16

Chapter II

AGRARIAN ECONOMY

Kashmir’ s economy has been predominantly agricu l­

tu ral from early times. But the peculiar geographical

character and the frequent natural calam ities were the

worst handicaps to the Kashmir's economy.

The greater portion of Kashmir's te rrito ry is that

of the mountains. The amount o f land under plough2

remains under snow for fiv e months a year. During

th is period no cultivation is possible. Generally

cultivation starts in April and the harvesting takes

place from the middle of September to the middle of

November. In spite of a l l natural hazards, the Kashmiri■x

peasant cultivates two crops Rabi and K harif. The

Rabi crop is represented by the cultivation of crops

1 . W, Moorcroft and C. Trebeck, Travels. Vol. I I ,pp. 10 6 -10 7. F. Drew, Jammu and Kashmir Terri­to rie s . London 1875* PP. 9-13* see also A.N. Raina* Geography of Jammu and Kashmir S ta te . Delhi, 19 7 1 , pp. f - 2 4 . ................ ...............................................

2 . A. N. Raina, op. c i t . pp. 1-2 4 . Imperial Gazetteerof India. Vol. 15 (From Karachi to KotaymJ Oxford,19 0 8 , pp. 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 .

3 . W. R. Lawrance, Valley of Kashmir. Srinagar 1895pp. 329.C. E. Bates, A Gazetteer of Kashmir and the adjoi­ning d is tr ic ts of ii's Kashtwar. SaahrWah. Jammu Naushara. Punch and Valiev of Kishen Ganaa. Calcutta 18 73 , p. 50.

17

Wheat,lik e Barley, o il-seed s, opium and poppy. The

Kharif crop is harvested in September or October

and the Rabi crops in the months of June and Ju ly

each *'■ year.^

The Kharif crops are r ic e , maize, cotton,

saffron, tobacco, m illet, amaranthus, buckwheat,5pulses, seasame and some vegetables. Here i t w ill

not be out of place to id en tify some o f these crops

in d e ta il.

Rice* I t was the principal crop of Kashmir and6constituted the basic food item of people. The

records are generally sile n t about the amount of

production and about the to ta l land under cu ltiva­

tion. In 1823 the to ta l production o f rice in the

4. Moorcroft Ms. EURD. 265 - p .12 5 . Turnip was the only vegetable which was produced twice a year,G. T. Vigne, op. c i t . . Vol. I , p. 3 12 .

5 . Saffron and tobacco were some o f the cash crops, Moorcroft, Trebeck, Travels vo l. I I , pp. 1 3 2 - 1 3 3 .

6 . George Forester, A Journey from Bengal to England through the northern part of India Kashmir.2 v o ls. Vol. I I , P. 20.

18

v a lle y was 20 lakh Kharwars. About 3,50,000 acres

of land were under rice cultivation In 1848 and the

produce from these acres amounted to 1,80,000 maunds

8 9of r ic e . The average production of rice per Kharwar

of land -was from 40 to 60 Kharwars. when a Kharwar of

land measured approximately 32 Kanals. Edward Thorn­

ton observes that rice was imported into the v alle y10worth Rs. 1,50 ,0 0 . A good number o f v a rie tie s were

produced and the best among these categories were

7

7 . The absence of s t a t is t ic a l figures with regard to the agricu ltural production presents a great d iffic u lty in determining various socio-economic relationships in Kashmir*s history, Moorcroft,Ms. SURD 264 - p. 13 3 . A Kharwar is a lo ca l measure of weight. I t was o f i b traks each trak was of 5 sears and 3 chattaks.

8 . Dewan Krishan L a i, Account of Kashmir. Foreign department, Section 31 March 1846,Np. 67. National Archives of India. The average price per Kharwar of rice was Rs. 1 in normal times. Moorcroft, «.Ms. EURD 265 - p. 79.

9. Land was measured by the amount of seed i t consu­med, e .g . the land which consumed one Kharwar of seed was determined as a Kharwar of land. Moor­c ro ft, MS. EURD - 265 - p. 79. From records i t seems to have been the only method o f measuring land in absence of any well developed technical system.

10 Edward Thornton, Gazetteer of the countries. A.jacent to India on the North-west including Afghanistan. Bulochistan. then run.jab and the neighbouring sta te s. London 1844. p. 365.

19

Basmatl. Chogul. Kanganl. and Katha Channa»

The best of a l l these v a rie tie s was produced at

12Nurpur in Pargana, Anantnag.

11

Maize: The other important crop from subsistence

point of view was maize. I t was cultivated in the

13h illy tra cts and mountain slopes. The cultivation

of maize did not require much of irrig a tio n . For

maize the natural resources of irrigatio n were enough.

The peaty lands, reclaimed swamps and the mountain

1 1 . C.E. Bates, Gazetteer* p. 64. During the governor­ship of Mian Singh (18 35 -4 1) 71 v a rie tie s of paddywere grown. Among the red v a rie tie s o f rice *KunsdL * Danya and Katha Channa and among the white 1Basmatl1 and Chogul were the best v a rie tie s . G. T. Vigne, op. c i t . . vo l. I , p. 324. See also Tarikh-i-Kalan Anonymous Persian manuscript in microfilm, Research Department Library, Srinagar, f . 13 3 . Peer Hassan Shah at page 85 vo l. I mentions 96 v a rie tie s ofrice cultivated in Kashmir, Peer Hassan Shah, Tarlkh-1-Hassan. 3 vo ls, Srinagar, vo l. I , p. 85. See also Lawrence, V aliev, p. 333 .

12 . G. T. Vigne, op. c i t . . vo l. I , p. 324.

1 3 . The reclaimed swamps, peaty s o ils , mountain slopes and banks of Jhelum suited i t s cultivation during the period of our study. W. Lawrence, V alley, p. 336.

20

tra cts suited best for the maize cu ltivation .

According to one estimate during the end of Sikh rule

the annual production of maize was about 4,00,000 1 *5

maunds, The average production of maize per kharwar16of land was 24 kharwars.

14

Wheati Owing to the nature of s o il and preference

o f Kashmiris fo r r ic e , a small portion of cultivable17land was under wheat cu ltivation . One eighth o f the

18to ta l cultivable area was under wheat crop in 18 35.

In Kashmir wheat cultivation was carried out in Dachan19pargana. The average production of wheat per kharwar

14 . I b id .. The tra v e lle r accounts do not provide any quantitative data of land devoted to maize c u lt i­vation during Sikh rule.

1 5 . Dewan Krishen L a i, op. c i t . . p. 67.

16 . A Vi ingate, Preliminary report on land settlement Lahore 1889. See also Gazetteer of Kashmir and Ladakh. Calcutta 1890, p. So.

1 7 . This preference for rice among food a r tic le s is s t i l l retained. The bread of wheat flour is preferred with tea and not fo r food. Lawrence, V aliev, p. 342.

18 . Ibid.

19 . Ib id .. In Kashmir proper, the red v arie ty of wheat was grown, but on a very limited scale. Vigne believes that wheat flour caused stomach pain to Kashmiris. G.T, Vigne, op. c i t . , v o l. I I , pp.324- 325.

21

of land was eight kharwars.

Amaranthus: Amaranthus of gold coral and crimson21

stalks was cultivated in the v a lle y . Ten kharwars22

were the average produce of one kharwar of land.

Generally the state provided i t s seed to the peasants

23to encourage i t s cu ltivatio n . I t provided heat to

the body and was mainly consumed by Hindus on occasion24of fa s t . Apart from it s food value the washerman of

Kashmir used to extract Alkaline from i t s stalks after

25burning.

Tobacco* I t was cultivated near the c ity Srinagar

26and other smaller towns. I t was sown in the month

of A pril and harvested in August. Tobacco cultivation

20

20. A. V;ingate, op. c i t . . p. 64.

2 1 . A.N. Raina, Geography of Jammu and Kashmir. Srinagar1970, p. 104.

22. I t was cultivated on the borders of maize and cotton fie ld s , Lawrence, V alley, p. 338.

23. Tarikh-l-Kalan. Persian Ms., p. 13 3 . *

24. A.N. Raina, op. c i t . . p. 104.

25. Lawrence, V aliev, p. 338.

26. Baramulla, The smaller towns included Anantnag,Sopore, Baramulla, Shopian. See Tarikh-i-Kalan. f . 13 3 .

22

provided revenues in the form cesses and taxes to27the state . The best among the v a rie tie s of tobacco

28were Brewari and Chilasi.

Kanganl: I t required much labour and careful

weeding, though from irrig a tio n point of view i t was29easy to cultivate Kangani. For cultivation of

Kangani on extensive scale the state advanced seeds

30to the cu ltivato rs. I t s average production per31kharwar of land was 24 kharwars. I t contained

32merely heating properties.

27. A. Wingate, op. c i t . . p. 64. The tobacco produced in Kamraj was highly taxed.

28. Tarikh-i-Kalan. o p . c it . . f . 13 3 .

29. Lawrence, V aliev, op. c i t . . p. 337 . I t has been referred in Tarikh-i-Kalan as Tokhm-i-Arzan.See Tarikh-i-Kalan. f. 13 3 .

30. Tarikh-i-Kalan. f . 13 3 .

3 1 . A. Wingate, o p . c i t . . p. 66 .

32 . Lawrence, V aliev, p. 337.

23

Buck-wheat: The average production of buckwheat33per kharwar of land was 24 kharwars. I t did not

require much irrigatio n and was cultivated at a higher

elevation also ."5̂ In h illy tra cts the peasants must

have preferred i t during the time of famine and scarcity

of rice and maize. I t was taken in the form of bread

35or was cooked.

Zeera: There was not any regular cultivation of

zeera but i t did grow along with the crops o f barley

and wheat naturally. I t formed an important item

of export to the P u n jab .^ One rupee was exacted as

state revenue per four seers of zeera during the

Governorship of Sheikh Gulam iiohi-ud-din, ( 1 8 4 1 - 4 4 ) .^

33 . Tarlkh-i-Kalan. f . 13 3 .

34. There were two v a rie tie s of th is buckwheat (Trumbha) .One was sweet and the other b itte r . The sweet onewas given to the cattle and poultry. A. Wingate,op. c i t . . p. 338.

35. Lawrence, V alley, p. 338.

36. Baden Powell, Handbook of the Economic products of Pun.lab, London 1868, 2 volumes, v o l. I , p. X III.

37. H.M. Lawrence, Transfer of Government to Mah.ara.1aGulab Singh. Section E. 28 January 1848, f i l e ^os.33-4 4 , Jammu Archives.

84

Opium s I t was a commercial crop. I t was found

wild and was in regular cultivation too. Afim was

made out of i t s s e e d s . I n Kakapore of Parigcana Pampore39i t s cultivation was carried out on an extensive scale.

For revenue purposes poppy seeds were commuted into cash

at the rate of rupees 8 per kharwar in the time of40Sheikh Gulaa ^ohi-ud-din.

Barley : Barley which -as grown in Kashmir along

with wheat does not appear as an item of food. In h il ly

areas Tibetan barley was grown and consumed by people

o f these areas whileas the ordinary barley was provided41to c a ttle as fodder.

38. Lawrence, V alley, p. 346.

39. On his v is i t to Kashmir Aurangzeb ordered for stoppage o f opium cultivation but th is order does not seem to have been executed because i t s c u lti­vation continued during the Afghan and Sikh periods. R. K. Parmu. History of Sikh Rule in Kashmir, (typed copy), pp. 3 2 1-3 2 2 .

40. Lawrence, V alle y , p. 346. Generally poppy plants have a natural f e r t i l i t y and growth in the v a lle y .

4 1 . Gazetteer of Kashmir and Ladakh, p. 6 1. See also Peer "Has sain Shah. Tarikh-i-Hassan. v o l. I , p. 18 5 , Lawrence, V alley, p. 338. The Tibetan barley was grown at an altitude of 7000 fe e t and above* I t was lik e wheat whileas ordinary barley was merely a chaff. Tarikh-i-Kalan. f . 13 3 .

25

Apart from these food crops, a v a riety o f

v eg etab les , p u lse s , f r u it s , and oil- seeds were

42grown in Kashmir.

Vegetables? Various kinds of vegetables cu ltiva­

ted in Kashmir were turnips, pumpkins, raddish, knol-

khol, cabbage, cucumber, egg plant, b itte r gourd,4*

carrot, spinach. J T...e potato seeds were introduced

fo r the f i r s t time in 1835 by C, B. Hugel in the

v a l l e y . ^ These were mostly cultivated in summer and

a few among these vegetables, such as turnips, pump-45kins were cut into pieces and dried for winter season.

42. The pulses cultivated included, Moth. Mash. Mongand Ra.lmash. I t was mostly cultivated on Ban .jarlands;Lawrence, V alley, p. 337 . See also DewanKrishen L ai, Account of Kashmir 1848. f i l e Nos.60-77, N. A. I . ~farikh -i-K alan . op. c i t . . f . 13 3 , and Tarikh-i-Hassan. v o l. I . p . 186.

43. Apart from these the lakes and marshes of Kashmir produced water-chestnuts, the lotus roots, water l i l l y and sweet fla g , Moorcroft, Ms. BURP - 265# p. 73 .

44. C.B. Hugel, op. c i t . . p. 347. The tomato cultivation seems to have started in the Dogra ru le.

45. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 265, p. 69.

26

In Moorcroft*s time Kashmiri vegetables seem to

have become degenerated due to the soing of same

seeds every year on same s o il, few vegetables were

quite aearer anci some others were ch eap ,^ However,

red pepper represented handsome production. I t was

very much in demand preferably due to i t s colour and

output. Generally, i t was cultivated on floatin g

47gardens near the c ity Srinagar. I t was exported to

the Punjab.

46. This statemen^bf Moorcroft is not coroborated by Taralkh-l-Kalan which sta te s that new seeds were provided to the cultivators by the government every year at fixed rates see also Tarikh-i-Kalan f . 13 3 .

47. Various Traders in Kashmir (Anonymous), Ms. India O ffice Library, London, Nos. 1676-1700. The micro­film of th is document is in Jammu University Library.

48. Tarikh-i-Kalan. op. c i t . . p. 12 2 . The red pepper grown in the Punjab was generally of very small size . In 18 23, Turnips were sold at the rate of 6 seers and cabbages were sold at the rate of 4 seers fora pence or h alf pence.Moorcroft, Ms. EURO - 265, p. 134 , fn .

27

Oilseeds: The oilseeds cultivated in Kashmir

were rape, mustard and linseed. The rape was of

three va rie tie s* sarshaf. sand.li and tilgpgulu*

A kharwar of land produced 16 to 20 kharwars ofLq

oilseeds*

F ru its : In Kashmir fr u its of various kinds

were grown in abundance but the feelin g that fru its

constituted a rich diet was absent. However, the

Kashmiris depended on fr u its when there was scarcity

of grains .**0 The fru its mentioned by Moorcroft

include apples, pears, plumps, apricots, walnuts and

grapes. Kashmir produced apples of many v a rie tie s51and best among these was the Amree. I t figures

49. A. Wingate, op. c i t . . p. 64. Rapeseed provided best o il for ligh tin g and linseed fo r eating. Younghusband, op. c i t . . pp. 200-201. See also Pandit Bhag Ram, Annual Administration Report of Jammu and Kashmir 's t a t e , ' 'i 894-9!?» <tammu 1896, p. 105 and A note on J&K sta te * Jammu 1928, pp. 29-30.

5 0 . V igne observes that before the harvesting season whenever the people ran short of the paddy, they depended on apple and quince . See G . T . V ig n e , T r a v e ls , v o l . I , p. 87.

5 1 . W. Moorcroft, Ms. BURP - 265, p* 25. The variouscategories of apples were; Seb Amree: T re l: Mahara.lee: Snreh t r e l : Kitchem t r e l : Tanbazi t r e l : Nabad t r e l : Zerhem t r e l :' Khatoni t r e l : Seb Fokleh: Chock Chunt: Doda Amree: Saharanpuri. Mohi Amree: Kuddu s a r i : Dud Amiri. " Malmu te t Shakar. For (details see F. Bernier. Trayeis' in Mughal -Empire. op. c i t . . p. 397. Tarikh-i-Kalan mentions 15

v a rie tie s* of fr u it whileas Moorcroft mentions only nine v a rie tie s . Tarikh-i-Kalan. f . 134. Moorcroft Ms. EURD - 2'64, p. 170.

28

among the a rtic le s of the export to Punjab. Moor­

cro ft observes that Kashmiri apples were in ferio r to

53those of France and England. Pear was a tender

54fr u it and was also of various kinds.

52

Cherryt Cherry was introduced into Kashmir

during the Mughal period. According to Moorcroft

55"th is fr u it i s rather swollen than that of European."

52 . Ganeshi L a i, Savahat-nama. Persian Ms. (being an account of journey to Kashmir in 1846) English translation by Vidya Sagar Suri, Delhi 19 55, p. 23.

5 3 . Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 265, p. 170. When Moorcroft w rites about Kashmir in 18 23, Europe was fa r advan­ced in agriculture and horticulture. In Europe, the b iological law of cross breeding had yielded good resu lts due to agricu ltu ral changes but Kashmir existed at i t s low level of material culture.

54. There were sixteen v a rie tie s of pear, the best among them Nakh. Tang. Fares Tang. Goshehbog tang. Tangih Tang. Bottang. reh Tongi. Nakh Gulabi . and a few wild pears. See Tarikh-i-Kalan. f . 134 .

55. Ms. EURD - 264, p. 150 . There were two v a rie tie s of cherry according to Tarikh-i-Kalan, f . 134 but Moorcroft enumerates three v a rie tie s . See Moorcroft Ms« SURD - 264, p. 17 3 .

29

Mulberyt Mulbery existed in Kashmir in almost

every part o f the v a lle y from very early time.

Moorcroft and Vigne agree in saying that mulberries

of Kashmir are of good flavour, Juicy and are capable

57of supplying the m aterials fo r wine and s p ir it .

According to Lawrence, " i t is eaten not only by men58but even animals like dogs and bears relished i t . " ^

Pomegranates: This fr u it was grown in the valley

on a very small scale. R elatively speaking the pomegra­

nates o f Kashmir were in ferio r to those of Kabul. Among

i t s various v a rie tie s , Anar shireen. Bidana and Sheereen

Anardana were considered to be the best. Pomegranates

were used for various medical purposes. Besides i t was

56. The existence of Mulberry in the ancient period is proved by the fa c t that the twigs of the mul­berry were used on the occasion of Yagnopaveet (sacred thread ceremony among Hindus). See Ved Kumari Gai, Keelmat Puran. 2 volumes, Banaras,Vol. I , p. 80.

57 . G.T. Vigne, Travels. v o l. I I , p. 87.Moorcroft, Ms. eUrd. 264, p. 175*

58. Among the many v a rie tie s of mulberry the varkandl is considered the best. Lawrence, V alle y , p. 6 8 .See also Moorcroft William, Ms. EtfRD - 264, p .1 7 5 .

30

used in making so ft drinks like Sharbat Anar. 59

Grapes? The grapes were cultivated throughout

the v a lle y , though on a very limited scale. The

best quality of grapes was produced in Raipur and60Shah-sahib, areas of Dal-lake, and these were

generally used for making wines. The Sikh rulers

appear to have encouraged cultivation of grapes6*1for manufacturing wine.

Walnuts? Among the important dry fr u its of

Kashmir may be mentioned Walnuts. The d ifferen t kinds

of walnuts were Khanak, Wontu and Kagzi. The walnut

59. Tarikh-i-Kalan, f . 134 -14 0 , The rind was used for leather tanning. See Lawrence, V a lle y , p. 68

60. G.T. Vigne, Vol. I I . p. 8 6 .The various v a rie tie s of grapes were Mashka, Sahibi. Mussainee and Kashmiri. Tarikh-i-Kalan. op, c i t . . f , 134 .

6 1. The manufacturing of wine from grapes was bamed during the Afghan period ( 17 5 3 -18 19 ) . In fa c t, Atta Mohammad Khan, Afghan Governor of Kashmir (180 0-1805), is said to have beheaded a man for vio latin g the regulation. But i t was during the Sikh period that the ban on manufacturing of wine was lifte d and the cultivation of grapeswas encouraged. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 2b5, p. 150.

31

trees are found throughout the valley in abundance.

From commercial point o f view Kagzi must have62

been in great demand. I t was used for making o i l .

The walnut kernel was sold at the rate of 7 rupees

63Per kharwar. ̂ Even the bark of th is tree did not go

waste. I t was used fo r cleaning the teeth. I t no

wonder, therefore, that i t was exported to the Punjab6 ix

and Afghanistan in large quantities.

Almonds: From commercial point of view Almonds

(Badam) also formed an important item among the dry

fru its but were in ferio r to those of Peshawar. Like

the walnuts, aljnonds were also made into o i l . The

62. Lawrence, V alley, p. 352. But i t s sh ell was exposed to atiacks of birds like Bulbul or Crow.

63. Moorcroft, Travels, vo l. I I , p. 148.

64. C.B. Hugel, o p . c i t . , p. 67. The o il extracted from walnuts was exported to Tibet and i t earned regular revenues to the state. During the period of our study the state took three fourth of the crop and le ft one fourth to the peasant. Moorcroft, Ms. EUKD - 265, p. 149. The walnut husk was used fo r dying purposes. C.B. Hugel, o p . c i t . . p. 67.

32

shells were used fo r famous Kashmiri ink.

Besides these vegetables and fr u its , the cash

crops of Kashmir included some water products also.

(Singhara) waternuti Waternuts formed an important

item both in food as well as in commerce of Kashmir,

I t grew abundantly in the various lakes of the valle y,

Kashmir produced "ninty six to hundred and twenty66thousand as loads, every year," According to Moor­

c ro ft, !,i t constitutes almost; the only food a£ at

least th irty thousand persons for fiv e months in a

y e a r ." ^ The three v a rie tie s of Singhara were Basmatl.

having thin skin, the Dogri. with thick skin and the

Kangar. very in ferio r kind of waternut. I t was made

into flou r and then eaten in the form of porridge or

cakes. In 1823 the to ta l production of waternuts

figured ninty six thousand to a hundred and twenty

65

65. I b id .. p, 67. See also George Bulhar's report in search of Sanskrit manuscripts in Kashmir,

66 . Moorcroft, Travels. v o l. I I , p. 136 .

67. Generally the nuts are extracted from the sh ell and eaten raw, boiled, roasted, frie d or dressed in many ways. I t s flour is also prepared and then boiled in water. I t was sold at the rate of one rupee per load. Ib id . vo l. I I , pp. 136 -37 , The other important water product of Kashmir was Nymphea Lotus. Ib id ., vo l. I I , p. 13 7 .

6 8 . Moorcroft, V/. Ms. SURD. - 264, pp. 265-300.

33

thousand ass loads. The to ta l sale of the Singharas,69

in 1823 was worth Rs.300,000. The state exacted a

handsome revenue from the sale of Singharas every

year. From the production of «ular lake alone the

state levies amounted to Rs.100,000. I t supplemented

the food of thousands o f people every year.

The carrying out of normal agriculture and the

cultivation of the aforesaid horticulture products70had many handicaps - both natural and man-made.

Technically Kashmir was very much backward in

a l l respects. The agricu ltural implements were71trad itional plough, made of wood with iron t ip .

69. Ib id .. Ms. EURD - 265, p. 129.For d etails see Tarikh-i-Kalan, f . 13 3 , C.E. Bates, op. c i t . . p. 50. Ganeshi Lai, c i t . . p. 37, also Lawrence, V alley, p. 354.

7 0 . The natural calam ities included the frequent famines, floods and epidemics whereas the man-made handicaps included the monopolistic policy of the State, indiscreet distribution of manure particu­la r ly cowdung, th^Lack of other fe r t iliz in g mate­r ia ls , mismanagement of the water and the other necessary resources,

7 1 . The plough was made o f ash mulberry or apple wood.G.T. Vigne, Travels. v o l. I , p. 308. See also Lawrence, Valley,’" p. 324. See also Various Trades in Kashmir, op. c i t . . Nos. 1708-1742.

34

Plouging was carried out with the help of pair of

bullocks. The wooden hammer was used for breaking

the clads. The handhoe was used for weeding whileas

the spade remained in general use fo r loosening the72s o i l . ' For carrying manure of oowdung and fresh

clads of earth, a wicker basket was used by Kashmiri

peasants. A sick le was used f a cutting grass and7 1crops. The paddy seeds were sown in broadcast and

74the saplings were also planted from the nursiry.

Between the two systems the f i r s t system was preferred

because i t was more productive and consumed le ss

labour. Generally speaking the agrarian economy in

72 . Weeding was carried out by men with th eir hands,Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 265* p. 77 .

7 3 . Various Trades ir. Kashmir, on . c i t . . Nos, 1708and 1722 .

74. Ibldj|^ See also G. T. Vigne, Travels, v o l. I ,

35

Kashmir was of one crop only known as Ek F a s ll .

The European tra ve lle rs are a l l praise for agricu l­

tural enterprise because there is the abundance of76

irrig a tio n in Kashmir. But i t i s not known how

fa r i t irrig a ted the fie ld s or agricu ltu ral lands

is doubtful.

75

B asically the usual flooding of the rive rs in

the Valley has been explained by these tra v e lle rs

in terms of better irrig a tio n . In only a few areas

there was abundance of irrig a tio n . The chief source

75. I b id .. v o l. I , p. 310 . Owing to the climatology and geographical conditions i t was very d if fic u lt fo r Kashmiri peasant to cultivate two crops a year. Because fo r almost fiv e months of winter the land was covered with snow and rains and Kash­miri peasants had to go without work and fo r the remaining six or seven months i t was naturally impossible to cultivate two crops. Consequently the peasants preferred the cultivation of rice in these conditions. But at times when adequate irrig a tio n f a c i l i t ie s were not available the paddy fie ld s were l e f t follow; very rarely paddy was followed by cultivation of mustard, cotton or buckwheat. See, Lawrence, V aliev, pp. 336 -4 1.G.T. Vigne, Travel, vo l. I I , p. 309.

76. According to C. B. Hugel "No country p erfectly enjoys the advantages o f extensive irrig a tio n without the inconvenience of attending general periodical inundations" See Edward Thornton, Gazetteer, vo l. I , p. 3 5 8 . Young Husband, Kashmir. Edinburg 1909, pp. 222-23. But a l l these European tra v e lle rs have either given biased picture or they have failed to understand the system in i t s working.

36

of irrig a tio n was the Jehlum and. i t s t r ib u t a r ie s ,^

But the areas distant from i t s banks suffered from78

lack o f irrig a tio n . There was hardly any attempt

to dig new canals for irrigatio n purposes. In fa ct,

down to the end of the 19 th century irrigatio n in

the Kashmir v a lle y depended on few canals which had

been dug in e arlie r times by various kings, minis-7Q

ters and . or Governors. Even in the second h alf

of the 19th century Mr. Wingate observed that there

was abundance of water in Kashmir but the t a i l v i l l a ­

ges, unless their inhabitants were too strong could

not get i t and much water was wasted due to which

77, The main trib utaries of Jehlum were Lidder,Baragi, Sandran Sind etc. See F. Drew, Northern Barrier of India. London 1877, p. 29. See also6. E . Bates. Gazetteer. p, 5 1 .

78, Charles Gridlestone, Memorandam on Kashmir. Calcutta, p. 35*R.G, Wreford, Census o f India, vo l. XXII, 19 41, Jammu 1943, p, 22.

79, The Mughal Emperor Jehangir introduced sone rules to avoid co n flicts among the v illa g e r s . A Mirrab was appointed to look a fte r the irrig a tio n f a c i l i ­t ie s and to repair the canals when necessary.See Lawrence, V aliev, p. 324, The famous canals were those of Nand! iKhul. Lai Khul. Mar Khol, but in 1823 Moorcroft found some of these canals out of order. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD, - 266, f , 2 1 ,

37

much irrig a b le land was dry. In h illy tra cts also

i t was very d if fic u lt to irrig a te agricultural land.

Much of i t depended on natural rains which were always 81

uncertain. The canal system of irrigatio n was

completely deteriorated. In 18 23, Moorcroft observes

that some of the canals were choked with s i l t or wereOp

out of order. Springs also formed a source o f i r r i ­

gation but the spring water did not su it agriculture,

because i t usually contained scump which was not su it­

able for paddy. Besides, the lack of s i l t in i t also83

presented great d iffic u lty . ^ The wall irriga tio n

system was lim ited to the c ity of Srinagar and towns.

Only kitchen gardens and vegetable lands were irrigated84by these w ells. I t was mostly carried out

80

80. A. Wingate, op. c i t . . p. 36.

8 1. W.R. Lawrence, Gazetteer, p. 45. See also F. Drew, Northern Barrier o f lna£a. pp. 17 2 -7 3 .

82. Moorcroft, Ms. BURP - 266, f . 2 1 .

83. Lawrence, V aliev, p. 324.

84. Ibid.

38

with the help of a wooden wheel to which a long rope

and bucket were tied which worked with a hand-drawn

ill-o rgan ised and inadequate.

Attitude of the State towards Peasants

As regards the question o f ownership of land in

the Kashmir Valley during the period under review,

the tradition was that the ultimate owner was the

ruler himself. As a matter of fa c t, the peasant

85. There i s mention of w ells in the Tarikh-i-Kalan but i t i s not clear to what extent they served, as a means of Irrig a tio n . See Tarikh-l-Kalan. o p . c i t . . f f . 164, 18 1 . For d etails see A. Petro- cokino, Cashmere. Three Weeks in a House Boat, London, 1920. p. 25. See also"M.A.' Stein. Ancient Geography of Kashmir, pp. 99-102. See also Various"''Trades in Kashmir. o p . c i t . . Add. Oriental

, w : ------------------------------ 8—

. Moorcroft, Travels. vo l. I I , p. 12 5 . Almost a l l foreign tra ve lle rs who v isite d Kashmir in the f i r s t or second h a lf of 19 th century have observed that the ownership o f the land in Kashmir rested with the ruler. Possibly they appear to have fa ile d to understand various relationships in agrarian economy of Kashmir. They have not taken into consi­deration the fa ct that the Kashmiri peasant could s e ll or mortgage land. This could only be possible when the peasant had the ownership of land. We have good number of references in some o f the Persian records, which belie the argument that the State was the owner of the land. In th is behalf Ma.ima-at-T'awarikh of Birbal Kachru, Tarikh-i-Kalan -

i-Kashmir of Mehan Singh and Kafiat-i-Intizam -m ulk-i Kashmir could be alluded to.

l e v e r . H e n c e the system of irrig atio n was both

39

ought to have been the owner but by virtue of the powers

vested in the king the S tate 's right was supreme. Of

course, the State often delegated the ownership perma­

nently or temporarily to the selected people with a

view to promote learning as well as re lig io n .8 ̂ The

S ikh rulers organised the Darmarth department which

gave cash and land grants to various persons. Annually

Rs. two lakhs were spent under the head o f rraarth

and the grantee included, S u fis, Saints, P riests,88teachers. The Pharmarth tru st gave grants for

maintenance o f the free kitchens (langar khanas). Some of

the Muslim shrines lik e the Ziarat of Bam Kishi was gran-89

ted revenue of 116 v illa g e s fo r maintenance of free kitchen,

87. iioorcraft, Ms. EURD. 264, p. 1 1 ,

8 8 . Even the entire establishment attached to the religiou s shrines was paid from the Pharmarth.During the Sikh rule the establishment attachedto Hazrat Bal Shrine and that of Mali Makdoom Sahib were paid from Dharmarth tru st. Tarikh-i-Kalan. f f . 202-209. According to J . L, Kilam, the religious head was about Rs. 3 lakhs. J . L . Kilam, A History of Kashmiri Pandits. Srin ajar, p, 266.

89. Tarikh-i-Kalan. f . 222

40

The land was divided into two main categories;

( i) Sarkashtl or head (Aabiawal) . ( i i ) Palkashtl or90

foot (Aabidoum) . This division was based on the

nature of productivity and situation. The land held

to be conveniently cultivable and more productive

91as w e ll as near to urban areas was named as sarkasht.

The land situated at a distance and not e a sily

92cultivable was termed as paikasht. The paikasht

land was situated in remote areas and needed adequate

attention for i t s maintenance. While assessing the

revenue, the State assessed sarkasht lands higher93than the paikasht. So far as khalsa land was concer­

ned the State usually leased i t so as to earn rent

as well as protection fee accruing to the State.

90. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 264, p. 1 1 .

9 1. Ib id .

92. Ib id . See also S. N. Koul, Kashmir Economics. Srinagar, 1955, p. 54.

93. Ib id .. p. 1 1 1 . The d etails of the tax burden are given as under: Government share out of one kharwar of 16 trak s.

Sarkasht Paikasht

V2 - 8 traks

Trakes - ¥4th

Subhedar - 72 Manwatta

¥ 2 - 8 traks

Trakes - 2 trakes

one eighth o f other shares less by two Manwattas.

Contd

4i

Generally grain was thrashed in regular Battai

and was divided in heaps a fte r thrashing in presence

Contd.

Sarkasht

Shaqdar - V2 Manwatta

Rozeena - 1

Sazawal - V4 Manwatta

Sa lt s o il - Y4 Manwatta

Hmla Moota - 1 / 4 Manwatta

Sudhee » V2 Manwatta

Qanungo - 1 Manwatta

Patwari - x!?. Manwatta

Moossoori sh all - 1 Manwatta

Tukhmi Takawee - 4 Manwatta for fowls - 1 Manwatta, to tal 1 3 - 3 Manwatta

Paikasht

I - 1 Manwattee

Total 11 Manwatta

Peasants share

16 - 00I I - 0 0 "4 -""1

Tracks

16 - 00

13 - 00

Peasants share 2 tracks1 man.

Source i - Moorcroft, Ms. EURD. pp. 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 .

94. I b id .. p. 1 1 1 .

42

QKof revenue o ff ic ia ls . Every year the State

increased i t s demand and the division of produce

between the State and the peasant changed. The

State share was V2 of the produce together with

V4 o f the same as taa a vi. ^ In addition to th is ,

extra levy by the t i t l e Abwab and Kharach were

95. J .B . Ireland, "Wall street to Kashmir" A Journal of fiv e years in A sia. A frica and Europe.London. T 8 5 9 ,p . 39S. In kashmir's context too the Battai meant the division of grains into two equal shares on the threshing flo o rs. The other methods of Battai were Khet B attai. and Long B attai. Under the system of Khet B attai. certain measured area was taken to represent produce ofa holding and under the Long Battai the grains were divided into many shares and the State took the share i t liked. See Baden Powell, Land System of B ritish India. Delhi 1967,^ o l . I , pp. 274-75• See also R.L. Hangloo, "Nature o f land revenue system under Dogras 1846-1085" Indian History Congress Proceedings, fo rty third, session, 1982, p. 506 fn . 6.For d etails see W. H. Mooreland, The agrarian system of Muslim India. London 1929, p. 29.

96. According to Moorcroft taqavi was levied on grains advanced to farmers in order to overcome famine conditions. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 264, pp. 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 . Under th is system the state co lle c- ted a trak of paddy (5 seers) from peasants per kharwar. See Diary of R, G. Taylor, Pun.lab Govern­ment Records (18 4 7-49 ), No. 66-77, Punjab SState Archive is, P a tia la .

43

charged from the cu ltivato rs. Thus the State

would take 7 /8th of the to ta l produce from sarkashtthe

land and 3/4th o f/to ta l produce from paikasht land

which ultim ately l e f t nothing with the peasants but

s t r a w . T h e seeds were distributed among the c u lti­

vators and the v illa g e headman Muqqadam and the

peasant had to pay Tukhm Takavee as in addition to the state qq

usual/share and other taxes.

97

97. Ramjoo Dhar, Kaiflvat-i-Intizam -l-M ulki-Kashm ir. Persian Manuscript, Research Department Library, Srinagar, f f . 2 -3 . For d etails see H.M. Lawrence, tran sfer of Government to Maharada Gulab Singh. op. c i t .

98. Moorcroft, Travels. v o l. I I , pp. 12 5 , 176 . In case of paikasht land, no trakeee was levied for the f i r s t year and afte r that i t was charged at the rate of two trakes per kharwar. Possibly th is concession was provided to peasants as an encourage­ment and incentive for bringing more paikasht land under cultivation . H. M. Lawrence, op. c i t . .Nos. 35-44 .

99. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 265, pp. 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 . Under thesystem of Tukhm Takavee the seeds were provided to the cu ltivators as loan and at the harvesting time a special eass was charged from the peasants to recover th is seed loan of Tukhm Takavee. Tarikh-i-Kalan, f , 1 33 . See also Vigne,Travels, vo l. I , p. 310 . The Muoadams must have very rarely distributed th is seed grain among peasants, keeping in view their fraudulant prac­tic e s .

44

After the famine of 1833 the State changed i t s

policy towards the peasantry. From 1833 onwards the

State distributed the seeds d ire ctly among the c u lti­

vators. Besides the state provided the grain advances100to the cu ltivators without any in terest. As a

re su lt, the system of intermediaries was upset by the

Sikh ru lers. The State would get 23 kharwars of

produce in kind out of 50 kharwars that the cultivator101was expected to grow. The State would give cash

102for 8 kharwars more at the rate of Rs1 -6-0 per kharwar.

100, Ib id . See also Lawrence, Valiev, p. 200. Each person returned a fixed quantity of grains to the State. G.T. Vigne, Travels. v o l. I , p. 310 .The extra cesses in the form of fowls, butter and s a lt were abolished and the rate of trakee was also reduced. The other cesses included Rasudat. T il s iah ch a r Mags. Rasud-i-Khao; and Sur - 1 - JDhee. In 1834. Mu.iwa.za was also intro­duced and under th is system the State was entitled to take a certain number of traks in every kharwar in money at one or more established rates. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 264, p. 4 1 . See also H.M. Lawrence, op. c i t . . Nos. 35-4 2 . Lawrence, V aliev, p. 407.

1 0 1 . Ganeshi L a i, op. c i t . . p. 37.

102. I b id .. pp. 37-38 .

45

Thus the State share amounted to 31 kharwars in kind

and 19 kharwars was the annual share o f the cu ltiva­

to rs. With regard to other agricu ltural products the103State got 50 per cent as i t s share. During the

Governorship of Mian Singh (18 34 -4 1) a land settlement

was made but i t was arb itrary and rough in nature.

According to th is settlement the rates of Abwabs were

increased from 12 per cent in 1823 to 25 per cent in

1841 and by the end of Sikh rule, i t amounted to

30 per cent of the produce.104

Hence the ill-organised and corrupt revenue system

also afforded an opportunity to resort to fraudulent104 a

p ractices. The rates of Mu.1waza were arb itrary and

varied according to the needs of the State and the

103* The cu ltivator paid the State share both in cash and kind. I b id .. p. 37 . One rupee was charged on straw per hundred kharwars. The tax on the h orticu ltu ral products such as walnuts was charged at the rate o f Rs. one fo r 2500 walnuts,H. M. Lawrence, op. c i t . . Nos. 35-4 2 .

104. H.M, Lawrence, Transfer of Kashmir to Mah.ara.1a Gulab Singh, o r . c i t . . N o b . 33-34 . Genl. Mian Singh at f i r s t took fiv e traks per kharwar as trakee but la te r on he reduced i t to only four trak s. By the end of 1841 the rate o f trakee was further reduced. Ganeshi L a i. o p . c i t . . pp. 37-38 .

104 a. Contd

46

corrupt revenue o ff ic ia ls . The peasants had to

wait for the State permission for cutting the crops,106

and in the process the crops went rot in the fie ld s .

In these circumstances the peasants had no other

option but to bribe the revenue o ff ic ia ls and then to107steal a small portion of their produce.

105

The system o f revenue administration was in the

hands of machinery that was corrupt from top to bottom.

104 a. Mujwaza was a sort o f tax in kind which the farmers had to pay to the Government to f i l l the stores fo r supply in the c it y . The prices of shall (MujwazaJ was fixed by the Government and the rate o£ Mtt.iwaza was fixed according to estimated produce of land.

10 5. Moorcroft, Travels, v o l. I I , p. 12 5 . Charles Glr&lestone, op. c i t . i pp. 8 -10 . See also Robert Thorp, fiashmir misgovemment. p. 4.H.M. Lawrence, op. c i t . , Nos. 3 5 - w .

106. Dewan Krishan L ai, A Short Account o f Kashmir. qt>. c i t . . p. 67. Henrv Lawrence. The kashmir and Country around Indus. Delhi 1842, p. 482.

107. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 26§, p. 126 .

47

The revenue machinery comprised Mugqadams. Patwaris.

Q m s m m * Tehsildari*. Kardars. Z llad ars. Shlodars.

Thanadars. Tehvildars. Safed poshers. Parchanavis.108

Harkara. Nazlmis and Tarazudars. At the head of

of the revenue machinery was the Dewan of the Province.

During the period under review there were th irty six

parganas in Kashmir. The revenues of these parganas1 0Qwere annually farmed out to Kardars by the State.

108. Ramju Dhar, op. c i t . , f f . 3 -6 . Most o f these revenue o ff ic ia ls seem to have been among the Kashmiri pandits. Ganeshi Lai observes that Pandit Tilak was the treasurer, Mohan Koul was incharge of revenue and excise department, PancEit Raja Kak Dhar and Lachman Dhar were engaged in contracts and commercial persu its. Ganeshi L a i, Savahat-nama. p. 32 .

109. The th irty six parganas of Kashmir during Sikh period were, Deosir, Ardweh, Shukru, Shupeyon, Nagam, Zynpore, Sopor-Samun, Banihal, Shahabad, Breng, Kotehar, Martand, Anantnag, Dachinpara, Khourpara, Sayur-i-M uzi-Bala, Sayur Mu?i Paren, T ral, Vehi, Pahak, L ai, Khoihama, Zynagyr, Muchihama, Dyalgam, Kruin, Dachu, Bangil, Muchi- pora, Yech, Shaura, Cherat, Humel, Auter, Lolab, of a l l these only Nagam and Deosir were the largest parganas with more than 200 v illa g e s .G.T. Vigne, Travels, v o l. I , p. 272. The opinion regarding the number of parganas in Kashmir va rie s, Moorcroft mentions 36 while Birbal Kachru mentions 37 on the other hand. Major Leach agrees with Hugel arid Ganeshi Lai in saying that there were 36 parganas in Kashmir. Tarikh-i-Kalan mentions 38 parganas and M.C.E. Bates says that there were 42 parganas. I t seems that Major Leach, Ganeshi L a i, Vigne and Hugel vre more nearer to truth since there existed only 36 parganas in Kashmir when Maharaja Gulab Singh took over the administration of Kashmir. See H, M. Lawrence, op. c i t . . Nos. 33-44.

48

A ll these revenue o ff ic ia ls fattened at expense of

the cu ltivato rs. The cu ltivators were reduced to

poverty and as a resu lt they lo st in terest in c u lti­

vation of land and fled to many other parts of the

country. In these circumstances the revenue farmers

failed to remit the stipulated amount to Lahore Darbar110and were often punished and put behind the bars.

Dewan Kripa Ram, the Governor of Kashmir (18 21-18 30 )

and h is agent were imprisoned by Ranjeet Singh because

they could not payt the stipulated amount to the Lahore

111Darbar. I t i s interesting to observe that Pt. Ganesh

Dass went to Lahore Darbar every year to clear h is dues.

He was often imprisoned and whipped fo r not paying his

1 1 2dues properly. These measures had serious repercu­

ssions and precipitated the crises in the agrarian

110. Victor Jacquemont, L e tte rs« p. 79.Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 265. p. 38.

1 1 1 . Victor Jacquemont, L e tte rs, p. 79.

1 1 2 . Even Pandit Bir Dhar and Ram Dhar, the revenue farmer generals and Motl Ram and Kripa Ram both governors were imprisoned because they could not pay the stipulated amount to Lahore Darbar. Moorcroft, Ms. EURD - 264, p. 38. fn .

49

system. On their return home, the Kardars oppressed

the peasants and taxed them very heavily to make up

the lo sses. According to the estimates of Major

Leach the to ta l collection of land revenue in 18361 1 1

amounted to 190223-00 rupees. J Out of th is the

seed-money was Rs. 27977-00. Land revenue in kind was

Rs. 1,370 0 the extorted Kharwars were 24,846-00.

The European tra v e lle rs accounts do not provide

us with the regular revenue figures which could help

us in determining the o v e r-a ll magnitude o f land revenue.

However, the following table gives revenue figures for1 1 L

years 1836 to 1847.

S.No. Year Amount in Rupees

1 . 1836-37a-p

14 ,3 1 ,8 2 3 -8 -0

2. 1846 121,00,000-0-0

3. 1847 17,00,000-0-0

Total

113* Major Leach, Report on revenues o f Kashmir. Foreign Department, 26tn of toarcii 1846, Nos. 1 3 - 1 7 , National Archives of India.

1 1 4 . The given table is based on the informationprovided by Major Leach’ s Report o f year 18 36 -37, Nos. 1 3 - 1 7 . Ganeshi L a i ' s Short account of Kashmir, op. c i t . . p. 67.

50

According to another estimate, the revenues from

various parganas of Kashmir amounted to Rs 6 lakhs.

But from the condition o f peasantry i t appears that

the revenue o ff ic ia ls made these amounts with great

d iffic u lty because the agrarian economy of Kashmir

•was increasingly declining as a resu lt o f natural1 1 5and man-made calam ities.

From the above description i t becomes clear that

during the f i r s t h a lf of the 19th century the agrarian

economy of Kashmir was fa st declining. On the one hand

the geographical lim itations, lack of irrig a tio n ,

absence of technological devices^ and on the other

negligence on the part of the State to promote agri­

culture restricted the growth and development o f the

agrarian economy.

1 1 5 . Due to the frequent famines, epidemics andfloods, a sizable number of cu ltivato rs l e f t th eir lands and went to other parts of the country in search of liv in g . The famines of 18 13 and 1823 seriously damaged the agrarian economy of Kashmir. The Governor o f Kashmir Province fa ile d to co lle ct even the stipu la­ted revenue of 27V2 lakhs. See G.T. Vigne, Travels. vo l. I I , p. 1 1 9 .