behavior, and group loyalty (Perkins, 1986). However, through historical enslavement, and the current chains and images of psychological enslavement, many black people are now fragmented and fractured. They are characterized by a confused self-concept, cultural incompetence, ambivalent behavior, depreciated character, adaptive behavior, confused group loyalty, and reactionary behavior. The inherited historical images and the market-inspired way of life have sabotaged many of our efforts for true manhood and womanhood (Akbar, 1987, West, 1992).

Definitely, not all African-Americans have been cruelly affected by such forces, but few can claim complete immunity. In response to the dilemma, various strategies and programs have been prescribed for the development of young African-American youth. The themes reflected in current strategies and programming are mainstreaming and skill-building (Watt, 1997). Such themes are predicated on a myth created by American society. The myth reflects what it means

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to be successful; that success determines individual worth; and that the individual is solely responsible for achieving success at any cost; that success and becoming number one is measured in terms of accumulated wealth and power; and that through hand work and ingenuity, anyone can become successful.

Mainstreaming and skill-building themes are predicated on the American dream of success. Mainstreaming efforts have paired youth with "successful" (based on education, status, and income) individual who act as role models and demonstrate in a very tangible way what can be achieved. The mentors support, advocate and teach youth, males in particular, what they need to succeed and become part of the country's mainstream.

Skill-building through behavior modification has its root in social science theory and the helping professions. Specific behaviors are targeted, and interventions are designed to modify these behaviors and prevent adverse outcomes.

Another popular recurring theme is cultural socialization as a strategy for development of African American youth. Cultural socialization stresses African-centered education and programming that is intended to instill ethnic pride, self worth, focus of control and mastery in youth and protect them from societal assaults to their self-esteem and cultural identity. The problem associated with harvesting a generation of centered and whole youth through mainstreaming, skill-building and cultural socialization programming has been a lack of caring adults. Adults, particular males who have functioned as teachers, mentors and youth service providers have generally experienced difficulty in nurturing and engaging in generative behavior. Their mid-life development has given way to unsuccessful mid-life crisis (Freedman, 1992). They, themselves, are makeshift adults who have never been initiated by a "community of adults" into adulthood.

The problem of harvesting a generation of African-American youth is qualitative not quantitative in nature. A "community of adults" who have the nurturance and generative capacity is lacking. A "Community of adults" who function as "transitional figures" to invite, prepare, and welcome youth into the adult world is lacking. How do we become adults?

Adults are not born but made. The shaping of the adult we become, begins early in life. The desires of our nurturer are subtly communicated to us in the ways we are held, what we are fed, how and when we are consoled, why we are sung to or smiled at. That molding continues over the years as we are told what stories are worth our attention and what adventures are worth our energies. We are taught what to value and what to ignore. Eventually, we are ready to be admitted to the rights and responsibilities of full cultural membership (Hill, 1992). Only then do we become adults.

In some cultures, the final entrance into adulthood is marked, as has been from time immemorial, by the coming-of-age ceremony. Like other major life change ceremonies which accompany birth, marriage, and death, the coming-of-age ceremony locates the individual at a new point within the surrounding community and indeed, within the universe as a whole. It is a critical moment of expansion, the entrance into a world of larger responsibilities, larger privileges, larger secrets, larger institutions, larger understanding. It amounts to a second birth; entry not into physical life, but into the higher life of culture and spirit. Accordingly, it encourages the society to display itself fully, giving immediacy to its myths and traditions and physical expression to its animating beliefs (Cohen, 1991).

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The post-industrial world, by contrast, holds ceremony suspect, viewing it as a kind of primitive witchery that deludes us into accepting beliefs that would not otherwise be found in the world of the intellect. Further discrediting the validity of ceremony and ritual are the repeated explosions that have fragmented nearly all of the comfortable assumptions which are, of necessity, part of any act of ritual acknowledgment. Ceremony lives by continuity, not change; and so, the coming-of-age (rites of passage) in its pure form, has disappeared from all but the most traditional and isolated societies. This is, indeed, lamentable. Especially if one believes that the foundering of contemporary youth - their identity crises and frantic searching for personal identity in the fires of intense experience - is a symptom of the loss of a discernible threshold over which one passes into accepted adulthood. The gateway is gone, leaving the younger generation to thrash through the underbrush on their own in the hope of finding reasonable passage (Jones, 1984).

The African ancestors of African-Americans who were brought to the colonies and America as unwilling immigrants had a tradition and history for adulthood development and regeneration of the community; however, one of the devastating effects of the European slave system was that it caused much cultural confusion for the displaced African. New systems of thinking, acting and working were foisted upon the African as he entered the Caribbean and the Americas. Consequently, ritualistic and ceremonial practices which previously had great meaning for the African were suppressed or became so diffused by alien practices that their effectiveness on the lives of African people was diminished. Our African forbears, through ritual and ceremony, always knew who they were, where they were from, the place that they had in society, and a sense of their own destiny. Life was laid out in stages. Each of those stages carried with it a special meaning for the community. Life was like a mountain with a number of plateaus which gave the person a view of the community and a new meaning and responsibility for his or her life (Kenyatta, 1955, Turner, 1969). On the other hand, the life of the displaced African within the northern hemisphere has been almost devoid of the necessary kind of staging. Consequently, most of our youth, by the time they reach early adulthood, feel that much of the meaning has gone out of their lives. In view of the fact that most black people grow up with a feeling of limited options in life, very early they begin to lose their youth enthusiasm and optimism (Sims, 1976).

An increasing number of African Americans strongly feel that the reinstitution of staging (rites of passage) within the growth process will give our children the springboard they sorely need as they prepare to take their rightful places within the community and world.

One of the fundamental ways human groups ensure continuity and continuation of their culture over time, is to socialize the young in matters of feeling, thinking, believing, and behaving so that they become proficient bearers of the groups culture. The socialization process becomes a prescription for group survival. It incorporates all that has been, all that currently is, and mirrors the hope for the future.

When comparing African American to African culture, one finds in some African cultures definite rituals which youth must experience in order to be recognized as men and women or adults. These activities prepare young people in matters of sexual life, marriage, procreation, and family/community responsibilities, while fulfilling a great educational purpose (Zahan, 1960, Read, 1968, Ray, 1973). The occasion often marks the beginning of acquiring knowledge which is not otherwise accessible to those who have not been initiated. It is an awakening, a new day for the young. They learn to live with one another. They learn to obey. They learn the secrets and mysteries of male-female relationships. That part of the rich African inheritance characterized by traditions of personal mastery and locus of control through ritualization of

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social relationships has been lost. But, in assessing the present predicament of African Americans, it is only natural that there take place an examination of African origins to determine what should have been saved. Obviously, many elements of African and early African American heritage have been lost, stripped away, or simply allowed to wither.

The nearest modern equivalent to ancient initiation rites is formal and institutionalized education. Both processes are compulsory. Both try to bend the unruly energies of youth to constructive social purposes. Both attempt to teach obedience, discipline, and the basics of proper behavior. Both express and communicate the central value of the sponsoring culture. The differences between the old and new are as follows:

-The old rites were religious; the new rites are usually secular.

-The old rites ran by sun and seasonal time; the new rites operate by clock and calendar (usually sedentary and behind closed doors).

-The old rites centered on concrete experiences; the new rites rely heavily on words, number, and abstractions.

-The old rites were dramatic, intense, forceful and fast; the new rites are slow, extended, and often vague about ultimate destination.

-The old rites engendered awe; the new rites commonly produced detachment and boredom.

-The old rites typically inspired participation in the ongoing history of the culture; the new rites are often holding areas created where youth are isolated from the larger cultural reality rather than allowed to experience it.

-The old rites resulted in an immediate and unmistakable status change; the new rites provided no such direct deliverance into adult roles and status.

-The old rites were over at a determined place and at a determined time, witnessed by the community as a whole; the new rites can go on indefinitely and be severed perhaps never resulting in general community recognition.

-The old rites were in the hands of caring adults who had their interest at heart; the new rites are frequently monitored by uncaring employees whose purpose for being is related to his or her own financial condition and interests (a shift in control from the family/community to the public and private sector who share no common purpose).

Given that schools do not satisfactorily fulfill the cognitive, physical, psychological/emotional, effective and cultural requirements of a coming-of-age ceremony or a true rites of passage it is necessary for families and communities to provide a process for transition from childhood to adulthood.

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What is rites of passage?

Historically, rites of passage did not exist by any such name or label. This is because the African beliefs and behavioral practices were interwoven into the very fabric of life in the community. It was not until Arnold Van Gennep's 1906 publication of Les Rites De Passage did the phrase have its birth. Gennep, unlike his contemporaries, felt that anthropological investigations would do well to examine the rituals and ceremonies of various African peoples and cultures, not for the purpose of identifying, cultures, but rather to determine whether they possessed any inherent value for their practitioners. During his years of study, Van Gennep was able to ascertain the existence of numerous principles, beliefs and practices which constituted the African paradigm for living. These were delineated in his 1906 publication and should serve as the basis for any serious discussion of rites of passage. Gennep's studies revealed the African conceptualization of life as a journey through a series of identifiable phases with predictable challenges or 'crises' along the way. Each crisis was necessarily accompanied by specified rituals and ceremonies which facilitated the individuals movement (passage) along life's path. As defined by Gennep rites of passage became those rituals and ceremonies which accompany a life crisis (Gennep, 1960).

The African paradigm for living incorporates those fundamental beliefs/principles that guided the individual, communal, and spiritual behaviors of the African people. These, based upon Gennep's research may be summarized in part as follows:

African Life Paradigm

Beliefs/Principles

1. Humanity and nature are one.

2. Both humanity and nature experience cyclical, periodic and inevitable change.

3. In nature these changes are celestial. In humanity they are called "life crisis."

4. Both humanity and nature functions by the law of "regeneration" which state the energy in all systems is eventually spent and must be renewed at intervals.

5. In nature this process symbolized as a Death and Rebirth sequence, is monitored by rites of passage.

6. "Life Crisis," by definition, are disruptive to both the individual and to the community.

7. The rites of passage, which assist and cushion the individual's passage, consisted of three essential phrases: separation (pre-liminal), transition (liminal), and incorporation (post liminal).

The Africa life paradigm reflects a recognition and appreciation of the principles which govern the interdependence of humanity with all other life. Les Rites De Passage was the framework within which the individual was guided through the psycho-social transformations necessary to the successful navigation of life's cyclical periodic and inevitable changes. Moreover, it assured the community of a continuous flow of mature confident and socially conscious adults.

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Aside from an understanding of the foundations of the rites of passage it is also important to review the African educational and socialization systems. The ten basic principles of African education found continent-wide for education and socializing children are as follows:

-Separating a child from the community and routines of daily life. Separation has deep spiritual meaning; it prevents distraction.

-Observing nature. African schools were built on observing nature. Cycles of growth and development are based on universal principles of life, so nature can become the teacher.

-A social process based on age, education in Africa is a social process as opposed to the western educational emphasis on individualism. African education is a social process conducted in groups. All children are expected to master all requirements from beginning to end as a group; this is the African way. There is not gifted, average, and impaired groupings.

-Rejection of childhood the apostle said, "When I became a man, I put away childish things." A point of departure should be based on a ceremonial shift, so everybody knows it's time to quit playing and be serious.

-Listening to the elders. In African education, the most significant part is conducted by the elders. Wisdom is more than knowledge. Young children need to be exposed to wisdom and that doesn't always mean degrees. Elders play a major role in the education and socialization of children in traditional African society.

-Purifications rituals. African education is full of rituals and symbolic purifications for rebirth or change, such as baptism. Events that are symbolized are internalized and made meaningful.

-Tests of character. Via demonstrations of courage, loyalty, commitment, and persistence.

-Use of special language. New vocabulary, sounds, and symbols are created.

-Use of a special name. Special names are used which are symbolic of certain characteristics. Symbols or names that have special meanings are also chosen. Symbolic resurrection. Upon completion of the process, one demonstrates what has happened to him by a ceremony that says, "I am now reborn into the community." The community stops its business and welcomes him/her back as part of the community.

Use and adaptation of the principles identified does not exclude children from mastery of modern technology or keep them from learning about other people in the world. However, using these principles will place African children's education in a more nurturing and generative light.

If we are to develop adults and promote the development of African American youth, we must use Afrocentric rites of passage as a model. Afrocentric rites of passage is a human development process that functions as a prelude to a metamorphosis, to manhood or womanhood, to adulthood, to wholeness. Wholeness reflects, self knowledge, personal mastery, and an Africentric locus of control. The Africentric locus of control places descendants of Africans in the center.

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The Africentric perspective, often referred to as the black perspective, is first and foremost a theoretical frame of reference or world view centered in Africa as the historical point of generation; unity that contains and transcends all opposites.

As theoretical framework, it is both conceptual and pragmatic, concrete and functional. It enables one to approach feelings, knowledge, and actions as a comprehensive whole rather than as disparate segments. It enables one to move from a position characterized by a neo-colonial mentality to one of relative autonomy. Relative autonomy refers to the functional need to acknowledge one's fundamental accountability to one's community as well as oneself, thereby avoiding the inapplicable perspective of western individualism (Asante, 1988, Meyers, 1988).

Two important elements makeup the Africentric perspective: (1) its assessment explanatory power and (2) its functional power. Assessment-explanatory power means screen out aspects of African American life and experience in terms of healthy or unhealthy implications. In using the Africentric perspective to screen reality; one is able to predict the behavior and consequences of the elements which make up reality. Assessment-explanatory power also reveals historical and contemporary feeling tone in past and present experiences of African American people. The functional power of the Africentric perspective is directive in that it gives guidance and power to the thoughts and actions of African American people. It is not anti-white or reactionary; nor is it a defensive strategy; it is an offensive (unifying) strategy that is pro-black.

The Africentric perspective, grounded in the socio-historical struggles of African American people, forces one always to ask the alternative question. It forces one to think within dialectical framework. For example, if African American men are disproportionately represented in the prison population, one does not assume that they commit more crimes than others. Using the Africentric perspective, the question has to be why? To question the analysis beyond the consideration of individual and/or personal pathology. Paramount in the Africentric perspective is that the struggles of African American have historically had the central goal of gaining some measure of human dignity in a society which too often disregards the culture of non-western people. Africantricity promotes an appreciation for, and utilization of the collective experiences of black people in every dimension of existence.

The foundations of rites of passage beyond the African life paradigm and Africentricity are predicated on a minimum moral values system-Nguzo name (or eight principles) and rituals through ceremony. Minimum moral values are important because without them, practice would be incorrect and possibilities would be limited. Principles are categories of commitment and priorities which define human possibilities and a value system. Such a value system is the Nguzo name or eight principles. The minimum moral value system is based on Maulana Karenga's Kawaiada theory which maintains, "That if the key crisis in black life is cultural crisis, i.e., a crisis in views and values, then social organization or rather reorganization must start with a new value system" (Karenga, 1980). The Nguzo name is the minimum value system African Americans need in order to develop and regenerate community. The eight principles are: unity, self-determination, collective work and responsibility, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, faith, and respect. What is the role of rituals in the rites of passage process?

Rituals through ceremony are important to internalize experiences. To become a rite or ritual, an activity need only be serious, established or prescribed by a legitimate authority, and formally

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performed at a designated time with symbolism. It is a ceremony and often a celebration of some kind (Hare, 1985). The following points are essential in implementing a ritualizing process:

-Give definite initial directions.

-Allow emotional expression and promote satisfaction at each step

-Allow for consideration of other family members.

-Keep permanent records-snapshots, journal, etc.

-Provide appropriate recognition for initialing or culminating age period, age, year or skill levels.

-Recognize an extension from the past.

-Establish future behavior expectations.

-Make appropriate and accurate African custom references through research.

A ritual is the enactment of a myth. By participating in a ritual, you are participating in a myth. Myths are stories of our search through the ages for truth, for meaning, for significance. We all need to tell our story and understand our story. What happens when a society no longer embraces a powerful mythology? To find out what it means to have a society without any rituals, read your local and national newspapers. The news is full of destructive and violent acts by young people. We, as adults, have provided them no rituals by which they become members of the community (Campbell, 1988). Where do the youth growing in community get their myths? They create their own. This is why we have graffiti. This is one of the significant reasons why gangs exists. Why do gangs have their own initiations and their own morality? (Perkins, 1987). They have not been initiated into the community!

Rites of passage represents a process for developing adults and regenerating community. The November-December, 1995, edition of the Futurist forecasted "The use of Africentric rites of passage initiations as solution for at-risk young black males." (Cornish, 1995).

In 1990, the Governor for the State of Ohio, through Executive Order 89-0 established The Commission on Black Males. The commission was created as a response to a very real and growing crisis facing African American males in Ohio. Historical disenfranchisement, discrimination, inadequate education and thwarted aspirations have often undermined the changes of African-Americans to compete successfully and function productively in American society. The commission through state-wide hearings in the areas of health, education, employment, and criminal justice, presented 112 recommendations for action in its final report. Recommendation number three stated the following "Create, maintain and sponsor rites of passage type programs throughout Ohio for African American men." (State of Ohio, 1990).

Rites of passage as a movement is growing within the United States. However, for rites of passage to be successful as a human development process, a critical mass and community of caring adults must be created to represent the village for raising children and receiving them as initiated members and adults. Rites of passage program development is limited only by the

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creativity of those wishing to established a new, exciting and culturally relevant program. There are groups, well entrenched in

African American communities which have comprehensive life cycle rites of passage. The group forms a foundation for the regulation and oversight of the members within their purview. Often these groups establish a structure that will address holistic developmental needs of the community. There may be a school, youth programs, ongoing cultural events, celebration of African American holidays and ancestors, naming ceremonies, weddings, etc. Some of these groups have established regular acknowledgments of the rites by age groups. Some established guidelines for approximated changes in life cycle development, and others suggest that every 7 years there should be an acknowledgment of celebration. At birth the naming ceremony is performed, at approximately age 14, the puberty rite is performed, age 28 may make the entry to adulthood and so with eldership status and honor recognized at around age 63 years (Coppeck, 1990).

Adult or mid-life is an important period. This is an important period for acknowledging through rites those approaching or reaching mature adulthood. This is a period of giving to the community because very often skills and education have been attained and child bearing and rearing are out of the way or completed. Preparing adults to use rites of passage for youth development requires adult rites and mentor training.

Adult rites in addition to initiated and trained adults, grandparents to elders are important to initiation or rites of passage. Numerous writers (Mbiti, 1970;Some1993, 1994) have shared the concept of the spiritual closeness between children and grandparents or elders. This is explained because one (the child) has just come from the other side-spiritual world. The adult will not intercede in the relationship between the wise ones - the child and the elder. When the boundaries between this world and the spirit world begin to blur it is time for a transformation. At adolescence the child has moved significantly away from their spirit nature and be prepared through initiation to take key on the adult roles of the community. It is at this time that the learning exchange for the child's next step - adulthood as men and women: mate, parenthood, economic providers and protector.

What are the components of the rites of passage/initiation process? Passages are the significant transition points in our lives. Passages of a life time fall into four types: birth, initiation, marriage, and death. By birth, we refer to new beginning; initiation is about learning and testing; marriage passages take place when things come together; death is a time of finishing or letting go.

Rites of passage are what we do to mark our passages. They can include public and private rituals, activities and events.

Initiation into the various stages of life, especially adulthood is essential for community regeneration. The four elements of the rites of initiation are: time of learning; time of testing; enacted ritual; community learning. The individual elements are not necessary sequential, but their presence takes into account the important steps of an initiation program for individuals within a community (no matter what age).

Initiation is a time of learning. The elements of learning are developing physical skills, grasp of knowledge base, journey of spiritual development, and an encounter with social realities. Types

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of learning for young people might include self-reliance skills, personal and community responsibility, teamwork, and specific skill like camping and canoeing.

Learning the history and values is related to grasping of a knowledge base. The existence of a community is crucial to the whole process and program; if no community exists, a temporary community must be created in the process of the program.

The way these new skills and information are related to one's spiritual journey or larger world view are pivotal to this life event- they are not separated. For youth, this can include times of group debriefing around a fire after a challenge or team building initiative, journalizing, writing personal purpose statement, and developing a group purpose statement. Relating one's own life to the world is also important to a youth's journey. Other activities might include community service projects such as preparing and serving a meal to the homeless, helping with the building of a community play area, and registering people to vote.

The elements of the testing are knowledge and skill proficiency, reflective encounter, personal and team perseverance, and pushed beyond comfort.

In traditional cultures, testing was done by the community, not the parents. Usually it's done by representatives, but sometimes the whole community was present for the testing.

Today, it is still important that parent or parents not do the actual testing of the initiate. Certainly it is possible for the parent to do a good job of it, but when there are others from the community who perform the task, it emphasizes that this is a worldly passage, not just a family one. In many traditional cultures, the young person leaves the family at this point, at least for the duration of the initiation and testing.

Testing should never be comfortable. When the test is too easy, it becomes meaningless. It should be structured so that the youth are motivated and challenged. Rope courses offer motivation and challenge. They are designed to take participants into new challenges individually and as a group. Other activities such as repelling and rock climbing can be equally effective. In all activities, trained guides are crucial.

Finally, the importance of reflection by both individuals and the group make the difference in the long term effect of the program.

The elements of ritual are traditional and modern, full of drama, multigenerational community, and full of mystery.

Ritual is the drama which brings meaning to the initiation. Rituals should be used to begin a programs (unity circle, invocation and libation) to mark transition in the program, at the actual initiative ceremony, and finally, a ritual of closure, to let go of the temporary community.

When rituals are created for the event, maintaining elements of tradition as well as the creation of new ones should be used. For instance, an initiation program would reflect the following general format:

Processional

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Invocation and libation

Stating the intention of the ritual

The opening council

Chanting and song

Drumming and dance

Questions and charges

The give away ceremony

Grounding the participants

The feast

Closure-releasing the community

Traditionally, the ritual was done by the elders of the community, but the presence of the whole initiated community or at least its representative is important to the notion that the whole community is participating.

Elements of celebration are honors personal and group victories, bestows responsible mantle, intergeneration participation, and joyous and fun.

In the celebration of the new initiates, the whole community acknowledges the newly admitted members of the community and honors them for their achievements. The whole community is present. The community presents gifts to the initiates. The initiates are acknowledged and recognized as full and responsible members of the community.

In conclusion, rites of passage for the African American community must be Africentric and ground in a minimum moral value system or the Nguzo name. A thorough understanding and operation of such a process and its values are crucial. Rites of passage as a process of life cycles development and community regeneration is part of an African tradition that must be resurrected. The rites of passage concept provides an opportunity to develop youth and regenerate the community. (Refer to Chart I for the Africentric Rites of Passage: A Change Model For Values, Attitudes, and Behaviors Among African American Youth.)

Harvesting a new generation through rites of passage is limited only by the creativity of those wishing to re-establish the way. What has been presented is something old that has been rediscovered, something that has been returned to through our (1)Akan ancestors with the following words of inspiration: ''RETURN AND FETCH IT"

________________________

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(1) Akan represents a major Western African culture of enslaved Africans dispersed to the Americas.

REFERENCES

Akbar, N. (1987). Chains and Images of Psychological Slavery, Jersey City, NJ: New Mind Productions.

Campbell, J. (1988). The Power of Myth, New York: Doubleday.

Cohen, D. (1991). The Circle of Life, San Francisco: Harper.

Coppock, N. (1990), Afrocentric Theory and Applications, Volume 1: Adolescent Rites of Passage, Washington: Baobab.

Cornish, E. (1995, November-December). Futurist, Outlook "96", Bethesda, Maryland: World Future Society.

Freedman, M. (1992). The Kindness of Strangers: Reflection on the Mentoring Movement, Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Gennep, A. (1960). The Rites of Passage, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gutman, H. (1976), The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom 1750-1925, New York:Pantheon.

Hare, N&J. Hare (1985). Bringing the Black Boy to Manhood: The Passage, San Francisco: The Black Think Tank.

Hill, P. (1992). Coming of Age, Chicago: African American Images

Jones, T. (1984, Summer). Growing Up Modern. Creative Living: The Magazine of Life. Psychics, NJ: Santo Saliture.

Karenga, M. (1980). Kawaida Theory, Inglewood, California: Kawaida Publications.

Kenyatta, J. (1955). Facing Mount Kenya, New York: Vintage

Meyer, L. (1988). Understanding an Afrocentric World View: Introduction to an Optimal Psychology, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.

Molefi, A. (1988). Afrocentricity, New Jersey: Africa World Press.

Perkins, U. (1986). Harvesting New Generation, Chicago: Third World Press.

Perkins, U. (1987). Explosion of Chicago's Black Gangs, Chicago: Third World Press.

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Ray, B.C. (19973). African Religions: Symbols, Ritual and Community. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Read, M. (1968). Children of Their Fathers: Growing Up Among the Ngoni of Malawi. New York: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston.

Sims, E. Jr. (1976). Rites of Passage Program for Black Youth. Self Published Through Assistance of the United Church Board of Homeland Ministries, New York, Black Ecumenical Commission, Boston.

Some, M. (1993). Ritual. Portland, Oregon: Swan Raven & Co.

Stamples, R. (1984). Black Masculinity, San Francisco: Black Scholar Press.

State of Ohio. (1990). Ohio's African-American Males: A Call to Action (Report of the Governor's Commission on Socially Disadvantaged Black Males) Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio Office of Black Affairs.

Turner, V. (1969). The Ritual Process, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.

Watt, R. (1997). Manhood Development in Urban Africa-American Communities, New York: Haworth Press.

West, C. (1993). Race Matters, Boston: Beacon

Zahn, D. (1960). Societe D' Initiation. Paris: Mouton

ALSO SEE: http://www.afrocentric.info/SaintRest/Submission.html